research on stray animals

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The "STRAYS" Project  

A scientific project to determine the most sustainable, effective, and efficient method of managing the number of stray dogs

Stray dog overpopulation is a global concern with implications for public health and safety, environmental protection, wildlife conservation, as well as animal welfare. Irresponsible pet ownership (e.g., abandonment) and lack of birth control programs lead to an increase in stray dogs. In high numbers, stray dogs can contribute to spreading diseases, cause human-animal conflicts (e.g., bites and traffic accidents), threaten the survival of other species of animals, cause economic burdens (e.g., costs associated with management, rabies vaccination), while often experiencing health and welfare problems themselves.

The STRAYS project was developed by the University of Leeds, FOUR PAWS International, and IZSAM (Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise 'Giuseppe Caporale'), with the aim to determine the most sustainable, effective, and efficient method of managing the number of stray dogs. Please find our publications and studies about stray dogs here .

Stray dog overpopulation is a global problem that is of public health, animal welfare and environmental concern. FOUR PAWS has been involved in the humane management of stray dog populations for more than 25 years, using Catch-Neuter-Vaccinate-Release (CNVR) to manage stray dog populations. We use this method to humanely reduce the number of dogs while at the same time improving their welfare.

FOUR PAWS vets work with communities across Eastern Europe using stationary and mobile clinics to neuter dogs. FOUR PAWS also supports programs in Germany and Switzerland that help control stray cat colonies through education and awareness campaigns, and by providing support for local veterinary neutering efforts.

STRAYS PhD Research

The STRAYS Project was structured as an academic PhD research study and involved collecting data on dog populations from two study sites (Lviv, Ukraine and Teramo, Italy) and on public attitudes towards stray dogs using online surveys (in Italy, Ukraine, and Bulgaria). Stray dog population size, financial costs, welfare impact on the dog population and impact on public health are some of the factors this study considered when comparing different dog population management methods (catch-neuter-vaccinate-return, long-term sheltering, and mass culling). Collected data was used in statistical modelling to determine long-term effectiveness in humanely reducing population size.

Need to target sources for stray dog population increase

The key result of the STRAYS project is that methods targeting multiple sources of population increase, (i.e., reducing: births in the free-roaming dog population, abandonment of dogs, and allowing owned dogs to roam) are most effective at reducing free-roaming dog population size, while also being cost-effective and improving dog health and welfare. Furthermore, neutering interventions applied continuously (monthly) and covering a high proportion of the population (i.e., >65%) will increase effectiveness and efficiency overall. Mass culling and long-term sheltering do not offer a sustainable solution to stray dog overpopulation, as they do not address the causes for population increase. It is important to also consider public attitudes towards stray dogs and dog ownership practices to adequately tailor responsible pet ownership campaigns.

CNVR & Responsible pet ownership education have the biggest impact

Humanely reducing the number of stray dogs through catch-neuter-vaccinate-return (CNVR) campaigns coupled with responsible pet ownership education represent together the most effective, efficient, and sustainable technique to reduce stray dog population size, while ensuring animal welfare and reduced costs.

Why mass culling and long-term sheltering are not effective and sustainable solutions

Removal of stray dogs from the streets, either by culling or long-term sheltering, does not address the sources of population increase. removal only creates a temporary vacuum in the population that is quickly filled in by other individuals, either through births, immigration from neighboring areas, or through pet abandonment..

Ukraine, Bulgaria, Italy: attitudes towards stray dogs

© 2022 Smith et al. This online questionnaire study aimed at determining the humans’ attitudes towards free-roaming dogs and the dog ownership practices in Bulgaria, Italy, and Ukraine.

Review on dog population management methods effectiveness

© 2019 Smith et al. This review systematically reports about the current research investigating the effectiveness of different dog population management methods.

Using a system dynamics model for free-roaming dog population management assessment

© 2022 Smith et al. This paper presents how to model which dog population methods are the most cost-efficient, effective one and involves a high level of welfare.

Help for Stray Animals

Worldwide projects to help stray dogs and cats .

Interviews & Insights on the Stray Animal Problem in Modern China

I. Introduction

    In China, the existence of stray animals has been a social problem for decades. Some — mostly Western — countries that have a rich history in animal welfare have made enormous effort to save the lives of stray animals, but in other regions, specifically in Asia, this problem simply grew more serious in a way that causes greater social problems concerning public health and safety.

    In this paper, I aim to discuss the causes and consequences of the stray animal problems along with the challenges faced by the animal rescue community. I discuss these issues in three interviews with experienced rescuers based in China, supplemented with extended research on topics mentioned in the interviews. 

II. Interview with Savannah, long term volunteer for four cat rescues in Beijing

    Savannah Lee is a full time teacher in an international high school in Beijing. She has been living in China for seven years and participating in stray cat rescuing for nearly four years. She is currently a member of many rescue groups, Cat Community, Beijing Dog Rescue, Kitten Care, and more that offer help in Beijing, Shanghai and a few other cities across China. The interview was conducted on November 12, 2020 via email.

    First I asked her to describe the current situation about stray animals in China. In her own words, the situation is “very bad” as many stray cats and dogs are unvaccinated and neither spayed or neutered, potentially creating more strays.

    Effective ways to control the stray population include education on animal care, especially on the importance of vaccination and sterilization. Education eliminates the stereotypes that sterilization hurts animals and creates instead an understanding that sterilization brings more benefits to an animal’s long-term health by dramatically reducing the risks of certain types of cancers [1] .  

    Also, the idea of Trap, Neuter, Release (or, TNR), which is a practice commonly used in the animal rescue communities in the United States and other countries [2] . It is a process where the animal is first trapped, brought to the hospital to be vaccinated and fixed, and released back to the place where you trapped them in. “This is a practice that should be introduced and used more in China.” Savannah said.

    Then I invited her to discuss with details on how animal rescue organizations are funded and how they work in China. She mentioned that usually, animal rescue organizations are funded and taken care of by people who are willing to help with their own money, or through charitable donations. Because of the challenges of being self-sponsored, the financial support is limited, and so is the help they are able to offer. When an animal is found, the rescuers will come together to help, first fostering the pet at their house and raising money on their own until they are ready to look for “forever homes”. 

    She then mentioned the problems of animal rescue work, and introduced three key factors that would help based on her experiences with animal rescue. First, there should be education on how people can join the community and help on animal rescue, and accurate reporting on the situation. People need to understand how to take care of animals, and how much time and money to be invested in animal rescue. 

    Communication is undoubtedly important as well. Due to the constraints of having WeChat groups as the main tool of communication, people get confused by the many groups with different messages going in and out for just one rescuer, especially during a critical time frame, for example during night time or work hours.

    Clarity also contributes to successful communication and the running of the organization. There are groups for animal rescue,  for pet related questions, or groups specifically focused on dogs or cats. It is important that people find the right group or community to join, and get passed on the information they need. 

    As a born and raised American living in China, Savannah experiences major differences between the two countries when handling animal rescue issues, from funding available to the organization to having an actual organization facility or access to what the rescuers need, like a 24 hour veterinary care. Still, education and money are the key. In the United States people are more involved and aware of the animal rescue community compared to Chinese. 

    One instance of how people might potentially make a change occurred in November 2020, when a company in Shanghai put puppies and kittens into a vending machine where people could pay and play a game, and get the animal as a prize. A video about this went viral where people condemned and protested the exploitation of a live animal in a game. Three days later, the machine got shut down. Together, people can make a difference; they just need a good reason. 

III. Interview with Muran, founder and content creator of Loving Home of Muran

    Uncle Muran is the founder of a rescue group called Loving Home of Muran in Dongyang, Zhejiang Province, and also a content creator with over 23k followers in Chinese Tik Tok and Little Red Book about his rescue stories. The interview was conducted on November 13, 2020 via direct message on Little Red Book, a social media platform in China.

    First I asked about his opinion on the major causes of the vast size of stray population in China, and he answered, “ there is a rising population of irresponsible pet owners that decide to have a pet out of fashion, or,  just for a spur of the moment, and when the moment is gone, they simply kick the animals out of the door.” He also mentions that there should be a strictly enforced regulation on pet ownership, which impose punishments on irresponsible owners to reduce such behaviors. 

    Being a content creator on animal rescue, Uncle Muran uses mainly two social media platforms, Chinese Tik Tok for video-sharing and Little Red Book for both videos and photos with short written posts. I asked if social media is effective as the main tool of communication and information sharing, he said yes because “it helps bring people into this community using my contents, mostly sad videos of strays when they are first taken in, or happy ones when they find homes.”

    At the end of the interview, I offered to make a small donation but Uncle Muran immediately refused. He claimed to welcome as many volunteers as possible, but does not encourage donations unless being made in person. In his words, “for donations, we welcome anyone who has visited our base, or has truly known us to donate, and we are very grateful for any donations. However, we do not recommend anyone who we have never met, or spoken before, to make donations because we hope you know that your money is being used in the right place, but with the Internet, you never know, and we do not want to get into trouble.”

    Uncle Muran also mentions that he has encountered some content creators who earn a profit by 卖惨, which roughly translates to sadfishing, a new term on social media that refers to the practice of getting attention using people’s sympathy, or making touching videos that do not speak the truth. He expressed a strong disgust to such behaviors. 

IV. Interview with the co-founder of Tianjin Stray Animal Rescue Team

    The interviewee was unwilling to give out her name nor any other information besides what is shown on her Weibo profile, and she answered my questions with very brief answers, sometimes in only a few words where I could sense that she was cautious when talking. The interview was conducted on November 10, 2020 via direct message on Weibo, a social media platform in China.

    First I asked about how the animal rescue group that she is involved in works, and she explained that her team is a small scale rescue group based in Tianjin and that all her teammates are her friends and family. She specifically stressed that “we are not a shelter or any organization, but just a gathering of friends and family who want to help animals.”

    Their main source of information is through Weibo. One of the major advantages of having Weibo as the main platform is that all information posted is open to the public whereas in WeChat, people need to be added directly into a message group before accessing any information. Their post content is only seeking adoption for animals they have rescued. The interviewee said, so far, Weibo has been working great for her team.

    Similar to Uncle Muran, the team refuses to accept any donations as well. She said “we do not need any. Even if we do, we are more likely to raise money among the people we know, like friends and family instead of asking for donations from strangers.” She knows there are frauds using animal rescue as a hook to make money, and she does not want to give anyone a chance to make profit in this field. “People can always help by volunteering or fostering, which she believes is a better way to contribute in this community.” Clearly for her team, donations are not the best way to help them.

V.Follow-up interview with Savannah Lee in terms of the act of donating

    After noticing the different reactions towards donations among three rescuers, I arranged a follow-up interview with Savannah to specifically discuss the act of donating. She has a rather different view and stated that donations are important in keeping an organization alive. In her words, “I do not agree with the statement that rescuers should not ask for money. If they are trusted rescuers then they should. Rescuing animals can get expensive, especially if they get sick. I once spent over 50,000 RMB out of my own pocket on the cats I have rescued and it was a lot of money for me as an ordinary person.” 

    However, there is only one action that Savannah said some rescuers do and that she was not happy about, which is using the donations for personal interests instead of on the animals that need help. She mentioned that she often heard about rescue groups raising money for a good cause, and then use the funds to go out and eat, or buy things for themselves.  

    It is interesting to see that different rescue groups handle things differently, especially on the matter of donating behaviors, but the ground rule is that all donations should be used only on the needs of animals.

VI. Conclusion with extended research

a. Lack of legislation on animal protection

    China, among many other Asian countries, do not have any legislation and law enforcement for animal protection . Though various attempts have been made by both the people and government officials to raise the concerns of establishing laws for animal protection and against animal abuse, nothing substantial was achieved [3] . Without any active legislation against animal abuse, such acts rarely break any laws, leaving rescue organizations overly dependent on volunteer work and unreliable donation funding.

b. Lack of support for animal rescue organizations

    Most rescue groups and animal shelters that are currently operating across China are self organized without any governmental sponsorship. Few organizations have established home bases and full time workers while most are put together by volunteers and operate out of their own homes, usually apartment complexes.. Three major burdens on Chinese rescue groups development are the lack of stable financial support, the lack of volunteers, and a large demand for adoption [4] .

    Many rescue groups are founded, supported, and operated by the same group of people with similar interest in animal rescue. It is difficult for them to get outside support due to lack of communication, publicity, and interest from the general public. Another challenge for people working for rescue groups is where to store animals. Without a base, they are forced to bring stray animals back home, or to places that they own, and keep them until they are adopted, causing stress and distraction for their daily lives, especially if their family or partners are not entirely supportive.

c. Lack of education on sterilization

    The lack of reproduction control among animals, especially stray animals, escalates the stray population dramatically. Sterilization is an effective method to control stray population, and on the other hand it is also recommended by vets to neuter or spay pets to avoid potential genital diseases or cancers as they grow older. However, it is not a common practice in China compared to Western countries . Many people believe it is a deprivation of the animal’s nature of reproduction, and it is not morally acceptable. Therefore, education on sterilization and its benefits is key to reducing the stray population on a fundamental level.

d. Lack of consistency in existing regulations    

    Cats and other small animals require no registration and face no ownership constraint. Yet paradoxically, legal dog breed and size are heavily regulated in China. This is similar to the breed specific legislation (BSL) in the United States, which regulates or bans certain breeds that are believed to be aggressive, but the regulation in China is stricter. It both bans many breeds and restricts the size and number of dogs allowed in a household.  

    In Beijing, one household is limited to one dog, and the maximum height of the dog is 35 centimeters. In the original report it uses the words “ 小型玩赏犬” or small-sized toy dog [5]  in English. Dogs need to be registered and inspected annually, so some breeds or larger sized dogs cannot be registered. The cost of registration fee varies in different cities. Some cities like Chengdu offers free registration, but in Beijing, the cost is 1,000 RMB in the first year, and 500 RMB for annual renewal [6] .

    By making certain breeds and sizes illegal, the regulations increase the risk of an animals’ subsequent capture and euthanization by the animal control department. The heavy fines imposed by restrictions on unregistered dogs result in more abandonment simply because some dogs legally cannot be registered even in capable households. This obtuse regulation leads to a Chinese tendency to purchase specific, legal permit-friendly dogs directly from breeders or pet stores. 

    With the lack of animal protection law combined with the heavy restrictions on dog ownership, the concept of responsible pet ownership is only a moral constraint, instead of a mandate that every pet owner should obey. People need to be educated on responsible ownership so that with or without law enforcement, they would not abandon animals.     

e. Remarks  

    Being a dog owner living in Beijing, I sincerely believe China must improve the acceptance and protection of pets and pet owners. Existing pet regulation uses public safety to wrongfully justify heavily regulating the types of dogs that are allowed to live. However, it is the people who need to be regulated. They should be educated on responsible ownership and animal care, reprimanded for animal abandonment, and encouraged to participate in animal rescue.

    With national-level legal protections and sufficient knowledge on animal welfare, there will be no animals roaming the streets. Instead, they will be loved in a home where they belong.

• Open access
• Published: 26 July 2023

Public perspectives on strays and companion animal management in Malaysia

• Syafiq Munir Ismail Munir   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4628-1613 1 ,
• Mohd Istajib Mokhtar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8530-9389 1 &
• Ahmad Firdhaus Arham   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6740-2077 2  

BMC Public Health volume  23 , Article number:  1428 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Strays and companion animal management is a sensitive issue in Malaysia that incites solid and conflicting views. Through structured questionnaires administered to a random sample of 704 respondents, this study explored public opinion on a) causes of the stray animal population, b) the management of the stray animal population, and c) the national strategy on strays and companion Animal Management. The results show that 70.3% of respondents agreed that a lack of public awareness regarding animal care was the major contributor to the stray animal population. In addition, 58.1% of respondents felt that treating and vaccinating animals exposed to zoonotic diseases is a viable approach that could be instituted as a reasonable measure in stray animal population management. Finally, developing animal protection areas through a multi-stakeholder partnership strategy initiative recorded the highest support (48.4%) for intervention planning for stray animal management at a national level. Notably, a significant percentage of public responses were implicitly influenced by demographic variables. These findings provide valuable insights into public opinion regarding stray and companion animal management in Malaysia. These findings could inform the development of future legislation aimed at reducing the unfavorable effects of stray animal populations on humans and the ecology of Malaysia.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The current scenario regarding the global stray animal population is overwhelming. The evidence shows that dog populations are estimated to total 900 million [ 1 , 2 ], 83% of which are unrestrained [ 3 ]. The worldwide feral cat population is estimated at least 100 million, including about 60 million in the United States [ 4 ]. In Malaysia, cats and dogs are the two most popular terrestrial animals chosen as a pet [ 5 ]. The ownership of dogs stood at 402,500 and cats at 795,000 in 2018 [ 6 , 7 ]. At the same time, recent development shows that Malaysia was one of the top 10 countries where the pet humanization rate had spiked in 2020 from the past five years [ 8 ].

Chances for owned pets to be assimilated and diffused into the stray animal population are possible if the owner cannot control the excess number of animals, ineffective containment until the animal freely escapes to the external environment, irresponsible breeding, and improper pet care. All these factors have sped up feral and stray animal populations blooming. While the number of stray dogs and cats in Malaysia is still unknown, it is believed the numbers are tremendous, totaling approximately 6 million and 5 million, respectively, compared to the number of owned pet dogs and cats in the country [ 9 ].

Moreover, companion animals such as cats and dogs can have both positive and negative effects on the social community. On one hand, they can provide companionship and emotional support in human-animal interaction contributing to better well-being [ 10 ]. However, when their numbers are out of control or overpopulated, they can also pose a threat to public health and safety. They can transmit zoonoses [ 11 , 12 ], including rabies [ 13 , 14 ], leishmaniasis [ 15 ], toxocariasis [ 16 ], giardiasis, and other zoonotic parasites that negatively affect the health and well-being of both humans and animals. Additionally, stray animals create issues pertaining to waste, sanitation and street nuisance. They often suffer from road accidents and injuries [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Therefore, issues related to strays and companion animal management are part and parcel of various multifaced science and social problems that require direct public understanding when creating a management strategy. Regarding intervention implementation, the Malaysian regulations on dog culling do not necessarily align with the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) standards on animal welfare. Consequently, it reduces the overall score in the Animal Protection Index (API) 2020 which signifies a reduction in Malaysia’s legislation and policy commitment to protect animals. While the OIE accepts that euthanasia of strays may be required, it is the last resort for animals that cannot be re-homed. Adoption and re-homing should be prioritized according to OIE standards [ 20 ].

Limited research in Malaysia regards to stray animal management and measure implementation related to it was identified. Previous research focused on the existence of microbes that potentially causes transmissible zoonotic disease from one animal to another species, including cats, dogs, and humans [ 21 , 22 ]. Another study recently focused on assessing and comparing stray cats’ health conditions between 4 different localities in Johor and identified the existence of six different stray cat breeds in the State [ 23 ].

A previous study by Yong (2015) focuses on addressing the approach and conveying suggestions about managing the problems and issues caused by the overpopulation of stray cats in the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) campus [ 24 ]. The study was conducted restrictedly within a specific university campus. Thus, it lacks taking phenomena that could contribute to increasing stray numbers, such as limiting pet numbers on-premises and breeding regulation. Another recent study by Dorothy et al. (2019) focuses on public preferences for trap-neuter-release (TNR) and trap-euthanasia (TE) programs for free-roaming dogs in Penang [ 25 ]. The survey results suggested that the public is concerned about free-roaming dogs and encouraged authorities to seek improved methods of population control that are humane and acceptable to society. However, the small sample population involved a survey of 157 Penangites. The research needs to explore public opinion on how government can enforce strays’ intervention measures starting from its sources, such as limits on cat numbers, breeding regulations, mandatory identification, and desexing.

According to Walker et al. (2017), they identified variations in New Zealand public support for cat population control measures and cat management. They recommended that legislation related to this problem should be reviewed [ 26 ]. Therefore, this current study aims to investigate the perceptions of urban communities in the Klang Valley on stray and companion animal management in Malaysia by focusing on intervention implementation and regulation enforcement. In this context, four stages of questions are applied. 1) Do people in Malaysia do aware that animals are sentient beings? 2) How do different factors contribute to increased stray animal problems in the country? 3) How can individuals and community members manage stray and companion populations within their locality? 4) How can national policy concerning stray and companion animals be designed for the long term? Variations in respondents’ views regarding stray and companion animal management are expected. Therefore, based on the previous studies conducted locally and internationally, the survey will be ethically analyzed on social acceptability, animal welfare, effectiveness, and legal compliance.

The results of this study are invaluable in assisting the authorities to acknowledge that public understanding in stray and companion animal management in the country is of paramount importance. The collated information will invariably contribute justifiable inputs on how the government could draft a sustainable urban development plan by taking into consideration the co-existence of humans and animals residing in the Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley area.

The scenario of stray and companion animal management in Malaysia and the importance of research in regulation implementation

Matters relating to companion and stray animals in the Klang Valley region are regulated based on different municipalities. The current Ministry of Local Government Guidelines emphasizes stray dog animal control, resulting in most captured animals being euthanized [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. There are few federal-based national regulations for protecting companion animals, including dogs and cats, in the region. The Animal Welfare Act 2015 is the only legally binding document that prevents cruel actions toward animals while promoting their welfare [ 27 ]. The Act has only been enforced since 2017 despite being passed by the Malaysia Parliament in 2015. Therefore, is a need for in-depth, progressive studies on aspects of its implementation. Implementing national legislation on animal matters is the sole prerogative of the Department of Veterinary Malaysia and municipal authorities. However, commitments toward providing minimum standards for treating and protecting companion animals remain under the purview of the public community.

In 2009, the OIE adopted animal welfare standards applicable to stray dog population control in different countries worldwide to reconcile with the existence of the Terrestrial Animal Health Code. The OIE standards are not immediately binding but represent a fundamental tool to combat zoonotic diseases and other nuisances that stray and free-roaming animals generate. According to these recommendations, once stray dogs are released into the territory, they should be returned to a place that is as near as possible to the place of capture, their welfare should be regularly monitored, and they should be easily identifiable on sight (e.g., visible collar) to avoid unnecessary recapture. It also recommends that if this method is adopted, awareness of the program within the local community should be increased to ensure widespread understanding and support. Article 7.7.7 (4) emphasizes that continuous evaluation should be carried out in particular milestones to check whether the program has the desired and stated impact. Depending on the required objective, the Article suggests several approaches should be adopted (Table 1 ).

Studies conducted internationally suggest that public opinion regarding companion animal management differs according to several demographic variables, namely, knowledge and experience, employment status, gender, and religious beliefs [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Gates et al. (2019) highlighted opportunities to improve owner compliance through desexing, micro-chipping, and registration of dogs and cats in New Zealand [ 35 ]. Opinions towards managing stray cats and dogs vary between pet owners and non-owners. A survey by Rand et al. (2019) reveals various views among the public regarding the lethal and non-lethal practices employed in stray cat management in Australia [ 36 ]. Ultimately, they conclude that current local legislation does not reflect public views and should be reviewed.

Methodology

Location, duration, and design of the study.

The Klang Valley region in Malaysia was chosen as the target location to investigate the perceptions of urban communities on stray and companion animal management in Malaysia. Klang Valley was selected because the region has the highest population in the country, totaling approximately 7,780,000 inhabitants [ 37 ]. The sample was randomly selected from among the public (aged 18 years and older) living throughout 10 localities in the Klang Valley (see Fig.  1 ) map from Fandi et al. (2020) [ 38 ], and data collection was undertaken from 1 st March 2018 to 31 st March 2019. The percentage of approach to all potential respondents are equally distributed to all localities in the Klang Valley, with a higher percentage allocated for Kuala Lumpur due to its larger area size and higher number of population (see Table 2 ). A simple random sampling technique was used to prevent bias and implement an appropriate methodology that ensured every member of the population had an equal chance of being selected [ 39 ].

The studies areas within Klang Valley region. Map credit to (Fandi et al., 2020) [ 39 ]

The questionnaire was adopted and modified from previously published work [ 25 , 26 , 35 , 40 ]. The questionnaire was designed to apply to all participants, regardless of whether they kept animals. To avoid confusion among respondents about the etymology of companion and stray animals, the animals were defined as follows:

A companion animal is a common domestic animal, such as a cat or dog, that lives with humans and depends on humans for its welfare.

A stray animal is a companion animal (e.g., cats and dogs) that are lost or abandoned and lives as an individual or in a group. Stray animals live around the centers of human habitation.

The questionnaire was divided into the following five sections:

Human and animal continuum of knowledge and awareness

Causes of the stray animal population.

Management of the stray animal population

National Strategy on Stray and Companion Animal Management

Information on respondents’ backgrounds.

In the first section, respondents were asked about their knowledge regarding the continuum of human and animal relationships, including awareness of rights and animal welfare protection. Respondents were asked whether they agree with the following statements: a) Malaysia currently provides viable acts and regulations as guidelines for the protection of animal welfare; b) people adhere to animal based-rules and regulations; c) Animals have a creative mind with the potential to reason; d) Animals possess the capacity to have feelings, such as love and pleasure; e) Animals possess the capacity to have feelings, such as pain and suffering; f) An animal should be given moral consideration equivalent to a human being whilst still alive; g) Animals should be treated equally to a human being, such as being given inheritance rights; h) Animals should be treated equally to a human being, such as being given citizenship rights; i) Dead animal carcasses should be given the same respect as when they were still alive, and j) Religious knowledge is imperative for animal welfare protection. Respondents could select multiple answers in each section.

In the second section, respondents were asked for their opinions regarding the claim stray animal issues in Malaysia cannot be resolved effectively. Choices of possible answers encompassed the following reasons: a lack of general public awareness of animal care, limited promotion through media platforms, the burden of animals’ behavior, financial issues, the ineffectiveness of the existing national strategy to manage stray animal populations, the scarcity of animal registration platforms, lack of enforcement, a limited number of competent enforcement officers, lack of CCTV at hotspot areas, the inadequate number of compounds, pet shops discarding animals, ineffective provision of desexing treatment, religious/cultural sensitivity issues, the ineffective approach of animal rescuers, and the limitations of protection sanctuary area(s) for stray animals. Respondents could select multiple answers in each section.

In the third section, respondents were asked for their opinions on how to manage the stray animal population effectively. The range of techniques includes lethal methods such as shooting and euthanasia or mercy killing. Respondents may choose suspending pregnancy (using non-surgical method of contraception) as a reversible method for blocking fertility or termination of pregnancy as an abortion measure. In relation to the surgical approach, Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) allows strays to be humanely trapped, neutered or spayed, and then released back into their original habitat. Desexing/sterilization using the neutering method (non-TNR) is commonly applied to control the pet population and reduce unwanted behaviors such as aggression and roaming. Other available options are treatment and vaccination of animals exposed to disease, socializing with public communities, re-homing/ relocation, readopting, and leaving the animals alone. Respondents could select multiple answers in each section.

In the fourth section, respondents were asked for their opinions on the national Strategy of Stray and Companion Animal Management. Respondents chose answers based on the suggestions, which were was: limit the number of household pets, embargo for certain types of high population animal species such as cats and dogs, compulsory animal registration, strengthening the national strategy on animal breeding policies, increase financial grants under the National Companion Animal Welfare Management Program, animal containment in a designated time, no animal roaming without the owner’s supervision, compulsory animal handling training, animal training classes delivered by an animal trainer, animal’s right to inherit wealth from their owners, compulsory animal insurance for pets, accelerating the use of ICT to monitor, track and manage an animal more efficiently, adhering to religious teaching values, incorporating an animal welfare related-course into the mainstream education curriculum, managing animal protection area through the Blue Ocean strategy initiative, establishing more animal welfare ranger posts such as animal police, residential community brigades and stray animal attendees, community service for offenders in animal welfare cases, fines imposed on those who feed stray animals, increasing fines for anyone who abandons/loses any animal (especially in public areas), prohibiting the public feeding of animals in public areas and commercial centers, reducing the selling of cats and dogs in pet shops, exporting numbers of unwanted animals to other countries, and exporting unwanted stray animals to countries that classify domesticated animals such as cats and dogs as food sources. Respondents could select multiple answers in each section.

In the fifth section, respondents were asked to provide demographic characteristics through nine (9) items: gender, age, religion of faith, level of education (highest), marital status, type of working service, average household income, and previous and current pet ownership. To get additional perspectives, current information on keeping animals was also requested, such as types of pets, procedures undergone by each pet, reasons for not undergoing any pet-keeping procedure, and source of pet acquisition. If the respondents had previously owned a pet, they were asked to state what happened to the animal. Respondents were also asked whether they wanted to keep an animal in the future.

Sample size, data collection, & statistical analysis

This questionnaire was completed face-to-face and online by 704 Malaysian adults (aged 18 years and above) selected using a random sampling technique. The sample size in this current study is based on the calculation method suggested by Daniel (1999) [ 41 ]. To calculate the minimum sample size, a confidence level of 95% and a sampling error of 4% were considered:

Two techniques used in survey data collection were instrumental in ensuring data were collected systematically. First, the survey undertook in public engagement areas such as central shopping areas and public recreational places. A used tab is powered by the mobile survey platform developed by Survey Monkey, which helps provide paperless questionnaire sheets. Alternatively, the traditional printed paper version has been utilized. This technique facilitated data collection face-to-face with the target audience.

Second, the survey was conducted using an online intermediator, Survey Monkey apps. Access to the survey was provided through a web link, email invitation, and social media [ 42 ]. Those who volunteered to participate clicked on a link in the message that connected them directly to the survey site. To distribute survey sheets online, participants were recruited using a “virtual snowballing” technique [ 43 ]. This involved requesting personal and professional contacts of the research team by email or social media (e.g., Facebook.com or WhatsApp) to complete the survey and then forward this request to their personal and professional contacts. This method is widely used and was chosen to enroll an adequate number of respondents quickly, automatically, flexibly, and in a time-saving manner.

It took approximately 10–15 min for each respondent to complete the survey. Further details about the study such as the information on the direct impacts of the certain procedures to health and welfare of animals were not provided to avoid potential bias in attracting respondents with a greater empathy or interest in animals. Before commencing the survey, the respondents were provided with an information sheet outlining the length of the survey, the anonymity and confidentiality of the information they provided, and their right to withdraw at any time, including up to four months after the completion of the survey. At the end of the survey, respondents were asked to leave their email addresses to be easy to retrace whenever researchers needed to recheck or rechange their answers. However, providing an email address was entirely voluntary.

After completing the survey, respondents were provided with a take-home information sheet which included a unique number identifier they could use should they wish to withdraw their responses at a subsequent date. This research has undergone the necessary process of scrutiny and was approved by the University of Malaya Research Ethics Committee (UMREC) (Ref no. UM.TNC2/UMREC–250) to ensure the integrity of ethical aspects concerning data collection and handling.

All statistical analysis of the sorted data was performed using Microsoft Excel and then exported into the software “IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences, Statistics 28” (IBM SPSS Statistics 28) [ 44 ]. The descriptive statistics analysis enables researchers to present the summaries of the sample, and spatial variation was generated to represent the response rate of survey respondents. A Chi-Square Test for Association was then applied (p < 0.05) to discover if there is a relationship between respondents’ backgrounds and their answers. Only statistically significant results are presented in this paper. Percentages (%) were calculated based on the total number of answers respondents gave to specific questions.

Results and discussion

Information on respondents’ backgrounds.

Based on the data summary in Fig.  2 and details in Table 2 , 704 respondents participated in this study, of whom 66.2% were females, and 33.8% were males. The data also indicates that most respondents were between 17 and 30 (47.7%). The majority professed the religion of Islam (87.6%). In terms of marital status, the majority of respondents were single (51.0%), followed by married couples (47.3%). More respondents (38.6%) came from a middle-income family, defined as RM 3,860.01—RM 8,319.00, than a low-income household (36.6%), defined as RM 950.01—RM 3, 860.00. In terms of profession, most respondents were civil servants or employees in government-related agencies or companies (41.1%), followed by students (25.6%) and private-sector workers (25.9%). Regarding education level, most respondents were well-educated, with 45.2% having obtained a bachelor’s degree.

Demographic characteristics of respondents

Regarding animal-keeping experience, 42.5% of respondents are keeping pets and 57.5% respondents are currently non-pet keepers. 75.7% of respondents responded yes when asked whether they had previously kept any animal, and 24.3% responded no.

About current animals

During the period of study, terrestrial domesticated animals, mainly cats, were recorded as the most popular pets (67.6%, 246/364), followed by dogs (8.2%, 30/364) and accumulative of other species of pets (24.2%, 88/364). (see Table S 1 Supplementary data for survey).

About previous animals

For various reasons, some owners no longer keep their previous animals (see Table 3 ). A total of 666 is an accumulative response to every single “yes” answer to this question. Most previously owned animals died because of disease (s), unexplained health complications, or illnesses associated with age (33.5%, n  = 223), followed by those that were lost and unfound ( n  = 175, 26.3%) and those that died because of accidents such as being killed by a vehicle or jumping from high-rise because of a lack of proper surveillance ( n  = 135, 20.3%). Other reasons made up less than 9% of the responses.

When asked what happened to their previous animal, the answers given were influenced by several demographic variables, including gender and marital status. Males were less likely than females to respond that their pet died because of an accident (chi-square = 7.619, p  < 0.01). Counterintuitively, another recent research indicates females are more concern on the issues of welfare of animal than male [ 45 ]. However, it is important to note that accidents can happen to anyone who owns a pet and it is not necessarily gender-specific. It is essential to ensure that pets are supervised and kept in a safe environment to prevent accidents from happening. Some common accidents that can result in pet injuries include leaving potentially hazardous items out, such as cleaning products or sharp objects, not supervising pets around other animals, or allowing pets to roam free in areas where they may be at risk of being hit by a car.

Married couples and single people were less likely to respond that their previous animal died because of disease(s) (including died because of various diseases, unexplained health complications, or illnesses associated with age) than divorced people (chi-square = 11.011, p  < 0.01). Divorced people may risk their pet to disease if one person in the divorce gets the pet and the other doesn't. The pet may experience stress and anxiety from the separation and change in environment. Additionally, if the pet is shared between the two households, it may be exposed to different environments, which can increase the risk of disease.

Regarding respondents’ knowledge and awareness about animal rights and protection, Table 4 reveals that most respondents believe Malaysia currently provides viable acts and regulations as guidelines for protecting animal welfare (76.1%). Legislation often stipulates only the minimum standards for the protection of animals, and its effectiveness depends on the level of enforcement [ 46 ]. For example, Malaysia Animal Act 1953 requires the stray animal population, predominantly dogs, to be controlled, and the essentiality of giving good welfare treatment to an animal in the Animal Welfare Act 2015 [ 27 ].

However, achieving the objective of both Acts could be stunted due to implementation factors and public adherents. The survey results indicate that slightly less than half of the respondents agreed that people in Malaysia adhere to animal welfare based-rules and regulations (49.4%). There have been reported 463 animal abuse cases across Malaysia in 2016, followed by a 10 percent increase in 2017, which made the cases reach 510. Subsequently, a 30 percent increase in 2018 became 662 reported cases. Moreover, there was also an increase in animal abuse cases from January to June 2019. More than 90 percent of these cases involved dogs, followed by cats [ 47 ].

Most respondents agreed that animals could have feelings, such as love and pleasure (98.7%) and pain and suffering (99.7%). For good sensation feelings, dogs exhibit a pleasurable oxytocin release when being stroked by a human [ 48 ]. An animal might eat less food and exhibit unusual behavior characteristics for pain-reflection behaviors. Social behavior is suppressed, agitated, may emit characteristic distress calls, experience respiratory and cardiovascular changes, inflammation, and release of stress hormones [ 49 , 50 ]. Cross-species empathy also does exist in an animal when it experiences emotional contagion in response to other species’ feelings and emotions [ 51 ].

Interestingly, previous studies show cats able to produce food soliciting’ purrs were also perceived as more urgent and less pleasant-sounding by humans. They were also noted to include high-frequency voiced components similar to those produced by human infants when crying [ 52 ]. Other studies show that a large percentage of pet owners report consistent signs of jealousy in domestic pets, including horses, birds, and cats. More research into the social emotions of animals other than dogs and primates may reveal that jealousy is more widespread than it appears to be [ 53 ].

78.3% of respondents believe that animals have creative minds, potentially enabling them to reason. This discovery corresponds with Jardim-Messeder et al. (2017) study that found that dogs may have about twice the number of neurons in their cerebral cortexes as cats have [ 54 ]. Neurons are the basic information processing units; thus, the more units in the brain, the more cognitively capable the animal is, which suggests contributing to the intensity of intelligence level. Previous research also has shown that animals can remember specific events, use tools and solve problems [ 55 ]. However, the question of precisely what that means – whether they are making rational decisions or simply reacting to their environment through mindless reflex – remains a matter of scientific dispute and requires further research. Take dogs as an example, we recognize their ability to rear sheep, rescue victims, providing safety and be helpers to humans or their owners. However, one limited study of 18 household dogs found that they lacked spatial memory and were more focused on the “what” of a task rather than the “where” [ 56 ]. Another study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs’ capabilities are no more exceptional than those of other animals, such as horses, chimpanzees, or cats [ 57 ].

Regarding animal rights, respondents were not inclined to confer an animal with inheritance rights (71.0%). Likewise, an animal’s citizenship rights were considered inappropriate (76.0%). One of the logical reasons is that animals do not possess the capacity to survive in a man-made world. In many cases, pet owners inherited exceeded amount of wealth from their pets [ 58 ]. However, this norm cannot be accepted because accommodating an animal with lavish wealth does not guarantee that the animal will have a wonderful life. In turn, the animal needs good treatment with the capacity of a pet animal (provided by humans). Most benefits from the wealth will not give the animal any meaning, but the wealth executor (a human) will get all the benefits. The pet animal cannot compute a complex calculation concerning inherited wealth, but only humans can do that. Suppose the pet animal has progeny/offspring. In that case, the benefit will apply to them only after the human has managed the wealth as the only trusted wealth executor.

Most respondents (95.9%) from the survey also believe that dead animal carcasses should be respected, like when they are still alive. When a cat or dog dies, the corpse will usually be buried to acknowledge the service given by the animal to its owner. The animal kingdom also observed that adult dogs conceal other dead animals to respect the corpse [ 59 ]. Both situations convey that respecting the deceased is part of the instinct of a living being.

Slightly more than half of the respondents were not agreeable (50.6%) to the statement that animals should be given moral consideration equivalent to human beings whenever they are alive. At the same time, almost half of the respondents were agreeable (49.4%) to the statements. In reflection, the results show that many respondents still think, as Regan and Singer (1989) emphasize, that humans are the only creatures with the willpower to take morally permissible actions toward animals [ 60 ]. Animals may have the desire, but humans have the autonomy to evaluate their actions rationally [ 61 ]. Therefore, how humans can address their moral obligation to animals is essential. In Malaysia, the last tenets of Rukun Negara, “ Kesopanan dan Kesusilaan” or mutual respect and good social behavior, can be a relevant maxim for human-animal interaction. Although we tend not to give similar consideration to them, our behavior and how we treat them properly as animals showcase the quality of humanity we bear.

Respondents were asked for their opinions on the claim that stray animal issues in Malaysia cannot be resolved effectively (see Table 5 ). Demographic variables were thought to influence the respondents’ answers.

This research indicates that 70.3% of respondents with those who previously had pets were more likely to choose lack of general awareness among the Malaysian public as the reason than the previous non-pet owner (chi-square = 8.588, p  = 0.003). Stray population contribution factors involve people letting animals roam away without careful monitoring [ 62 ], removing/relinquishing unwanted animals to open-area such as housing, market, recreational, or city areas [ 63 ] or feeding a stray animal without taking any initiative to take care of it [ 64 ]. Non-pet owners are more likely than current pet owners to select the statement as the reason for the unsettled stray animal population in the country (chi-square = 27.171, p  < 0.001). However, inadequate knowledge of animal care is often thought the owner fails to seek information and treatment for their animal’s health or behavior problems [ 65 ].

45.7% of respondents with non-pet owners were more likely than current pet owners to select the ineffectiveness of the National Strategy to manage stray animal populations as a reason (chi-square = 7.387, p  = 0.007). Moreover, those who previously had pets were more likely to choose it as a reason than previous non-pet owners (chi-square = 5.434, p  = 0.020). For example, the Perak State Government is still in the process of drawing up an initial plan for the holistic management of abandoned dogs because various dog cases involving them impact community safety [ 66 ]. Meanwhile, companion and stray animals matters are currently subordinate to other significant portfolios such as public health service, pollution control, and urban housing planning governed by the municipal authority [ 67 ]. In addition, there is no specific secretariat in Malaysia that looks at companion animal matter as a whole concept. Some countries have already initiated it, even though it should be more comprehensive. For example, the Government of South Australia has established Dog and Cat Management Board. The Board takes a leadership role by empowering councils with the tools they need to build safer communities, combatting the problem of increasing dog attacks, encouraging the proactive management of cats, and educating the community about safe behavior around dogs. The Board breaks down council boundaries by facilitating quickly identifying and returning lost pets to their owners [ 68 ].

Animal shelters or sanctuaries are believed to provide temporary protection for millions of underprivileged and unowned cats and dogs [ 69 ]. However, less than half of the total respondents (42.1%) with non-pet owners are more likely than pet owners to choose the limitation of stray animal protection sanctuary area(s) as the reason (chi-square = 9.062, p  = 0.003). Also, those who previously had pets were more likely to choose this as a reason than the previous non-pet owner (chi-square = 4.565, p  = 0.033). There have been growing concerns about how shelters solve or exacerbate the underlying problems of unwanted or overpopulated stray dogs and cats [ 40 ] (Protopopova & Gunter, 2017).

Sentiment upon the status of less strict enforcement in the country indicates that less than half (41.2%) of the respondents agreed with non-pet owners more likely than pet owners (chi-square = 4.817, p  = 0.028). Similarly, those who previously had pets were likelier to choose this reason than previous non-pet owners (chi-square = 4.173, p  = 0.041). Concerning the status of the Animal Welfare Act 2015, it is considered a brand-new statute. The number of cases that have been charged under the Act so far is relatively very few and in very small proportions.

30.0% of respondents agreed that the owner feels burdened with the animal’s behavior as the cause of the stray population. Although the rate of agreement of this current study is low, a previous study in Melbourne, Australia, indicates reasons for pet relinquishment, including being unable to care for the animals (31%), moving/accommodation issues (27%), and behavior issues (12%) [ 70 ]. Aggression is one of the main reasons owners relinquish pet cats and dogs [ 71 , 72 , 73 ]. As the relinquished animals need to survive and breed (if not being desexed by the owner), they are likely to gather in urban dumping sites in search of feeding opportunities [ 74 ]. Consequently, it increases the threat of zoonotic disease transmission to humans and other animals [ 75 ].

This study observed small degrees of respondents’ agreement on the number of competent officers in the country (28.0%), with non-pet owners than pet owners more likely to choose them as the causes for the unsettled stray animal population in the country (chi-square = 5.390, p  = 0.020). For example, this matter is also being influenced by the emergence of reports of abuse of power and corruption by state enforcement officers [ 76 ]. More convincing, 32.4% of the respondents also agree that fines for animal welfare offenses are inadequate. The severity of penalties for cruelty toward animals historically has been very mild, and countless complaints lodged to the authorities were unheeded even when the perpetrators were identified [ 77 ].

Management of stray animal population

Respondents were asked to give their opinion on adequately managing the stray animal population (see Table 6 ). Demographic variables influenced these answers.

The current study indicates that more than half of the respondents, or 58%, support effectively treating and vaccinating animals exposed to disease to manage the stray animal population. With proper vaccination, many non-vaccinated animals can achieve ample immunity against opportunistic pathogens, which could cause detrimental health effects later in their lives. Since 2015 Malaysia has lost its status as a free-rabies country. The Malaysian government has promoted pet mass vaccination, especially in disease-outbreak states [ 78 ]. Nevertheless, other than the requirement for rabies vaccination in outbreak locations, general cat and dog vaccinations have not been made compulsory, making pet owners less likely to support this measure than the non-pet owner (chi-square = 18.335, p  < 0.001). Also, gender attribution may explain why more female than male respondents choose vaccination as the preferred disease prevention method (chi-square = 6.080, p  = 0.014). It is in line with many previous findings reported that females tend to express more positive attitudes toward individual animals compared to male people [ 79 , 80 , 81 ]. The benefits of vaccinations and other antiparasitic treatments, when combined with desexing or sterilization, offer a significant improvement in public health by reducing the stray dogs’ population and spread of rabies infections happened [ 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 ].

The results indicate that 40.1% of the respondent’s selected readoption as a solution. Although the agreement rate is less than half of the total respondents, the rate is considerably much better than a study in Penang which found that only 19% of respondents believe readopting can effectively reduce the stray animal population [ 25 ]. Once adopted, an animal risks being returned to the animal shelter due to behavioral problems [ 90 ]. Thus, new owners and adopters would suggest considering the risk and benefits of adopting any stray animal and properly planning specific interventions before, during, and after adoption. These include in-house safety and animal behavioral assessment, pet identification devices, pet care educational materials for owners, training classes, subsidized veterinary health services, and emergency assistant responses. A long-term engagement program with prospective owners will potentially contribute to higher adoption success, and a lesser risk of relinquishment as prospective owners will make informed decisions when selecting suitable animals to adopt [ 40 ].

Overall, 35.7% of respondents agreed that respondents who previously had pets were also more likely to support desexing/sterilization using neutering method (non-TNR) initiatives than those who had never been animal owners (chi-square = 6.568, p  = 0.010). The Terrestrial Code Article 7.7.6 World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2016) has recommended reproductive control as a combined measure alongside conventional culling for dog population control [ 91 ]. At the same time, previous research in Penang showcases that only 14% of respondents agree with desexing or neutering as an effective measure in reducing the stray animal population [ 25 ]. The support rate is considerably low as there is a lack of measurable results on the effectiveness of neutering in Malaysia for the long run 5 -10 years. Dog reproductive control is currently more socially acceptable than culling in countries such as Italy [ 92 ], India [ 86 , 89 , 93 ], and Brazil [ 94 ].

In addition, 34. 1% of respondents were found to agree with re-homing and relocation, with the respondent with pets less likely to support this measure than the non-pet owner (chi-square = 28.060, p  < 0.001). It is parallel with the Penang study, which revealed that 31%, the majority, favored providing a good animal shelter scheme that would reduce the stray animal population [ 25 ]. Stray protection areas, shelters, halfway homes, or sanctuaries could also be ideal spaces to retrain animals with unfavourable behaviors. There are include as high temperament levels and non-hygienic characteristics for a proportion of stray cats and dogs before they can be set free in their forever home via a readopting program [ 95 ].

Notably, 33.7% of respondents agreed that people who previously had pets were more likely to support Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) initiatives than those who had never been an animal owner (chi-square = 8.382, p  = 0.004). In the Penang study, 31% of respondents believed the TNR scheme could reduce the stray animal population effectively. There was a similar level of agreement (31%) for the Trap & Euthanize (TE) scheme. However, only 7% of respondents preferred Trap Neuter as a viable approach to reducing the stray animal population. The authors believed this happens because respondents want a positive and humane approach to the Free-Roaming Dogs (FRD) issue rather than TNR [ 25 ]. TNR is well-known as a non-lethal method that alters an animal’s sexual organs so it can no longer reproduce [ 96 ].

However, the status of vaccinated, neutered, and microchipped of Trap-Neuter-Release (TNR) dogs and cats can be the source of contentiousness for many residents in the community where the program took place. People may be concerned about public safety, zoonoses spread, and other nuisances caused by free-roaming animals. It is worthy to note here that any person who conducts TNR on animals without providing adequate protection to the animal may risk infringing Sect. 33(2), of the Animal Welfare Act 2015. It happens if they allow an animal to be oppressed, fail, or neglect them to have a shelter, and abandon them till they are likely to suffer trauma, pain, or suffering due to relocation, starvation, thirst, injury, or illness. Above all, TNR effectiveness depends on the extent to which mass migration of animals from outside of the colony can be prevented (such as controlling urban waste), high levels of desexing of individual animals, high rates of adoption, and the allowance of time for natural attrition to occur [ 26 ].

Other stray animal population reduction measures that received a minimal level of agreement by survey respondents were socializing with public communities (13.5%). The choice of suspending pregnancy (using non-surgical method of contraception) (10.7%) include hormonal treatments, such as progestins, androgens, or analogs of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) [ 97 ]. Termination of pregnancy (planned abortion) (4.5%) measures in both dogs and cats include administration of prostaglandin F2alpha, dexamethasone, combination drug protocols or estrogens.

Concerning lethal methods, shooting elicited the lowest respondent acceptance (1.8%) due to its apparent brutalism in exterminating living beings. Support for lethal methods (e.g., shooting) is very low (1.8%) despite their potential for money-saving, with male respondents more supportive than females (chi-square = 15.279, p  =  < 0.001), and pet owners were less likely than non-pet owners to support it (chi-square = 6.557, p  = 0.010). In comparison, sentiment on euthanasia or mercy killing received slightly higher or 9.4% agreement with female respondents more supportive than the male of the procedure (chi-square = 8.534, p  = 0.003), pet owners are less likely than non-pet owners to support the measure (chi-square = 5.581, p  = 0.018). It corresponds with the previous study showcasing that 70% of the public disagreed with the Trap & Euthanasia (TE) scheme because it is inhumane to kill animals in general. Only 12% of respondents favored the TE scheme and considered it the most effective solution to stray animal problems [ 25 ]. This research also found that males are more likely to support using lethal methods than females. Overall, this current study indicates that male, non-pet owners tend to believe that the euthanasia of stray animals, especially urban strays that potentially spread disease, is humane and significantly more likely to prefer lethal control [ 36 ]. By contrast, females were less likely to choose lethal control and were more concerned about animal welfare and rights than males [ 79 ].

National strategy on stray and companion animal management

Respondents were asked to give their opinion on the National Strategy of Strays and Companion Animal Management (see Table 7 ). Several demographic variables influenced the answers given.

Suggestions for the creation of a stray animal protection area or sanctuary through public, private, and community integration or a blue ocean strategic partnership achieved 48.4% agreement with those who previously had pets more likely to support the measure than previous non-pet owners (chi-square = 4.451, p  = 0.035). As the animal sanctuary does not mean a permanent place for cats and dogs to live permanently, the current pet owners were less likely to support the initiative than non-pet owners (chi-square = 5.089, p  = 0.024) is noted. Therefore, the animal sanctuary should be developed based on sustainable development goals that ensure ecological continuity between animal and human relations. In this sense, it should attract active public involvement by being a recreation place to promote mutual ethnic volunteerism and green entrepreneurship among local citizens. More importantly, it is to promote adoptions via long-term engagement with the fosterer to minimize unnecessary in-house congestion due to over-receiving.

This current study indicates that less than half of the total respondents, or 40.5% of respondents, agree to limit the number of pets per household. The finding parallels other studies indicating, for instance, that 70% of people in New Zealand agree with a proposed limit of two cats per household [ 26 ]. This intervention can sound restrictive for some, with pet owners less likely to support it than non-pet owners (chi-square = 44.705, p  < 0.001). However, an excessive number of pets contribute to the long-standing overpopulation problems by adding some strays in a locality. Conversely, the owner having fewer pets should also reduce the nuisance to other residential communities and encourage owners to give more careful attention to their pets. In this sense, the move by the local authority of Boroondara City, Victoria, Australia, to restrict the number of domestic pets can serve as an exemplary implementation model in Malaysia. Suppose the owner needs to keep more than the permitted number of animals, mammals, or birds on their property for whatever reason. In that case, they must apply for an Excess Animal Permit [ 98 ].

47.4% of respondents favor the government imposing compulsory animal registration for pet owners, sellers, and breeders. In contrast, more than 70% of people in an Australian study favored a compulsory dog registration scheme [ 99 ]. This requirement is not limited to specific dog breeds but involves cats and other domestic animals [ 100 ]. Locally, however, Malaysian regulation only demands dog owners to register their pets, except for cat owners. In reflection of the current study, pet owners were observed less to support the measure than non-pet owners (chi-square = 26.723, p  < 0.001). Only recently, the Malaysian government, via DVS, started to enforce a brand new MyAnimal Welfare, but this pet registration platform is still in a rudimentary phase. Initially, it only focuses on a few sectors, namely activities regarding animal hostels, animal riding, and herding, animal shelter including stray animal protection, and pet shop and pet trading [ 101 ].

Unwanted pets are often given away for logistical or financial reasons. Evidence suggests that pre-surgical euthanasia on pet dogs may be primarily economically motivated simply because treatment costs are too high [ 102 ]. In relation, 39.6% of respondents agreed to increase the financial allocation for funds or grants under the National Companion Animal Welfare Management Program. Respondents that previously had a pet were more likely to support an increase in the financial allocation for the fund or grants under the National Companion Animal Welfare Management Program than those who had never been an animal owner (chi-square = 16.737, p  < 0.001). On the other hand, authorities can be self-sufficient, which has been practiced in South Australia. The authority’s operation is almost entirely funded by a percentage of dog registration fees remitted by councils and breeder registration fees. Dogs and Cats Online, an online database and registration platform for dogs and cats’ ownership related activities, continues to provide savings to councils through registration renewal notices, reduced postage and administration costs, easier annual reporting processes, and streamlined registration. Most importantly, Dogs and Cats Online continues to deliver efficiencies to Authorised Officers to guide and assist councils in establishing cat and dog by laws [ 103 ].

Concerning not allowing animals to roam without the owner's supervision, there was 35.9% agreement with pet owners less likely to support the measure than non-pet owners (chi-square = 19.032, p  < 0.001). Pet containment can actually be beneficial for both pets and their owners. By keeping pet in a safe and secure environment, pet owner can have peace of mind knowing that the pet is not wandering off, getting lost or hurt. This alleviates pet owners’ feelings of sadness or anxiety worrying about their pet's safety. Additionally, pet containment can also prevent home furniture and property damage, which is a great stress relief to pet owners. Overall, pet containment can provide a sense of security and comfort for both pets and their owners [ 104 ]. However, this research observed low levels (17.2%) of agreement regarding pet confinement at a designated time. It is somewhat lower than other researchers who reported 36% public agreement toward the measure [ 26 ]. However, in other studies, the percentage was lower [ 105 , 106 ]. Interestingly, the range of agreement was between 45–54% if this measure took place during the night [ 107 ]. In Australia, the level of compliance relating to the confinement of cats at night has been reported to vary between 32–80% [ 33 , 110 ]. Conversely, other research indicates that confinement only at night minimally reduces predation behavior as companion cats primarily hunt during the day [ 108 ]. Regardless of whether it takes place during the day or night, the benefits of pet confinement have been documented to control public nuisance caused by unrestrained pets [ 32 , 33 , 109 ]. It reduces the injury rates associated with road accidents and minimizes the risks of encountering other cat and dog attacks [ 33 , 110 ].

In addition, 33.9% of respondents agreed to increase fines for anyone who discards/loses any animal, especially in public areas. Furthermore, 40.6% of respondents agreed that a community services penalty should be applied to offenders involving animal welfare cases. Both types of penalties could teach the offender not to engage in similar wrongdoings in the future. However, community services are a pragmatic type of punishment driven by a value-laden approach that promotes direct social engagement between offenders and public citizens.

Overall, 32.4% of respondents are in favour of the effort to strengthen the national strategy regarding companion animal breeding policies. However, pet owners are less likely to support the measure than non-pet owners (chi-square = 7.525, p  = 0.006). Therefore, considering people socio-economic factor (such as pet owner financial ability) is essential while conducting feasibility study for policy implementation. For example, the number of domestic animals sterilized may be increased by offering subsidized sterilization programs to low-income pet owners [ 111 ]. This is because the program is accessible to poor and needy caretakers (B40 group members) who need help transporting their cats and dogs to the place where the surgery is performed and back home again. Other options to address this issue include providing services through a network of private veterinary clinics (if enough clinics participate) and mobile surgical facilities.

The survey results also indicate that 33.5% of public respondents agreed with establishing more animal welfare rangers’ posts such as animal police, residential community brigades, and stray animal attendees dedicated to patrolling, investigating, and curbing animal cruelty cases throughout the country.

Furthermore, 28.6% of respondents agreed that those who previously had a pet were more likely to support using modernized technologies or ICT devices to monitor, track, and manage animals more efficiently than previous non-pet owners (chi-square = 6.225, p  = 0.013). Presenting a physical pet identification tag with QR barcodes would allow anyone to obtain the contact information of pet owners simply by using a smartphone application. Implanting a recognizable pet microchip would allow the authority to access the pet and its owner’s status in detail. Consequently, lost pets are more likely to be reclaimed as pet identity information is continually updated and corrected [ 112 , 113 , 114 ]. However, the government must assess and study the risk associated with personal data breaches before implementing the measure.

Concerning education, 27.3% of respondents with pet owners less likely to support the measure than non-pet owners (chi-square = 25.586, p  < 0.001) agreed that periodical animal handling training should be compulsory for everyone who engages with animal beings. In Duxbury et al.’s (2003) research, the owners of puppies that attended socialization classes run by the shelter from which they were adopted obtained some benefits [ 115 ]. Pets were relinquished less frequently than owners that attended socialization classes elsewhere or did not attend any classes [ 115 ]. In the current research, 31.1% of respondents agreed with acclimatizing to more vital religious teaching values on animal welfare for every individual. Because many Malaysians are Malay Muslims, reform toward holistic-based education can be translated practically as a residential mosque can be transformed into an animal-friendly mosque. Additionally, 28.7% of respondents agreed with incorporating animal welfare-related courses into mainstream education curricula in schools and higher learning institutions. It is due to the lack of mandatory curriculum subjects that give special attention to the welfare of domesticated companion animals living in human habitats.

Regarding animal education, 13.8% of respondents believed that animals should be trained through special training classes taught by an animal trainer. It aligns with previous research, showing that dogs housed in animal shelters can learn new behaviors, inhibiting problem behavior [ 116 , 117 ]. It can provide benefits to the prospective owner in making the animal much easier to handle and thus minimizing the risk of relinquishment. However, the suggestion that animals should be trained through a particular training class taught by an animal trainer causes the current pet owners less likely to support the measure than non-pet owners (chi-square = 8.523, p  = 0.004). Hence, promoting compulsory periodical pet obedience classes should focus on dangerous dog breeds owned by special permits.

Only a small rate, 21.7% of respondents with pet owners less likely to support the measure than non-pet owners (chi-square = 12.314, p  < 0.001) agreed on embargo (temporary banning) order to prevent a specific type of high population animal species (such as cats and dogs) from entering (being imported) into this country. In addition, 15.2% of respondents agreed on reducing the number of highly populated invasive species of animals sold in pet shops (such as domesticated cats and dogs). However, the impact of applying both measures should be studied in detail, as it may risk the economic balance of trading activities involving companion animals. Alternatively, extensive promotion should be focused on encouraging the public to become adopter families for unowned stray cats and dogs can provide long-term welfare and reduce their population on the streets.

There were minimal agreements on measures such as compulsory pet animal insurance, which 8.9% of respondents agreed on when the coverage benefits also extend to owners. Overall, 6.4% of respondents agreed to post more warning notices/messages that prohibit the public feeding of animals in public areas and commercial centres. There was a 5.1% agreement with the imposition of fines on those who feed stray animals without intending to keep them as pets. Regarding other measures, just 3.1% agreed that animals should be conferred with better rights, such as wealth inheritance from their owners. Only 0.4% agreed to export unwanted animals to a country with a minimal number of companion animals.

No respondent agreed on exporting unwanted stray animals to a country that defines domesticated animals such as cats and dogs as food sources. It is because in Malaysian culture, eating those animals is considered taboo, and any activities related to this, including trading, will attract serious remonstrations from the public.

Limitations

It is essential to point out that although a standardized sampling method has been utilized, researchers for this study had no control over respondents who independently chose to approach and participate. Consequently, the representative nature of these findings to the people, especially those living in Klang Valley, must be considered cautiously. For instance, most respondents were well-educated, and those who completed the research were above 18. It is due to Klang Valley houses many educational institutions, and people in the area have attended training and classes to live and gain knowledge for their self-promotion and value-added. Male respondents were much fewer than female respondents, who are less than half or about 33%, due to the acceptance rate to joining the survey differed between gender. During survey collection, participants from Malay and Muslim are more likely to accept survey invitations than other races. In this sense, Malay and Muslim perspective factors will dominantly influence the survey result.

Regarding pet-keeping experiences, there is the possibility that respondents who are currently keeping pets might have owned other animals previously. Regarding the type of pets, some owners may have one or more different types of pets at one time. There are also many situations, such as in Table 4 , Table 5 , Table 6 , and Table 7 , whereby the total number of respondents exceeds the actual number of respondents. It happens because the respondents may have multiple opinions/answers.

To conclude, the results of this study indicate that the Malaysian public has showcased their interest in effectively managing the stray animal population. They also favor contributing realistic suggestions to Companion Animal Management that can be utilized as a part of the national strategy to reduce problems associated with strays. Nevertheless, no single solution can provide complete prevention and protection for stray and companion animal management. A successful full-spectrum management scheme requires multiple techniques, measures, and cooperation from the government, owners, and the public.

In particular, respondents that had previously kept an animal expressed increased concern regarding the cause of the stray animal population. Currently, pet owners expressed fewer agreements than non-pet owners regarding the many causes that contribute to stray population problems and suggested improvement strategies. It implies that the willingness of current pet owners to comply with many indicative measures remains low. Thus, additional promotions and education are required to establish an integrated strays and companion animal management strategy. It is recommended that the information gathered from this study should serve as a “door opener” to more detailed studies or surveys of pet-keeping activities, especially those related to the issues of animal welfare, urban ecology, and sustainability.

Declaration

Availability of data and materials.

All relevant data are within the manuscript.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank University of Malaya, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia for supporting this research and publication.

This study was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia and Centre of Research Grant Management, the University of Malaya by providing us with the financial grant (FP021-2017A) for the research paper titled, "Developing an Islamic Ethico-Legal Framework of Animal Neutering Praxis", (BK015-2016) "Islamic Animal Ethics: The Application of Maqasid Matrix and Fiqh Maxims on Animal Care and Use in Malaysia", and funding from Pusat Pengajian Citra Universiti, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (PP-CITRA-2023).

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S.M.I.M. wrote the main manuscript text, and M.I.M. and A.F.A. reviewed and edited the main manuscript text. M.I.M. was the project administrator and supervised the research. S.M.I.M. and M.I.M. prepared the methodology, validation, investigation, formal analysis, and data presentation. Funding acquisition by M.I.M. and A.F.A. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Munir, S.M.I., Mokhtar, M.I. & Arham, A.F. Public perspectives on strays and companion animal management in Malaysia. BMC Public Health 23 , 1428 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16276-5

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Investigating the Dynamics, Risks and Control of Stray Animal Populations

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Countries globally are faced with the challenge of how to successfully control stray animal populations, such as stray cats and dogs. Stray animals can be seen as a nuisance, threatening public health through the spread of zoonotic diseases, and impacting on the conservation of other species. In addition, stray animals may experience poorer welfare themselves through a lack of resources, such as shelter, food and water. Different methods of stray population control include culling, sheltering and fertility control. In recent years, fertility control through trap-neuter-return has become a popular method of controlling both stray cat and dog populations. This method has been used with the aim to reduce stray animal numbers, improve stray animal health and reduce the risk of disease transmission to both humans and other species. However, the sustainability, efficiency and effectiveness of trap-neuter-return and other methods of fertility control require consideration. In particular, the impact of trap-neuter-return on the stray population size, public health risk, public perception, environmental impact and animal welfare needs to be assessed in order to determine whether the method is effective and efficient in achieving its goal. Moreover, it is important to determine the long-term sustainability of the trap-neuter-return method.

For this Special Issue, we invite original research papers and frontier review articles relating to the sustainability, efficiency and effectiveness of trap-neuter-return and other methods as a control strategy for stray population numbers, zoonotic disease transmission, public perception, animal health and welfare, economics and environmental impacts.

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A stray dog rests in Brazil's Chapada Diamantina National Park. There are up to 300 million stray dogs worldwide.

Stray dogs have the natural ability to understand human gestures

The research could lead to a more peaceful co-existence between free-roaming canines—which number hundreds of millions worldwide—and people.

Humans domesticated dogs , and over our 15,000-year relationship, we’ve bred canines to be friendly and eager companions —as well as skilled at interpreting our emotions.

Now, a new study reveals even stray dogs—animals that have never lived with people—can still understand our gestures.

Up to 300 million stray dogs roam the planet, with about 30 million in India alone . These free-ranging canines often come into conflict with people, and, particularly in India, pose a public health risk as carriers of rabies, a fatal virus that kills up to 20,000 people a year in India, most of them children , according to the World Health Organization.

This has made the management of stray dogs a polarizing subject, with some people killing the animals inhumanely , says Anindita Bhadra , animal behaviorist at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata. Stray dogs, she adds, are never sure whether people want to feed and pet them—or hurt them.

That's why learning more about stray dogs and their behavior is crucial to resolving problems with people, says Bhadra, who has studied the animals for a decade. ( Read about the many human signals dogs can understand .)

In recent experiments, she discovered that most stray dogs knew where to look when a human was pointing to an object, suggesting their ability to read humans is innate.

The study’s findings could help educate adults and children—who are often bitten and infected with rabies while sharing food with stray dogs—how to interact with them, leading to “a more peaceful co-existence,” she says. ( Take National Geographic's dog quiz. )

Getting to the point

In the study, published January 17 in the journal Frontiers in Psychology , Bhadra and colleagues approached 160 solitary stray dogs in several Indian cities. An experimenter placed two covered bowls on the ground near them, one containing raw chicken, the other empty with just the scent of food. A second experimenter, who didn’t know which bowl was which, would then stand and point at one of the bowls, sometimes for just one second, sometimes for the length of the experiment. The hands of the second experimenter were never near the bowls.

About half of the dogs wouldn’t come close to the experimenters; many appeared anxious and had likely had negative encounters with people, Bhadra says. (Related: how your dog knows how you feel .)

Of the half that did approach, about 80 percent went to the bowl to which the second experimenter had pointed, meaning they understood the human’s gesture. If the dogs discovered that bowl was empty, they were less likely to follow the pointing cue again.

In previous studies, experimenters had been much closer to the bowls. Having the person farther away allows the canine to “judge what the humans intention is and then make a decision,” Bhadra says, as well as process new information based on whether following that cue was rewarding or not.

Overall, the study suggests that untrained dogs can relate to humans, despite likely having had traumatic experiences with them.

See pictures of dogs submitted by readers

“This is more evidence that free-ranging dogs are just as good as any other dog at using basic human gestures, and that free-ranging dogs are as smart as people often imagine,” says Brian Hare , founder and director of the Duke Canine Cognition Center at Duke University, via email. ( Read how dogs changed humans over time, too .)

Understanding stray dogs

Stray dogs are also not a recent phenomenon. The ancient Indian text The Vedas advises giving leftovers to scavengers, including stray dogs, as part of being a good householder.

While they lead tougher lives than those of house pets, strays have nonetheless adapted to us, "through the Industrial Revolution to highways, everything," Bhadra says. ( Learn how dogs know the meaning of a human smile. )

Such adaptability and resilience, as well as psychological sophistication, means free-roaming canines are not much different than any other dog, adds Hare—"and that they deserve our respect."

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Widespread of Stray Animals: Design a Technological Solution to Help Build a Rescue System for Stray Animals

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• Lianfan Wu 13 ,
• Minghui Shao 14 ,
• Shuqi Wei 14 ,
• Rouxuan Lu 15 &
• Bingdie Huang 14  

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The issue of stray animals in cities has received continuous attention from government agencies and animal organisation around the world. However, the lack of relevant laws and regulations, as well as the lack of public service resources (e.g. funding, space and labour), poses a considerable challenge to the survival and rescue of stray animals. To address this challenge, this study attempts to optimize the current social rescue system for stray animals through a technological design solution. This study investigates and develops a rescue system of stray animal through Human-Centred Design. This research has mainly discussed around the current situation of stray animals, their causes, hazards and rescue issues. The results of this research indicate that (1) the main causes of having stray animals in cities are lost, abandoned and disorderly breeding, as well as lack of regulations. Additionally, stray animals live in poor conditions with health many problems; (2) stray animals pose a serious threat to the development of cities. There is an urgent need to optimise the stray animal rescue system at the levels of individuals, shelters and social system; (3) a technological public welfare platform would be a reliable solution to effectively improve the situation of stray animals. As a result of the research, this study designed a stray animal public welfare platform APP, which has applied big data, AI and other relevant intelligent technologies. Additionally, it solves the pain points of current public welfare rescue platforms and optimises the existing stray animal rescue process and experience, as well as make an important reference for developing the construction of a technological stray animal rescue system.

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This work was made possible with the support of the Wenzhou Business College which provided financial support for the subject study (XSKY20210025).

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Wu, L., Shao, M., Wei, S., Lu, R., Huang, B. (2022). Widespread of Stray Animals: Design a Technological Solution to Help Build a Rescue System for Stray Animals. In: Rauterberg, M., Fui-Hoon Nah, F., Siau, K., Krömker, H., Wei, J., Salvendy, G. (eds) HCI International 2022 – Late Breaking Papers: HCI for Today's Community and Economy. HCII 2022. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 13520. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18158-0_28

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Stray animals: their impact on a community

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The statistical import of the study not-withstanding, we found the most serious problem to be the lack of understanding of the pet population crisis and compassion toward animals on the part of pet owners, as evident in the pet columns of the classified ads. Our study leads us to believe that pet owners are allowing the reproduction of kittens and puppies in such numbers that they often have no cash value and, in fact, the owners will spend money, in the form of advertising, to facilitate their disposal. The street observations indicated that relatively few animals (lessthan 1%) actually are allowed to run free. Dog bites occur at a ratio of 1:20 for the dog population. In the area under study, free roaming dogs and cats present a mild to moderate problem, originating from a small percentage of pet owners. Only a small amount of pet animal suffering occurs by death from environmental hazards (ie, automobiles), and there is just a moderate amount of intentional killing of nondersirable pet animals. We fell the method used in this study and the results obtained from it have importance elsewhere. It should be coupled with a broader based survey questionnaire to better establish the ratio of pet ownership to the general population and the reasons and benefits of pet ownership. We could then have the "facts" about the pet overpopulation problem, as well as better understand the community values toward pet animals. A complete report with additional accompanying tables is available from the senior author at Rural Route One, Urbana, Illinois 61801.

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A linear regression study relating stray animal management with the importance of relative funding. a case study in a small greek city, complex epidemiology of a zoonotic disease in a culturally diverse region: phylogeography of rabies virus in the middle east, prevalence and molecular characterization of toxocara cati infection in feral cats in alexandria city, northern egypt, epidemiology of taenia saginata taeniosis/cysticercosis: a systematic review of the distribution in the middle east and north africa, molecular detection and genetic diversity of babesia gibsoni in dogs in bangladesh., bartonella infections in humans dogs and cats., canine brucellosis: insights into the epidemiologic situation in europe, low serological rate of sars-cov-2 in cats from military bases in israel, 21 references, the current status of zoonotic leishmaniases and approaches to disease control., dogs, zoonoses and public health, leishmaniasis in the world health organization eastern mediterranean region., control of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis: is it time to change strategies, multidisciplinary collaboration in veterinary public health., environmental health in emergencies and disasters, related papers.

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The internet of animals? An inside account of an ambitious plan to track animal movements across the globe

Professor of Animal Behaviour and Welfare, University of Sydney

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Paul McGreevy has received funding from the Australian Research Council and RSPCA Australia.

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The Internet of Animals is a clever, tempting book title and author Martin Wikelski draws us in with the promise of “discovering the collective intelligence of life on earth”. This book reflects on decades of work tracking animals, offering a vision of future technologies.

Wikelski is director of Germany’s Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior where he and his colleagues investigate global animal migrations. They have pioneered a system for continuously remotely tracking thousands of animals, called ICARUS , short for International Cooperation for Animal Research Using Space. Their aim is to create an intelligent sensor network of animals (dubbed the “internet of animals”) and protect animals worldwide.

Review: The Internet of Animals – Martin Wikelski (Scribe)

Wikelski’s core research team has mounted an antenna on a satellite, enabling it to track various species, including vultures and toucans, with small, solar-powered trackers.

Its current ICARUS project began collecting data in September 2020. This 18-year journey depended on interactions with the European Space Agency, the European Research Council and Roscosmos (the Russian space agency).

The team’s ultimate goal is to have little GPS devices on representative samples of numerous species to reveal what decisions they make in the world, what knowledge they accumulate over their lifetimes and all the places they have been. The ambition is totally worthy even if the returns on investment so far may seem elusive to some.

Animal gatherings may catch the human eye but their biological functions can be complex. For instance, starlings may learn, from observing each other during their balletic evening murmurations, to identify individuals who have found the best feeding sites.

The ICARUS project has an impressive vision of anticipated data streams and future studies. These are largely intended to study the movements of birds and insects and may well reveal how natural hazards and human interactions affect animal populations. They should also provide data on the possible spread of plant seeds and pathogens.

Rats, cats and storks

Wikelski’s work has taken him all over the world, especially to isolated places. Time spent in isolation has clearly given him the opportunity to reflect on lessons learned from observing animals. The account of his academic journey is peppered with charming anecdotes intended to remind us what we do not yet know about animal behaviour.

These include the tale of a domestic cat he encountered, which responded to human pointing gestures, and a wild fox that spontaneously retrieved thrown sticks.

Wikelski gives names to individual animals whose behaviour lies outside the species norm. Thus we meet Hanzi, the European white stork who took a series of detours and survived a Bavarian winter only because he was cared for by a farming family, and Baby Caruso, a delightfully vocal young, male sea lion.

Details of his time spent in the Galapagos Islands are truly remarkable, allowing rice rats with negligible experience of predators to take a starring role. The author developed a fondness for these rodents. He makes a gallant attempt to remediate the profile of rats in general although he had to accept these rats would merrily eat through his tent and occasionally bite his buttocks.

A secondary purpose of this tale is to illustrate the rats’ extraordinary homing ability. When one annoying rice rat was relocated a 20-minute walk away from Wikelski’s campsite, it turned up within a couple of hours of departure.

Homing behaviour in various species lends itself to tracking because of its predictability. It has provided an excellent test-bed for telemetry – the remote collection and automatic transmission of data to receiving equipment for monitoring.

The conclusions Wikelski draws from these fascinating observations may alarm those who have been sensitised to anthropomorphism, but they have merit. In keeping with its call for humility on the part of conventional scientists, his book also acknowledges how many First Nations people have drawn on the behaviour of animals to inform strategies for their survival.

Technical questions

Wikelski has developed transmitters small enough to be carried by dragonflies. This deserves praise from a technological perspective but leaves the reader wondering how many animals were impacted by being captured and fitted with prototypes.

We are told birds adjust their own body-weight to accommodate the centre of mass of the tiny transmitters used by Wikelski’s team. In a similar vein, 6-inch (15 cm) long antennae were used on blackbirds even though they projected beyond the tail-feathers. This specification was required for transmission to the satellite but one wonders how authentic the resultant data are when birds are moving with the burden of a foreign body occupying space immediately around them.

Also, Wikelski and many other telemetrists’ use of collars limits research to adult animals because radio collars sized for young wearers become too tight as the animal grows.

Furthermore, as it ages, the epoxy above the solar panel on a tracker can become cracked and grey. This can mean charging is compromised. Meanwhile, the base of the housing touching the back of the animal may be too rough and may damage the pelage or plumage or even the skin of the wearer.

The sixth sense?

Wikelski anticipates the next waves of wearable tracking technology will reveal the sixth sense animals are often said to have. For instance, in apparent anticipation of earthquakes, elephants will travel to higher ground.

In animal behaviour circles, revealing this sixth sense and its true nature is akin to the search in physics for gravitational waves or the Higgs boson particle.

We are introduced to Move Bank , an open source archive of the movement of animals across the planet. Resources such as this help to reveal the costs of migration in songbirds (for example, how much energy is being used or the risk of being eaten by predators, or being exposed to dangerous weather systems) and how migrations trend over time . Move Bank was established 25 years ago to help animal tracking researchers manage, share, protect, analyse and archive their data.

Since then Move Bank has been the source of hundreds of research articles but Wikelski gives us a sense of how vulnerable “blue-sky” science projects are to the whims of government and the global economy. Who knew pandemics and wars could also disrupt the best laid plans for international research collaborations?

In a twist of fate, the ICARUS project eventually went live on 20th March 2020 at almost the same time the global COVID pandemic started. This meant human activity on the globe shut down – the so-called anthropause . Fortuitously it meant animal movements could be studied with a minimum amount of human impact.

In the wake of the pandemic, the prospects of using animals’ GPS locations to monitor the spread of zoonotic disease is truly beguiling. For instance, all countries should be interested in the migration of wild birds given its clear relationship to the spread of avian flu.

The collegiality and tenacity multidisciplinary teams require for intercontinental tracking of animals are celebrated in this book and the author demonstrates great humility in listening to technicians and senior authors from related disciplines. The call for greater collaboration among competing research groups is loud and clear.

But Wikelski leaves us in no doubt his discipline’s dependence on satellite tracking has been characterised by serial frustrations. The war on Ukraine has meant the International Space Station is no longer available to host the key tracking satellite involved in the ICARUS Project. (We are told only one receiving device could be made – and mounted – on the satellite.)

Instead, from late 2024, the transmitters fitted to the animals will transmit their position and other data to a receiver on a mini satellite ( a CubeSat ). From there, the data will be sent to a ground station and published in the Movebank database, which is freely accessible.

A great deal of research work thus hinges on single items of technology. Nevertheless, Wikelski’s book ends with a veritable shopping list of anticipated research projects.

We are reminded that the “internet of animals” is still in its infancy. But this doesn’t stop the author envisioning what he calls a daily life-cast (not weather forecast) about our planet and the animals in it. He even foresees modern technology allowing a representative online “parliamentary gathering of animals” in which thousands of species can be monitored in the wild by individuals all over the world.

This process of witnessing endangered animals in the wild, he suggests, would be linked to an animal protection payout system levied on the world’s wealthiest people, ensuring their habitats were cared for by local peoples. This, we are assured, would mean animals were no longer persecuted by humans or disadvantaged by decisions we make to further our own lives.

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• What Animal Studies Are Revealing About Their Minds—and Ours

N ever underestimate the mind of a crow. Members of a family of birds that includes ravens, rooks, magpies, and jays, crows have been known to bend wire into hooks to retrieve food; drop nuts in a road so passing cars will crack them open; and recognize humans who have posed a threat, harassing them on-sight even months after their first encounter. But some of the smartest crows of all may be found in the animal physiology lab at the University of Tübingen in Germany. It’s there that the birds are mastering a skill you couldn’t manage until you were up to 4 years old: counting.

In a new study published in Science , researchers trained three crows to emit one to four caws in response to seeing the numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4 projected on a screen. The birds also learned to count out the proper number of vocalizations when cued by sounds, with a guitar chord eliciting a single caw, a cash register eliciting two, a drum roll signaling three, and a frequency sweep calling for four. In doing so, the birds matched or beat the numeracy skills of human children who often don’t master rudimentary counting until kindergarten.

Says animal physiologist and study co-author Andreas Nieder : “When faced with a set of three objects and asked, ‘How many?’ toddlers recite the speech sounds ‘one, two, three’ or even ‘one, one, one.’ We show that crows have the ability to count vocally [too].”

And crows aren’t the only creatures that understand simple math. Similar skills have been observed in studies of comparatively intelligent animals including gorillas, dolphins, elephants, the rhesus macaque, and the squirrel and capuchin monkeys. Even the less-clever rat can fathom basic arithmetic, with a recent study in Science Advances showing that the animals can be trained to hear two or three tones and then press a button corresponding to one number or the other. The learning didn’t come easy: It took two months for the rats to make that distinction, but it was the fact that they could do it at all—not that they were slow on the uptake—that was the true news.

The last few months alone have been something of a boom time for research into the intelligence and behavior of animals. German researchers discovered a sort of pre-verbal stage in finches —similar to the babbling stage in humans—that leads to their becoming fluent in song. Studies in Sweden and Vienna explored the role of play among barnyard chicks and a species of falcon. French researchers studied advanced use of sticks as tools in chimps , and other work in the U.S. made similar findings among otters . And perhaps most remarkably, researchers in Indonesia published a study about a wild orangutan, nicknamed Rakus by the scientists, that was observed chewing the leaves of a plant with known medicinal and analgesic properties and applying the resulting pulp to a wound on its face.

“It may be that Rakus learned this behavior from other animals in his birth area,” says lead author and animal behaviorist Isabelle Laumer of the Max Planck Institute in Germany. It is also possible that he came upon the discovery on his own, she says, accidentally applying the plant juice to himself by touching his wound while feeding on the leaves. “Rakus may have felt immediate pain release, causing him to repeat the behavior several times and subsequently apply solid plant matter,” adds Laumer.

All of these studies and more have implications not just for our understanding of animals, but for our understanding of ourselves, as creatures with often-similar brain structures. In one European study , researchers pinpointed twin regions in the human brain that allow us to recognize emotions in other people’s faces, and found corresponding regions in the brains of mice, raising the possibility that one of our most sophisticated traits—our ability to read the minds and moods of others—might be distributed throughout the animal kingdom.

“These evolutionarily conserved mechanisms should be common in most mammals,” says Francesco Papaleo, senior researcher at the Instituto Italiano de Tecnologia in Genoa, Italy, and a co-author of the study. “Properly recognizing and appropriately responding to altered emotions in others is essential for survival.”

The play is the thing

Of all of the recent research, it is the studies that explore play that illustrate the most engagingly ingenuous side of animals. Domestic chickens may be nobody’s idea of a personable species, but a May study in Frontiers of Ethology observed extensive play behavior in young hatchlings, especially males. Investigators raised the chicks in relatively spartan cages and then periodically transferred them to playpen areas with other chicks, aged from 6 to 53 days. In the presence of the rest of the flock, the males engaged in a wide range of play behaviors—all in sight of females—including frolicking, wing-flapping, jumping, and sparring. When the researchers introduced a rubber worm into the pens, the nearest male would pick it up and scurry around with it. Known in the wild as worm-running or tidbitting, the behavior, which can involve other forms of food as well, is an apparent display for the benefit of the females—a means of impressing them with the male’s resource-gathering skills. 

“We still don’t know the adaptive function of play for any species,” said Per Jensen, professor of ethology at Linköping University in Sweden and a co-author of the study, in a statement. “However the present study indicates that a possible function is to prepare animals for specific challenges they may encounter later in life. In a species like the chicken, where only males compete for territories, it makes sense that they engage in more social play as young.”

Falcons display similar behavior for equally practical reasons. A February study in the Journal of Raptor Research documented the Falkland Islands species known as Striated Caracaras routinely engaging in play with sheets of plastic, sea cabbage, stones, and even sheep dung. To qualify as play, animal and human behavior has to meet several criteria, including being voluntary and repeatedly performed, appearing intrinsically rewarding, and lacking apparent purpose. But appearances notwithstanding, there may be decidedly practical functions to play.

In the case of the falcons, which live in a place in which food resources are more available in some seasons than in others, playing with objects might reveal an unexpected nutrient source. “The more caracaras interact with the world around them, the more opportunities they have to learn what is food and what isn’t,” said study co-author and behavioral ecologist Katie Harrington, of the University of Veterinary Medicine in Vienna, in a statement. 

Animals, including homo sapiens, also play to practice combat, hunting, mating, and territorial claims, all of which are needed later in life. “That we see play in so many different species—including humans—tells us that it’s a really important component of our behavioral repertoire,” adds Harrington in an email to TIME. “We tend to see age differences, where younger individuals play more than older individuals. Studying the diversity of play can help us learn how and why it developed to be so important.”

The canine mind

Far and away the most studied animal mind in the world may belong to the domestic dog, if only because, with 471 million pet dogs worldwide, every home becomes something of a real-time, real-world behavioral lab. Still, it is the formal, peer-reviewed research that produces the most rigorous findings, and there is no shortage of that work. In one May study published in Animal Behaviour , investigators from the University of Helsinki subjected 987 dogs to various tests of behavior and problem-solving skills, looking for the traits such as impulsiveness, persistence, independence, and willingness to turn to humans for assistance, which help dogs function better either as working animals, domestic animals, or both.

In one test , the dogs were shown a short, clear cylinder containing a treat that was accessible only by an opening at either end of the container rather than through its transparent but impenetrable middle. The fewer times a subject dog mouthed the closed part of the cylinder before turning to the open end, the higher it scored. Another, similar test placed a treat behind a clear, V-shaped wall that required the dog to detour around the barrier, rather than simply bumping up against it in an attempt to get at the reward. A third test placed a treat inside a clear, locked box that was impossible for the dog to open—measuring how persistent the animal would be before giving up and turning to a human for help. A little persistence is considered good. Too much suggests a lack of learning curve.

On the whole, says Saara Junttila, doctoral researcher with the university’s faculty of veterinary medicine and lead author of the paper, dogs with lower inhibitory control were good problem solvers and excelled in working roles and in canine sports, but were less tractable and trainable in the home.

“As an example, the Belgian shepherd Malinois was one of the fastest breeds at solving the V-detour task, and this breed spent a lot of time trying to solve a problem independently rather than looking at a human. [But it] is considered to be a more challenging breed [to train],” Juntilla says. “Other breeds such as the golden retriever may be more suitable for the role of pet dog, as they turn to humans during a problem-solving situation and have higher inhibitory control.”

The findings have implications not just for canine behavior but for humans, too. Some researchers have found parallels between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in people and similar distractibility and impulsiveness in dogs. 

“Our results do seem to indicate that ADHD-type traits occur together,” says Junttila. “We found that dogs with low inhibitory control were more impulsive, less trainable, and had higher activity levels. People with ADHD [also] often have lower inhibitory control, impaired academic success, and higher impulsivity and hyperactivity.”

Dogs and people overlap in other ways, too. In one recent study published in Biologia Futura , investigators found that dogs that had been trained to imitate human behavior—such as turning or sitting or nodding their heads—do not need the cues to be delivered only in person, but could also obey them when simply seeing an image of a person on a computer screen. The dogs were better at imitating behavior when they saw the human from a perspective with which they were familiar—from the front or the side, for example, as opposed to from above. But either way, the investigators saw significance in the ability of the animals to make the leap that a two-dimensional image was effectively equivalent to a three-dimensional person.

Says lead author Claudia Fugazza, professor of ethology at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest: “In general, dogs seem to be able…to extract the relevant information from 2D projections and use it to act appropriately in the 3D, real life context.” The findings have meaning that go beyond canine parlor tricks, opening up the possibility of virtual human-dog communications, serving to entertain the animals and provide emotional support to human companions.

Tooling about

The ability to use even simple tools was once seen as a talent limited to humans. Research has long since upended that belief, with studies showing a range of tool use among animals, including orangutans , which create whistles out of leaves to chase away predators; dolphins , which use marine sponges to scour the seafloor and stir up prey; and even the degus , a chinchilla-like rodent, which can be taught to use small rakes to look for food. New research is now turning up insights into the talents of one of nature’s most prodigious tool-users—the otter—with findings suggesting that the female of the species outperforms the male in this sophisticated skill.

The otters’ most common tool is a rock, which the animals use to crack open abalone shells to get to the tender meat inside. In a new study in Science , researchers from the University of Texas, Austin, and elsewhere observed 196 radio-tagged sea otters off the coast of California and discovered that the animals were using other tools as well—including shells and hard trash—to break open their prey. Females generally employed a wider array of tools than males did, an innovation they arrived at by necessity, as their smaller size and somewhat weaker jaws make cracking or biting open prey harder. Not only does more sophisticated tool use spare them tooth damage that they might otherwise sustain by trying to bite prey, it also provides them greater energy needed to raise and feed pups.

Chimps too are even better at tool use than commonly understood. The animals are most famously known for their ability to use twigs stripped of leaves to fish into small openings in logs and extract termites as food. New research in PLOS Biology found that this is not a static talent, but rather one that the animals improve throughout their lives, learning to fish for the insects by age 2 or so, and steadily improving their grip and eye-hand coordination over the years.

“The most efficient grips and actions to hold and manipulate stick tools continue to develop at least until [age] 15 [and] well into adulthood,” says lead author Mathieu Malherbe, primatologist with the Max Planck Institute in Germany.

This means war

Not every new trait animals exhibit is a noble one—a fact that is borne out by a recent study of bonobos. Colloquially known as the hippie chimp, for their generally peaceable ways and their matriarchal social structure, the great ape species turns out to be a lot more aggressive than thought, at least when it comes to male-on-male violence. Writing in the journal Current Biology , researchers from Harvard University found that male bonobos actually engage in three times the amount of mano-a-mano combat than their more warlike cousin, the chimpanzee. But the reason for the difference is paradoxical.

On the whole, chimps are significantly more violent as a group than bonobos, with bands of males engaging in sometimes mortal combat with other bands over access to food, territory, and females. This makes it essential that bonds within each tribe remain close—ensuring that the group presents the most united front when facing other tribes. Bonobos, which do not engage in organized warfare, can afford more squabbling and friction within the group without making themselves vulnerable to outsiders.

“The most likely causes of male aggression [among bonobos] are over who gets to stay in a feeding tree or at a good feeding spot,” says Martin Surbeck, assistant professor of human evolutionary biology at Harvard and a co-author of the study. “Chimpanzees depend on each other and thus have a lot of incentive not to make a fuss out of each potential conflict, while the individualistic nature of bonobo society makes aggression just way less costly and more frequent.”

The lovable scavenger

If the Striated Caracaras falcon is known for play, its cousin, the Chimango Caracaras, is developing a reputation for domestic bliss. In another study in the Journal of Raptor Research, investigators found elaborate co-parenting behavior between male and female pair-bonded birds. Among most species of raptors, the larger female incubates the eggs and defends the nest while the smaller male hunts for prey. Male and female Chimango Caracaras, however, which are scavengers, show little difference in size, and thus share responsibilities for gathering food as well as caring for the young.

A team led by PhD candidate Diego Gallego-Garcia of the Center for the Study and Conservation of Birds of Prey in Argentina studied 70 of the species’ nests and observed incubation, brooding, and food delivery responsibilities being evenly shared by both parents. The male and female alike also showed an understanding of the chicks’ needs throughout the day—brooding them more in the morning when temperatures were lower, for example. It is the species least lovely trait—its carrion diet—that contributes most to such an egalitarian household.

In raptors that kill live animals, says Gallego-Garcia, smaller males bring prey to the nest, but do not feed the chicks, relying on the larger female to “chunk the food” into bite-sized pieces. This, he says, “ties the female to the nest and prevents it from leaving to hunt. However in scavenger species, since carrion is usually brought as pieces of raw meat, it is more manageable for nestlings. This way the female is free to leave the nest and hunt, allowing for the biparental care that we observe.” 

The balanced home is an animal grace note—one of a great many across both the human and the non-human world. “The case of the Chimango Caracara is rare among raptors, but is a general rule in most other birds, and not uncommon in mammals,” says Gallego-Garcia. “This reinforces the idea that, in these cases, both members of the couple are necessary for the successful rearing of the offspring.” As it goes in animals, so it goes in us.

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A Step Forward in Stingray Science

A california researcher and his team simulate stepping on round rays to learn more about how, why, and when the animals strike., authored by, article body copy.

Stingray 12 is surprisingly calm for an animal that’s getting squeegeed. The ray, roughly the size of a dinner plate, is submerged in the sand of a tank about the size of a chest freezer; even the golden eyes on top of her head are buried in the sediment. She stays motionless as researcher Ben Perlman of California State University, Long Beach, (CSULB) carefully pushes the sand from her mottled-brown body—the squeegee offering the scientist a little protection from the hazardous-looking barbs poking out halfway down Stingray 12’s tail.

“Sorry to bother you,” Perlman murmurs.

Six undergraduate students peer over his shoulder, and one, Carly Brenner, steps forward holding a 3D-printed silicone human foot glued to a PVC pipe.

“A little closer, a little closer,” Perlman coaches, as Brenner brings the foot centimeters from the stingray’s body. “Go for it,” he says, and Brenner takes aim at the stingray’s left pectoral fin, stamping down with the flexible foot.

The ray doesn’t move at all.

“No response,” Perlman says. The result will be logged into his lab’s study of what makes stingrays attack—science that Perlman hopes will eventually help people avoid painful stings from the serrated barbs, each about the length of an adult human’s big toe.

Perlman’s lab in Long Beach, California—aptly called STABB, for Stingray and Butterfly Biomechanics Lab (the butterfly project is currently paused)—explores how and why stingrays move and behave the way they do. Seal Beach, one of the city’s popular surf spots, five kilometers from the lab, is colloquially known as Ray Bay. Stingrays love to congregate there in the calm, warm waters at the mouth of the San Gabriel River, and lifeguards document upward of 500 painful stab injuries from rays each year. Studying the rays’ behavior and their stinging process can open a new window into human interactions with what the lab calls “danger pancakes,” Perlman says.

His research focuses on round rays —the most abundant ray species inhabiting California’s waters. Their behavior also makes them the most dangerous to unsuspecting passersby. While other rays quickly flee at the hint of danger, round rays stay buried in the sand and even hold their breath as a predator such as a juvenile great white shark—or a perceived predator such as a human—goes by, relying on their mottled color for camouflage. It’s this protective behavior that makes them far more likely to get stepped on and explains why the vast majority of stingray injuries in California are attributed to round rays, rather than the bat rays or diamond stingrays that also live in the area.

Stingray barbs are a kind of dermal denticle—like a tooth—on a tail that can be whipped around. In a strike, the animal releases a toxin from glandular cells at the base of one of the barbs. The toxin travels along a mucous coating and gets envenomated—injected—into the recipient through the puncture wound. Some ray species have barbs with serrated notches, which can make the barb stick into the skin of their attacker.

The serrated edge of a stingray’s barb can puncture and cling to a person’s skin. Photo by Thomas R. Cordova/ Long Beach Post

Chris Lowe, a shark biologist who leads CSULB’s Shark Lab , estimates that about 10,000 people per year are injured by stingrays in Southern California. Round rays are like burger patties for juvenile white sharks, which is one of the reasons Lowe and his fellow shark scientists are keenly interested in stingray distributions and populations. The Shark Lab, established in the 1960s, has studied stingrays for years, but never their stinging mechanics.

Perlman, meanwhile, didn’t set out to research rays—he’s a fish biomechanist who studied how surfperch swim in kelp forests and how amphibious fishes in the tropics use their muscles to haul themselves out of the water. He also studied how birds’ wings can shapeshift during flight and how bullfrogs load up their tendons to increase their jumping power. In 2018, he took a job with CSULB as a teaching professor and left research for a few years.

Then, he got a knock on his door in the fall of 2021. Lowe had a question. He wanted to know if Perlman could help test a new material for surf booties developed by an inventor whose kids were afraid of rays, and a collaborator with expertise in materials science. Would the booties protect against stingray strikes, as designed? After receiving funds from an anonymous, surf-loving donor, Perlman hired a student, and together they collected rays from Seal Beach to serve as their test subjects.

To figure out if the material could protect against strikes, Perlman first had to understand the dynamics of the stingray’s defensive behavior. His initial research goal was to capture strikes on camera and use the footage to measure velocity and acceleration, which he could then use to calculate force. He bought a disembodied foot from the store Spirit Halloween, filled it with sand, and epoxied it onto a piece of plastic pipe to mimic a human foot for the trials. “That was a great jumping-off point,” Perlman says.

To learn more about what makes a ray decide to strike, he designed an experiment that divides the ray’s body into four different regions—midbody, left pectoral fin, right pectoral fin, and snout (basically equivalent to a nose). His team uses the zombie foot—which was upgraded to a 3D-printed silicone foot in 2023 because it’s more realistic—to “step” on the different parts of the body and record the animal’s reaction.

Ben Perlman started his experiments on round ray strikes using a Halloween zombie foot. He has since upgraded to a 3D-printed model. Photo by Thomas R. Cordova/ Long Beach Post

The initial findings are stark: rays only strike if someone steps on their midbody, where all their organs are located. That makes them strike 85 percent of the time. Stepping on their sides just makes them swim away; a bop on the snout doesn’t elicit a reaction either. The findings are consistent, regardless of the ray’s size, age, or sex.

The lab has also been doing studies of the new material Lowe brought to Perlman—neoprene with a rubber composite lining—to see if it can stand up to the forces of a stingray strike. The researchers clip off barbs—akin to cutting off a fingernail, since the keratin-based barbs regrow within a few months—and use a machine to force them into the material with increasing pressure. So far, they have found the material to resist the force of most stingrays. (Another company hoping to create a ray-proof bootie is spinning out a product using a similar material this year.)

In addition to their barbs, some stingrays have large, thorny, scale-like denticles that provide passive protection, says Chris Martinez, a fish biologist at the University of California, Irvine, who studies stingray morphology. The thorns can pierce skin and make a predator’s life unpleasant, he says, but the stinger is something extra: a targeted weapon the animal can actively control to inflict damage.

Martinez says Perlman’s work is “really great and it’s definitely very relevant to cater to Southern California beachgoers.” He is planning to collaborate with Perlman in the future to investigate the neuromuscular underpinnings of the strikes.

The ultimate hope, Perlman says, is that the research will translate into best practices for people at the beach. For decades, surfers in Southern California have used a technique called the “stingray shuffle,” where they take tiny steps along the ground instead of big steps—to warn stingrays who might be buried in the sand.

Perlman says his experiments have scientifically backed up the stingray shuffle—when someone takes tiny steps, they are not going to come into contact with the midbody section of the ray, so they won’t be struck. Vibrations through the sand can also give the animal a chance to move to safety. “[The rays are] just going to escape or not respond,” Perlman says.

Perlman walks with student Trinity Lozano as she transports a ray between tanks. Photo by Thomas R. Cordova/ Long Beach Post

He knows exactly what’s at stake. Last summer, he was holding down a ray’s tail with a net while using a scalpel to make small identifying notches on the animal’s body—which has to be redone every few months as the notches grow out—when his hand slipped and the fish’s tail whipped around and struck an artery on his wrist. Blood immediately squirted everywhere, and the pain was “a seven-and-a-half out of 10.” He used the only known treatment, which was to submerge his hand in hot water to denature the poison. It took nearly two hours for the pain to fade. His wrist still bears a scar.

The lab is now engaged in a flurry of research activity that can keep Perlman and his teammates busy for the rest of the decade. They are testing how the size of a foot impacts the likelihood of a stingray strike, to see if someone who is lighter and smaller is less likely to get stung. So far, foot size seems to have no impact on how a ray responds. In the coming months, they’ll repeat the stepping experiments in the dark and in different water temperatures. The lab is home to 18 rays, and the animals get at least two days off between experiments to make sure they don’t get conditioned.

The researchers are also in the midst of studying rays as they bury themselves in the sand to understand why and how the animals move sand particles around. Eventually, the lab will also use 3D imaging from microCT scans to look at the curvature, sharpness, and angle of serrations across different round ray barbs. That will help them understand variation within the species and even within an individual: sometimes, after being clipped, a barb will grow back in a different shape or size.

Sharks tend to loom larger than rays in the Californian consciousness, Martinez says. “Rays don’t get as much attention because they’re not as big, they don’t have the big teeth like some of the large sharks do,” he says. “But you’re more likely to be harmed by one of those than a big shark.” The stats prove his point: in 2022, 57 shark attacks occurred around the globe, and stingray injuries were likely in the tens of thousands.

After her encounter with the silicone foot, Stingray 12 gets a 10-minute break before her other pectoral fin is stepped on. Perlman watches as she buries herself back in the sand. It feels good to take a figurative step toward helping fellow Californians avoid stabs and stings, he says. Ultimately, if surfers and swimmers can use his research to avoid danger pancakes, everyone’s time at the beach—rays included—will be more harmonious.

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Only 1 in 20 animal studies results in treatments approved for humans

Animal studies are often considered a first step in finding new drugs and treatments for human diseases, but a new review has discovered that precious few actually produce real-world therapies.

Only 5% of therapies tested in animals wind up being approved by regulators for human use, according to an analysis of 122 articles involving 54 different diseases and 367 potential treatments. Advertisement

That's despite the fact that 86% of the time positive results in animal studies are replicated in human clinical trials, researchers said.

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About 50% of animal studies make the transition into early human studies, which are meant to show feasibility, researchers found.

But only 40% make it to randomized controlled trials, and just 5% are approved by regulators. Advertisement

"Drawing from the field of clinical neurology, many therapies that have shown promise in animal studies and early trials reported as successful candidates herein, such as melatonin and mesenchymal stem cells for stroke, have not yet become standard clinical practice," the researchers said.

"A similar pattern can be seen in other neurological diseases like Alzheimer's disease and spinal cord injury, where there are several therapies with promising preclinical results but limited practical translation," the team added.

The average time periods for reaching the different stages were five years from animal to human study, seven years to randomized controlled trials, and 10 years to regulatory approval, researchers found.

The new review was published Thursday in the journal PLOS Biology .

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But they said it's more likely that poor and inconsistent design in animal and human studies result in unreliable findings. As a result, these potential therapies don't proceed to clinical trials.

"To improve animal-to-human translation, we advocate for enhanced study design robustness of animal and human research, which will not only benefit experimental animals but also affected patients," the researchers said in a journal news release. Advertisement

More information

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has more about the drug development and approval process .

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