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Are bioplastics the solution to the plastic pollution problem?

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Universidad del Valle de Atemajac–Guadalajara, Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico

• Sandra Pascoe Ortiz

Published: March 22, 2023

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002045
• Reader Comments

We live our lives immersed in plastic pollution: a problem that is becoming more acute. Viable alternatives that can reduce plastic pollution are being sought. Could bioplastics be the hoped-for solution to this problem?

Citation: Pascoe Ortiz S (2023) Are bioplastics the solution to the plastic pollution problem? PLoS Biol 21(3): e3002045. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002045

Copyright: © 2023 Sandra Pascoe Ortiz. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

In the past decade, the problem of plastic waste has reached unprecedented levels. Macro plastics have moved away from the spotlight and focus has shifted to micro and nano plastics, which are generated by the degradation of non-biodegradable or non-compostable plastics and bioplastics. These materials have been found everywhere, even in the human body, as they are ingested, breathed or absorbed through the skin [ 1 ] by animals, humans and plants. Researchers have focused on identifying these materials in human organs and tissues and trying to explain the possible effects that such exposure will have on this and future generations. In fact, modifications have already been found at the mitochondrial level [ 2 ] that can lead to disorders in cellular functioning.

Since the 1960s, researchers have been searching for alternatives to petroleum-derived plastics that can replace conventional plastics. These alternatives need to have less impact on the environment, either in their production processes or in that their residues can be treated and incorporated into nature without generating pollution. Among the new materials that have been developed are those known as bioplastics, which generally come from renewable sources (such as plants, animals or microorganisms) and are made from any biological material instead of fossil fuels, but the term can also mean they are biodegradable according to international standards. They are classified either according to their origin or according to their biodegradability: there are those that come from renewable sources and are not biodegradable; those that are produced from fossil sources and are biodegradable; and those that both come from renewable sources and are biodegradable. The first uses of these materials were in medical applications but they are currently used in different products in the agricultural, packaging or textile sectors, to mention a few. Some bioplastics are limited in terms of their mechanical and thermal properties; the main differences to petroleum-derived plastics are their mechanical strength, durability and resistance to high temperatures, as well as their sometimes higher cost [ 3 ].

The idea that no bioplastics pollute with their waste is a misconception based on the belief that they all biodegrade or compost but, unfortunately, this is not true. Some bioplastics are neither biodegradable nor compostable, and their residues generate the same pollution problems as those derived from petroleum because they also produce micro and nano plastics during their decomposition. Bioplastics may come from biological material but are chemically the same as petroleum-derived plastic, the only thing that changes is the source from which they are obtained; for example, with Bio-polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET), the "Bio" only indicates that its origin is vegetable. This compound is neither biodegradable nor compostable, it is considered a bioplastic only because of its origin. The environmental benefit of this type of material is that, because it comes from a plant, a certain amount of carbon dioxide is captured during the production of its raw material (during the life of those plants). In general terms, the production process of bioplastics compared to petroleum-derived plastics has less of an environmental impact in terms of the balance of greenhouse gas emissions.

It is also important to note that the fact that a bioplastic is biodegradable or compostable does not mean that it can be thrown anywhere and will just disappear. Most biodegradable or compostable bioplastic waste requires processing under controlled conditions to be incorporated back into nature: they must be composted at industrial level. For example, polylactic acid (PLA) takes 80 years in the open air to biodegrade or, if composted industrially, takes days or a few months depending on the conditions of the process [ 4 ].

The market for both biodegradable and non-biodegradable bioplastics is growing and these materials have been gaining ground over petroleum-based plastics (although not enough). The main biodegradable bioplastics on the market are polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT), PLA, starch blends, polybutylene succinate (PBS), cellulose films and polyhydroxyalcanoates (PHAs). According to data from European Bioplastic in cooperation with the Nova-Institute from 2021, the most common applications of these materials are in flexible and rigid packaging, consumer goods, textile fibers and in agriculture, and it is projected that by 2026 the production of biodegradable bioplastics will be considerably higher than that of non-biodegradable bioplastics [ 5 ].

Bioplastics have several drawbacks. Some the raw materials they use are often also used for food, there is not enough production and their costs are higher than those of conventional plastics. It is often the consumer who has to absorb the price difference and is not in a position to do so, adding another reason why, so far, they have not been able to significantly displace petroleum-based plastics. Bioplastics and biodegradable plastics are part of the solution to the problem of plastic pollution, as they generally have reduced environmental impacts in their production processes and, in some cases, because it is feasible to treat their waste, but they are not the only and absolute solution; the problem of plastic pollution is more complex and is still far from being completely solved. For these materials to reach their full potential, it will be essential to have regulations to regulate their production, certifications in terms of biodegradability and proper education for buyers to choose products that help in the conservation of the environment.

Finally, it should be remembered that pollution is mainly generated by the misuse of materials and poor disposal of their waste. The real problem is the abuse of plastic materials, whether they are biodegradable or not, since they are mainly used in containers, packaging and single-use products, and most of the time they are discarded not because they are useless or their useful life has ended, but because of the convenience of using and throwing away. Certain quantities of plastics can be recycled; however, when they are mixed with other types of waste they become contaminated and when different types of plastic are not adequately separated, this recycling becomes practically impossible. Nevertheless, the recycling of some bioplastics has not yet been trialed, not because it cannot be done, but because of the small quantities of these materials compared to conventional plastics, which makes it practically unaffordable. So, instead of blaming plastic materials for existing environmental pollution, we need to look closely at how we use resources and dispose of waste. No matter how many bioplastics or "environmentally friendly" materials there are, if we do not reduce the production of these types of materials and consequently their waste, there will be no real solutions. We need to be aware of what we consume, support initiatives that promote environmental care and demand the commitment of governments to legislate and enforce laws, as well as encouraging businesses to change their materials and production processes.

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• 4. Carlota V. Is PLA filament actually biodegradable? 2019. https://www.3dnatives.com/en/pla-filament-230720194/
• 5. European Bioplastic Bioplastics market data. 2021. https://www.european-bioplastics.org/market/

Bioplastic is becoming a popular alternative for single-use plastic items like straws and utensils.

• ENVIRONMENT
• PLANET OR PLASTIC?

What you need to know about plant-based plastics

Can bioplastics truly relieve pressure on the environment? Experts weigh in.

More than eighteen trillion pounds of plastic have been produced to date , and eighteen billion pounds of plastic flows into the ocean every year. It ensnares the marine animals we cherish and the fish we put on our plates , it appears in the table salt we use, and it’s even found in our own bodies . As more research on the impact of using so much plastic comes to light, consumers and manufacturers are left scrambling for an alternative to the ubiquitous material, and bioplastics have emerged as a potential alternative. At a glance, the name sounds promising, with a prefix that hints at an Earth-friendly product. But is bioplastic the panacea for our environmental woes? An easy-to-use single-use item that feels like plastic minus the guilt?

The answer?

It’s complicated, say scientists, manufacturers, and environmental experts, who warn its potential merits rest on many “ifs.”

What is bioplastic?

Bioplastic simply refers to plastic made from plant or other biological material instead of petroleum. It is also often called bio-based plastic.

It can either be made by extracting sugar from plants like corn and sugarcane to convert into polylactic acids (PLAs), or it can be made from polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) engineered from microorganisms. PLA plastic is commonly used in food packaging, while PHA is often used in medical devices like sutures and cardiovascular patches.

Because PLA often comes from the same large industrial facilities making products like ethanol, it’s the cheapest source of bioplastic. It’s the most common type and is also used in plastic bottles, utensils, and textiles.

For Hungry Minds

Plants, oil, and the fight for food security.

“The argument [for bio-based plastics] is the inherent value of reducing the carbon footprint,” says chemical engineer Ramani Narayan from Michigan State University, who researches bioplastic.

About eight percent of the world’s oil is used to make plastic, and proponents of bioplastic often tout a reduction in this use as a major benefit. This argument rests on the idea that if a plastic item does release carbon once it’s discarded, as it degrades, bioplastics will add less carbon to the atmosphere because they’re simply returning the carbon the plants sucked up while growing (instead of releasing carbon that had previously been trapped underground in the form of oil).

Related: Photos of animals navigating a world of plastic

However, that’s not the end of the story. One 2011 study from the University of Pittsburgh found other environmental issues associated with growing plants for bioplastic. Among them: pollution from fertilizers and land diverted from food production.

Using a substance like corn for plastic instead of food is at the center of a debate over how resources should be allocated in an increasingly food-scarce world. “The other value proposition is that plant biomass is renewable,” Narayan adds. “It's grown all over the world. Oil is concentrated in regions. Bioplastics support a rural, agrarian economy.” Bio-based plastics have benefits, but only when taking a host of factors into consideration, says environmental engineer and National Geographic explorer Jenna Jambeck , who is also at the University of Georgia . “Where is it grown? How much land does it take up? How much water is needed?” she gives as examples of important questions. Whether bio-based plastics are ultimately better for the environment than oil-derived ones “is a big question based on many 'ifs,'” she says. In other words, there’s no clear answer at present.

What happens when we're done with it?

Depending on the type of polymer used to make it, discarded bioplastic must either be sent to a landfill, recycled like many (but not all) petroleum-based plastics, or sent to an industrial compost site.

Industrial composting is necessary to heat the bioplastic to a high enough temperature that allows microbes to break it down. Without that intense heat, bioplastics won't degrade on their own in a meaningful timeframe, either in landfills or even your home compost heap. If they end up in marine environments, they'll function similarly to petroleum-based plastic, breaking down into micro-sized pieces, lasting for decades, and presenting a danger to marine life.

“If PLA [bioplastic] does leak out, it also will not biodegrade in the ocean,” says Jambeck. “It's really not any different from those industrial polymers. It can be composted in an industrial facility, but if the town doesn't have one, then it's not any different.”

So, should you use it?

One of the largest manufacturers of bioplastic in the U.S. is Colorado’s Eco Products. They buy raw corn-based PLA from NatureWorks , a chemical manufacturer in Blair, Nebraska.

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Eco Products deferred questions about their products to the Plastics Industry Assocation (PLASTICS), who said that demand for bioplastics has increased in the past decade or so.

Consumer interest in sustainable alternatives to plastics and more efficient technology are driving that growth, says PLASTICS Assistant Director of Regulatory and Technical Affairs Patrick Krieger.

Addressing criticism that bioplastics may divert land away from growing food, Krieger said companies represented by Plastics partner with groups like the World Wildlife Fund’s Bioplastic Feedstock Alliance to ensure crops are grown sustainably.

But environmentalists still say a serious dearth of industrial compost sites mean bioplastics will do little to curb the amount of plastic entering waterways. Dune Ives is the executive director of the Lonely Whale , an environmental non-profit geared toward business-oriented solutions, particularly around plastics. In 2017, the group headed a “ Strawless in Seattle ” campaign to lobby for a plastic straw ban. As part of that effort, Lonely Whale investigated whether they would tout bioplastic straws as an alternative. One of the things they learned: Among local businesses that did have compost bins, few reported bioplastic items actually making it into the appropriate places, says Ives. “We quickly realized that the idea of compostable plastic sounds very interesting, especially if you look at an area like Seattle, but there's still that human element of you and me,” she says. Dune adds that without adequate composting infrastructure and consumer know-how, bioplastic products can end up an example of greenwashing, a phrase coined by environmentalists to indicate when consumers are misled about how sustainable a product truly is. “The marketing is getting us to feel good about what we're buying,” she says, “but the reality is the systems aren't in place to accommodate for those materials.” The Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI) is a non-profit formed to advocate for biodegradable products and waste infrastructure. They see bioplastics and industrial composting as untapped potential. “Composting is inherently local,” says Rhodes Yepsen, the executive director of BPI. “It won't make sense to ship food waste to another country. It rots quickly, and it's primarily water. It's heavy and messy.”

He points out that recycling is often inefficient, capturing less than a fifth of recyclable material produced in the world.

“Fifty percent of the waste we generate is biodegradable waste like food and paper,” says Narayan, who also serves as a scientific adviser for BPI. He thinks landfills should be eliminated altogether and replaced by more robust and comprehensive waste collection.

“Landfills are tombs. We are preserving garbage. That makes no sense,” he says.

Ives points to opportunities to create sustainable alternatives that don’t have any plastic.

Plastic made from petroleum or plants like corn is among the cheapest material for things like packaging, but smaller-scale manufacturers are developing even more natural alternatives. In the U.K., one boutique is growing fungus into lightweight furniture , and in the U.S., the Department of Agriculture is using a milk film to create packaging that keeps food fresh .

“This is a field right now for entrepreneurial investors. There’s no shortage of incredible opportunity for alternatives that are marine degradable, that don’t overtax the land and our food production system,” Ives says.

Correction: An earlier version of this story incorrectly stated products manufactured by NatureWorks. This article has also been updated to clarify that PLA is made from plant sugar, not contained in the plant itself .

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• Frontiers in Nanotechnology
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Nanotechnology for Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy: Advances in Renewable Energies, Agriculture, and Bioplastic applications

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About this Research Topic

The development of nanotechnology since the conception of new tools and techniques addressing real-world problems in water treatment, healthcare, and food security has made significant breakthroughs for many scientists and policymakers. With the global challenge of a sustainable society, a circular economy, especially involving bio-based materials, is one of the key strategies to addressing industrial and local avoidance of waste and closing its process loop. Sustainable circular economy using nanotechnology intervention in renewable energies, agricultural practices, and production of bioplastic materials are few of the not-so-well-explored and understood areas. Sustainable alternative resources for solar and optoelectrical devices are among the current challenges in the renewable energies. Nanomaterials in the growth, formulations, and applications of environment-friendly approaches are key challenges in the Agricultural sector. Furthermore, utilizing green nanomaterials for bioplastics applications is one sought-after solution in combatting problematic plastic problems. This research topic aims to explore the advancement of nanotechnology in actualizing circular economy strategies as a sustainable means in research for renewable energies and their application in agriculture and bioplastics. This issue focuses on sustainable paths of nanomaterials for renewable energies, agriculture and bioplastic applications. Thus, it will contain new and modified processes of synthesizing, characterizing, and applying different nanomaterials to produce nanocomposites functional for energy, agriculture, and bio-based plastics. Moreover, this book aims to present how circular economy nanotech is superior to linear economy. It will also identify its advantages and disadvantages as a model for circular economy in industries. We welcome the submission of Original Research, Review, Mini Review, and Perspective articles on themes including, but not limited to: • Synthesis of nanomaterials through “circular economy concepts • Characterization of bio-nanocomposites • Nanotechnology-based bioplastics • Nanotechnology-based agriculture • Nanotechnology-based solar cells • Nanotechnology-based optoelectonics • Modification of green nanomaterials • Applications of green nanomaterials in renewable energies • Application of green nanomaterials in agriculture • Application of green nanomaterials in bioplastics Dr. Keyla M Fuentes declares that she is associated with and receives funds from the private company Spora Biotech, based on Santiago de Chile.

Keywords : Circular economy Nanotechnology, Renewable energies, Nanotech-based Agriculture, Nanotechnology- based bioplastics, Green Nanotechnology

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Will we ever be able to stop using plastic?

While the push to reduce carbon dioxide emissions is spurring alternatives to petroleum in other sectors, phasing out plastic, particularly for medical applications, will be very tough.

As we work to prevent the runaway warming of the planet, society is gradually phasing out fossil fuels. 

But there's one industry in which oil use is growing: the production of plastic.

Refineries that were designed to crank out fuel for cars are being retrofitted to produce more chemicals — including plastic precursors. And new refineries being built in the Middle East, Asia-Pacific and China are fully-integrated chemical production facilities. 

Petrochemicals — chemicals obtained from petroleum during refining that are used to produce thousands of products, including plastic — will become the largest driver of global oil demand, accounting for almost half the growth by 2050, according to a 2018 report from the International Energy Agency . 

In a statement at the time, IEA executive director Fatih Birol said petrochemicals are "blind spots in the global energy debate." 

One reason plastics will be tough to phase out is that they are incredibly cheap to produce. 

But that's not their only advantage. Plastics have chemical properties that make them indispensable in medical settings. They are sterile, flexible and cheap enough to be thrown away after a single use, which is a boon for infection control.

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In her research , Dr. Jodi Sherman , the founding director of the Yale Program on Healthcare Environmental Sustainability, has found that the medical industry is moving away from reusable equipment in favor of single-use disposable devices. 

According to an article published in 2022 by AMA Journal of Ethics , plastic accounts for between 20% and 25% of the waste generated by U.S. healthcare facilities. And the use of throwaway plastic in healthcare may be growing, though by exactly how much is hard to pin down, Sherman told Live Science. 

"There's no easy way to measure it," she said. "And we are seeing such a rapid shift [toward single use plastics] that the bottom line is that we have no idea."

To move beyond oil, researchers will need to devise a way to make plastic from non-petroleum sources on a large scale. In the United States, soybean farming has increased dramatically — in part because of its use as a biofuel . Something similar could happen if we shift to bioplastics, or plastics made from renewable biomass, such as corn starch or polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), which are natural, degradable polyesters produced by microorganisms .

But bioplastics are not without problems. Not all bioplastics biodegrade, and most that do require industrial processing to send them back to nature . Relative to traditional plastic manufacturing, bioplastic production leads to lower greenhouse gas emissions. But like their traditional counterparts, bioplastics produce microplastics as they decompose. They're also far more expensive to produce, and they don't always have ideal properties for every application. 

In hospital settings, for example, durable medical equipment needs to be long-lasting and reusable, so the fact that bioplastics degrade more easily is a problem, not a plus. 

Bioplastics are already being used in some medical sectors, but the levels are "incredibly low," Robert Langer , the David H. Koch Institute Professor at the MIT Department of Biological Engineering, told Live Science. 

Durability is a solvable issue, Langer said, but a bigger challenge is that anything used in medical settings must be tested for safety before use, and that is hugely expensive.

The 165-year reign of oil is coming to an end. But will we ever be able to live without it?

— 10 things you didn't know were made of petroleum

— How much oil is left and will we ever run out?

— Solar power generated enough heat to power a steel furnace

Jan-Georg Rosenboom , a chemical engineer at MIT, told Live Science that health and safety regulations require materials used in medical settings to hold up under extremely harsh conditions. Plastics must repeatedly withstand the high heat and pressure needed for sterilization, for instance. "Biodegradable plastics may not withstand these conditions and may not possess the stability time needed," he said. 

Still, it's not inevitable that health care will be a holdout that uses traditional plastic indefinitely. Rather, what happens in the wider petrochemical industry will determine how plastics are used. If the market changes and demand for oil-based plastics declines significantly in other sectors, the medical industry will likely follow suit, Fredric Bauer , an associate senior lecturer at Lund University in Sweden, told Live Science. 

Hannah Osborne is the planet Earth and animals editor at Live Science. Prior to Live Science, she worked for several years at Newsweek as the science editor. Before this she was science editor at International Business Times U.K. Hannah holds a master's in journalism from Goldsmith's, University of London.

Solar power generated enough heat to power a steel furnace

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Team develops technology for producing bioplastics from agricultural and food byproducts

by National Research Council of Science and Technology

As kimchi has been drawing attention as a global healthy food trend, cabbage is one of the representative vegetables used as a main ingredient for manufacturing kimchi overseas.

The annual global production of cabbage and other Brassica crops is reported to be 72 million tons, and more than 30% of them are estimated to be discarded during the manufacturing and distribution processes, causing environmental pollution as well as considerable waste disposal costs in the industry.

In connection with this problem, Hae Choon Chang, President of the World Institute of Kimchi (WiKim), has announced that the institute has developed a bio-refactoring-based upcycling technology that can convert cabbage byproducts discarded as waste during the food manufacturing process into biodegradable plastics .

Bio-refactoring refers to a technology for redesigning microorganisms to give new functions other than their existing characteristics.

The research team led by Dr. Jung Eun Yang, a senior researcher of the Fermentation Regulation Technology Research Group at the WiKim, developed microbial strains for the production of biodegradable bioplastics by using bio-refactoring technology, and identified conditions for achieving a sugar conversion rate of up to 90.4% by optimizing the concentrations of enzymes and the substrate used in the saccharification process. The work is published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry .

In particular, for the first time in the world, the research team found that malic acid, one of the bioactive materials in cabbage byproducts, can contribute to the productivity improvement of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). PHA is a bio-based biodegradable material obtained through microbial fermentation, and is characterized by biodegradability in natural environments.

The newly developed technology can be applied to various agricultural and food byproducts such as waste from cabbage and onions used for kimchi production, and is expected to reduce the waste disposal costs for byproducts from the kimchi manufacturing process, which are estimated to be 10 billion won per year.

"The results of this research are significant in terms of having secured an environmentally-friendly technology for converting agricultural and food waste into high value-added materials," said Dr. Hae Woong Park, director of the Technology Innovation Research Division of the WiKim. He added, "We will continue to develop upcycling technology in the agricultural and food sectors so that the kimchi industry will contribute to the achievement of carbon neutrality."

Meanwhile, the research team analyzed the components in cabbage byproducts, and systematically categorized various components helpful for microbial growth. Based on these research results, the team plans to develop the core technology to convert agricultural and food waste into various high-value-added materials.

Journal information: Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

Provided by National Research Council of Science and Technology

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Environmental impact of bioplastic use: A review

Ghada atiwesh.

a Environmental Science Program, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X7 Canada

Abanoub Mikhael

b Chemistry Department, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland A1C 5S7, Canada

Christopher C. Parrish

c Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland A1C 5S7, Canada

Joseph Banoub

d Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Science Branch, Special Projects, St John's, NL, A1C 5X, Canada

Tuyet-Anh T. Le

e School of Science and the Environment, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Grenfell Campus, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada

f Environmental Policy Institute, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Grenfell Campus, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada

g Forestry Economics Research Centre, Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, 46 Duc Thang ward, Northern Tu Liem District, Hanoi 11910, Viet Nam

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Throughout their lifecycle, petroleum-based plastics are associated with many environmental problems, including greenhouse gas emissions, persistence in marine and terrestrial environments, pollution, etc. On the other hand, bioplastics form a rapidly growing class of polymeric materials that are commonly presented as alternatives to conventional petroleum-based plastics. However, bioplastics also have been linked to important environmental issues such as greenhouse gas emissions and unfavorable land use change, making it necessary to evaluate the true impact of bioplastic use on the environment. Still, while many reviews discuss bioplastics, few comprehensively and simultaneously address the positives and negatives of bioplastic use for the environment. The primary focus of the present review article is to address this gap in present research. To this end, this review addresses the following questions: (1) what are the different types of bioplastics that are currently in commercial use or under development in the industry; (2) are bioplastics truly good for the environment; and (3) how can we better resolve the controversial impact of bioplastics on the environment? Overall, studies discussed in this review article show that the harms associated with bioplastics are less severe as compared to conventional plastics. Moreover, as new types of bioplastics are developed, it becomes important that future studies conduct thorough life cycle and land use change analyses to confirm the eco-friendliness of these new materials. Such studies will help policymakers to determine whether the use of new-generation bioplastics is indeed beneficial to the environment.

Bioplastics, Environment, Petroleum-based plastics, Life cycle assessment

1. Introduction

Plastics have become commonplace manufacturing materials that find applications in a variety of industries, from packaging to the production of toys, from grocery bags to plastic cutlery, from straws to 3D printed rocket nozzles [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Chemically, plastics are high molecular weight polymers typically comprising between 1000 to 10000 monomeric repeating units [ 1 , 6 , 7 ]. Conventional petroleum-based synthetic plastics are produced in a series of steps, the first of which is the distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery. This process separates and fractionates the heavy crude oil into groups of lighter components, called segments. Each segment is a mixture of polymeric hydrocarbon chains, which differ in terms of size and structure. One of these fractions, naphtha, is the crucial component needed to generate monomers such as ethylene, propylene, and styrene to produce plastics. These monomers form plastics through polyaddition and/or polycondensation aided by specific catalysts [ 8 , 9 ]. However, this conversion produces pollutants and greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), thus contributing to environmental pollution and global warming [ 3 ]. Moreover, several petroleum-based plastics are nonbiodegradable, which leads to their persistence at the site of disposal and harms the environment [ 10 ]. Over two recent decades, several studies have suggested alternatives to the conventional petroleum-based plastics. One such alternative is bioplastics, which are polymeric compounds that are both functionally like synthetic plastics and largely environmentally sustainable ( Table 1 ). However, bioplastics are surrounded by myths, for example, all bioplastics are biodegradable and good for the environment. The truth is that some bioplastics may contribute significantly to global warming, pollution, and drastic land use change. Still, while many reviews discuss bioplastics, few comprehensively and simultaneously address the positive and negative dimensions of bioplastic use for the environment. Similarly, some reviews have separately focused on a comparative analysis of bioplastics and conventional fossil fuel-based plastics, specific bioplastics such as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), degradation of bioplastics, bioplastic waste management and recycling, and so on, without discussing these concepts in conjunction. Reviewing these concepts, therefore, in relation to one another is important to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the state of the art in the field of bioplastics. Furthermore, recently developed bioplastics, such as chitin-based and mycelium-based bioplastics, have not been significantly discussed in the literature despite their potential industrial value. The primary key to the present review article contributes to address these study gaps. This review, hence, addresses the following questions:

• (1) What are the different types of bioplastics that are currently in commercial use or under development in the industry?
• (2) Are these bioplastics truly good for the environment?
• (3) How can we better resolve the controversial impact of bioplastics on the environment?

Table 1

Important terms and their definitions.

Before delving into these questions, it is important to understand some common terms (such as ‘bioplastics’, ‘bio-based plastics’, ‘biodegradable plastics’, etc.) that will be used in this article. The need for defining these terms clearly arises from the confusion that has generally existed in bioplastics literature over what they mean. Table 1 summarizes the definitions of such terms in the context of the present review.

2. Methodology

This review collates and summarises primary data produced and presented by other academic and industrial scholars through their research on bioplastics and their impact on the environment. The following search terms were used in Google Scholar to identify relevant studies to discuss in this study: plastics, petroleum-based plastics, bioplastics, bio-based plastics, biodegradable plastics, plastic waste disposal, bioplastic waste disposal, plastic recycling, bioplastic recycling, life cycle analysis ( Figure 1 ). Industrial research data, such as primary data available on company websites, was not excluded from this review as such data provide information about the competitive, cutting-edge research and development in the field of bioplastic development. To specifically meet the objectives of the present review, only those studies that discussed existing or new classes of bioplastics, and/or their impact on the environment (positive or negative) were included.

Review methodology.

The results of this literature review are presented in four sections. The first of these sections, titled ‘Plastics and the environment’, discusses conventional plastics, their degradability, and their impact on the environment. The second section introduces bioplastics such as a way to replace conventional plastics and discusses some of the most important as well as recently developed bioplastics currently in commercial use or industrial testing. The third section elucidates the debate about whether bioplastics or not are good for the environment, presenting both the positive and negative effects of these materials on the environment. The last of the four sections introduces life cycle assessment considered like a means to address the debate around the eco-friendliness of bioplastics, referencing some preliminary analyses published by other researchers.

3. Plastics and the environment

The global consumption of plastics has increased over the years, particularly because they are lightweight, resilient, relatively low-priced, and long-lasting. The plastic industry generates approximately 300 million tons of plastics annually, which are used once and discarded after use [ 11 ]. Discarded plastic waste, owing to the durability and low degradability of these polymers, may take hundreds to thousands of years to decompose [ 11 ]. Moreover, of the total produced quantity of plastics, only 7% is recycled, while about 8% is incinerated and the residual landfilled [ 12 ]. The National Academy of Sciences in 1975 assessed that 14 billion pounds of garbage was dumped every year, either buried underground or buried in the oceans. Consequently, oceans and landmass are infested with plastics. In fact, more than 10 million tons of plastic waste is dumped in the oceans alone, so that the majority of anthropogenic debris littering the oceans is composed of human-made plastics. Reports suggest that plastics can now be used as a geological stratigraphic indicator of the Anthropocene era [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. This anthropogenic debris threatens ocean safety, integrity, and sustainability [ 17 ]. Overall, plastic waste contributes to a pressing environmental problem is as yet unsolved.

3.1. Why plastics are nondegradable

The production of synthetic plastics, particularly nondegradable ones, is an environmental burden. This is because ‘nondegradable’ plastics take decades or centuries to break down [ 18 ]. Nonbiodegradability of certain plastics suggests that their chemical structure cannot be adequately modified by naturally occurring microorganisms, water, carbon dioxide or methane to degrade them [ 10 , 19 ]. Meanwhile, ‘biodegradable’ plastics are truly compostable materials that can almost entirely be converted into benign trash after a matter of months in a composter [ 18 ].

Studies on biological decomposition of plastics by various microorganisms under different environmental conditions have revealed that these decomposition conditions are governed by the physical and chemical characteristics of the type of plastic discarded, such as mobility, crystal structure, molecular weight, functional groups etc. [ 20 ]. High molecular weight, high degree of crystallinity, high hydrophobicity as a result of linearity of the polymeric carbon chain backbone, and general insolubility in water are some of the factors that typically reduce the degradability of plastics [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Indeed, these are the properties that make the petroleum-based plastics polyethylene and polypropylene nonbiodegradable [ 10 , 22 ].

Notably, not all petroleum-based plastics are nonbiodegradable. For example, polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) are both petroleum-based plastics which can undergo microbial degradation [ 10 ]. However, the biodegradability of these polymers is affected by their physicochemical properties such as degree of crosslinking, degree of crystallinity, molecular weight and the species of microorganisms used [ 23 ]. Indeed, studies have revealed that crosslinked polymers have the lowest rate of degradation, followed by crystalline and then amorphous polymers [ 23 ].

3.2. How to eliminate plastics

There are many alternatives currently available for reusing and recycling existing plastics, and a significant amount of ongoing research seeks to completely replace plastics with more sustainable alternatives in the future. At the same time, a large amount of plastic waste is already present in the environment and needs to be disposed. Moreover, recycling of plastics has not been effectively adopted. Also, plastics can only be recycled a limited number of times before they become contaminated to the point that they can no longer be used [ 17 ].

The challenge of plastic disposal can be addressed in various ways. One way is to convert the plastic discards into energy by incineration [ 24 ]. However, this will give rise to large amounts of carbon dioxide and contribute to global warming. A more sustainable means of disposing old plastics is to develop the capability to recycle old plastic materials into new ones. An example is the production of recycled oxy-degradable plastics (synthetic wood) from high-molecular polyethylene to replace wood for discarded garden furniture [ 25 ]. Other alternative approaches to plastic recycling include mechanical and chemical recycling. Mechanical recycling permits plastic discards to be used as raw material for other new types of plastic products [ 26 ]. When mechanical recycling is not possible, chemical recycling technologies can be used to convert plastic waste into different products through chemical breakdown processes [ 26 ]. Chemical recycling of plastic waste involves depolymerization to the constituent monomers achieved through hydrolysis, alcoholysis, glycolysis, ammonolysis, pyrolysis, hydrogenation, and gasification [ 26 ]. However, whether recycled plastics are better for the environment can only be determined after knowing if the production of new plastic materials will allow overall reductions in energy expenditure, water use and greenhouse gas emissions [ 27 , 28 ].

Lastly, another method of eliminating plastic waste is to use it to generate gaseous matter with high hydrogen content or synthesis gas [ 7 ]. This is a promising alternative to waste treatment because not only is waste eliminated, but it is also used as fuel.

4. Bioplastics

The environmental problems caused by discarded synthetic plastics have paved the way for the search for substitutes. Bioplastics, which are both functionally similar to synthetic plastics and environmentally sustainable, are touted as promising new materials to address these problems. Bioplastics is a term used to refer to plastics that (1) are biodegradable, such as PCL or PBS; or (2) may or may not be degradable but are produced from biological materials or renewable feedstock, such as starch, cellulose, vegetable oils, and vegetable fats [ 10 , 19 ]. Like any other polymeric material, the degradability of bioplastics is also a factor of their composition, degree of crystallinity and environmental factors, leading to degradation times ranging from several days to several years. For these reasons, the development of biodegradable bioplastics has gained attention in recent years [ 24 , 26 , 28 , 29 ].

Based on degradation mechanisms, there are two main categories of biodegradable bioplastics, namely oxo-biodegradable and hydro-biodegradable [ 30 ]. Oxo-biodegradable plastics are made of petroleum-based polymers mixed with a pro-degradant additive that catalyzes the plastic's degradation process [ 31 ]. The additive is a metal salt (manganese or iron salts), which enhances the abiotic degradation process of the oxo-biodegradable plastic in the presence of oxygen [ 32 , 33 ]. Presently, oxo-biodegradable plastics are mainly produced from naphtha, a by-product of oil or natural gas [ 34 ]. Interestingly, the time taken by biodegradable oxo products to degrade can be ‘programmed’ at manufacture, like the methane or nitrous oxide industrial processes [ 31 ]. The degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastics usually takes months to years [ 32 ]. On the other hand, hydro-biodegradable plastics decompose hydrolytically at a rate faster than oxo-degradable plastics. These plastics can be converted to synthetic fertilizers. Examples include bioplastics produced from plant sources (such as starch), and polylactic acid (PLA). Forthcoming paragraphs summarize the most recent literature on different types of bioplastics that have been or are currently being developed.

4.1. Thermoplastic starch

Starch is a biodegradable, cheap, renewable, easily modifiable biopolymer acquired from renewable plant resources [ 34 , 35 ]. It consists of two main constituent polymers, amylose, and amylopectin. Amylose is a linear polysaccharide composed of α-D-glucose monomers linked by α-1,4-glycosidic linkages, whereas amylopectin has the same composition but is highly branched through another type of linkage, the α-1,6-glycosidic linkage [ 36 ]. It should be noted that starch chains bind together via strong hydrogen bonding, which results in a rigid structure composed of highly ordered crystalline regions [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ].

Starch can be formulated into suitable thermoplastic material that can be readily processed into useable forms [ 39 , 40 ]. Starch's thermal processing involves a change in its microstructure, phase transitions and rheology. Furthermore, starch can be chemically modified and blended with other biopolymers to reduce its brittleness. Starch-based bioplastics are used for packaging materials and for producing food utensils such as cups, bowls, bottles, cutlery, egg cartons, and straws.

4.2. Polyhydroxyalkanoates

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a class of bio-based plastics belonging to the polyhydroxyester family of 3-, 4-, 5- and 6-hydroxy alkanoic acids [ 41 ]. The general chemical structure of PHA is shown in Figure 2 . PHAs are biocompatible, biodegradable, and non-toxic polyesters synthesized by certain bacteria and plants from renewable sources [ 41 ]. In particular, PHA can be produced from methane released from feedstock in wastewater treatment facilities, landfills, compost facilities, farms and food processors, waste haulers, bio-refinery operators, and plastic compounders can be used as feedstock for successful, low-cost commercial production of PHA [ 42 , 43 ]. PHA can also be produced from wood biomass, grass, energy, and crop residues instead of more expensive biomass obtained from edible crops (Renmatix, Pennsylvania, USA) [ 44 ]. Renmatix's technology separates biomass from water and uses heat instead of acids, solvents, or enzymes to produce PHA bioplastics in a clean, fast and relatively inexpensive process [ 42 ]. The PHA thus produced can be used for commercial purposes, such as bioplastic wraps, shampoo bottles, or polyester fibers that can be combined with natural materials for clothing. PHA bioplastics can be digested naturally by marine microorganisms when they are decomposed into methane and reach the ocean [ 42 ]. At the end of its life cycle, the developed bioplastic can be broken down into virgin plastic since it is compostable and marine-degradable [ 42 , 45 ].

Chemical structure of PHA.

PHB is a widely-used PHA ( Figure 3 ) produced by a variety of microorganisms (such as Cupriavidus nectar , Methylobacterium rhodesianum or Bacillus megaterium ) from methane [ 46 , 47 , 48 ]. Methane is first oxidized to methanol via the methane monooxygenase enzyme catalytic pathway [ 49 ]. This is followed by methanol dehydrogenase-dependent conversion of methanol to formaldehyde [ 49 ]. Methanotrophic bacteria, such as γ-proteobacteria and α-proteobacteria, can further convert formaldehyde to acetyl coenzyme A (Acetyl-CoA) [ 49 , 50 ]. Acetyl CoA is condensed into the dimer acetoacetyl-CoA, which is then reduced by acetoacetyl-CoA reductase enzyme to form PHB monomer β-hydroxybutyrl-CoA [ 49 ]. Finally, β-hydroxybutyrl-CoA is polymerized to PHB via the PHB synthase enzyme [ 49 ].

The structure of PHB plastic.

PHB bioplastics are biodegradable, making them an attractive environment-friendly alternative to fossil-based thermoplastics [ 51 , 52 ]. Melt-processable PHB can be formed by using semi-crystalline thermoplastics produced from the fermentation of renewable carbohydrate feedstock [ 53 ]. Moreover, commercial grades of PHB possess properties very similar to fossil fuel produced polypropylene (PP) [ 54 , 55 ].

Common applications of PHB include disposable tableware articles, soil retention sheathing, waste wrapping, and packaging material. PHB also finds applications in the field of biomedical engineering where it can be spun into surgical sutures and used as drug delivery systems [ 55 ].

4.3. Polylactic acid

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a thermoplastic aliphatic polyester obtained by polymerizing lactic acid from renewable resources, such as corn starch, tapioca roots, chips or starch, and sugarcane [ 56 ]. PLA is used mainly in the food industry to prepare disposable tableware articles like drinking cups, cutlery, trays, food plates, food containers and packaging for sensitive food products. However, PLA bioplastics are too fragile and cannot be used for other packaging manufacturing processes. For this reason, PLA needs additives to make it more durable [ 57 ]. Notably, PLA is the most biodegradable thermoplastic, typically degrading via hydrolysis ( Figure 4 ) [ 58 ].

Polylactic acid (PLA) hydrolysis.

Several commercial grades of PLA are specifically designed for processes such as thermoforming and extrusion/injection moulding [ 59 ]. It can also be used for soil retention sheathings, agriculture films, waste shopping bags, and the use of packaging material [ 58 ]. Furthermore, PLA can be converted into fibers by spinning and used to manufacture woven, disposable and biodegradable fabric articles such as disposable garments, feminine hygiene products, and diapers [ 43 , 58 ].

4.4. Bioplastics produced by cyanobacteria through photosynthesis

Recent studies have described the production of bioplastics by using cyanobacteria blooms that use sunlight to produce chemicals through photosynthesis [ 60 ]. Instead of feeding sugar from corn or sugarcane to plastic-producing bacteria, advances have been made to improve the cyanobacteria to produce plastics naturally by using their self-synthesized glucose. Cyanobacteria can convert glucose to acetyl-CoA, which, as explained earlier, is then converted to acetoacetyl-CoA, followed by β-hydroxybutyryl-CoA and finally, PHB [ 60 ]. Moreover, it has been shown that it is also possible to produce polymers from genetically engineered cyanobacteria that feed on sugars, a method that could replace fossil-fuel-based processes [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. Overall, cyanobacterial species such as Scytonema geitleri Bharadwaja , when stressed, store the intracellular poly-β-hydroxybuyrate granules for energy and carbon reserves inside their cells [ 64 ]. The biodegradable and eco-friendly PHB can then be gathered and used to form biocompatible thermoplastics [ 63 ].

However, researchers have pointed out a possible issue with bioplastic production that relies on feeding plastic-producing bacteria with large quantities of sugars obtained from natural crops. Since the natural crops are used as food to sustain people and animals, we risk compromising the competing balance for the limited agricultural resources [ 65 ]. As a potential solution for this issue, a recent study has demonstrated the development of finely tuned cyanobacteria of the Spirulina strain, which can constantly produce sugar and leak it into the surrounding saltwater, which contains natural bacteria [ 66 ]. These bacteria usually feed off the leaked sugar and convert it to produce bioplastic. This means that the cyanobacteria create sugar during photosynthesis, which is food for the natural bacteria that converted it into bioplastics [ 66 ].

Promising new strategies involving genetic engineering of cyanobacteria have also been reported to produce small substrate chains like poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) PHBV and poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) PHB4B, and PHBHx copolymers containing 3-hydroxyl hexanoate units [ 60 ]. This involves the use of a mixture of substrates, such as glucose and valerate, to cause the formation of random copolymers [ 60 ]. Hence, when these substrates are alternately bonded during copolymerization, it is possible to obtain PHA block copolymers synthesized by bacteria [ 67 ]. The chemical structures of these copolymers are shown in Figure 5 .

(a) Poly-hydroxybutyrate copolymers. (b) Poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4hydroxybutyrate) (PHB4B).

4.5. 1,2-, 1,4- and 2,3-butanediol bioplastics

Butanediol (BDO) is an industrial chemical used as a solvent and building block in bioplastics, elastic fibers, and polyurethanes [ 68 ]. BDO contains terminal, primary hydroxyl groups which allow it to be used as a cross-linking agent for the synthesis of thermoplastic urethanes, polyester plasticizers, paints and coatings, copolyester hot melt and solvent-borne adhesives [ 69 ]. In polyurethane applications, 1,4-BDO is primarily used as a component of polyesters or as a chain extender. Bioplastics formed from BDO are completely biodegradable. An example is poly (1,4-butylene succinate) (PBS). PBS, which typically exists behaves as a semi-crystalline thermoplastic, is chemically synthesized from succinic acid and 1,4-BDO ( Figure 6 ).

Poly (1,4-butylene succinate) (PBS).

The mechanical properties of PBS are comparable to that of widely used high-density polyethylene and isotactic polypropylene [ 70 , 71 , 72 ]. Moreover, it is relatively more cost-effective compared to other biopolymers such as PLA, PBAT, and PHB [ 70 , 71 , 72 ]. As such, it is used for a variety of applications such as disposable food packaging, mulch film, plant pots, hygiene products, fishing nets, and fishing lines [ 70 , 71 , 72 ]. It can also be utilized as a ‘matrix polymer’ or in combination with other biopolymers such as PLA [ 70 , 71 , 72 ].

The key monomer for PBS, namely, 1,4-BDO, is currently produced through feedstocks derived from oil and natural gas [ 73 ]. Furthermore, it is also possible to synthesize 1,4-BDO via direct biocatalytic routes from renewable carbohydrate feedstocks (glucose and sucrose) [ 73 ]. It has also been found that an engineered Escherichia coli host enhances the anaerobic operation of the oxidative tricarboxylic acid cycle, thereby generating reducing power to drive the BDO pathway [ 74 ]. E. coli produce BDO from glucose, xylose, sucrose, and biomass-derived mixed sugar streams. The creation of such engineered bacteria has allowed for a systems-based metabolic engineering approach to strain design and development that can enable new bioprocesses for commodity chemicals that are not naturally produced by living cells.

In addition to 1,4-BDO, it has been established that 2,3-butanediol (2,3-BDO) is an excellent bio-based chemical possessing important industrial applications. 2,3-BDO has been used extensively for synthetic rubber precursor, food additives, and cosmetics. As in the case of 1,4-BDO, E. coli has been metabolically engineered to promote the production of 2,3-BDO by expressing the Bacillus subtilis alsS , alsD , and ydjL genes encoding α-acetolactate synthase, α-acetolactate decarboxylase, and acetoin reductase/2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase, respectively, along with Deinococcus radiodurans dr1558 gene encoding a response regulator [ 75 , 76 ]. In another study, USA-based Genomatica, Inc. developed a commercial, bio-based processes to manipulate E. coli to produce bio-butanediol (Bio-BDO) directly [ 77 ]. This bio-butanediol (Bio-BDO) chemical can be used to create a wide range of products: from spandex to car bumpers, in a more energy-efficient way and without oil or natural gas [ 77 ].

4.6. Seaweed polysaccharide bioplastics

Seaweeds are excellent candidates for the production of bioplastics [ 78 ]. Seaweeds possess the ability to grow in a wide range of environments, which simplifies their cultivation in the natural environment [ 79 ]. Using seaweeds for bioplastics production can minimize the impact on the food chain [ 78 , 80 ]. Furthermore, seaweed-based bioplastics are chemical-independent [ 78 , 80 ].

The most commonly used seaweed types in industry contain polysaccharides such as agar, alginate, carrageenan, galactans, and starch [ 78 ]. These polysaccharides consist of mannuronic and guluronic acid residues [ 43 , 81 ]. The seaweed polysaccharide backbones are frequently functionalized with various substituent sulphate and methoxyl groups, which impart negative charge to them [ 82 ]. This allows them to interact to variable extent with cations, resulting in the formation of gels [ 82 ]. These gels have properties that cover a wide range of industrial applications required by all thermo-mechanical bioplastics [ 82 ].

Seaweed polysaccharides are extracted from dried and ground seaweeds by following a hot extraction method [ 78 ]. This is followed by a two-step purification process, the first of which involves the removal of dense cellulosic contaminants by centrifugation and subsequent filtration, and the second one involves the concentration of the purified mixture by allowing the water to evaporate [ 78 ]. From the enriched mixture, potassium chloride can be added to cause gelation of seaweed polysaccharides [ 78 ]. Alternatively, isopropyl alcohol can be used to cause precipitation of the polysaccharides [ 78 ]. The concentrated mass of polysaccharides can be frozen and freeze-dried to be used in the manufacturing of bioplastics [ 78 ]. An example is the production of thermoplastic starch from seaweed starch, as discussed previously in Section 3.1 .

Seaweed polysaccharides can be useful in various food industry applications such as texture modification, colloidal stabilization, fat reduction and shelf-life extension [ 82 ]. It is also possible to produce biodegradable water bottles made from seaweed [ 76 , 78 ]. Other applications include lenses, coatings for telephones and DVDs and packaging materials [ 83 ].

4.7. Fungal mycelium-based bioplastics

Evocative, a New York-based company, has used mycelium – vegetative fungal extensions that give rise to mushrooms – to make plastic-like materials for biodegradable packaging and tiling [ 84 , 85 ]. Mycelium is composed of polysaccharides, chitin, proteins and lipids, which together result in adequate mechanical properties for this biomaterial to be used in a range of industrial applications [ 86 ]. The mushroom-producing mycelium provides for a fibrous biomaterial that can be combined with agricultural by-products (such as the peel of the seeds and the corn stalk) to make composite materials for industrial use [ 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 ]. This new material is being used by IKEA company which, to fulfill its commitment to sustainable innovation, has decided to use mushroom-based packing that eliminates the need for other wasteful materials [ 88 ].

4.8. Bioplastics from crab shells and tree discards

Jie Wu (2014) created a novel bioplastic derived from crab shells and tree fibers that can be used as an alternative for the flexible plastic packaging used to keep food fresh [ 89 ]. Multiple layers of chitin from crab shells and cellulose from trees were sprayed to form a flexible film similar to plastic packaging film. This new bioplastic was compared to polyethylene terephthalate (PET), the most common petroleum-based plastic used as transparent packaging. The study revealed that this new packaging could be more effective and safer to contain liquids and foods [ 90 , 91 ]. In comparison to fossil fuel-based PET plastics, the novel bioplastic material showed a 73% reduction in oxygen permeability, thereby enabling food to stay fresh for longer [ 92 ].

5. Are bioplastics good or bad for the environment?

Bioplastics are emerging to be highly controversial when it comes to determining their impact on the environment. While bioplastics are often hailed as excellent alternatives to conventional plastics, they are also associated with shortcomings [ 93 ]. Let us consider the case of biodegradable bioplastics. Biodegradable bioplastics can decompose into natural materials through microbial mechanisms and blend harmlessly into the soil [ 94 , 95 ]. This decomposition process is aided by water and/or oxygen. For example, when a cornstarch-derived bioplastic is composted, the cornstarch molecules slowly absorb water and swell up when buried. This causes the starch bioplastic to break apart into small fragments that can then be easily digested by bacteria [ 94 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 ]. However, some low-degrading or nondegradable bioplastics only break-down at high temperatures or when treated in municipal composters or digesters [ 100 , 101 , 102 ]. Moreover, some biodegradable plastics can only degrade in specific active landfill sites under certain definite and tried conditions [ 103 ]. Decomposition during composting produces methane gas, a greenhouse gas many times more potent than carbon dioxide [ 104 , 105 ]. This greenhouse gas contributes to the problem of global warming [ 106 ].

Furthermore, producing bioplastics from plants such as corn and maize requires repurposing of land for producing plastic instead of fulfilling food requirements [ 107 ]. A recent statistical study revealed that almost a quarter of the agricultural land producing grains is used to produce biofuels and bioplastics. As more agricultural land gets used to produce biofuels and bioplastics, there may be a significant rise in food prices, affecting the economically weaker sections of the society [ 108 ].

Moreover, a recent study, which compared seven traditional plastics, four bioplastics, and one made from both fossil fuel and renewable sources, determined that bioplastic production resulted in greater amounts of pollutants, owing to the fertilizers and pesticides employed in cultivating the crops, in addition to the chemical processing needed to turn organic material into the plastic [ 109 ]. It was also found that bioplastics contribute more to ozone depletion than traditional fossil fuel-derived plastics [ 110 ]. Furthermore, it has been found that bio-based PET, a hybrid bioplastic, is a potential carcinogen and also has pernicious toxic effects on earth ecosystems [ 111 , 112 ].

At the same time, bioplastics also have eco-friendly characteristics. For example, production of PLA saves two-thirds of the energy needed to make traditional plastics [ 51 ]. Moreover, it has been scientifically established that during the biodegradation of PLA bioplastics, there is no net increase in carbon dioxide gas [ 58 ]. This was evidenced by the fact that the plants from which they were produced absorbed the same amount of carbon dioxide when they were cultivated as was released during their biodegradation [ 58 , 113 ]. Notably, PLA emits 70% less greenhouse gases when it degrades in landfills [ 30 ]. Other studies have also found that substituting traditional plastic with corn-based PLA bioplastics can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 25% [ 110 , 112 ]. Such examples provide assurance that the future production of new bioplastics can be accomplished by using renewable energy while substantially reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

6. Life cycle analysis – a way to address the controversy around the eco-friendliness of bioplastics

To comprehensively compare bioplastics with conventional plastics, it is crucial to evaluate bioplastics' environmental impact from the initial production, utilization, and finally to disposal [ 114 , 115 ]. The most important tool to evaluate the environmental impact of bioplastics and/or conventional plastics is life cycle assessment (LCA) or cradle-to-grave analysis, a process that can help determine the overall impact of a bioplastic on the environment at each stage in its life cycle [ 115 , 116 ]. This signifies that the whole life of this industrial product is evaluated, starting from the raw material extraction to the various stages of materials processing, manufacture, distribution, and use [ 116 ]. An LCA impact study involves the assessment of global warming, human toxicity, abiotic depletion, eutrophication and acidification [ 117 , 118 ]. In addition, when conducting the LCA, it is essential to consider Land Use Change (LUC)-related emissions and the cost and benefits of bioplastic disposal [ 119 ]. LUC is a guide to consider when land is converted to spaces for composting, biofuel feedstock production or other uses [ 120 ].

It is essential to understand the LCA of different bioplastic composting, recycling, and disposal scenarios. Indeed, a meticulously performed LCAs can serve as an important reference material for policymakers [ 121 ]. For example, numerous protocols have been established to conduct LCA/cradle-to-grave studies on PLA bioplastics currently in the market [ 122 ]. These studies involve comparisons of their LCA with that of fossil-fuel plastics such as polyethylene and PET [ 123 ]. For instance, a recent study revealed that there was a significant reduction in greenhouse gases when manufactured bottles were made by subsisting 20% of the PET bottles with PLA bottles [ 124 ]. This study was carried out by using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) method and a LCA cradle-to-grave study [ 124 , 125 , 126 ]. Another study, using the Global Warming Potential (GWP) guide in which the greenhouse gas emission was measured in kg of CO 2 equivalents, showed that it was possible to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by substituting petroleum-based plastics with bioplastics [ 127 , 128 ]. Additional, separate LCAs for other bioplastics can also provide such valuable data.

LCA also provides an important means of identifying the best method of bioplastic waste management and disposal. For example, LCA has revealed that incineration or landfilling of bioplastic products is not a useful alternative [ 94 , 129 ]. A plausible solution to bioplastic waste management problem was confirmed by adhering to the LUC emissions principle, which established the reliability of bioplastics as an excellent replacement for petroleum-based plastics [ 130 , 131 ]. Compared to conventional petroleum-derived plastics, the use of PLA and thermoplastic starch significantly reduces carbon dioxide emissions, in the case of the former, by 50–70% [ 132 ]. Similarly, bio-urethanes and poly (trimethyleneterephthalate) (PTT) have respectively 36% and 44% lower greenhouse gas emissions than their petroleum-derived counterparts [ 132 ]. However, to continue the smart management of bioplastic wastes, it has been proposed that the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions must reach zero LUC emissions [ 119 , 130 ]. Future studies should focus on conducting individual LCAs for the ever-growing range of bioplastics, many of which have been discussed earlier in this review.

7. Conclusion

A variety of bioplastics have been developed to address environmental issues associated with conventional petroleum-derived plastics – from well-known and well-studied biodegradable and/or bio-based plastics like PHB, PCL and PLA to recent additions such as mycelium-based and chitin-based biopolymers. Importantly, however, bioplastics are associated with some shortcomings. It should be understood that similar to petroleum-based plastics, some bio-based plastics cannot be recycled. Consequently, many biodegradable bioplastics end up in landfills, which decompose gradually and produce methane gas. For these reasons, people are starting to believe that bioplastics should be used only when needed, with tailor-made properties. However, it is important that we weigh these environment-related shortcomings of bioplastics against the harms caused by conventional plastics. Studies, including several discussed in the present review article, show that the harms associated with bioplastics are still less severe when compared to conventional plastics. Moreover, as new types of bioplastics such as those discussed in this article keep becoming developed by academic and industry-oriented researchers, it is possible that the drawbacks of currently used bioplastics can be addressed adequately. In order to confirm the eco-friendliness of these new bioplastics, future studies should conduct thorough LCAs and LUC analyses. Such studies will help policymakers to determine whether the use of new-generation bioplastics is indeed beneficial to the environment.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interests statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Acknowledgements

We are sincerely grateful to Dr Bnoub, Dr Parish, Le, Dr Abanoub and Tuyet Anh Thi for their help during different stages of preparation of this article.

Recycle and Reuse to Reduce Plastic Waste - A Perspective Study Comparing Petro- and Bioplastics

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• Published: 23 May 2024

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• Farah Mneimneh 1 ,
• Nour Haddad 2 &
• Seeram Ramakrishna 1 , 3  

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Especially in light of the growing demand for plastic products, the urgency to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change has underscored the need for the plastics sector to embrace sustainable practices. Petroplastics are widely used polymers that may be recycled via mechanical, chemical, and reusability methods. They are mostly sourced from petrochemical sources. As an alternative that is more sustainable, bioplastics have gained popularity due to their lower carbon emissions during manufacture and decreased need on petroleum feedstocks. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the characteristics and uses of both petroplastics and bioplastics thoroughly. This is followed by an analysis of the benefits and downsides of many recycling methods, including solvent-based, mechanical, chemical, and energy recovery systems. Moreover, an evaluation of the quality of plastic after recycling is carried out in order to clarify the inherent difficulties and restrictions associated with each recovery method. Inquiry like this helps the plastics sector create strong standards that protect the environment and promote more sustainable operations. This research also includes factors on which depends the quality of the plastic products such as the degree of mixing, the degree of degradation, and the presence of low molecular weight compounds. It also includes challenges and limitations due to some properties of the manufactured plastics such as their quality, their flexibility, or the recycling process which formed them. Finally, this study suggests further research regarding material property deterioration, cost, and sorting issues in plastic recycling.

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Mneimneh, F., Haddad, N. & Ramakrishna, S. Recycle and Reuse to Reduce Plastic Waste - A Perspective Study Comparing Petro- and Bioplastics. Circ.Econ.Sust. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-024-00381-7

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• 31 May 2024

Biomedical paper retractions have quadrupled in 20 years — why?

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Retraction rates in European biomedical science papers have quadrupled since 2000. Credit: bagi1998/Getty

The retraction rate for European biomedical-science papers increased fourfold between 2000 and 2021, a study of thousands of retractions has found.

Two-thirds of these papers were withdrawn for reasons relating to research misconduct, such as data and image manipulation or authorship fraud . These factors accounted for an increasing proportion of retractions over the roughly 20-year period, the analysis suggests.

“Our findings indicate that research misconduct has become more prevalent in Europe over the last two decades,” write the authors, led by Alberto Ruano‐Ravina, a public-health researcher at the University of Santiago de Compostela in Spain.

Other research-integrity specialists point out that retractions could be on the rise because researchers and publishers are getting better at investigating and identifying potential misconduct. There are more people working to spot errors and new digital tools to screen publications for suspicious text or data.

Rising retractions

Scholarly publishers have faced increased pressure to clear up the literature in recent years as sleuths have exposed cases of research fraud , identified when peer review has been compromised and uncovered the buying and selling of research articles . Last year saw a record 10,000 papers retracted . Although misconduct is a leading cause of retractions, it is not always responsible: some papers are retracted when authors discover honest errors in their work.

More than 10,000 research papers were retracted in 2023 — a new record

The latest research, published on 4 May in Scientometrics 1 , looked at more than 2,000 biomedical papers that had a corresponding author based at a European institution and were retracted between 2000 and mid-2021. The data included original articles, reviews, case reports and letters published in English, Spanish or Portuguese. They were listed in a database collated by the media organization Retraction Watch, which records why papers are retracted.

The authors found that overall retraction rates quadrupled during the study period — from around 11 retractions per 100,000 papers in 2000 to almost 45 per 100,000 in 2020. Of all the retracted papers, nearly 67% were withdrawn due to misconduct and around 16% for honest errors. The remaining retractions did not give a reason.

Looking at the papers retracted for misconduct specifically, Ruano‐Ravina and his colleagues found that the major causes have changed over time. In 2000, the highest proportions of retractions were attributed to ethical and legal problems, authorship issues — including dubious or false authorships, objections to authorship by institutions and lack of author approval — and duplication of images , data or large passages of text. By 2020, duplication was still one of the top reasons for retraction, but a similar proportion of papers was retracted owing to ‘unreliable data’ (see ‘Misconduct retractions’).

Source: Ref 1

‘Unreliable data’ refers to studies that cannot be trusted for reasons including original data not being provided and problems with bias or lack of balance. The authors suggest that the rise in retractions attributable to this cause could be related to an increase in the number of papers suspected to be produced by paper mills , businesses that generate fake or poor-quality papers to order.

Authorship problems fell to the joint fifth reason for retractions in 2020. This is “possibly due to the implementation of authorship control systems and increased researcher awareness”, write Ruano‐Ravina and colleagues.

International variation

The study also identified the four European countries that had the highest number of retracted biomedical science papers: Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy and Spain. Each had distinct ‘profiles’ of misconduct-related retractions. In the United Kingdom, for example, falsification was the top reason given for retractions in most years, but the proportion of papers withdrawn because of duplication fell between 2000 and 2020. Meanwhile, Spain and Italy both saw huge rises in the proportion of papers retracted because of duplication.

Arturo Casadevall, a microbiologist at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, contributed to work that in 2012 found similar rates of paper withdrawal for misconduct 2 . “To me, this argues that the underlying problems in science have not changed appreciably in the past 12 years,” he says.

But the overall increase in retraction rates could reflect the fact that authors, institutions and journals are increasingly using retractions to correct the literature, he adds.

Science’s fake-paper problem: high-profile effort will tackle paper mills

Sholto David, a biologist and research-integrity specialist based in Wales, UK, points out that methods for detecting errors in research improved during the 20-year study period. An increasing number of people now scan the literature and point out flaws, which could help to explain increasing retraction rates, he says. In particular, the launch of the post-publication peer-review website PubPeer in 2012 has offered sleuths the opportunity to scrutinize papers en masse, he adds, and it has become much more common for researchers to send whistle-blowing e-mails to journals.

Ivan Oransky, Retraction Watch’s co-founder who is based in New York City, suggests that the routine use of plagiarism-detection software by publishers during the past decade might have contributed to the rising rates of retraction because of plagiarism and duplication. It remains to be seen how more recent digital tools, such as those that detect image manipulation, could affect paper withdrawal rates in the coming years, he adds.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01609-0

Freijedo-Farinas, F., Ruano-Ravina, A., Pérez-Ríos, M., Ross, J. & Candal-Pedreira, C. Scientometrics https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-024-04992-7 (2024).

Article   Google Scholar  

Fang, F. C., Steen, R. G. & Casadevall, A. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA109 , 17028–17033 (2012).

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