what case is similar to brown v board of education

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Course: US history   >   Unit 8

• Introduction to the Civil Rights Movement
• African American veterans and the Civil Rights Movement

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

• Emmett Till
• The Montgomery Bus Boycott
• "Massive Resistance" and the Little Rock Nine
• The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965
• SNCC and CORE
• Black Power
• The Civil Rights Movement

• In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) a unanimous Supreme Court declared that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.
• The Court declared “separate” educational facilities “inherently unequal.”
• The case electrified the nation, and remains a landmark in legal history and a milestone in civil rights history.

A segregated society

The brown v. board of education case, thurgood marshall, the naacp, and the supreme court, separate is "inherently unequal", brown ii: desegregating with "all deliberate speed”, what do you think.

• James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 387.
• James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 25-27.
• Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education, 387.
• Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education, 32.
• See Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education, and Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Knopf, 2004).
• Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education, 43-45.
• Supreme Court of the United States, Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
• Patterson, Grand Expectations, 394-395.

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The Supreme Court Decision That Changed America: Brown v. Board of Education

Finally, the justices overturned jim crow, tossing out ‘separate but equal’ standard.

On December 13, 1952, the justices of the U.S. Supreme Court met to consider five cases they had heard argued earlier that week. Those cases raised the most explosive topic any of the jurists would ever have to rule on: whether the Constitution allowed American public school districts to continue to use racial criteria to segregate facilities. Opening the discussion, Chief Justice Fred Vinson admitted, “The situation is very serious and very emotional.”

This was no theoretical matter. In the South, 17 states required public schools to separate students by race, and Kansas, Wyoming, New Mexico, and Arizona permitted school segregation by law. But the country had begun to rethink segregation. In 1947, California had repealed a law mandating separate schools for Asians. The next year, President Harry Truman issued an executive order ending racial segregation in the armed forces and Arkansas desegregated its state university.

The justices had long relied on predecessors’ 1896 decision in Plessy v. Ferguson , which said that it was not a violation of the guarantee of equal protection of the law to consign people of different races—for which read Whites and others—to separate facilities, provided those facilities were equal. But the justices had begun to take baby steps away from the court’s historic pattern of defending school segregation. In the mid-1930s civil rights activists had begun litigating the question of whether educational facilities assigned blacks were in fact equal. These efforts led initally to cases that involved graduate education—not nearly as hot-button a topic as integrating primary and secondary schools would have been.

That tactic generated the first Supreme Court ruling against racial segregation in education. The 1938 decision found that Missouri was not giving equal treatment—and therefore was violating the Constitution—when the state university law school refused to admit a qualified African American, even though the institution offered to pay his tuition at a law school in an adjacent state. In 1950 the court held unconstitutional the Texas policy of maintaining separate, racially segregated law schools, because not only did the school for Whites boast a greater variety of courses and a better library but also enjoyed a superior reputation and “standing in the community.” The same day, the justices embraced an even broader reading of “equal” by holding unconstitutional a University of Oklahoma policy forcing a Black doctoral candidate to sit at a separate table when in a classroom, library, or cafeteria.

The justices knew that any ruling on segregation in grades K-12 would detonate in ways that decisions on post-baccalaureate education did not. So incendiary was the prospect that at that December 1952 meeting the justices decided not to rule on the issue. Without a formal vote, they set the five cases for rehearing in 1953. However, discussion revealed that four justices were ready to ban racial school segregation and four others found the Constitution to permit school segregation, while one—Felix Frankfurter—would ban segregation only in Washington, DC.

Three months before the cases were to be argued again, Chief Justice Vinson died of a heart attack. President Dwight Eisenhower gave California Governor Earl Warren an interim appointment to the Court, allowing him to step immediately into the role of chief justice in time to hear the desegregation cases; Warren’s Senate confirmation, by acclamation, came five months later.

Vinson had favored segregation, infusing Warren’s appointment with huge impact. As governor Warren had spurred California’s repeal of its law dictating separate schools for Asians, and as a justice he could be counted as a fifth vote against segregation, making a majority.  

But Warren wanted the Supreme Court to strike down school segregation with a unified voice. He opened the conference after the 1953 re-arguments by saying, “There is great value in unanimity and uniformity, even if we have some differences.” He painted the question of continuing segregation as a moral one, precedent be damned.  

“The basis of the principle of segregation and separate but equal rests upon the basic premise that the Negro race is inferior,” Warren told colleagues. “I don’t see how we can continue in this day and age to set one group apart from the rest and say that that they are not entitled to exactly the same treatment as all others.”

Warren’s reasoning closely reflected the oral argument the lead lawyer for the students pressing for integrated schools had made to the court. The NAACP’s Thurgood Marshall, later the Supreme Court’s first African-American member, had told the justices that if they found continued school segregation allowable “the only way to arrive at this decision is to find that for some reason Negroes are inferior to all other human beings.”

Not every justice agreed. “Segregation is not done on the theory of racial inferiority, but of racial differences,” Stanley Reed, the most adamant resister, argued to his colleagues. “It protects people against the mixing of races.” But Warren was able to convince Reed and the other dissenters that, since a majority was going to hand down a contentious ruling deeming school segregation unconstitutional, it would be best for the nation if there were no public disagreement.  

That call for unanimity was so compelling that when the decision came on May 17, 1954, Justice Robert H. Jackson left his hospital bed to be with his colleagues in the courtroom.  

To underline the ruling’s national nature and make clear that it was not a regional jab at the South, the High Court cited as the first case one brought on behalf of Kansas schoolgirl Linda Brown. Local authorities had barred her from attending her neighborhood elementary; thus the historic title Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka .

Warren wrote the opinion, a mere 13 paragraphs long and devoid of Latinate legalisms. The issue could no longer be whether educational opportunities being offered Black and White students in segregated schools were equal—in the cases before the court, facilities and programs were in fact equal or making significant strides in that direction—but whether separation itself violated the 14th Amendment promise of equal protection under the law. Warren insisted that school segregation by its nature was unequal, inflicting particular harm on children: “To separate them from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way that is unlikely ever to be undone.” As evidence, Warren unconventionally cited not legal precedent but results of seven sociological and psychological studies showing that Negro children in segregated schools did in fact feel that blacks were inferior.

Warren’s decision acknowledged “a great variety of local conditions” and asked the litigants to recommend how to achieve integration. In May 1955 the chief justice announced the High Court’s second Brown decision, calling for school desegregation to proceed “with all deliberate speed” but telling lower courts overseeing compliance to recognize that they “may find that additional time is necessary to carry out the ruling.”

Change began. However, so many localities resisted that integration was still being fought in 1970. That year President Richard Nixon, declaring Brown “right in both constitutional and human terms,” created a Cabinet-level committee to put federal muscle behind its mandate. But Brown did generate one immediate impact. As lawyer-journalist-professor Roger Wilkins phrased it, the decision was a ringing rebuke to a cultural smear that African Americans had had to grow up with—that they were inherently inferior.  

“For me, May 17, 1954 was a second Emancipation Day,” Wilkins declared. 

This SCOTUS 101 column appeared in the April 2021 issue of American History

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1954: brown v. board of education.

On May 17, 1954, in a landmark decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the U.S. Supreme Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for students of different races to be unconstitutional. The decision dismantled the legal framework for racial segregation in public schools and Jim Crow laws, which limited the rights of African Americans, particularly in the South.

Segregation in Schools

Naacp challenges segregation in court, separate, but equal has 'no place', brown v board quick facts.

What is it? A landmark Supreme Court case.

Significance: Ended 'Separate, but equal,' desegregated public schools.

Date: May 17, 1954

Associated Sites: Brown v Board of Education National Historic Site; US Supreme Court Building

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Brown v. Board of Education National Historical Park , Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site

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Background and case

What is the significance of Brown v. Board of Education ?

What was the aftermath of brown v. board of education .

• When did the American civil rights movement start?

Brown v. Board of Education

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• United States Court - History - Brown v. Board of Education Re-enactment
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• Table Of Contents

What did the Supreme Court decide in Brown v. Board of Education ?

In Brown v. Board of Education , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The 1954 decision declared that separate educational facilities for white and African American students were inherently unequal.

Brown v. Board of Education is considered a milestone in American civil rights history and among the most important rulings in the history of the U.S. Supreme Court. The case, and the efforts to undermine the Court's decision, brought greater awareness to the racial inequalities that African Americans faced. The case also galvanized civil rights activists and increased efforts to end institutionalized racism throughout American society.

After the Brown v. Board of Education decision, there was wide opposition to desegregation, largely in the southern states. Violent protests erupted in some places, and others responded by implementing “school-choice” programs that subsidized white students’ attendance at private, segregated academies , which were not covered by the Brown ruling.

When was Brown v. Board of Education decided?

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled on Brown v. Board of Education on May 17, 1954. The case had been argued before the Court on December 9, 1952, and reargued on December 8, 1953.

Who was the attorney for the plaintiffs in Brown v. Board of Education ?

In Brown v. Board of Education , the attorney for the plaintiffs was Thurgood Marshall . He later became, in 1967, the first African American to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court.

Brown v. Board of Education , case in which, on May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously (9–0) that racial segregation in public schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution , which prohibits the states from denying equal protection of the laws to any person within their jurisdictions. The decision declared that separate educational facilities for white and African American students were inherently unequal. It thus rejected as inapplicable to public education the “ separate but equal ” doctrine, advanced by the Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), according to which laws mandating separate public facilities for whites and African Americans do not violate the equal protection clause if the facilities are approximately equal. Although the 1954 decision strictly applied only to public schools, it implied that segregation was not permissible in other public facilities. Considered one of the most important rulings in the Court’s history, Brown v. Board of Education helped inspire the American civil rights movement of the late 1950s and ’60s.

In the late 1940s the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) began a concentrated effort to challenge the segregated school systems in various states, including Kansas. There, in Topeka , the NAACP encouraged a number of African American parents to try to enroll their children in all-white schools. All of the parents’ requests were refused, including that of Oliver Brown. He was told that his daughter could not attend the nearby white school and instead would have to enroll in an African American school far from her home. The NAACP subsequently filed a class-action lawsuit. While it claimed that the education (including facilities, teachers, etc.) offered to African Americans was inferior to that offered to whites, the NAACP’s main argument was that segregation by its nature was a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause. A U.S. district court heard Brown v. Board of Education in 1951, and it ruled against the plaintiffs. While sympathetic to some of the plaintiffs’ claims, it determined that the schools were similar, and it cited the precedent set by Plessy and Gong Lum v. Rice (1927), which upheld the segregation of Asian Americans in grade schools. The NAACP then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.

In October 1952 the Court consolidated Brown with three other class-action school-segregation lawsuits filed by the NAACP: Briggs v. Elliott (1951) in South Carolina , Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (1952) in Virginia , and Gebhart v. Belton (1952) in Delaware; there was also a fifth case that was filed independently in the District of Columbia , Bolling v. Sharpe (1951). As with Brown , U.S. district courts had decided against the plaintiffs in Briggs and Davis , ruling on the basis of Plessy that they had not been deprived of equal protection because the schools they attended were comparable to the all-white schools or would become so upon the completion of improvements ordered by the district court. In Gebhart , however, the Delaware Supreme Court affirmed a lower court’s ruling that the original plaintiffs’ right to equal protection had been violated because the African American schools were inferior to the white schools in almost all relevant respects. In Bolling v. Sharpe (1951), a U.S. district court held that school segregation did not violate the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment (the equal protection clause was not relevant since the Fourteenth Amendment only applies to states). The plaintiffs in Brown , Biggs , and Davis appealed directly to the Supreme Court, while those in Gebhart and Bolling were each granted certiorari (a writ for the reexamination of an action of a lower court).

Brown v. Board of Education was argued on December 9, 1952. The attorney for the plaintiffs was Thurgood Marshall , who later became the first African American to serve on the Supreme Court (1967–91). The case was reargued on December 8, 1953, to address the question of whether the framers of the Fourteenth Amendment would have understood it to be inconsistent with racial segregation in public education. The 1954 decision found that the historical evidence bearing on the issue was inconclusive.

The Opinions: May 17, 1954

Top Three Court Cases for Education: Brown v. Board of Education | Teacher Talk

Part 1 of 3

It’s that time of year when we hear a lot about Supreme Court cases, and that got me thinking about my favorite court cases to talk about in my Teacher Pathway classes not only because they made a huge impression at the time of their decisions but also because they significantly impact our schools and courts’ decisions to this day.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)

The most well-known Supreme Court case that impacted education is Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), and it’s my favorite to discuss because while its intentions were noble, some of its impact created problems schools are still attempting to resolve. The landmark case desegregated schools, going against the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case that allowed for separate but equal public facilities. It’s one of the first major events of the Civil Rights Movement and sent a strong message to Americans about segregation.

On the downside, this ruling accelerated the growth of private schools for less than honorable purposes. In the years just before the ruling and then at least a decade after, the United States experienced significant growth in private schooling as “ segregation academies ” opened. According to the Southern Education Foundation , “From 1950 to 1965, private school enrollment grew at unprecedented rates all over the nation, with the South having the largest growth.” White flight was not only occurring in neighborhoods but also in schools. It wasn’t until 1976 that the Supreme Court ruled in Runyon v. McCrary that racial discrimination used to decline admittance to private schools was unlawful.

Another detrimental effect of Brown v. Board was that many Black educators lost their jobs or were demoted. According to the 2022 Education Week article “Brown v. Board Decimated the Black Educator Pipeline,” “Prior to Brown , Black principals and teachers comprised 35 percent to 50 percent of the educator workforce in the 17 states with segregated school systems. Today, no state has anywhere close to those percentages, and nationally, just seven percent of teachers, and about 11 percent of principals, are Black.” In my opinion, the best podcast episode about this negative result of Brown v. Board is “Miss Buchanan’s Period of Adjustment” on Malcolm Gladwell’s Revisionist History podcast where he emphasizes that integration should have started with teachers and principals, not students.

Brown v. Board of Education

The case that transformed america.

On May 17, 1954, a decision in the Brown v. Board of Education case declared the “separate but equal” doctrine unconstitutional. The landmark Brown v. Board decision gave LDF its most celebrated victory in a long, storied history of fighting for civil rights and marked a defining moment in US history. The decision in Brown v. Board  remains a defining moment in U.S. history.

The Supreme Court’s unanimous decision in Brown v. Board of Education occurred after a hard-fought, multi-year campaign to persuade all nine justices to overturn the “separate but equal” doctrine that their predecessors had endorsed in the Court’s infamous 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision. This campaign was conceived in the 1930s by Charles Hamilton Houston, then Dean of Howard Law School, and brilliantly executed in a series of cases over the next two decades by his star pupil, Thurgood Marshall–the man who became Legal Defense Fund’s first Director-Counsel and a Supreme Court Justice.

Brown v. Board of Education itself was not a single case, but rather a coordinated group of five lawsuits against school districts in Kansas, South Carolina, Delaware, Virginia, and the District of Columbia. 

PHOTO: Students and their parents who initiated the landmark Civil Rights lawsuit 'Brown V Board of Education,' Topeka, Kansas, 1953, Pictured are, front row, from left, students, Vicki Henderson, Donald Henderson, Linda Brown James Emanuel, Nancy Todd, and Katherine Carper; back row, from left, parents Zelma Henderson, Oliver Brown, Sadie Emanuel, Lucinda Todd, and Lena Carper. (Photo by Carl Iwasaki/The LIFE Images Collection via Getty Images)

To litigate these cases, Thurgood Marshall recruited the nation’s best attorneys , including Robert Carter, Jack Greenberg , Constance Baker Motley , Spottswood Robinson, Oliver Hill, Louis Redding, Charles and John Scott, Harold R. Boulware, James Nabrit, and George E.C. Hayes. These LDF lawyers were assisted by a brain trust of legal scholars, including future federal district court judges Louis Pollack and Jack Weinstein, along with William Coleman, the first Black person to serve as a Supreme Court law clerk.

Their argument was clear: The 14th Amendment to the Constitution guarantees equal protection of the laws, and racial segregation violates that principle. The lawyers marshalled expert witnesses to prove what most of us take for granted today, that state-enforced racial segregation in education “deprives [Black children] of equal status in the school community…destroys their self-respect, denies them full opportunity for democratic social development [and]…stamps [them] with a badge of inferiority.”

LDF relied upon research by historians like John Hope Franklin, and the work of social science researchers like June Shagaloff. Ms. Shagaloff was brought on staff by Marshall because he felt that chronicling the impact of segregation on children and families was critical to the success of LDF’s litigation. Her historical and social science research played a key role in LDF’s preparation for the successful Brown v. Board arguments before the U.S. Supreme Court.

Psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s now-famous doll experiments were also central to LDF’s success in Brown v. Board. The experiments demonstrated the impact of segregation on black children. In presenting three to seven-year-old children with four dolls, identical except for color, Clark found Black children were led to believe that Black dolls were inferior to white dolls and, by extension, that they were inferior to their white peers. The Supreme Court cited Clark’s 1950 paper in its Brown decision and acknowledged it implicitly in the following passage: “To separate [African-American children] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone.”

The Doll Test

In the 1940s, pioneering psychologists Drs. Kenneth and Mamie Clark designed and conducted a series of experiments known as “the doll tests” to study the psychological effects of segregation on Black children.

After the five cases were heard together by the Court in December 1952, the outcome remained uncertain. The Court ordered the parties to answer a series of questions about the specific intent of the congressmen and senators who framed the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and about the Court’s power to dismantle segregation.  The Court then scheduled another oral argument in December 1953.  

Wrapping up his presentation to the Court in that second hearing, Marshall emphasized that segregation was rooted in the desire to keep “the people who were formerly in slavery as near to that stage as is possible.” Even with powerful arguments from Marshall and other LDF attorneys, it took another five months for the newly appointed Chief Justice Earl Warren’s behind-the-scenes lobbying to yield a unanimous decision. 

Recognizing the controversial nature of its decision, the Court waited another year to issue an order enforcing the decision in Brown II .  Even then, the Court was unwilling to establish a firm timetable for dismantling segregation. It ruled only that public schools desegregate “with all deliberate speed.”

LDF Clients and Lawyers Risked Their Lives for this Fight

Black women and girls were the voices behind the school desegregation movement since the beginning, but have often been relegated to the footnotes of history. in the kansas case that became brown v. board, all but one of the plaintiffs were women. black women and girls bravely took action to transform the american educational system and bring an end to segregation.

Unfortunately, desegregation was neither deliberate nor speedy.  In the face of fierce and often violent “ massive resistance ,” LDF sued hundreds of school districts across the country to vindicate the promise of Brown . It was not until LDF’s subsequent victories in Green v. County School Board (1968) and Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg (1971) that the Supreme Court issued mandates that segregation be dismantled “root and branch,” outlined specific factors to be considered to eliminate effects of segregation, and ensured that federal district courts had the authority to do so.

Even today, the work of  Brown  is far from  finished .   Over 200 school desegregation cases remain open on federal court dockets; LDF alone has nearly 100 of these cases.

The legal victory in  Brown  did not transform the country overnight, and much work remains.  But striking down segregation in the nation’s public schools provided a major catalyst for the civil rights movement, making possible advances in desegregating housing, public accommodations, and institutions of higher education.  The decision gave hope to millions of Americans by permanently discrediting the legal rationale underpinning the racial caste system that had been endorsed or accepted by governments at all levels since the end of the nineteenth century. And its impact has been felt by every American.

Learn More About Brown v. Board

The women and girls who shaped brown v. board of education.

The Girls who Shaped Brown v. Board of Education Their Untold Stories and the Sacrifices that Made Today’s Fight for Educational Equity Possible By Cara

The Southern Manifesto and “Massive Resistance” to Brown 

The Case that Changed America Brown v. Board of Education The Southern Manifesto and “Massive Resistance” to Brown Learn More About Brown v. Board Almost

The Significance of “The Doll Test”

A Revealing Experiment Brown v. Board and “The Doll Test” Learn More About Brown v. Board Doctors Kenneth and Mamie Clark and “The Doll Test”

Six of the Women Behind Brown v. Board of Education

The Case that Changed America Six of the Women Behind Brown v. Board of Education Learn More About Brown v. Board Throughout LDF’s history, women

Meet the Legal Minds Behind Brown v. Board of Education

The Case that Transformed America Brown v. Board of Education Meet the Legal Team The Supreme Court’s unanimous decision in Brown v. Board of Education

Brown v. Board of Education Reading List

The Case that Changed America Brown v. Board of Education Reading list On May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its unanimous decision in

What Was Brown v. Board of Education? May 17, 1954, marks a defining moment in the history of the United States. On that day, the

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Documents Related to Brown v. Board of Education

• Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka et al.
• Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al., Members of Board of Trustees of School District #22
• Davis et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia et al .
• Bolling et al. v. Sharpe et al.
• Belton et al. v. Gebhart et al.; Bulah et al. v. Gebhart et al.

BROWN ET AL. v. BOARD OF EDUCATION OF TOPEKA ET AL.

Linda Brown Linda Brown, who was born in 1943, became a part of civil rights history as a fifth grader in the public schools of Topeka, KS. When Linda was denied admission into a white elementary school, Linda's father, Oliver Brown, challenged Kansas's school segregation laws in the Supreme Court. The NAACP and Thurgood Marshall took up their case, along with similar ones in South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware, as Brown v. Board of Education.

Oliver L. Brown Oliver Brown, a minister in his local Topeka, KS, community, challenged Kansas's school segregation laws in the Supreme Court. Mr. Brown’s 8-year-old daughter, Linda, was a black girl attending fifth grade in the public schools in Topeka when she was denied admission into a white elementary school. The NAACP and Thurgood Marshall took up Brown’s case along with similar cases in South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware as Brown v. Board of Education. Mr. Brown died in 1961.

Robert L. Carter Born in 1917, Robert Carter, who served as an attorney for the plaintiffs in Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al., was of particular significance to the Brown v. Board of Education case because of his role in the Briggs case. Carter secured the pivotal involvement of social scientists, particularly Kenneth B. Clark, who provided evidence in the Briggs case on segregation's devastating effects on the psyches of black children.

Harold R. Fatzer As Attorney General of Kansas, Harold Fatzer argued the case for the appellees (Kansas) in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Mr. Fatzer served as Kansas Supreme Court Justice from February, 1949, to March, 1956.

Jack Greenberg Jack Greenberg, who was born in 1924, argued on behalf of the plaintiffs in the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case, and worked on the briefs in Belton v. Gebhart. Jack Greenberg served as director-counsel of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund from 1961 to 1984.

Thurgood Marshall Born in 1908, Thurgood Marshall served as lead attorney for the plaintiffs in Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al. From 1930 to 1933, Marshall attended Howard University Law School and came under the immediate influence of the school’s new dean, Charles Hamilton Houston. Marshall, who also served as lead counsel in the Brown v. Board of Education case, went on to become the first African American Supreme Court Justice in U.S. history. Justice Marshall died in 1993.

Frank Daniel Reeves Frank D. Reeves, who was born in 1916, served as an attorney for the plaintiffs in the Brown v. Board decisions of 1954, and 1955 ( Brown II). Mr. Reeves was the first African American appointed to the District of Columbia Board of Commissioners, although he declined the position. Frank Reeves died in 1973.

Charles Scott Topeka, KS based lawyer who initially began the Brown case on behalf of Oliver Brown and the other litigants.

John Scott Topeka, KS based lawyer who initially began the Brown case on behalf of Oliver Brown and the other litigants.

Earl Warren Chief Justice Earl Warren, who was born in 1891, secured a unanimous decision in Brown v. Board of Education, outlawing segregation in public schools and striking down the "separate but equal" doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson. Warren also delivered the opinion in the District of Columbia case, Bolling v. Sharpe. Justice Warren died in 1974.

BRIGGS ET AL. v. ELLIOTT ET AL., MEMBERS OF BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF SCHOOL DISTRICT #22

Harold R. Boulware Harold Boulware was born in 1913. In 1941 Harold Boulware became the chief counsel for the South Carolina NAACP and led the effort to gain equal pay for equal work for African American teachers. He gained fame as one of the lead attorneys for the plaintiffs, along with Thurgood Marshall, in the Clarendon County Schools desegregation case, Briggs et al. v. Elliot et al. Boulware also worked on the briefs in the Belton v. Gebhart case. Mr. Boulware died in 1983.

Harry Briggs Harry Briggs and 19 other adults filed suit on behalf of 46 Negro children, against R. W. Elliott, Chairman of the Clarendon County School Board of South Carolina, in the case Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al. Briggs, who was born in 1913, was a father to three of the children named in the suit, two boys and a girl, as well as legal guardian of a third boy. Mr. Briggs died in 1986.

Kenneth B. Clark Kenneth Clark, who was born in 1914, provided expert social science testimony on behalf of the plaintiffs, illustrating the harmful psychological effects of segregation upon Negro schoolchildren, in the Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al. trial. At the time, Clark was Assistant Professor of psychology at the New York City College and Associate Director of the North Side School for Child Development in New York City. The U.S. Supreme Court cited Clark’s influential research on the harmful effects of segregation in their decision on Brown v. Board of Education.

John W. Davis John W. Davis, who was born in 1872, was a democratic candidate for president in 1924, and former Solicitor General of the United States and ambassador to Great Britain, served as lead counsel for the state of South Carolina in Briggs v. Elliott.

Joseph Armstrong DeLaine Born in 1898, Reverend J. A. DeLaine, principal of the all-black Scotts Branch School in Summerton, SC, petitioned the Clarendon County school system to provide buses for black students, just as they did for whites. When his efforts were met with resistance, the state NAACP stepped in and agreed to sponsor a case that would go beyond transportation and ask for equal educational opportunities in Clarendon County. DeLaine wrote up a petition and found 20 parents to sign it, with the first 2 signers, Harry and Eliza Briggs, lending their names to the case, which came to be known as Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al. Mr. DeLaine died in 1974.

R. W. Elliott R. W. Elliott, as Chairman of the Clarendon County, SC, Board of Trustees of Summerton High School, was named as the lead defendant in the case Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al. Six other members of the board were also named as defendants in the suit.

Robert McCormick Figg, Jr. Born in 1901, Robert McCormick Figg, Jr., was the South Carolina attorney, politician, and legal educator who represented the Clarendon County, SC, school board in Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al. Mr. Figg, Jr., died in 1991.

Spottswood William Robinson, III Spottswood W. Robinson, III, who was born in 1916, taught law at Howard University, in Washington, DC, and eventually became dean of the school. He made his mark on the history of Brown v. Board of Education along with his legal partner, Oliver W. Hill, by trying and winning the case Davis et al. v. Prince Edward County School Board, Virginia, et al. Spottswood Robinson III died in 1998.

Julius Waties Waring Judge Waring, as the lone dissenter in the court’s ruling in the Briggs et al. v. Elliott et al. case, alluded to the plaintiffs’ social science testimony regarding the harmful psychological effects of segregation upon black and white children. His dissent would foreshadow the eventual success of Brown v. Board of Education in overturning the Plessy decision based on the argument that “separate but equal” is inherently unequal. Judge Waring was born in 1880 and died in 1968.

DAVIS ET AL. v. COUNTY SCHOOL BOARD OF PRINCE EDWARD COUNTY, VIRGINIA ET AL.

Dorothy E. Davis On May 23, 1951, a NAACP lawyer filed suit in the federal district court in Richmond, VA, on behalf of 117 Moton High School, Prince Edward County, VA, students and their parents. The first plaintiff listed was Dorothy Davis, a 14-year old ninth grader; the case was titled Dorothy E. Davis, et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia, et. al. It asked that the state law requiring segregated schools in Virginia be struck down.

John Davis John Davis, who was born in 1912, filed suit against the County School Board of Prince Edward County, VA, on behalf of his daughters Dorothy, Bertha, and Inez Davis, who were denied access to their local “whites only” school, in the case Davis et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia, et al.

Oliver White Hill Born in 1907, Oliver Hill served as one of the lead attorneys for the plaintiffs on the case Davis et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia, et al. Hill’s most famous case, Davis v. Prince Edward County, Virginia, became part of the Brown v. Board of Education decision.

Barbara Rose Johns On May 23, 1951, a NAACP lawyer, on behalf of 117 Moton High School, Prince Edward County, VA, students and their parents, filed suit in the Federal District court in Richmond, VA. The suit began, however, as a result of a student strike organized and led by 16 year-old Barbara Rose Johns, in an attempt to force the county to provide facilities equal to those provided to white high school students as required by law. Their case eventually became one of five included in the landmark 1954 case, Brown v. Board of Education.

BOLLING ET AL. v. SHARPE ET AL.

Sarah Bolling Sarah Bolling and 2 other adults filed suit, on behalf of 5 Negro children, against C. Melvin Sharpe and 13 others, including members of the Board of Education of the District of Columbia, the Superintendent of Schools, and the Principal of Sousa Junior High School, for denial of admission of the minor plaintiffs to Sousa Junior High School solely because on their race or color.

Spottswood Thomas Bolling In 1951 the case of Bolling et al. v. Sharpe et al. was filed in U.S. District Court, in Washington, DC. This case was named for Spottswood Bolling, the minor-aged son of Sarah Bolling. Spottswood was born in 1939. Ms. Bolling brought suit in her son’s name in the Bolling case, which addressed segregation at the Junior High School level within the District of Columbia. Although Bolling is historically considered one of the Brown v. Board of Education bundle cases, it was a different case due to the legal arguments. The plaintiffs could not argue this case on the basis of a violation of their citizenship rights to equal protection and due process, as in the other cases, because the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was not applicable in the District of Columbia. The U.S. Supreme Court rendered a separate opinion on Bolling et al. v. Sharpe et al., which was argued as a Fifth Amendment case.

Gardner Bishop On September 11, 1950 Gardner Bishop, a minister and community leader, led a group of eleven African American children to Washington, DC’s new high school for white students, John Philip Sousa Junior High School. Bishop had been organizing parents to take action regarding the poor quality of the school their children were assigned to attend. He approached attorney Charles H. Houston on their behalf, the attorney who eventually represented Bishop, the parents, and their children in the DC segregation case, Bolling et al. v. Sharpe et al.

George Edward Chalmers Hayes George E. C. Hayes argued the cause for petitioners in Bolling v. Sharpe. Mr. Hayes was born in 1894 and died in 1968.

Charles Hamilton Houston Born in 1895, Charles Houston was the first African American editor of the Harvard Law Review, dean of Howard University Law School, chief counsel to the NAACP, and the first African American lawyer to win a case before the Supreme Court. Houston launched a number of precedent-setting cases that targeted segregated education as the key to undermining the entire Jim Crow system, focussed first on segregation in the graduate and professional schools of state universities. Houston provided legal representation for the Consolidated Parents Group in the case Bolling v. Sharpe until serious illness necessitated that he be relieved by James Nabrit, Jr., a colleague from Howard University. Mr. Houston died in 1950.

Milton Korman Milton Korman served as Assistant Corporation Counsel for Washington, DC, and Chief Counsel for the District Board of Education in the case, Bolling v. Sharpe. Mr. Korman argued the case for the respondents.

James Madison Nabrit, Jr. In late 1949 a group of Anacostia, DC, neighborhood parents, the Consolidated Parents Group, joined with James Nabrit, Howard University professor of law, secretary of the University, and future president of the University, to legally challenge the separate but equal doctrine in the case of Bolling et al. v. Sharpe et al. Mr. Nabrit, Jr., was born in 1900 and died in 1997.

C. Melvin Sharpe C. Melvin Sharpe, acting as President of the Board of Education of the District of Columbia, from 1948 to 1957, was named as the lead defendant in the case Bolling et al. v. Sharpe et al.

BELTON et al. v. GEBHART et al. & BULAH et al. v. GEBHART et al.

Ethel Louise Belton Ethel Belton and 6 other adults filed suit on behalf of 8 Negro children against Francis B. Gebhart and 12 others (both individuals and state education agencies) in the case Belton et al. v. Gebhart et al. The plaintiffs sued the state for denying to the children admission to certain public schools because of color or ancestry. The Belton case was joined with another very similar Delaware case, Bulah et al. v. Gebhart et al., and both would ultimately join four other NAACP cases in the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education. Ms. Belton was born in 1937 and died in 1981.

Harold R. Boulware Harold Boulware was born in 1913. In 1941 Harold Boulware became the Chief Counsel for the South Carolina NAACP and led the effort to gain equal pay for equal work for African American teachers. He gained fame as one of the lead attorneys for the plaintiffs, along with Thurgood Marshall, in the Clarendon County Schools desegregation case, Briggs et al. v. Elliot et al. Boulware also worked on the briefs in the Belton v. Gebhart case. Mr. Boulware died in 1983.

Sarah Bulah Sarah Bulah, who was born in 1947, filed suit on behalf of her daughter, Shirley Barbara Bulah, against Francis B. Gebhart and 12 others (both individuals and state education agencies) for denying Sarah and the other named plaintiffs admission to certain public schools because of color or ancestry, in the case Bulah et al. v. Gebhart et al. The Bulah case was joined with another very similar Delaware case, Belton et al. v. Gebhart et al., and both would ultimately join four other NAACP cases in the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education.

Francis B. Gebhart Francis Gebhart, as a member of the State Board of Education of the State of Delaware, was named as the lead defendant in both segregation cases, Bulah et al. v. Gebhart et al., and Belton et al. v. Gebhart et al.

Louis Lorenzo Redding Louis L. Redding, who was born in 1901, became Delaware’s first African American attorney in 1929. Redding argued the cause for respondents in Gebhart v. Belton. Louis Redding died in 1999.

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8 Things You Should Know About Brown v. Board of Education

By: Jesse Greenspan

Updated: September 12, 2023 | Original: May 16, 2014

1. More than one-third of U.S. states segregated their schools by law.

At the time of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling , 17 southern and border states, along with the District of Columbia, required their public schools to be racially segregated. An additional four states—Arizona, Kansas, New Mexico and Wyoming—permitted local communities to do the same.

Although Black and white schools were supposed to be “separate but equal” in accordance with the Supreme Court’s 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision, in reality they were anything but. In 1954, southern Black schools received only 60 percent of the per-pupil funding as southern white schools, up from 45 percent in 1940. Many southern Black schools therefore lacked such basic necessities as cafeterias, libraries, gymnasiums, running water and electricity.

2. Brown v. Board of Education started off as five cases.

In 1950 and 1951, lawsuits were filed in Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, Delaware and the District of Columbia on behalf of Black elementary school students who attended legally segregated schools. Despite differing somewhat in the details, all alleged a violation of the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment.

Dozens of parents signed on as plaintiffs, including Topeka, Kansas, resident Oliver Brown, a welder and World War II veteran who served as an assistant pastor at his local church. When the Supreme Court consolidated the cases in 1952, Brown’s name appeared in the title. This was done on purpose, a Supreme Court justice later explained, “so that the whole question would not smack of being a purely southern one.”

3. The plaintiffs took great personal risks to be part of the case.

After the lawsuits were filed, a number of plaintiffs lost their jobs, as did members of their families, and other plaintiffs had their credit cut off. The retaliation was arguably most severe in South Carolina, where whites burned down the house and church of a particularly energized plaintiff, the Reverend Joseph A. DeLaine, and reportedly fired gunshots at him one night. DeLaine ended up fleeing the state, never to return.

Judge Julius Waring, a federal judge in South Carolina whose rulings advanced the cause of civil rights—including school desegregation—was also forced out. Facing death threats, he retired from the bench in 1952 and moved to New York City.

4. Future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall argued the case for the plaintiffs.

The great-grandson of a slave, Thurgood Marshall attended Howard Law School prior to becoming the NAACP’s chief legal counsel. In the field of education, his civil rights cases initially focused on the inequalities between Black and white schools. Starting in 1950, however, he moved to dismantle segregation itself.

In Brown v. Board of Education—just one of his 32 appearances before the Supreme Court—Marshall opined that state-imposed segregation was inherently discriminatory and emotionally damaging. To bolster his argument, he cited several psychological studies, including one that found Black children preferred white to brown-colored dolls . After the High Court ruled in his favor, Marshall declared, “I was so happy, I was numb.” He later became the first Black justice on the Suprem e Court, serving from 1967 to 1991.

5. The U.S. government largely backed Marshall’s position.

aThe U.S. Department of Justice rarely takes a position in Supreme Court cases that do not involve federal law. But it made an exception for Brown v. Board of Education, filing a friend-of-the-court brief that maintained “separate but equal” facilities were unconstitutional. President Dwight D. Eisenhower , on the other hand, was less supportive.

While the case was still being considered, he told Chief Justice Earl Warren that southern whites “are not bad people.” And after the Court had ruled that school segregation was unconstitutional, he was reluctant to use his presidential authority to enforce the decision.

6. Brown v. Board of Education was a unanimous decision.

Following oral argument, Warren told his fellow justices that the “separate but equal” doctrine should be overturned. He then went about wooing those still on the fence, telling one that a dissent would encourage resistance in the South. In the end, all nine members of the court joined an opinion that Warren described as short, readable by the lay public, non-rhetorical, unemotional and non-accusatory.

Education is the “the very foundation of good citizenship,” the ruling stated. “To separate [Black children] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone.”

7. The case had a sequel.

The Supreme Court included no guidance in Brown v. Board of Education on how to actually implement desegregation. Instead, it called for further court discussions, after which it issued a second unanimous ruling in May 1955. Known as Brown II, this seven-paragraph decision tasked local federal judges with making sure that school authorities integrated “with all deliberate speed”—an ambiguous phrase that repudiated the NAACP’s plea for tight deadlines.

8. The backlash to Brown v. Board of Education was widespread.

As expected, some southerners used all of the delay tactics at their disposal to avoid integrating. In 1958, for example, Virginia officials closed certain public schools rather than open them up to Blacks, and in 1963 Alabama Governor George Wallace famously proclaimed, “Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever!”

By early 1964, only about 1 percent of Black children in the former Confederacy attended school with whites, and those who did often endured constant harassment. Desegregation efforts would not get going in earnest until the later part of that decade.

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Brown v. Board of Education

Brown v. board of education case brief.

How Brown v. Board of Education Changed Public Education for the Better

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One of the most historical court cases, especially in terms of education, was Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka , 347 U.S. 483 (1954). This case took on segregation within school systems or the separation of White and Black students within public schools. Up until this case, many states had laws establishing separate schools for White students and another for Black students. This landmark case made those laws unconstitutional.

The decision was handed down on May 17, 1954. It overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which had allowed states legalize segregation within schools. The chief justice in the case was Justice Earl Warren . His court’s decision was a unanimous 9-0 decision that said, “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." The ruling essentially led the way for the civil rights movement and essentially integration across the United States.

Fast Facts: Brown v. Board of Education

• Case Argued: December 9–11, 1952; December 7–9, 1953
• Decision Issued:  May 17, 1954
• Petitioners:  Oliver Brown, Mrs. Richard Lawton, Mrs. Sadie Emmanuel, et al
• Respondent:  Board of Education of Topeka, Shawnee County, Kansas, et al
• Key Questions: Does the segregation of public education based solely on race violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment?
• Unanimous Decision: Justices Warren, Black, Reed, Frankfurter, Douglas, Jackson, Burton, Clark, and Minton
• Ruling: "Separate but equal" educational facilities, segregated on the basis of race, are inherently unequal and in violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

A class action suit was filed against the Board of Education of the city of Topeka, Kansas in the United States District Court for the District of Kansas in 1951. The plaintiffs consisted of 13 parents of 20 children who attended the Topeka School District. They filed the suit hoping that the school district would change its policy of racial segregation .

Each of the plaintiffs was recruited by the Topeka NAACP , led by McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, and Lucinda Scott. Oliver L. Brown was the named plaintiff in the case. He was an African American welder, father, and assistant pastor at a local church. His team chose to use his name as part of a legal tactic to have a man’s name on the front of the suit. He was also a strategic choice because he, unlike some of the other parents, was not a single parent and, the thinking went, would appeal more strongly to a jury. 

In the fall of 1951, 21 parents attempted to enroll their children in the closest school to their homes, but each was denied enrollment and told that they must enroll in the segregated school. This prompted the class action suit to be filed. At the district level, the court ruled in favor of the Topeka Board of Education saying that both schools were equal in regards to transportation, buildings, curriculum, and highly qualified teachers. The case then went on to the Supreme Court and was combined with four other similar suits from across the country.

Significance

Brown v. Board  entitled students to receive a quality education regardless of their racial status. It also allowed for African American teachers to teach in any public school they chose, a privilege that was not granted before the Supreme Court ruling in 1954. The ruling set the foundation for the civil rights movement and gave African American’s hope that “separate, but equal” on all fronts would be changed. Unfortunately, however, desegregation was not that easy and is a project that has not been finished, even today. 

• Brown v. Board of Education
• What Is Judicial Activism?
• Major Milestones in Ending Segregation in the United States
• Bolling v. Sharpe: Supreme Court Case, Arguments, Impact
• Lau v. Nichols: Are Schools Required to Provide Bilingual Instruction?
• Obergefell v. Hodges: Supreme Court Case, Arguments, Impacts
• Browder v. Gayle: Court Case, Arguments, Impact
• McLaughlin v. State of Florida (1964)
• Cooper v. Aaron: Supreme Court Case, Arguments, Impact
• Minor v. Happersett
• Civil Rights Movement Timeline From 1951 to 1959
• What Does the Law Say About Prayer in School?
• Lawrence v. Texas: Supreme Court Case, Arguments, Impact
• How Segregation Was Ruled Illegal in U.S.
• Federalism and How It Works

O, yes, I say it plain, America never was America to me, And yet I swear this oath— America will be!

— From by Langston Hughes Separate Is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education marked a turning point in the history of race relations in the United States. On May 17, 1954, the Court stripped away constitutional sanctions for segregation by race, and made equal opportunity in education the law of the land. Brown v. Board of Education reached the Supreme Court through the fearless efforts of lawyers, community activists, parents, and students. Their struggle to fulfill the American dream set in motion sweeping changes in American society, and redefined the nation’s ideals. The end of the Civil War had promised racial equality, but by 1900 new laws and old customs created a segregated society that condemned Americans of color to second-class citizenship. As African Americans and other minority groups began the struggle for civil rights, they strengthened their own schools and fought against segregated education. Beginning in the 1930s, African American lawyers from Howard University law school and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People campaigned to dismantle constitutionally-sanctioned segregation. In the early 1950s, African Americans from five different communities across the country bravely turned to the courts to demand better educational opportunities for their children. In 1954, under the leadership of Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Supreme Court produced a unanimous decision to overturn Plessy vs. Ferguson and changed the course of American history. Today, thanks in part to the victorious struggle in the Brown case, most Americans believe that a racially integrated, ethnically diverse society and educational system is a worthy goal, though they may disagree deeply about how to achieve it. Exploring records relating to African Americans with the Say It Loud! Employee Affinity Group Rediscovering Black History Federal Records Relating to the Brown v. Board of Education Case Today’s blog is introduced and compiled by Dr. Tina Ligon, with the assistance of fellow archivists, specialists, and technicians at the National Archives. May 17, 2014 marks the 60 th anniversary of the landmark Supreme Court decision regarding education in America.  The Oliver L.  Brown et. al.  v. Board of Education of Topeka (KS) ruling declared public schools that were separated by race as unconstitutional.  The unanimous decision stated that segregated schools violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.  The ruling meant that African-American children had a right to attend schools that were properly equipped with well-trained teachers and staff.  This decision was celebrated by many who believed that black children received an inadequate education in the racially segregated schools and was condemned by those who wanted to keep the races separated. This slideshow requires JavaScript. The Brown v. Board of Education case was made up of five similar lawsuits from around the country.  The first case was Briggs v. Elliot (1949), which challenged segregated schools in Summerton, South Carolina.  The three judge panel granted an injunction to make the inferior black schools equal to the white schools.  The Boiling v. Sharpe (1950) case dealt with segregated schools in Washington, D. C.  It held that segregated schools in the nation’s capital violated the due process of the law under the Fifth Amendment.  Initiated by student protests, the Davis v. Board of Education of Prince Edward County (1951) challenged the ill-equipped black schools in Virginia.  Similar to the Briggs v. Elliot case, the Virginia courts ruled that the facilities at the segregated black schools should be equalized to the white schools.  The last case, which carries the landmark name, was the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1951).  Black parents argued against the poor conditions and the locations of the segregated black schools.  The local courts maintained that black and white schools in the state were equal on the basis of buildings, transportation, and curriculums.  Finally, the state of Delaware was ordered by the ruling in Gebhart v. Belton (1952) to admit black students into the white only schools.  All five of these cases were grouped together and argued before the US Supreme Court in 1954.  The court’s decision mandated desegregation of public schools across the country. The National Archives holds many records relating to the Brown v. Board of Education case and the other four cases that made up this historic lawsuit.  Related records ranged from court documents, photographs, online study-guides, and information papers.  This blog is an overview of the types of federally created records relating to the Brown v. Board decision.  To learn more about additional records, visit the Online Public Access catalog. In 2004, Walter B. Hill, Jr. and Trichita M. Chestnut complied Research Information Paper (RIP) 112 Federal Records Pertaining to Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) .  The records described in this RIP are from the executive and judicial branches of the Federal Government.  It identifies most of the records held at the National Archives that relate to the Brown v. Board decision. The Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library located in Abilene, Kansas holds many of the records made in the District Court condemning the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas as well as the segregated school system as a whole.  The Civil Rights collection relating to this case has letters, memoranda, and court orders from southern governors and friends of Eisenhower expressing their concern over integrated schools.  Several of these documents are available online through the Eisenhower Presidential Library website. The main  NARA website has a section dedicated to teaching the Brown v. Board of Education case.  This teacher’s resource gives background information on the case, as well as documents related to the lawsuit, which includes the dissenting opinion of Judge Waites Waring in the Briggs v. Elliott case ( NAID 279306 ), a letter from President Dwight D. Eisenhower to E. E. “Swede” Hazlett ( NAID 186601 ), and the judgment of the case ( NAID 301669 ).  The Teaching with Documents pages also provides users with a timeline, teaching activities, and biographies of key figures. Share this: 6 thoughts on “ federal records relating to the brown v. board of education case ”. The full record of the Brown v Board Civil Case File is held at the National Archives at Kansas City Case File: CV-T-316 (1951) – Oliver Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, Shawnee County, Kansas, et al. has been digitized by the National Archives at Kansas City staff and will available in the online catalog (OPA) in the near future. Great news! Thanks Elizabeth! Civil case file #2657, Harry Briggs, et al v. R. W. Elliott, et al, from the U.S. District Court in Charleston, SC has been digitized by the National Archives at Atlanta. It will also be going up on OPA soon. I appreciate you sharing this article. Much thanks again. Fantastic. WE MUST NEVER FORGET. WE MUST NEVER LET OUR GUARD DOWN. WE MUST KEEP TURNING AROUND AND FORGING AHEAD. DEBRA LOUISE SCOTT METZEN Leave a Reply Cancel reply Find a Lawyer Ask a Lawyer Research the Law Law Schools Laws & Regs Newsletters Justia Connect Pro Membership Basic Membership Justia Lawyer Directory Platinum Placements Gold Placements Justia Elevate Justia Amplify PPC Management Google Business Profile Social Media Justia Onward Blog Brown v. Board of Education, 344 U.S. 1 (1952) U.S. Supreme Court Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Decided October 8, 1952* In two cases set for argument in October, laws of Kansas and South Carolina providing for racial segregation in public schools were challenged as violative of the Fourteenth Amendment. In another case raising the same question with respect to laws of Virginia, appellants had filed a statement of jurisdiction and a motion requesting that all three cases be argued together. There was pending in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit a case in which segregation in public schools of the District of Columbia was challenged as violative of the Fifth Amendment. 1. The Kansas and South Carolina cases are continued on the docket; probable jurisdiction is noted in the Virginia case; and arguments in all three will be heard in December. Pp. 344 U. S. 2 -3. 2. Judicial notice is taken of the pendency of the District of Columbia case. The Court will entertain a petition for certiorari in that case, which, if presented and granted, will afford opportunity for argument of that case immediately following arguments in the other three cases. P. 344 U. S. 3 . Page 344 U. S. 2 The following are citations to the reports of the decisions below: No. 8, the Kansas case, 98 F. Supp. 797 ; No. 101, the South Carolina case, 103 F. Supp. 920 ; No.191, the Virginia case, 103 F. Supp. 337 . Opinions & Dissents Copy Citation Get free summaries of new US Supreme Court opinions delivered to your inbox! Bankruptcy Lawyers Business Lawyers Criminal Lawyers Employment Lawyers Estate Planning Lawyers Family Lawyers Personal Injury Lawyers Estate Planning Personal Injury Business Formation Business Operations Intellectual Property International Trade Real Estate Financial Aid Course Outlines Law Journals US Constitution Regulations Supreme Court Circuit Courts District Courts Dockets & Filings State Constitutions State Codes State Case Law Legal Blogs Business Forms Product Recalls Justia Connect Membership Justia Premium Placements Justia Elevate (SEO, Websites) Justia Amplify (PPC, GBP) Testimonials Some case metadata and case summaries were written with the help of AI, which can produce inaccuracies. You should read the full case before relying on it for legal research purposes. What was Brown v. Board of Education ofTopeka court case about, and how was this a powerful blow to dejure segregation? The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka court case was a landmark Supreme Court decision in 1954 that declared segregation in public schools to be unconstitutional. The case was brought by a group of African American parents who argued that their children were being denied equal educational opportunities due to the segregation of schools. The court ruled that segregation violated the 14th Amendment's equal protection clause and ordered the desegregation of public schools across the country. This decision was a powerful blow to de jure segregation, which was segregation that was enforced by law. The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka court case paved the way for future civil rights victories and helped to dismantle the legal framework of segregation in the United States. To learn more about segregation , visit: https://brainly.com/question/1574751 Related Questions organizations can set up work to give employees the authority and ability to decide how to do their work by assigning them to teams. T/F The statement " organizations can set up work to give employees the authority and ability to decide how to do their work by assigning them to teams " is generally true. Team-based work structures have become increasingly popular in many organizations as they allow employees to have a greater sense of ownership and control over their work. By working collaboratively on tasks and projects, team members can share knowledge and expertise, provide support to each other, and make decisions more efficiently . However, it is important to note that not all work can be structured in a team-based format, and some individuals may prefer working independently. Learn more about employees https://brainly.com/question/21847040 Workers and managers can identify and address inefficiencies to allow for cheaper production. This is a _____ strategy to generate additional profits. Workers and managers can identify and address inefficiencies to allow for cheaper production. This is described is a cost-cutting strategy to generate additional profits . Cheaper production refers to the process of reducing the costs of producing goods or services without sacrificing quality. This can be achieved through a variety of means, such as improving efficiency in the production process, reducing waste, using lower-cost materials or suppliers, negotiating better deals with suppliers or customers, and streamlining operations . Cheaper production can have significant benefits for businesses , such as increased profitability, a competitive advantage over other firms in the market, and the ability to offer lower prices to customers. However, it is important to balance cost-cutting measures with maintaining quality and meeting customer expectations. Businesses must also consider the potential impact of cost-cutting measures on their employees, suppliers, and other stakeholders , and ensure that they are acting ethically and responsibly in pursuing cheaper production. To learn more about Cheaper production visit here: brainly.com/question/31740714 one important thing the international monetary fund does is to help member countries cope with foreign exchange shortages caused by balance of payments problems. T/F One important thing the international monetary fund does is to help member countries cope with foreign exchange shortages caused by balance of payments problem. This statement is false. The International Monetary Fund (|MF) provides quick loans to developing nations that have balance-of-payment deficits. The IMF provides short- and medium-term loans to nations. Who are having problems with their balance of payments and international payment obligations. The majority of the funding for loans comes from quota contributions from IMF members. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), which consists of 190 countries, aspires to long-term prosperity and growth. This is achieved by giving financial backing to economic policies that promote monetary cooperation and financial stability, which are necessary for raising productivity, creating jobs, and improving the economy. To know more about International monetary fund visit: https://brainly.com/question/30323535 harmonization of standards harmonization of standards is less difficult for dissimilar countries. is part of the race to the bottom. is costly for high income countries. can reduce firm costs. The harmonization of standards can have both positive and negative effects on different countries depending on their level of development and economic status. Harmonization of standards refers to the process of aligning regulations and guidelines across different countries or regions. This can be beneficial in promoting international trade and reducing barriers to entry for businesses operating in multiple markets . However, it can also have negative consequences, particularly for countries with lower levels of economic development. For dissimilar countries, harmonization of standards may be easier as there may be less variation in their existing regulations and guidelines. This can facilitate the process of aligning their standards, making it less difficult. 1. Harmonization of standards refers to the process of creating a single set of rules, regulations, or guidelines to be followed by different countries or organizations. This simplifies international trade and cooperation. 2. When dissimilar countries harmonize their standards, it is less difficult because they can agree on a common set of rules that cater to the needs of both nations, ultimately benefiting their economies. 3. Harmonization can be part of the "race to the bottom," which refers to a situation where countries lower their standards or regulations in order to attract business and investments. However, this can also lead to negative consequences such as reduced quality or worker exploitation. 4. While harmonization may be costly for high-income countries, as they might need to lower their standards to accommodate lower-income countries, it can ultimately lead to reduced costs for firms. This is because firms can save on expenses related to complying with different sets of rules and regulations in different countries, as well as increased efficiency and simplified procedures. To Know more about organizations. https://brainly.com/question/12825206 Which of the following is a characteristic of a servant leader?A) one who uses power to achieve endsB) one who focuses on self-interestC) one who reduces team potencyD) one who gives orders to followersE) one who serves the needs of others A servant leader is one who focuses on serving the needs of others. Option E) one who serves the needs of others They prioritize the well-being and growth of their followers, rather than using their power to achieve their own ends or focusing on their self-interest. Instead of reducing team potency, they strive to build and enhance the capabilities of their team members. They do not give orders to followers, but instead work collaboratively with them to achieve common goals. Servant leaders prioritize listening, empathy, and support, and seek to create a culture of trust and respect within their team or organization. Overall, servant leadership is a people-centered approach that values humility, empathy, and a focus on the common good. Learn more about “ servant leadership  “ visit here; https://brainly.com/question/15576767 1) nosybook company stocks pay no dividend. in 8 years from today, the company is expected to pay its first annual dividend of $2.6 per share. then the dividend growth is expected to be 1.2% forever. if the required return on similar stocks is 13.5%, what is the value of the nosybook company stock now? The value of the Nosybook Company stock now is $22.562 per share . The value of the Nosybook Company stock can be calculated using the dividend discount model. Firstly, we need to calculate the present value of the future dividend payments. PV = D / (r - g) where PV is the present value, D is the dividend payment, r is the required return and g is the growth rate of the dividend. In this case, the first dividend payment will be in 8 years, so we need to discount it back to today using the formula: PV = D / (1 + r)^n where n is the number of years and r is the required return. Using these formulas, we can calculate the present value of the first dividend payment to be: PV = 2.6 / (1 + 0.135)^8 = 0.784 Then, we can calculate the present value of all future dividend payments using the formula: PV = D / (r - g) = 2.6 / (0.135 - 0.012) = 21.778 Adding the present value of the first dividend payment to the present value of all future dividend payments, we get: PV = 0.784 + 21.778 = 22.562 To learn more about share , visit: https://brainly.com/question/13642744 If consumers expect the price of a product to be higher in the future, what will happen to the demand for the product today?. If consumers expect the price of a product to be higher in the future, they would try to buy that particular product in the present and the demand of the product will increase in that period of time. Explanation: For example, if the price of a burger increases, then the demand for a burger does what? Nothing, the demand for a burger doesn't change. This is because in economics we've a more precise definition of demand. Demand is NOT the quantity that people buy. Demand is defined by various quantities that consumers are willing and are able to buy at various prices in a given time period. For more understanding, https://brainly.in/question/6555581 Carla was balancing the books when she realized that she entered a transaction of $102.50 in one place, but she entered the same transaction as $105.20 in another place. What method of bookkeeping is Carla using? Select one: a. single-entry O b. spreadsheet c. double-entry d. journal O e debit/credit Carla is using the double-entry bookkeeping method . In this method, each transaction is entered twice, once as a debit and once as a credit in two separate accounts. The double-entry system helps maintain accuracy and ensures that the accounting equation (Assets = Liabilities + Owner's Equity) remains in balance. Carla's discrepancy of entering the same transaction as $102.50 in one place and $105.20 in another place is an error that can occur in double-entry bookkeeping. To correct this error, Carla should identify the accounts involved in the transaction and then adjust the entries to reflect the correct amount. This may involve either increasing or decreasing the amounts entered in the respective debit and credit accounts . By following these steps, Carla can ensure that her books are accurate and maintain the integrity of the double-entry bookkeeping system. Remember that the goal of this system is to provide a clear and accurate record of all financial transactions and ensure that the accounting equation remains in balance. To know more about double-entry bookkeeping method refer here: https://brainly.com/question/30055310# Without any price control, the equilibrium price is $7. Then the government creates a price ceiling of $6. Which of the following is true? A. The price control is binding and consumer surplus rises. B. The price control is not binding and consumer surplus rises. C. The price control is binding and consumer surplus falls. D. The price control is not binding and consumer surplus falls. Without any price control, the equilibrium price is $7. Then the government creates a price ceiling of $6. The true statement is that price control is binding and consumer surplus falls. The correct answer is C. In this scenario, the equilibrium price is $7, and the government creates a price ceiling of $6, which is below the market price. This means that the price ceiling is binding and creates a shortage, as the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied at the price ceiling. Consumers are willing to buy more at a lower price, but producers are not willing to supply the same quantity at a lower price, leading to a shortage. The correct answer is C. The price control is binding and consumer surplus falls. Consumer surplus is the difference between the price consumers are willing to pay and the actual price they pay. With the price ceiling, consumers pay less than they are willing to pay, but they are not able to purchase as much as they want. As a result, consumer surplus decreases. Overall, price ceilings can result in market inefficiencies, such as shortages and reduced consumer surplus, as they restrict the market from operating at its natural equilibrium. The correct answer is C. To know more about equilibrium price refer here: https://brainly.com/question/31647304# a(n) is an agreement in which a party promises not to sell a thing without first offering it to a certain person. A(n) is commonly known as a " right of first refusal " agreement. In this type of agreement, one party agrees to offer the other party the opportunity to purchase a particular asset before they offer it to anyone else. This type of agreement is often used in real estate transactions or with shareholders in a company. The purpose of the agreement is to provide the other party with a fair opportunity to acquire the asset and to prevent it from being sold to someone else without their knowledge or consent. The terms of the agreement may vary depending on the specific situation, but generally, the party with the right of first refusal will have a specified period of time to decide whether or not to purchase the asset before it can be offered to others. A right of first refusal is an agreement in which a party promises not to sell a thing without first offering it to a certain person. This ensures that the specified individual has the opportunity to purchase or acquire the item before it is made available to others. To know more about right of first refusal visit:- https://brainly.com/question/14722456 Hanna, who is a 5-year-old girl, eats nothing but pasta, yogurt, and lemonade. Each month her parents buy 25 pounds of pasta, 65 packages of yogurt, and 15 bottles of lemonade. Hanna's parents have recorded the prices per unit of pasta, yogurt, and lemonade for the last four months, as shown in the table below. Hanna's Meals Month Pasta (dollars per pound) Yogurt (dollars per package) Lemonade (dollars per bottle) January $1.90 $1.00 $2.10 February 2.10 1.10 2.20 March 2.25 1.10 1.95 April 2.20 1.20 2.00 Instructions: Enter your answers as a whole number. a. Compute the total monthly cost of Hanna's meals and indicate whether inflation, deflation (negative inflation), or no inflation occurred during these months. In January, the total monthly cost was ____________ In February, the total monthly cost was ________________ and____________ In March, the total monthly cost was $ 157 157 Correct and no inflation occurred Correct. In April, the total monthly cost was _________ and .__________ b. If Hanna's parents want to buy the same quantity of pasta, yogurt, and lemonade, how much more money will they have to spend during the month of April compared to January? _________ a. To compute the total monthly cost of Hanna's meals, we need to multiply the quantities of each item by their respective prices and then sum them up for each month. In January, the total monthly cost was (25 * $1.90) + (65 * $1.00) + (15 * $2.10) = $47.50 + $65 + $31.50 = $144. In February, the total monthly cost was (25 * $2.10) + (65 * $1.10) + (15 * $2.20) = $52.50 + $71.50 + $33 = $157 . There was inflation compared to January. In March, the total monthly cost was already given as $157, and there was no inflation compared to February . In April, the total monthly cost was (25 * $2.20) + (65 * $1.20) + (15 * $2.00) = $55 + $78 + $30 = $163. There was inflation compared to March . b. To find out how much more money Hanna's parents will have to spend during the month of April compared to January, we simply subtract the total cost in January from the total cost in April : $163 - $144 = $19. So, Hanna's parents will have to spend $19 more in April compared to January . To know more about cost refer here https://brainly.com/question/30045916# a 12-month budget that rolls forward one month (or quarter) as the current month (or quarter) is completed is called a(n) or continuous budget A 12-month budget that rolls forward one month (or quarter) as the current month (or quarter) is completed is called a continuous budget. To provide further explanation, a continuous budget is a type of budgeting method where the budget is updated on a rolling basis, typically monthly or quarterly . This means that as each month or quarter ends, the budget is revised for the next period, rather than starting from scratch each time. A rolling budget is a financial planning tool that adjusts and extends the budget period as each month or quarter is completed. This helps organizations to have an up-to-date and continuous 12-month budget plan at any given time, which allows for better financial planning and resource allocation. To know more about Budget visit:- https://brainly.com/question/29645042 annie tried to sell her home. she was unable to do so because potential buyers were concerned about the economy. annie's inability to sell her home due to a weak market is considered a(n) . Annie's inability to sell her home due to a weak market is considered a liquidity risk. Liquidity risk is the threat to a bank's financial position or very existence posed by its failure to fulfill obligations, whether actual or perceived. Through efficient asset liability management (ALM), institutions control their liquidity risk. A bank's1 liquidity refers to its capacity to finance asset growth and pay commitments as they become due without sustaining unacceptably high losses. The inability of a corporation to readily turn its excess assets into cash and its inability to pay its debts due to a lack of current assets are both examples of liquidity risk. To learn more about market, click here. https://brainly.com/question/13414268 starting with a situation where there is a substantial budget deficit, when federal expenditures grow faster than tax revenues, the government will experience: When federal expenditures grow faster than tax revenues, the government will experience a larger budget deficit . When federal expenditures grow faster than tax revenues, the government will experience a larger budget deficit. A budget deficit occurs when the government spends more money than it receives in revenue, such as taxes. If expenditures continue to increase at a faster rate than tax revenues, the deficit will grow even larger over time. This can lead to a number of economic challenges for the government and the broader economy . One consequence of a large budget deficit is an increase in government debt. The government will need to borrow money to finance its spending, which can lead to higher interest rates and reduced investment. This, in turn, can slow down economic growth and make it more difficult for businesses and individuals to obtain credit. In addition, a large budget deficit may require the government to cut spending in other areas or raise taxes to reduce the deficit. This can be unpopular with voters and lead to political instability. Ultimately, a substantial budget deficit can undermine confidence in the government and its ability to manage the economy. It is important for the government to take steps to address the deficit and work towards a balanced budget in order to maintain a stable and healthy economy. For more such questions on budget deficit https://brainly.com/question/30764699 Why do you assume that construction loans are refinanced and replaced with permanent loans when the construction finishes? Refinancing a construction loan with a permanent loan can provide property owners with greater stability, lower monthly payments, and other financial benefits that can make it an attractive option for many borrowers. Construction loans are generally short-term loans that are intended to cover the costs associated with building a new property or renovating an existing one. These loans are typically structured to provide funding in stages, as construction progresse s, and are secured by the property itself. Once construction is complete, the property owner may choose to refinance the construction loan with a permanent loan, which is a long-term financing option that is designed to provide stable, predictable payments over an extended period of time. There are several reasons why property owners may choose to refinance a construction loan with a permanent loan. To know more about loans here https://brainly.com/question/26011426 Kohlberg's model can best be described as: A. The various phases in one's moral development and related levels of moral reasoning B. A model of ethical action that is based on one's moral development C. A predictive tool to determine how a person will reason ethically based on one's moral development D. A model of age-specific levels of moral reasoning Kohlberg's model can best be described as which refers to the various phases in one's moral development and related levels of moral reasoning. The correct option is A. Kohlberg's theory proposes that moral development occurs in six stages, which are categorized into three levels. The first level is the pre-conventional level, which involves a self-centered perspective and is characterized by obedience and punishment orientation and self-interest orientation. The second level is the conventional level, which is focused on social relationships and is characterized by a good boy/girl orientation and a law and order orientation. The final level is the post-conventional level, which involves a focus on broader principles and is characterized by a social contract orientation and a universal ethical principle orientation. Kohlberg's model is not a model of ethical action that is based on one's moral development (option B) since it does not provide a clear prescription for ethical behavior but rather describes the process of moral development. Additionally, it is not a predictive tool to determine how a person will reason ethically based on one's moral development (option C) as it does not guarantee that a person will always act in accordance with their level of moral reasoning. Finally, it is not a model of age-specific levels of moral reasoning (option D) since Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development is not necessarily age-dependent and can occur at any point in a person's life. Hence, A is the correct option. To know more about Kohlberg's model , refer to the link below: https://brainly.com/question/30037061# What employment sector is identified with natural resource extraction, including mining and agriculture? The employment sector that is identified with natural resource extraction, including mining and agriculture, is the primary sector. The primary sector is responsible for the extraction of natural resources and raw materials from the environment, such as minerals, forests, and agricultural products. This sector includes industries such as agriculture, fishing , forestry, mining, and oil and gas extraction. In these industries , workers are involved in activities like planting, harvesting, extracting , and processing natural resources. The primary sector is an essential part of the economy , as it provides the raw materials necessary for the production of goods and services in other sectors. However, it is also a sector that faces significant environmental and social challenges , including the depletion of natural resources, environmental degradation, and conflicts with indigenous communities. As such, there is a growing focus on sustainable practices in the primary sector, such as sustainable forestry, regenerative agriculture, and responsible mining practices. These practices aim to minimize the environmental impact of natural resource extraction while also ensuring that local communities benefit from the sector's economic opportunities. Learn more about natural resources here :- https://brainly.com/question/31275228 ad costs are the highest during which program? a. the blacklist b. big bang theory c. sunday night football d. gotham Select an organization that you feel could benefit from an improvement in some area of its operations or delivery of its services (publicly traded companies are better as there is more information available). Define the basic characteristics of the organization (size, industry, annual revenues and profit, competitors, and any relevant regulatory issues). It is sometimes helpful to also review the organizational chart to determine the placement and decision power of the informational systems leadership. For example, does the CIO (Chief Informational Officer) rank alongside the other C-level managers, or does IT management seem to have more of a functional role? One organization that could benefit from an improvement in its operations is Ford Motor Company. Ford is a multinational automotive manufacturer that designs, manufactures, markets, and services a range of cars, trucks, SUVs, electrified vehicles, and luxury vehicles. As of 2021, Ford had approximately 186,000 employees worldwide and generated annual revenues of $127.1 billion. However, the company has faced increasing competition from other major automakers such as Toyota, General Motors, and Volkswagen. Additionally, Ford has faced regulatory issues related to environmental and safety standards, as well as issues related to supply chain disruptions. Ford's organizational chart shows that the CIO reports directly to the CEO, indicating the importance of information technology to the company's operations. An improvement in Ford's supply chain and inventory management systems could help the company to better compete in the automotive industry and meet the changing demands of consumers Learn more about annual revenues https://brainly.com/question/31806020 selected financial data for the printer division of cole business qhtis the printer divisions return on investment The correct option is B, The capital turnover can be calculated by dividing the sales by the total assets is 2. The capital turnover can be calculated by dividing the sales by the total assets: Capital turnover = Sales / Total assets = 6,400,000 / 3,200,000 = 2 Capital turnover refers to the speed at which a company is able to generate revenue from its capital investments. It is a financial ratio that measures the efficiency of a company's use of its capital. The formula for capital turnover is the company's revenue divided by its total capital investment. The higher the capital turnover ratio, the more efficiently the company is using its capital to generate revenue. A high capital turnover ratio indicates that the company is able to generate a significant amount of revenue with relatively low levels of capital investment. On the other hand, a low capital turnover ratio suggests that the company may be inefficient in its use of capital, or that it may be investing too heavily in fixed assets that generate little revenue. To learn more about Capital turnover visit here: brainly.com/question/15521018 Complete Question: selected financial data for the printer division of cole business qhtis the printer division's return on investment Sales   6400000 Operating income   2240000 Total assets     3200000 Current liabilities     330000 The required rate of return   15% The weighted average cost of capital   3% What is the printer division's capital turnover? the impact of two inputs on the output of interest is summarized by agroup of answer choicestwo-way data table.watch window.goal seek.multiple-way data table. The impact of two inputs on the output of interest can be summarized by using either a two-way data table or a multiple-way data table. A two-way data table allows you to vary two input values and see how the output changes, while a multiple-way data table allows you to vary multiple input values and see how the output changes. Other tools that can be used to analyze the impact of inputs on outputs, such as the watch window and goal seek. The watch window allows you to monitor the value of a specific cell as you change input values, while goal seeks allows you to set a specific output value and find the input values needed to achieve that goal. Overall, choosing the appropriate tool for analyzing the impact of inputs on outputs depends on the complexity of the problem and the number of input variables involved. Learn more about two-way data table : https://brainly.com/question/28106520 A gain or loss on disposal of a plant asset is determined by comparing the:. The gain or loss on disposal of a plant asset is determined by comparing the asset's net book value (NBV) to the amount received from its disposal . The NBV is calculated by subtracting the accumulated depreciation from the original cost of the asset. If the amount received from the disposal is greater than the NBV, then there is a gain on disposal. Conversely, if the amount received is less than the NBV, then there is a loss on disposal. This gain or loss is recognized in the income statement as a separate item, apart from the normal revenue and expenses of the business. It is important to accurately calculate the gain or loss on disposal of a plant asset to properly reflect the financial position and performance of the business . To know more about NBV visit: https://brainly.com/question/31479193 suppose that best buy places an order for computers with microsoft on december 17. the computers are delivered on december 20. best buy receives the invoice on december 21 and pays it on december 29. on what date does microsoft satisfy its performance obligation? Microsoft satisfies its performance obligation on December 20 when the computers are delivered to Best Buy. A performance obligation is a promise to transfer goods or services to a customer. In this scenario, Microsoft's performance obligation is to deliver computers to Best Buy . The performance obligation is satisfied when the computers are delivered on December 20, and Best Buy receives them. This means that Microsoft has fulfilled its promise to transfer goods to the customer. The fact that Best Buy receives the invoice on December 21 and pays it on December 29 does not affect the date when Microsoft satisfies its performance obligation. The payment date is not relevant in determining when the performance obligation is satisfied. The performance obligation is satisfied when Microsoft transfers control of the computers to Best Buy. The performance obligation is satisfied when the company delivers the ordered products or services to the customer. In this case, Microsoft delivers the computers to Best Buy on December 20, which is when they satisfy their performance obligation. To know more about Best Buy visit: https://brainly.com/question/31111660 a country that barters for imported products rather than paying in cash likely does so because its currency is convertible. group of answer choices true false When a country chooses to barter for imported products rather than paying in cash, it is often because the country's currency is not convertible or is not widely accepted in international markets. Bartering allows the country to obtain necessary goods without the need for foreign currency, which may be difficult or expensive to acquire. In contrast, a currency that is convertible can be easily exchanged for other currencies on the global market, making it more desirable for international trade. Therefore, a country that chooses to barter is likely doing so because of currency limitations rather than currency convertibility . The statement "A country that barters for imported products rather than paying in cash likely does so because its currency is convertible" is False. In such a scenario, the country likely does so because its currency is not easily convertible or has low value in international markets, making it difficult to pay in cash for imported products. To know more about   international markets visit:- https://brainly.com/question/30482073 If the income elasticity of SUVs is greater than​ 1, what is the good​ considered? If the income elasticity of SUVs is greater than 1, then SUVs are considered a luxury good. When the income elasticity of a good is greater than 1, it means that the demand for the good is highly responsive to changes in income. As people's incomes rise, they tend to spend a larger proportion of their income on luxury goods like SUVs. This indicates that SUVs are a discretionary or luxury good, rather than a necessity.Luxury goods like SUVs are often associated with higher prices and quality , which make them less affordable for people with lower incomes. Therefore, the demand for SUVs is generally more sensitive to changes in income than for essential goods like food and housing. The higher the income elasticity, the more likely the good is to be considered a luxury good. Learn more about elasticity here https://brainly.com/question/1048608 shue music company is considering the sale of a new sound board used in recording studios. the new board would sell for $24,800, and the company expects to sell 1,650 per year. the company currently sells 2,000 units of its existing model per year. if the new model is introduced, sales of the existing model will fall to 1,670 units per year. the old board retails for $23,200. variable costs are 54 percent of sales, depreciation on the equipment to produce the new board will be $975,000 per year, and fixed costs are $3,275,000 per year. if the tax rate is 25 percent, what is the annual ocf for the project? The annual operating cash flow for the project is $25,271,580. 1. Calculate the sales revenue for the new and existing models: New model: 1,650 units * $24,800 = $40,920,000 Existing model (after new model introduction): 1,670 units * $23,200 = $38,744,000 Total sales revenue: $40,920,000 + $38,744,000 = $ 79,664,000 2. Calculate the variable costs for both models: Total variable costs : 0.54 * $79,664,000 = $43,018,560 3. Calculate the earnings before interest, taxes, and depreciation (EBITDA): EBITDA = Total sales revenue - Total variable costs - Fixed costs EBITDA = $79,664,000 - $43,018,560 - $3,275,000 = $33,370,440 4. Calculate the earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT): EBIT = EBITDA - Depreciation EBIT = $33,370,440 - $975,000 = $32,395,440 5. Calculate the taxes: Taxes = EBIT * Tax rate Taxes = $32,395,440 * 0.25 = $8,098,860 6. Calculate the annual o perating cash flow (OCF): OCF = EBIT + Depreciation - Taxes OCF = $32,395,440 + $975,000 - $8,098,860 = $25,271,580 To know more about  operating cash flow visit:- https://brainly.com/question/17001006 Sturdy Stone Tools, Inc., announced a 100 percent stock dividend. Determine the impact of a Stock Split assuming that the company announced a 2-for-1 stock split. A stock split is a corporate action that builds the quantity of the partnership's remarkable offers by separating each offer, which thusly lessens its cost . The stock's market capitalization , be that as it may, continues as before, very much like the worth of the $100 greenback doesn't change assuming it is traded for two $50s. For example, with a 2-for-1 stock split, every investor gets an extra offer for each offer held, however, the worth of each offer is diminished significantly: two offers are currently equivalent to the first worth of one offer before the split. The main impacts of a stock split are on the quantity of offers extraordinary and on the standard worth of the stock. Learn more about stock split : https://brainly.com/question/29762632 When a banker accepts a deposit of $1,000 in cash and puts $200 aside as required reserves and then makes a loan of $800 to a new borrower, this set of transactions O a. increases the money supply by $200. O b. decreases the money supply by $200. loc decreases the money supply by $1,000. 1 d. increases the mgrey supply by $800. Loe does not change the money supply. When a banker accepts a deposit of $1,000 in cash and puts $200 aside as required reserves and then makes a loan of $800 to a new borrower, this set of transactions: d. increases the money supply by $800. The reason is that the initial deposit of $1,000 in cash is considered part of the money supply. When the banker sets aside $200 as required reserves, this reduces the amount of money available for lending. However, when the banker makes a loan of $800, this increases the amount of money available in the economy by $800, thus increasing the money supply. Overall, the transactions have increased the money supply by $800. Learn more about deposit Visit: brainly.com/question/29790062 The power to raise or lower the tax rate is part of. The power to raise or lower the tax rate is part of the fiscal policy, which is a critical component of a government's economic strategy. Fiscal policy involves adjusting government revenue and expenditure levels to influence the economy, manage inflation, and promote growth. Governments manipulate the tax rate to affect disposable income, consumer spending, and investments. Raising taxes can help decrease budget deficits and control inflation while lowering taxes can stimulate economic activity and increase demand. The authority to modify tax rates usually lies with the legislative body, such as Congress in the United States or Parliament in the United Kingdom. These entities are responsible for drafting and approving legislation that outlines changes to the tax system. They collaborate with the executive branch, which is responsible for implementing and enforcing tax policies. Fiscal policy works hand-in-hand with monetary policy, which is managed by central banks, to maintain economic stability. While fiscal policy focuses on taxes and government spending, monetary policy concentrates on money supply, interest rates, and financial regulations. In summary, the power to raise or lower the tax rate is part of fiscal policy, which is crucial for shaping a nation's economic growth and stability. Legislative bodies , like Congress or Parliament, are responsible for determining and implementing changes to tax rates in collaboration with the executive branch. To know more about Fiscal Policy visit: https://brainly.com/question/27506430 The authority to adjust the tax rate is part of the government's legislative powers, specifically, in the United States context, the Congress. They utilize this to regulate fiscal policy and manage the economy. The power to raise or lower the tax rate is part of the legislative powers given to the government , particularly in the United States, the Congress . The United States Constitution provides the House of Representatives with the power to initiate tax legislation, and the Senate to amend it. This ability allows the government to control fiscal policy and regulate the economy , by influencing the amount of money circulating within the economy. https://brainly.com/question/36388547 west, inc. and barton entered into a contract. after receiving valuable consideration from egan, west assigned its rights under the barton contract to egan. in which of the following circumstances would west not be liable to egan? There are certain circumstances in which West, Inc. would not be liable to Egan despite assigning its rights under the Barton contract. Firstly, if the Barton contract explicitly prohibited the assignment of rights. West, Inc. would not be able to assign its rights to Egan. If West, Inc. did so anyway, Egan would not have any legal standing to enforce the contract against Barton and would not be able to hold West, Inc. liable for any damages incurred. Secondly, if Barton had already performed its obligations under the contract before West, Inc. assigned its rights to Egan, West, Inc. would not be liable to Egan for any breaches of contract that may occur thereafter. In this scenario, Egan would only be able to hold Barton liable for any breaches of the contract. Lastly, if there were any existing disputes or legal issues between West, Inc. and Barton at the time of the assignment, West, Inc. would not be liable to Egan for any damages resulting from those disputes. Egan would only be able to enforce the contract to the extent of the rights assigned to them by West, Inc. In summary, West, Inc. would not be liable to Egan if the Barton contract prohibited the assignment of rights , if Barton had already performed its obligations, or if there were any existing legal issues between West, Inc. and Barton at the time of the assignment. To know more about Barton visit: https://brainly.com/question/29139008 144 IMAGES Black Then MTSU’s Gore Center awarded grant to fund Brown v. Board of Education PPT Brown Vs Board Of Education Today in History: Brown vs. Board of Education Decided by the Supreme Brown v. Board of Education Case Brief Summary COMMENTS Related Cases Related Cases. Court Cases in Prelude to Brown, 1849-1949. For more than a century, African Americans sought to ensure access to equal educational opportunity. Religion, education and community have proven to be the cornerstone of self-determination on the part of African Americans. One of the most prominent examples of this cornerstone concept ... Desegregation Court Cases Before and After Brown v. Board of Education Board of Education. On May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down a unanimous decision in Brown v. Board of Education. The case of Brown v. Board of Education as heard before the Supreme Court combined five cases: Brown itself, Briggs v. Elliott (filed in South Carolina), Davis v. Brown v. Board of Education The Browns appealed their case to the U.S. Supreme Court, stating that even if the facilities were similar, segregated schools could never be equal. The Court decided that state laws requiring separate but equal schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Students in a segregated, one-room school in Waldorf, Maryland (1941) Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (article) In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) a unanimous Supreme Court declared that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional. The Court declared "separate" educational facilities "inherently unequal.". The case electrified the nation, and remains a landmark in legal history and a milestone in civil rights history. Brown v. Board of Education Board of Education of Topeka was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case in which the justices ruled unanimously that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional. Brown v ... The Five Cases The Five Cases. The Brown v. Board decision didn't stem from a single case. The challenge to racial segregation in public schools arose several times from communities all across the country. Five of those communities, along with the NAACP, bravely sought the elimination of segregation in the United States in pursuit of true equality. Brown v. Board of Education Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court ruling that U.S. state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools are unconstitutional, even if the segregated schools are otherwise equal in quality. The decision partially overruled the Court's 1896 decision Plessy v.Ferguson, which had held that racial segregation laws ... Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) U.S. Supreme Court. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Argued December 9, 1952 Reargued December 8, 1953 Decided May 17, 1954* APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE DISTRICT OF KANSAS MR. CHIEF JUSTICE WARREN delivered the opinion of the Court. The Supreme Court Decision That Changed America: Brown v. Board of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS, 11 347 U.S. 483 (1954). The justices unanimously overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), proclaiming that segregated educational facilities are inherently unequal and violate the right to equal protection under the law. On December 13, 1952, the justices of the U.S. Supreme Court met to consider five ... 1954: Brown v. Board of Education On May 17, 1954, in a landmark decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the U.S. Supreme Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for students of different races to be unconstitutional. The decision dismantled the legal framework for racial segregation in public schools and Jim Crow laws ... Brown v. Board of Education The 1954 decision found that the historical evidence bearing on the issue was inconclusive. Brown v. Board of Education, case in which, on May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously (9-0) that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. It was one of the most important cases in the Court's history, and it helped ... The Opinions: May 17, 1954 A decade after the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, barely one percent of Black schoolkids were attending classes with their white neighbors. But on this day in May 1954, Thurgood Marshall and his colleagues were elated. Their victory became complete after Chief Justice Warren read a separate opinion for a related case, Bolling v. Sharpe Brown v. Board of Education and the Development of Special Education Abstract. May 2020 was the 66th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. In this case, perhaps the most important ruling of the 20th century, the Supreme Court ruled that the racial segregation of Black children in public schools was unconstitutional. In addition, the ruling in Brown v. Brown v. Board of Education The Supreme Court's opinion in the Brown v. Board of Education case of 1954 legally ended decades of racial segregation in America's public schools. Chief Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case. State-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th Amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. This historic decision marked the ... Brown v. Board of Education (1954) Ferguson case. On May 17, 1954, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. State-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. This historic decision marked the end of ... Top Three Court Cases for Education: Brown v. Board of Education Board of Education of Topeka (1954) The most well-known Supreme Court case that impacted education is Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), and it's my favorite to discuss because while its intentions were noble, some of its impact created problems schools are still attempting to resolve. Brown v. Board of Education The Case that Transformed America. On May 17, 1954, a decision in the Brown v. Board of Education case declared the "separate but equal" doctrine unconstitutional. The landmark Brown v. Board decision gave LDF its most celebrated victory in a long, storied history of fighting for civil rights and marked a defining moment in US history. Documents Related to Brown v. Board of Education As Attorney General of Kansas, Harold Fatzer argued the case for the appellees (Kansas) in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Mr. Fatzer served as Kansas Supreme Court Justice from February, 1949, to March, 1956. Jack Greenberg, who was born in 1924, argued on behalf of the plaintiffs in the Brown v. 8 Things You Should Know About Brown v. Board of Education 1. More than one-third of U.S. states segregated their schools by law. Plessy v. Ferguson. At the time of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, 17 southern and border states, along with the ... Brown v. Board of Education Case Summary of Brown v. Board of Education: Oliver Brown was denied admission into a white school; As a representative of a class action suit, Brown filed a claim alleging that laws permitting segregation in public schools were a violation of the 14 th Amendment equal protection clause.; After the District Court upheld segregation using Plessy v.Ferguson as authority, Brown petitioned the ... How Brown v. Board of Education Changed Public Education ... Board of Education Changed Public Education for the Better. One of the most historical court cases, especially in terms of education, was Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). This case took on segregation within school systems or the separation of White and Black students within public schools. Separate Is Not Equal The U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education marked a turning point in the history of race relations in the United States. On May 17, 1954, the Court stripped away constitutional sanctions for segregation by race, and made equal opportunity in education the law of the land. Brown v. Board of Education reached the Supreme ... Federal Records Relating to the Brown v. Board of Education Case Similar to the Briggs v. Elliot case, the Virginia courts ruled that the facilities at the segregated black schools should be equalized to the white schools. The last case, which carries the landmark name, was the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1951). Black parents argued against the poor conditions and the locations of the segregated ... Brown v. Board of Education, 344 U.S. 1 (1952) Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. No. 8. Decided October 8, 1952*. 344 U.S. 1. Syllabus. In two cases set for argument in October, laws of Kansas and South Carolina providing for racial segregation in public schools were challenged as violative of the Fourteenth Amendment. In another case raising the same question with respect to laws of ... 70 years since Brown v. Board of Education "The decision in Brown v. Board of Education was a huge victory in the Civil Rights movement," said PHRC Executive Director Chad Dion Lassiter, MSW. "This week I had the opportunity to join some of the delegation that brought the actual case to the Supreme Court during an event at the White House. ... a similar order was issued to the ... PDF v. BOARD OF EDUCATION OF TOPEKA public education." In Cumming v. County Board of Education, 175 U. S. 528, and Gong Lum v. Rice, 275 U. S. 78, the validity of the doctrine itself was not chal-lenged.8 In more recent cases, all on the graduate school declaring that the law in the States shall be the same for the black as for the white; that all persons, whether colored or ... What Was Brown V. Board Of Education OfTopeka Court Case About, And How The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka court case was a landmark Supreme Court decision in 1954 that declared segregation in public schools to be unconstitutional.. The case was brought by a group of African American parents who argued that their children were being denied equal educational opportunities due to the segregation of schools. The court ruled that segregation violated the 14th ... assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review speech thesis