speech intro and conclusion

Speechwriting

10 Introductions and Conclusions

Starting and Ending Your Speech

One of the most fundamental components of any public speech is having a strong introduction and conclusion. Your introduction gives the audience their first impression of you. This is your best chance to build credibility. You need to grab the audience’s attention, introduce your topic, and preview how the speech will unfold. The conclusion needs to reiterate your main points and help the audience see how all your main points work together. Additionally, even if the audience got a bit lost or disengaged in the middle, a strong conclusion will leave them with an overall positive reaction to your speech.

Can you imagine how strange a speech would sound without an introduction? Or how jarring it would be if, after making a point, a speaker just walked away from the lectern and sat down? You would be confused, and the takeaway from that speech—even if the content were good—would likely be, “I couldn’t follow” or “That was a weird speech.”

This is just one of the reasons all speeches need introductions and conclusions. Introductions and conclusions serve to frame the speech and give it a clearly defined beginning and end. They help the audience to see what is to come in the speech, and then let them mentally prepare for the end. In doing this, introductions and conclusions provide a “preview/review” of your speech as a means to reiterate or re-emphasize to your audience what you are talking about.

Since speeches are auditory and live, you need to make sure the audience remembers what you are saying. One of the primary functions of an introduction is to preview what you will be covering in your speech, and one of the main roles of the conclusion is to review what you have covered. It may seem like you are repeating yourself and saying the same things over and over, but that repetition ensures that your audience understands and retains what you are saying.

The roles that introductions and conclusions fulfill are numerous, and, when done correctly, can make your speech stronger. The general rule is that the introduction and conclusion should each be about 10-15% of your total speech, leaving 80% for the body section. Let’s say that your informative speech has a time limit of 5-7 minutes: if we average that out to 6 minutes that gives you 360 seconds. Ten to 15 percent means that the introduction and conclusion should each be no more than 1-1/2 minutes.

In the following sections, we will discuss specifically what should be included in the introduction and conclusion and offer several options for accomplishing each.

The Five Elements of an Introduction

Intro element 1: attention-getter.

The first major purpose of an introduction is to gain your audience’s attention and make them interested in what you have to say. First impressions matter. When we meet someone for the first time, it can be only a matter of seconds before we find ourselves interested or disinterested in the person. The equivalent in speechwriting of “first impression” is what is called an attention-getter. This is a statement or question that piques the audience’s interest in what you have to say. There are several strategies you can choose from—verbal and non-verbal—to get the audience’s attention. Below are described the most popular types of attention-getters: quotations, questions, stories, humor, surprise, stories, and references. As well as non-verbal attention-getters involving images, sounds, or objects.

Quotations are a great way to start a speech. That’s why they are used so often as a strategy. Here’s an example that might be used in the opening of a commencement address:

The late actor, fashion icon, and social activist Audrey Hepburn once noted that, “Nothing is impossible. The word itself says ‘I’m possible’!”

If you use a quotation as your attention getter, be sure to give the source first (as in this example) so that it isn’t mistaken as your own wording.

We often hear speakers begin a speech with a question for the audience. As easy as it sounds, beginning with a question is somewhat tricky. You must decide if you are asking a question because you want a response from the audience, or, on the other hand, if you are asking a question that you will answer, or that will create a dramatic effect. We call these rhetorical questions .

The dangers with a direct question are many. There may be an awkward pause after your question because the audience doesn’t know if you actually want an answer. Or they don’t know how you want the response—a verbal response or a gesture such as a raised hand. Another reason direct questions are delicate is this obvious point: what you are going to do with the response. For example, imagine you have written a speech about the importance of forgiving student debt, and you begin your speech with this question for the audience: “How many of you have more than $10,000 in student loan debt?” You would be creating a problem for yourself if just a few people in the audience raised their hand. If you want to use a direct question, follow these rules:

• make it clear to the audience the means of response. “By a show of hands, how many of you have more than $10,000 in student loan debt?”
• prepare in advance how you will acknowledge different responses.

Contrary to a direct question, you could use a rhetorical question—a question to which no actual reply is expected. For example, a speaker talking about the history of Mother’s Day could start by asking the audience, “Do you remember the last time you told your mom you loved her?” In this case, the speaker does not expect the audience to shout out an answer, but rather to think about the question as the speech goes on.

Finally, when asking a rhetorical question, don’t pause after it, or the audience will get distracted wondering if you’re waiting for a response. Jump right into your speech:

“How many of you have more than $10,000 in student loan debt? If you’re like 78% of college seniors, your answer is probably a yes.”

Humor is an amazing tool when used properly but it’s a double-edged sword. If you don’t wield the sword carefully, you can turn your audience against you very quickly.

When using humor, you really need to know your audience and understand what they will find humorous. One of the biggest mistakes a speaker can make is to use some form of humor that the audience either doesn’t find funny or, worse, finds offensive. We always recommend that you test out humor of any kind on a sample of potential audience members prior to actually using it during a speech. If you do use a typical narrative “joke,” don’t say it happened to you. Anyone who heard the joke before will think you are less than truthful!

As with other attention-getting devices, you need to make sure your humor is relevant to your topic, as one of the biggest mistakes some novices make when using humor is to add humor that really doesn’t support the overall goal of the speech. Therefore, when looking for humorous attention getters, you want to make sure that the humor isn’t going to be offensive to your audience and relevant to your speech.

Another way to start your speech is to surprise your audience with information that will be surprising or startling to your audience. Often, startling statements come in the form of statistics and strange facts. For example, if you’re giving a speech about oil conservation, you could start by saying,

“A Boeing 747 airliner holds 57,285 gallons of fuel.”

That’s a surprising or startling fact. Another version of the surprise form of an attention-getter is to offer a strange fact. For example, you could start a speech on the gambling industry by saying, “There are no clocks in any casinos in Las Vegas.”  You could start a speech on the Harlem Globetrotters by saying, “In 2000, Pope John Paul II became the most famous honorary member of the Harlem Globetrotters.” (These examples come from a great website for strange facts ( http://www. strangefacts.com ).

Although such statements are fun, it’s important to use them ethically. First, make sure that your startling statement is factual. The Internet is full of startling statements and claims that are simply not factual, so when you find a statement that you’d like to use, you have an ethical duty to ascertain its truth before you use it and to provide a reliable citation. Second, make sure that your startling statement is relevant to your speech and not just thrown in for shock value. We’ve all heard startling claims made in the media that are clearly made for purposes of shock or fear mongering, such as “Do you know what common household appliance could kill you? Film at 11:00.” As speakers, we have an ethical obligation to avoid playing on people’s emotions in this way.

Another common type of attention-getter is an account or story of an interesting or humorous event. Notice the emphasis here is on the word “brief.” A common mistake speakers make when telling an anecdote is to make the anecdote too long. An example of an anecdote used in a speech about the pervasiveness of technology might look something like this:

“In July 2009, a high school student named Miranda Becker was walking along a main boulevard near her home on Staten Island, New York, typing in a message on her cell phone. Not paying attention to the world around her, she took a step and fell right into an open maintenance hole.”

Notice that the anecdote is short and has a clear point. From here the speaker can begin to make their point about how technology is controlling our lives.

A personal story is another option here. This is a story about yourself or someone you know that is relevant to your topic. For example, if you had a gastric bypass surgery and you wanted to give an informative speech about the procedure, you could introduce your speech in this way:

“In the fall of 2015, I decided that it was time that I took my life into my own hands. After suffering for years with the disease of obesity, I decided to take a leap of faith and get a gastric bypass in an attempt to finally beat the disease.”

Two primary issues that you should be aware of often arise with using stories as attention getters. First, you shouldn’t let your story go on for too long. If you are going to use a story to begin your speech, you need to think of it more in terms of summarizing the story rather than recounting it in its entirety. The second issue with using stories as attention getters is that the story must in some way relate to your speech. If you begin your speech by recounting the events in “Goldilocks and the Three Bears,” your speech will in some way need to address such topics as finding balance or coming to a compromise. If your story doesn’t relate to your topic, you will confuse your audience and they may spend the remainder of your speech trying to figure out the connection rather than listening to what you have to say.

You can catch the attention of the audience by referencing information of special interest. This includes references to the audience itself, and their interests. It can also mean references to current events or events in the past.

Your audience is a factor of utmost importance when crafting your speech, so it makes sense that one approach to opening your speech is to make a direct reference to the audience. In this case, the speaker has a clear understanding of the audience and points out that there is something unique about the audience that should make them interested in the speech’s content. Here’s an example:

“As students at State College, you and I know the importance of selecting a major that will benefit us in the future. In today’s competitive world, we need to study a topic that will help us be desirable to employers and provide us with lucrative and fulfilling careers. That’s why I want you all to consider majoring in communication.”

Referring to a current news event that relates to your topic is often an effective way to capture attention, as it immediately makes the audience aware of how relevant the topic is in today’s world. For example, consider this attention getter for a persuasive speech on frivolous lawsuits:

“On January 10 of this year, two prisoners escaped from a Pueblo, Colorado, jail. During their escape, the duo attempted to rappel from the roof of the jail using a makeshift ladder of bed sheets. During one prisoner’s attempt to scale the building, he slipped, fell forty feet, and injured his back. After being quickly apprehended, he filed a lawsuit against the jail for making it too easy for him to escape.”

In this case, the speaker is highlighting a news event that illustrates what a frivolous lawsuit is, setting up the speech topic of a need for change in how such lawsuits are handled.

A variation of this kind of reference is to open your speech with a reference about something that happened in the past. For example, if you are giving a speech on the perception of modern music as crass or having no redeeming values, you could refer to Elvis Presley and his musical breakout in the 1950s as a way of making a comparison:

“During the mid-1950s, Elvis Presley introduced the United States to a new genre of music: rock and roll. It was initially viewed as distasteful, and Presley was himself chastised for his gyrating dance moves and flashy style. Today he is revered as “The King of Rock ‘n Roll.” So, when we criticize modern artists for being flamboyant or over the top, we may be ridiculing some of the most important musical innovators we will know in our lifetimes.”

In this example, the speaker is evoking the audience’s knowledge of Elvis to raise awareness of similarities to current artists that may be viewed today as he was in the 1950s.

Non-Verbal Attention-Getters

The last variation of attention-getter discussed here is the non-verbal sort. You can get the audience interested in your speech by beginning with an image on a slide, music, sound, and even objects. As with all attention-getters, a non-verbal choice should be relevant to the topic of your speech and appropriate for your audience. The use of visual images and sounds shouldn’t be used if they require a trigger warning or content advisory.

This list of attention-getting devices represents a thorough, but not necessarily exhaustive, range of ways that you can begin your speech. Again, as mentioned earlier, your selection of attention getter isn’t only dependent on your audience, your topic, and the occasion, but also on your preferences and skills as a speaker. If you know that you are a bad storyteller, you might elect not to start your speech with a story. If you tend to tell jokes that no one laughs at, avoid starting your speech off with humor.

Intro Element 2: Establish Your Credibility

Whether you are informing, persuading, or entertaining an audience, one of the things they’ll be expecting is that you know what you’re talking about or that you have some special interest in the speech topic. To do this, you will need to convey to your audience, not only what you know, but how you know what you know about your topic.

Sometimes, this will be simple. If you’re informing your audience how a baseball is thrown and you have played baseball since you were eight years old, that makes you a very credible source. In your speech, you can say something like this:

“Having played baseball for over ten years, including two years as the starting pitcher on my high school’s varsity team, I can tell you about the ways that pitchers throw different kind of balls in a baseball game.”

In another example, if you were trying to convince your audience to join Big Brothers Big Sisters and you have been volunteering for years, you could say:

“I’ve been serving with Big Brothers Big Sisters for the last two years, and I can tell you that the experience is very rewarding.”

However, sometimes you will be speaking on a topic with which you have no experience. In these cases, use your interest in the subject as your credibility. For example, imagine you are planning a speech on the history of how red, yellow, and green traffic signals came to be used in the United States. You chose that topic because you plan to major in Urban Planning. In this case you might say something like:

“As someone who has always been interested in the history of transportation, and as a future Urban Studies major, I will share with you what I’ve been learning about the invention of traffic signals in America.”

It is around the credibility statement that you can usually find the moment to introduce yourself:

“Hi, I’m Josh Cohen, a sophomore studying Psychology here at North State University. I’ve been serving with Big Brothers Big Sisters for the last two years, and I can tell you that the experience is very rewarding.”

Establishing credibility as a speaker has a broader meaning, explained in depth in the chapter “ Ethics in Public Speaking. ”

Intro Element 3: Establish Rapport

Credibility is about establishing the basis of your knowledge, so that the audience can trust in the reliability of  what you say.  Rapport is about establishing a connection with the audience, so that the audience can trust who you are. 

Rapport means the relationship or connection you make with your audience. To make a good connection, you’ll need to convey to your audience that you understand their interests, share them, and have a speech that will benefit them. Here is an example from an informative speech on the poet Lord Byron:

“You may be asking yourselves why you need to know about Lord Byron. If you take Humanities 120 as I did last semester, you’ll be discussing his life and works. After listening to my speech today, you’ll have a good basis for better learning in that course.”

In this example, the speaker connects to the audience with a shared interest and conveyed in these sentences the idea that the speaker has the best interests of the audience in mind by giving them information that would benefit them in a future course they might take.

The way that a speaker establishes connection with the audience is often by leaning in on the demographic of group affiliation.

“As college students, we all know the challenge of finding time to get our homework done.”

Intro Element 4: Preview Purpose & Central Idea

The fourth essential element of an introduction is to reveal the purpose and thesis of your speech to your audience. Have you ever come away after a speech and had no idea what the speech was about (purpose)? Have you ever sat through a speech wondering what the point was (central idea)? An introduction should provide this information from the beginning, so that the audience doesn’t have to figure it out. (If you’re still not certain what purpose and thesis are, now is good time to review this chapter ).

Whether you’re writing a speech or drafting an essay, previewing is essential. Like a sign on a highway that tells. you what’s ahead, a preview is a succinct statement that reveals the content to come. The operative word here is “succinct.”  A preview statement for a short speech should be no more than two or three sentences. Consider the following example:

“In my speech today, I’m going to paint a profile of Abraham Lincoln, a man who overcame great adversity to become the President of the United States. During his time in office, he faced increasing opposition from conservative voices in government, as well as some dissension among his own party, all while being thrust into a war he didn’t want.”

Notice that this preview provides the purpose of this informative speech and its central idea of struggle. While it’s constructed from the specific purpose statement and central thesis, it presents them more smoothly, less awkwardly. Here is how purpose and thesis statements are smoothly combined in a preview:

Intro Element 5: Preview Your Main Points

Just like previewing your topic, previewing your main points helps your audience know what to expect throughout the course of your speech and prepares them to listen.

Your preview of the main points should be clear and easy to follow so that there is no question in your audience’s minds about what they are. Be succinct and simple: “Today, in my discussion of Abraham Lincoln’s life, I will look at his birth, his role a president, and his assassination.” If you want to be extra sure the audiences hears these, you can always enumerate your main points by using signposts (first, second, third, and so on): “In discussing how to make chocolate chip cookies, first we will cover what ingredients you need, second we will talk about how to mix them, and third we will look at baking them.”

Tips for Introductions

Together, these five elements of introduction prepare your audience by getting them interested in your speech (#1 attention-getter); conveying your knowledge (#2 credibility); conveying your good will (#3 rapport); letting them what you’ll be talking about and why (#4 preview topic and thesis); and finally, that to expect in the body of the speech (#5 preview of main points).  Including all five elements starts your speech off on solid ground. Here are some additional tips:

• Writers often find it best to write an introduction after the other parts of the speech are drafted.
• When selecting an attention-getting device, you want to make sure that the option you choose is appropriate to your audience and relevant to your topic.
• Avoid starting a speech by saying your name. Instead choose a good attention-getter and put your self-introduction after it.
• You cannot “wing it” on an introduction. It needs to be carefully planned. Even if you are speaking extemporaneously, consider writing out the entire introduction.
• Avoid saying the specific purpose statement, especially as first words. Instead, shape your specific purpose and thesis statement into a smooth whole.
• don’t begin to talk as you approach the platform or lectern; instead, it’s preferable to reach your destination, pause, smile, and then begin;
• don’t just read your introduction from your notes; instead, it’s vital to establish eye contact in the introduction, so knowing it very well is important;
• don’t talk too fast; instead, go a little slower at the beginning of your speech and speak clearly.  This will let your audience get used to your voice.

Here are two examples of a complete introduction, containing all five elements:

Example #1: “My parents knew that something was really wrong when my mom received a call from my home economics teacher saying that she needed to get to the school immediately and pick me up. This was all because of an allergy, something that everyone in this room is either vaguely or extremely familiar with. Hi, I’m Alison. I’m a physician assistant from our Student Health Center and an allergy sufferer. Allergies affect a large number of people, and three very common allergies include pet and animal allergies, seasonal allergies, and food allergies. All three of these allergies take control over certain areas of my life, as all three types affect me, starting when I was just a kid and continuing today. Because of this, I have done extensive research on the subject, and would like to share some of what I’ve learned with all of you today. Whether you just finished your first year of college, you are a new parent, or you have kids that are grown and out of the house, allergies will most likely affect everyone in this room at some point. So, it will benefit you all to know more about them, specifically the three most common sources of allergies and the most recent approaches to treating them.”

Example #2 “When winter is approaching and the days are getting darker and shorter, do you feel a dramatic reduction in energy, or do you sleep longer than usual during the fall or winter months? If you answered “yes” to either of these questions, you may be one of the millions of people who suffer from Seasonal Affective Disorder, or SAD. For most people, these problems don’t cause great suffering in their life, but for an estimated six percent of the United States population these problems can result in major suffering. Hi, I’m Derrick and as a student in the registered nursing program here at State College, I became interested in SAD after learning more about it. I want to share this information with all of you in case you recognize some of these symptoms in yourself or someone you love. In order to fully understand SAD, it’s important to look at the medical definition of SAD, the symptoms of this disorder, and the measures that are commonly used to ease symptoms.”

The Three Elements of a Conclusion

Like an introduction, the conclusion has specific elements that you must incorporate in order to make it as strong as possible. Given the nature of these elements and what they do, these should be incorporated into your conclusion in the order they are presented below.

Conclusion Element 1: Signal the End

The first thing a good conclusion should do is to signal the end of a speech. You may be thinking that telling an audience that you’re about to stop speaking is a “no brainer,” but many speakers really don’t prepare their audience for the end. When a speaker just suddenly stops speaking, the audience is left confused and disappointed. Instead, you want to make sure that audiences are left knowledgeable and satisfied with your speech. In a way, it gives them time to begin mentally organizing and cataloging all the points you have made for further consideration later.

The easiest way to signal that it’s the end of your speech is to begin your conclusion with the words, “In conclusion.” Similarly, “In summary” or “To conclude” work just as well.

Conclusion Element 2: Restate Main Points

In the introduction of a speech, you delivered a preview of your main points; now in the conclusion you will deliver a review. One of the biggest differences between written and oral communication is the necessity of repetition in oral communication (the technique of “planned redundancy” again). When you preview your main points in the introduction, effectively make transitions to your main points during the body of the speech, and finally, review the main points in the conclusion, you increase the likelihood that the audience will understand and retain your main points after the speech is over.

Because you are trying to remind the audience of your main points, you want to be sure not to bring up any new material or ideas . For example, if you said, “There are several other issues related to this topic, such as…but I don’t have time for them,” that would just make the audience confused. Or, if you were giving a persuasive speech on wind energy, and you ended with “Wind energy is the energy of the future, but there are still a few problems with it, such as noise and killing lots of birds,” then you are bringing up an argument that should have been dealt with in the body of the speech.

As you progress as a public speaker, you will want to learn to rephrase your summary statement so that it doesn’t sound like an exact repeat of the preview. For example, if your preview was:

“The three arguments in favor of medical marijuana that I will present are that it would make necessary treatments available to all, it would cut down on the costs to law enforcement, and it would bring revenue to state budgets.”

Your summary might be:

“In the minutes we’ve had together, I have shown you that approving medical marijuana in our state will greatly help persons with a variety of chronic and severe conditions. Also, funds spent on law enforcement to find and convict legitimate marijuana users would go down as revenues from medical marijuana to the state budget would go up.”

Conclusion Element 3: Clinchers

The third element of your conclusion is the clincher. This is something memorable with which to conclude your speech. The clincher is sometimes referred to as a concluding device . These are the very last words you will say in your speech, so you need to make them count. It will make your speech more memorable.

In many ways the clincher is like the inverse of the attention getter. You want to start the speech off with something strong, and you want to end the speech with something strong.

To that end, like what we discussed above with attention getters, there are several common strategies you can use to make your clincher strong and memorable: quotation, question, call to action, visualizing the future, refer back to the introduction, or appeal to audience self-interest.

As in starting a speech with a quotation, ending the speech with one allows you to summarize your main point or provoke thought.

I’ll leave you with these inspirational words by Eleanor Roosevelt: “The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams.”

Some quotations will inspire your audience to action:

I urge you to sponsor a child in a developing country. Remember the words by Forest Witcraft, who said, “A hundred years from now it will not matter what my bank account was, the sort of house I lived in, or the kind of car I drove. But the world may be different because I was important in the life of a child.”

In this case, the quotation leaves the audience with the message that monetary sacrifices are worth making.

Another way you can end a speech is to ask a rhetorical question that forces the audience to ponder an idea. Maybe you are giving a speech on the importance of the environment, so you end the speech by saying, “Think about your children’s future. What kind of world do you want them raised in? A world that is clean, vibrant, and beautiful—or one that is filled with smog, pollution, filth, and disease?” Notice that you aren’t asking the audience to answer the question verbally or nonverbally, so it’s a rhetorical question.

Call to Action

Calls to action are used specifically in persuasive speeches. It is something you want the audience to do, either immediately or in the future. If a speaker wants to see a new traffic light placed at a dangerous intersection, the clincher would be to ask all the audience members to sign a petition right then and there. For a speech about buying an electric vehicle, the clincher would ask the audience to keep in mind an electric vehicle the “next time they buy a car.”

Another kind of call to action takes the form of a challenge. In a speech on the necessity of fundraising, a speaker could conclude by challenging the audience to raise 10 percent more than their original projections. In a speech on eating more vegetables, you could challenge your audience to increase their current intake of vegetables by two portions daily. In both these challenges, audience members are being asked to go out of their way to do something different that involves effort on their part.

Visualizing the Future

The purpose of a conclusion that refers to the future is to help your audience imagine the future you believe can occur. If you are giving a speech on the development of video games for learning, you could conclude by depicting the classroom of the future where video games are perceived as true learning tools. More often, speakers use visualization of the future to depict how society or how individual listeners’ lives would be different if the audience accepts and acts on the speaker’s main idea. For example, if a speaker proposes that a solution to illiteracy is hiring more reading specialists in public schools, the speaker could ask their audience to imagine a world without illiteracy.

Refer Back to Introduction

This method provides a good sense of closure to the speech. If you started the speech with a startling statistic or fact, such as “Last year, according to the official website of the American Humane Society, four million pets were euthanized in shelters in the United States,” in the end you could say, “Remember that shocking number of four million euthanized pets? With your donation of time or money to the Northwest Georgia Rescue Shelter, you can help lower that number in our region.”

Appeal to Audience Self-Interest

The last concluding device involves a direct reference to your audience. This concluding device is used when a speaker attempts to answer the basic audience question, “What’s in it for me?” (WIIFM). The goal of this concluding device is to spell out the direct benefits a behavior or thought change has for audience members. For example, a speaker talking about stress reduction techniques could have a clincher like this: “If you want to better a better immune system, better heart health, and more happiness, all it takes are following the techniques I talked about today.”

Tips for Conclusions

In terms of the conclusions, be careful NOT to:

• signal the end multiple times. In other words, no “multiple conclusions.”
• ramble: if you signal the end, then end your speech;
• talking as you leave the platform or lectern.
• indicating with facial expression or body language that you were not happy with the speech.

Some examples of conclusions:

Conclusion Example #1: “Anxiety is a complex emotion that afflicts people of all ages and social backgrounds and is experienced uniquely by each individual. We have seen that there are multiple symptoms, causes, and remedies, all of which can often be related either directly or indirectly to cognitive behaviors. While most people don’t enjoy anxiety, it seems to be part of the universal human experience, so realize that you are not alone, but also realize that you are not powerless against it. With that said, the following quote, attributed to an anonymous source, could not be truer, ‘Worry does not relieve tomorrow of its stress; it merely empties today of its strength.’ “

Conclusion Example #2: “I believe you should adopt a rescue animal because it helps stop forms of animal cruelty, you can add a healthy companion to your home, and it’s a relatively simple process that can save a life. Each and every one of you should go to your nearest animal shelter, which may include the Catoosa Citizens for Animal Care, the Humane Society of NWGA in Dalton, the Murray County Humane Society, or the multiple other shelters in the area to bring a new animal companion into your life. I’ll leave you with a paraphrased quote from Deborah Jacobs’s article “Westminster Dog Show Junkie” on Forbes.com: ‘You may start out thinking that you are rescuing the animal, and ultimately find that the animal rescues you right back.’ “

Public Speaking as Performance Copyright © 2023 by Mechele Leon is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

8 Effective Introductions and Powerful Conclusions

Learning objectives.

• Identify the functions of introductions and conclusions.
• Understand the key parts of an introduction and a conclusion.
• Explore techniques to create your own effective introductions and conclusions.

Introductions and conclusions can be challenging. One of the most common complaints novice public speakers have is that they simply don’t know how to start or end a speech. It may feel natural to start crafting a speech at the beginning, but it can be difficult to craft an introduction for something which doesn’t yet exist. Many times, creative and effective ideas for how to begin a speech will come to speakers as they go through the process of researching and organizing ideas. Similarly, a conclusion needs to be well considered and leave audience members with a sense of satisfaction.

In this chapter, we will explore why introductions and conclusions are important, and we will identify various ways speakers can create impactful beginnings and endings. There is not a “right” way to start or end a speech, but we can provide some helpful guidelines that will make your introductions and conclusions much easier for you as a speaker and more effective for your audience.

The Importance of an Introduction

The introduction of a speech is incredibly important because it needs to establish the topic and purpose, set up the reason your audience should listen to you and set a precedent for the rest of the speech.  Imagine the first day of a semester long class.  You will have a different perception of the course if the teacher is excited, creative and clear about what is to come then if the teacher recites to you what the class is about and is confused or disorganized about the rest of the semester.  The same thing goes for a speech. The introduction is an important opportunity for the speaker to gain the interest and trust of the audience.

Overall, an effective introduction serves five functions. Let’s examine each of these.

Gain Audience Attention and Interest

The first major purpose of an introduction is to gain your audience’s attention and get them interested in what you have to say. While your audience may know you, this is your speeches’ first impression! One common incorrect assumption beginning speakers make that people will naturally listen because the speaker is speaking. While many audiences may be polite and not talk while you’re speaking, actually getting them to listen and care about what you are saying is a completely different challenge. Think to a time when you’ve tuned out a speaker because you were not interested in what they had to say or how they were saying it.  However, I’m sure you can also think of a time someone engaged you in a topic you wouldn’t have thought was interesting, but because of how they presented it or their energy about the subject, you were fascinated. As the speaker, you have the ability to engage the audience right away.

State the Purpose of Your Speech

The second major function of an introduction is to reveal the purpose of your speech to your audience. Have you ever sat through a speech wondering what the basic point was? Have you ever come away after a speech and had no idea what the speaker was talking about? An introduction is critical for explaining the topic to the audience and justifying why they should care about it. The speaker needs to have an in-depth understanding of the specific focus of their topic and the goals they have for their speech. Robert Cavett, the founder of the National Speaker’s Association, used the analogy of a preacher giving a sermon when he noted, “When it’s foggy in the pulpit, it’s cloudy in the pews.” The specific purpose is the one idea you want your audience to remember when you are finished with your speech. Your specific purpose is the rudder that guides your research, organization, and development of main points. The more clearly focused your purpose is, the easier it will be both for you to develop your speech and your audience to understand your core point. To make sure you are developing a specific purpose, you should be able to complete the sentence: “I want my audience to understand…” Notice that your specific speech purpose is phrased in terms of expected audience responses, not in terms of your own perspective.

Establish Credibility

One of the most researched areas within the field of communication has been Aristotle’s concept of ethos or credibility. First, and foremost, the idea of credibility relates directly to audience perception. You may be the most competent, caring, and trustworthy speaker in the world on a given topic, but if your audience does not perceive you as credible, then your expertise and passion will not matter to them. As public speakers, we need to communicate to our audiences why we are credible speakers on a given topic. James C. McCroskey and Jason J. Teven have conducted extensive research on credibility and have determined that an individual’s credibility is composed of three factors: competence, trustworthiness, and caring/goodwill (McCroskey & Teven, 1999). Competence is the degree to which a speaker is perceived to be knowledgeable or expert in a given subject by an audience member.

The second factor of credibility noted by McCroskey and Teven is trustworthiness or the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as honest. Nothing will turn an audience against a speaker faster than if the audience believes the speaker is lying. When the audience does not perceive a speaker as trustworthy, the information coming out of the speaker’s mouth is automatically perceived as deceitful.

Finally, caring/goodwill is the last factor of credibility noted by McCroskey and Teven. Caring/goodwill refers to the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as caring about the audience member. As indicated by Wrench, McCroskey, and Richmond, “If a receiver does not believe that a source has the best intentions in mind for the receiver, the receiver will not see the source as credible. Simply put, we are going to listen to people who we think truly care for us and are looking out for our welfare” (Wrench, McCroskey & Richmond, 2008). As a speaker, then, you need to establish that your information is being presented because you care about your audience and are not just trying to manipulate them. We should note that research has indicated that caring/goodwill is the most important factor of credibility. This understanding means that if an audience believes that a speaker truly cares about the audience’s best interests, the audience may overlook some competence and trust issues.

Credibility relates directly to audience perception. You may be the most competent, caring, and trustworthy speaker in the world on a given topic, but if your audience does not perceive you as credible, then your expertise and passion will not matter to them.

Trustworthiness is the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as honest.

Caring/goodwill is the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as caring about the audience member.

Provide Reasons to Listen

The fourth major function of an introduction is to establish a connection between the speaker and the audience, and one of the most effective means of establishing a connection with your audience is to provide them with reasons why they should listen to your speech. The idea of establishing a connection is an extension of the notion of caring/goodwill. In the chapters on Language and Speech Delivery, we’ll spend a lot more time talking about how you can establish a good relationship with your audience. This relationship starts the moment you step to the front of the room to start speaking.

Instead of assuming the audience will make their own connections to your material, you should explicitly state how your information might be useful to your audience. Tell them directly how they might use your information themselves. It is not enough for you alone to be interested in your topic. You need to build a bridge to the audience by explicitly connecting your topic to their possible needs.

Preview Main Ideas

The last major function of an introduction is to preview the main ideas that your speech will discuss. A preview establishes the direction your speech will take. We sometimes call this process signposting because you’re establishing signs for audience members to look for while you’re speaking. In the most basic speech format, speakers generally have three to five major points they plan on making. During the preview, a speaker outlines what these points will be, which demonstrates to the audience that the speaker is organized.

A study by Baker found that individuals who were unorganized while speaking were perceived as less credible than those individuals who were organized (Baker, 1965). Having a solid preview of the information contained within one’s speech and then following that preview will help a speaker’s credibility. It also helps your audience keep track of where you are if they momentarily daydream or get distracted.

Putting Together a Strong Introduction

Now that we have an understanding of the functions of an introduction, let’s explore the details of putting one together.  As with all aspects of a speech, these may change based on your audience, circumstance, and topic.  But this will give you a basic understanding of the important parts of an intro, what they do, and how they work together.

Attention Getting Device

An attention-getter is the device a speaker uses at the beginning of a speech to capture an audience’s interest and make them interested in the speech’s topic. Typically, there are four things to consider in choosing a specific attention-getting device:

• Topic and purpose of the speech
• Appropriateness or relevance to the audience

First, when selecting an attention-getting device is considering your speech topic and purpose. Ideally, your attention-getting device should have a relevant connection to your speech. Imagine if a speaker pulled condoms out of his pocket, yelled “Free sex!” and threw the condoms at the audience.  This act might gain everyone’s attention, but would probably not be a great way to begin a speech about the economy. Thinking about your topic because the interest you want to create needs to be specific to your subject.  More specifically, you want to consider the basic purpose of your speech. When selecting an attention getter, you want to make sure that you select one that corresponds with your basic purpose. If your goal is to entertain an audience, starting a speech with a quotation about how many people are dying in Africa each day from malnutrition may not be the best way to get your audience’s attention. Remember, one of the goals of an introduction is to prepare your audience for your speech . If your attention-getter differs drastically in tone from the rest of your speech the disjointedness may cause your audience to become confused or tune you out completely.

Possible Attention Getters

These will help you start brainstorming ideas for how to begin your speech.  While not a complete list, these are some of the most common forms of attention-getters:

• Reference to Current Events
• Historical Reference
• Startling Fact
• Rhetorical Question
• Hypothetical Situation
• Demonstration
• Personal Reference
• Reference to Audience
• Reference to Occasion

Second, when selecting an attention-getting device, you want to make sure you are being appropriate and relevant to your specific audience. Different audiences will have different backgrounds and knowledge, so you should keep your audience in mind when determining how to get their attention. For example, if you’re giving a speech on family units to a group of individuals over the age of sixty-five, starting your speech with a reference to the television show Gossip Girl may not be the best idea because the television show may not be relevant to that audience.

Finally, the last consideration involves the speech occasion. Different occasions will necessitate different tones or particular styles or manners of speaking. For example, giving a eulogy at a funeral will have a very different feel than a business presentation. This understanding doesn’t mean certain situations are always the same, but rather taking into account the details of your circumstances will help you craft an effective beginning to your speech.  When selecting an attention-getter, you want to make sure that the attention-getter sets the tone for the speech and situation.

Tones are particular styles or manners of speaking determined by the speech’s occasion.

Link to Topic

The link to the topic occurs when a speaker demonstrates how an attention-getting device relates to the topic of a speech. This presentation of the relationship works to transition your audience from the attention getter to the larger issue you are discussing.  Often the attention-getter and the link to the topic are very clear. But other times, there may need to be a more obvious connection between how you began your attention-getting device and the specific subject you are discussing.  You may have an amazing attention-getter, but if you can’t connect it to the main topic and purpose of your speech, it will not be as effective.

Significance

Once you have linked an attention-getter to the topic of your speech, you need to explain to your audience why your topic is important and why they should care about what you have to say. Sometimes you can include the significance of your topic in the same sentence as your link to the topic, but other times you may need to spell out in one or two sentences why your specific topic is important to this audience.

Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a short, declarative sentence that states the purpose, intent, or main idea of a speech. A strong, clear thesis statement is very valuable within an introduction because it lays out the basic goal of the entire speech. We strongly believe that it is worthwhile to invest some time in framing and writing a good thesis statement. You may even want to write a version of your thesis statement before you even begin conducting research for your speech in order to guide you. While you may end up rewriting your thesis statement later, having a clear idea of your purpose, intent, or main idea before you start searching for research will help you focus on the most appropriate material.

Preview of Speech

The final part of an introduction contains a preview of the major points to be covered by your speech. I’m sure we’ve all seen signs that have three cities listed on them with the mileage to reach each city. This mileage sign is an indication of what is to come. A preview works the same way. A preview foreshadows what the main body points will be in the speech. For example, to preview a speech on bullying in the workplace, one could say, “To understand the nature of bullying in the modern workplace, I will first define what workplace bullying is and the types of bullying, I will then discuss the common characteristics of both workplace bullies and their targets, and lastly, I will explore some possible solutions to workplace bullying.” In this case, each of the phrases mentioned in the preview would be a single distinct point made in the speech itself. In other words, the first major body point in this speech would examine what workplace bullying is and the types of bullying; the second major body point in this speech would discuss the characteristics of both workplace bullies and their targets; and lastly, the third body point in this speech would explore some possible solutions to workplace bullying.

Putting it all together

The importance of introductions often leads speakers to work on them first, attending to every detail. While it is good to have some ideas and notes about the intro, specifically the thesis statement, it is often best to wait until the majority of the speech is crafted before really digging into the crafting of the introduction.  This timeline may not seem intuitive, but remember, the intro is meant to introduce your speech and set up what is to come.  It is difficult to introduce something that you haven’t made yet.  This is why working on your main points first can help lead to an even stronger introduction.

Why Conclusions Matter

Willi Heidelbach – Puzzle2 – CC BY 2.0.

As public speaking professors and authors, we have seen many students give otherwise good speeches that seem to fall apart at the end. We’ve seen students end their three main points by saying things such as “OK, I’m done”; “Thank God that’s over!”; or “Thanks. Now what? Do I just sit down?” It’s understandable to feel relief at the end of a speech, but remember that as a speaker, your conclusion is the last chance you have to drive home your ideas. When a speaker opts to end the speech with an ineffective conclusion, or no conclusion at all, the speech loses the energy that’s been created, and the audience is left confused and disappointed. Instead of falling prey to emotional exhaustion, remind yourself to keep your energy up as you approach the end of your speech, and plan ahead so that your conclusion will be an effective one.

Of course, a good conclusion will not rescue a poorly prepared speech. Thinking again of the chapters in a novel, if one bypasses all the content in the middle, the ending often isn’t very meaningful or helpful. So to take advantage of the advice in this chapter, you need to keep in mind the importance of developing a speech with an effective introduction and an effective body. If you have these elements, you will have the foundation you need to be able to conclude effectively. Just as a good introduction helps bring an audience member into the world of your speech, and a good speech body holds the audience in that world, a good conclusion helps bring that audience member back to the reality outside of your speech.

In this section, we’re going to examine the functions fulfilled by the conclusion of a speech. A strong conclusion serves to signal the end of the speech and helps your listeners remember your speech.

Signals the End

The first thing a good conclusion can do is to signal the end of a speech. You may be thinking that showing an audience that you’re about to stop speaking is a “no brainer,” but many speakers don’t prepare their audience for the end. When a speaker just suddenly stops speaking, the audience is left confused and disappointed. Instead, we want to make sure that audiences are left knowledgeable and satisfied with our speeches. In the next section, we’ll explain in great detail about how to ensure that you signal the end of your speech in a manner that is both effective and powerful.

Aids Audience’s Memory of Your Speech

The second reason for a good conclusion stems out of some research reported by the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus back in 1885 in his book Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology (Ebbinghaus, 1885). Ebbinghaus proposed that humans remember information in a linear fashion, which he called the serial position effect. He found an individual’s ability to remember information in a list (e.g. a grocery list, a chores list, or a to-do list) depends on the location of an item on the list. Specifically, he found that items toward the top of the list and items toward the bottom of the list tended to have the highest recall rates. The serial position effect finds that information at the beginning of a list (primacy) and information at the end of the list (recency) are easier to recall than information in the middle of the list.

So what does this have to do with conclusions? A lot! Ray Ehrensberger wanted to test Ebbinghaus’ serial position effect in public speaking. Ehrensberger created an experiment that rearranged the ordering of a speech to determine the recall of information (Ehrensberger, 1945). Ehrensberger’s study reaffirmed the importance of primacy and recency when listening to speeches. In fact, Ehrensberger found that the information delivered during the conclusion (recency) had the highest level of recall overall.

Steps of a Conclusion

Matthew Culnane – Steps – CC BY-SA 2.0.

In the previous sections, we discussed the importance a conclusion has on a speech. In this section, we’re going to examine the three steps to building an effective conclusion.

Restatement of the Thesis

Restating a thesis statement is the first step to a powerful conclusion. As we explained earlier, a thesis statement is a short, declarative sentence that states the purpose, intent, or main idea of a speech. When we restate the thesis statement at the conclusion of our speech, we’re attempting to reemphasize what the overarching main idea of the speech has been. Suppose your thesis statement was, “I will analyze Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” You could restate the thesis in this fashion at the conclusion of your speech: “In the past few minutes, I have analyzed Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” Notice the shift in tense. The statement has gone from the future tense (this is what I will speak about) to the past tense (this is what I have spoken about). Restating the thesis in your conclusion reminds the audience of the main purpose or goal of your speech, helping them remember it better.

Review of Main Points

After restating the speech’s thesis, the second step in a powerful conclusion is to review the main points from your speech. One of the biggest differences between written and oral communication is the necessity of repetition in oral communication. When we preview our main points in the introduction, effectively discuss and make transitions to our main points during the body of the speech, and review the main points in the conclusion, we increase the likelihood that the audience will retain our main points after the speech is over.

In the introduction of a speech, we deliver a preview of our main body points, and in the conclusion, we deliver a review . Let’s look at a sample preview:

In order to understand the field of gender and communication, I will first differentiate between the terms biological sex and gender. I will then explain the history of gender research in communication. Lastly, I will examine a series of important findings related to gender and communication.

In this preview, we have three clear main points. Let’s see how we can review them at the conclusion of our speech:

Today, we have differentiated between the terms biological sex and gender, examined the history of gender research in communication, and analyzed a series of research findings on the topic.

In the past few minutes, I have explained the difference between the terms “biological sex” and “gender,” discussed the rise of gender research in the field of communication, and examined a series of groundbreaking studies in the field.

Notice that both of these conclusions review the main points initially set forth. Both variations are equally effective reviews of the main points, but you might like the linguistic turn of one over the other. Remember, while there is a lot of science to help us understand public speaking, there’s also a lot of art as well. You are always encouraged to choose the wording that you think will be most effective for your audience.

Concluding Device

The final part of a powerful conclusion is the concluding device. A concluding device is a final thought you want your audience members to have when you stop speaking. It also provides a definitive sense of closure to your speech. One of the authors of this text often makes an analogy between a gymnastics dismount and the concluding device in a speech. Just as a gymnast dismounting the parallel bars or balance beam wants to stick the landing and avoid taking two or three steps, a speaker wants to “stick” the ending of the presentation by ending with a concluding device instead of with, “Well, umm, I guess I’m done.” Miller observed that speakers tend to use one of ten concluding devices when ending a speech (Miller, 1946). The rest of this section is going to examine these ten concluding devices and one additional device that we have added.

Conclude with a Challenge

The first way that Miller found that some speakers end their speeches is with a challenge. A challenge is a call to engage in some activity that requires a special effort. In a speech on the necessity of fund-raising, a speaker could conclude by challenging the audience to raise 10 percent more than their original projections. In a speech on eating more vegetables, you could challenge your audience to increase their current intake of vegetables by two portions daily. In both of these challenges, audience members are being asked to go out of their way to do something different that involves effort on their part.

Conclude with a Quotation

A second way you can conclude a speech is by reciting a quotation relevant to the speech topic. When using a quotation, you need to think about whether your goal is to end on a persuasive note or an informative note. Some quotations will have a clear call to action, while other quotations summarize or provoke thought. For example, let’s say you are delivering an informative speech about dissident writers in the former Soviet Union. You could end by citing this quotation from Alexander Solzhenitsyn: “A great writer is, so to speak, a second government in his country. And for that reason, no regime has ever loved great writers” (Solzhenitsyn, 1964). Notice that this quotation underscores the idea of writers as dissidents, but it doesn’t ask listeners to put forth the effort to engage in any specific thought process or behavior. If, on the other hand, you were delivering a persuasive speech urging your audience to participate in a very risky political demonstration, you might use this quotation from Martin Luther King Jr.: “If a man hasn’t discovered something that he will die for, he isn’t fit to live” (King, 1963). In this case, the quotation leaves the audience with the message that great risks are worth taking, that they make our lives worthwhile, and that the right thing to do is to go ahead and take that great risk.

Conclude with a Summary

When a speaker ends with a summary, they are simply elongating the review of the main points. While this may not be the most exciting concluding device, it can be useful for information that was highly technical or complex or for speeches lasting longer than thirty minutes. Typically, for short speeches (like those in your class), this summary device should be avoided.

Conclude by Visualizing the Future

The purpose of a conclusion that refers to the future is to help your audience imagine the future you believe can occur. If you are giving a speech on the development of video games for learning, you could conclude by depicting the classroom of the future where video games are perceived as true learning tools and how those tools could be utilized. More often, speakers use visualization of the future to depict how society would be, or how individual listeners’ lives would be different if the speaker’s persuasive attempt worked. For example, if a speaker proposes that a solution to illiteracy is hiring more reading specialists in public schools, the speaker could ask her or his audience to imagine a world without illiteracy. In this use of visualization, the goal is to persuade people to adopt the speaker’s point of view. By showing that the speaker’s vision of the future is a positive one, the conclusion should help to persuade the audience to help create this future.

Conclude with an Appeal for Action

Probably the most common persuasive concluding device is the appeal for action or the call to action. In essence, the appeal for action occurs when a speaker asks their audience to engage in a specific behavior or change in thinking. When a speaker concludes by asking the audience “to do” or “to think” in a specific manner, the speaker wants to see an actual change. Whether the speaker appeals for people to eat more fruit, buy a car, vote for a candidate, oppose the death penalty, or sing more in the shower, the speaker is asking the audience to engage in action.

One specific type of appeal for action is the immediate call to action. Whereas some appeals ask for people to engage in behavior in the future, an immediate call to action asks people to engage in behavior right now. If a speaker wants to see a new traffic light placed at a dangerous intersection, he or she may conclude by asking all the audience members to sign a digital petition right then and there, using a computer the speaker has made available ( http://www.petitiononline.com ). Here are some more examples of immediate calls to action:

• In a speech on eating more vegetables, pass out raw veggies and dip at the conclusion of the speech.
• In a speech on petitioning a lawmaker for a new law, provide audience members with a prewritten e-mail they can send to the lawmaker.
• In a speech on the importance of using hand sanitizer, hand out little bottles of hand sanitizer and show audience members how to correctly apply the sanitizer.
• In a speech asking for donations for a charity, send a box around the room asking for donations.

These are just a handful of different examples we’ve seen students use in our classrooms to elicit an immediate change in behavior. These immediate calls to action may not lead to long-term change, but they can be very effective at increasing the likelihood that an audience will change behavior in the short term.

Conclude by Inspiration

By definition, the word inspire means to affect or connect with someone emotionally. Both affect and arouse have strong emotional connotations. The ultimate goal of an inspiration concluding device is similar to an “appeal for action,” but the ultimate goal is more lofty or ambiguous. The goal is to stir someone’s emotions in a specific manner. Maybe a speaker is giving an informative speech about the prevalence of domestic violence in our society today. That speaker could end the speech by reading Paulette Kelly’s powerful poem “I Got Flowers Today.” “I Got Flowers Today” is a poem that evokes strong emotions because it’s about an abuse victim who received flowers from her abuser every time she was victimized. The poem ends by saying, “I got flowers today… Today was a special day. It was the day of my funeral. Last night he killed me” (Kelly, 1994).

Conclude with Advice

The next concluding device is one that should be used primarily by speakers who are recognized as expert authorities on a given subject. Advice is a speaker’s opinion about what should or should not be done. The problem with opinions is that everyone has one, and one person’s opinion is not necessarily any more correct than another’s. There needs to be a really good reason for your opinion. Your advice should matter to your audience. If, for example, you are an expert in nuclear physics, you might conclude a speech on energy by giving advice about the benefits of nuclear energy.

Conclude by Proposing a Solution

Another way a speaker can conclude a speech powerfully is to offer a solution to the problem discussed within a speech. For example, perhaps a speaker has been discussing the problems associated with the disappearance of art education in the United States. The speaker could then propose a solution for creating more community-based art experiences for school children as a way to fill this gap. Although this can be a compelling conclusion, a speaker must ask themselves whether the solution should be discussed in more depth as a stand-alone main point within the body of the speech so that audience concerns about the proposed solution may be addressed.

Conclude with a Question

Another way you can end a speech is to ask a rhetorical question that forces the audience to ponder an idea. Maybe you are giving a speech on the importance of the environment, so you end the speech by saying, “Think about your children’s future. What kind of world do you want them raised in? A world that is clean, vibrant, and beautiful—or one that is filled with smog, pollution, filth, and disease?” Notice that you aren’t asking the audience to verbally or nonverbally answer the question. The goal of this question is to force the audience into thinking about what kind of world they want for their children.

Conclude with a Reference to Audience

The last concluding device discussed by Miller (1946) was a reference to one’s audience. This concluding device is when a speaker attempts to answer the audience question, “What’s in it for me?” The goal of this concluding device is to spell out the direct benefits a behavior or thought change has for audience members. For example, a speaker talking about stress reduction techniques could conclude by listing all the physical health benefits stress reduction offers (e.g. improved reflexes, improved immune system, improved hearing, reduction in blood pressure). In this case, the speaker is spelling out why audience members should care. They’re telling the audience what’s in it for them!

Connect to your Introduction

Finally, one tactic a speaker often uses is to link the introduction of the speech to the conclusion.  For example, if you began your speech with a quotation, your conclusion may refer back to that person’s words in respect to what your audience has learned throughout your speech.  While not always necessary, linking back to your introduction can provide a feeling of coming full circle for your audience.  The repetitive nature can also help aid in remembering your speech and topic.  However, you don’t want to just repeat. Instead, you want to utilize similar aspects of your attention getter to illustrate growth or movement from the beginning of your speech to the end.

A concluding device is a final thought you want your audience members to have when you stop speaking.

A challenge is a call to engage in some activity that requires special effort.

An  appeal for action occurs when a speaker asks their audience to engage in a specific behavior or change in thinking.

An immediate call to action asks people to engage in behavior right now.

Inspire means to affect or connect with someone emotionally.

Advice is a speaker’s opinion about what should or should not be done.

Informative versus Persuasive Conclusions

As you read through the ten possible ways to conclude a speech, hopefully, you noticed that some of the methods are more appropriate for persuasive speeches and others are more appropriate for informative speeches. To help you choose appropriate conclusions for informative, persuasive, or entertaining speeches, we’ve created a table to help you quickly identify suitable concluding devices.

Your Speech Purpose and Concluding Devices

Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology [Online version]. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/index.htm .

Ehrensberger, R. (1945). An experimental study of the relative effectiveness of certain forms of emphasis in public speaking. Speech Monographs, 12 , 94–111. doi: 10.1080/03637754509390108.

Kelly, P. (1994). I got flowers today. In C. J. Palmer & J. Palmer, Fire from within . Painted Post, NY: Creative Arts & Science Enterprises.

King, M. L. (1963, June 23). Speech in Detroit. Cited in Bartlett, J., & Kaplan, J. (Eds.), Bartlett’s familiar quotations (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., p. 760.

Miller, E. (1946). Speech introductions and conclusions. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 32 , 181–183.

Solzhenitsyn, A. (1964). The first circle. New York: Harper & Row. Cited in Bartlett, J., & Kaplan, J. (Eds.), Bartlett’s familiar quotations (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., p. 746.

Stand up, Speak out Copyright © 2017 by Josh Miller; Marnie Lawler-Mcdonough; Megan Orcholski; Kristin Woodward; Lisa Roth; and Emily Mueller is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

9 Chapter 9: Introductions and Conclusions

Amy Fara Edwards, Ed.D, Oxnard College

Adapted by Jamie C. Votraw, Professor of Communication Studies, Florida SouthWestern State College

Figure 9.1: Zipper 1

Introduction

Have you ever started a movie and turned it off after the first few minutes? Why do you think that happened? Alternatively, have you ever binged watched a show because the first episode grabbed your attention and you needed to see how the show ended? If you watched until the end of the episode (or even the end of the series), it was probably because it effectively grabbed your attention. In this case, the show’s introduction grabbed your attention and hooked you so well that you felt compelled to see what happens! If you turned the television off, was it because that first scene was lackluster? Off-putting? Offensive? What made you change the channel? Speechwriting functions in a similar way. The introduction is the speaker’s first and only chance to make a good impression, so, if done correctly, your speech will start strong and encourage the audience to listen to the rest.

Speech Introductions

The introduction for a speech is generally only 10 to 15 percent of the entire time the speaker will spend speaking. This means that if your speech is supposed to be five minutes long, your introduction should be approximately forty-five seconds. One of your authors usually says one minute should be the maximum intro length in a five-minute speech. If your speech is supposed to be ten minutes long, then your introduction should be approximately a minute and a half.

Although this is a very short amount of time, this is your window to either get your audience interested in what you have to say or cause them to tune you out before you’ve even gotten started. Let’s make sure you know how to capture your audience’s attention and learn the basic elements of a speech introduction.

Five Elements of the Introduction

Five basic and essential elements will serve you well in any writing assignment and are especially important when writing a speech introduction. Although the order of the five elements may vary based on your professor, the assignment, or the occasion, the required content will generally be the same. For your class speeches, the following items and ordering are suggested.

Attention Getter

Your very first task is to gain your audience’s attention. This is the first major purpose of an introduction – get them interested in what you have to say; you need to “hook” them in immediately. By definition, an attention-getter is a specific strategy in order to grab an audience’s attention. The attention getter should be the first component of the speech introduction. One of the biggest mistakes that novice speakers make is to assume that people will naturally listen because the speaker is speaking. While many audiences may be polite and not talk while you’re speaking, actually getting them to listen to what you are saying is a completely different challenge. Let’s face it – we’ve all tuned someone out at some point because we weren’t interested in what they had to say (never your professor, of course!). Whether it’s their cell phones, noise outside of the room, worries on their minds or hungry stomachs, audiences are easily distracted. If you don’t get the audience’s attention at the onset, it will only become more difficult as you continue speaking.

There are many different approaches to gaining the attention of your audience. Which type of attention-grabbing strategy is best will depend on the type of audience and how it explicitly (directly) connects to your topic. Do not rely on a gimmick! Here are some strategies for grabbing an audience’s attention:

• An interesting story (factual or hypothetical).
• A cliffhanger story.
• A question for the audience to respond.
• A rhetorical question to invoke thought.
• A joke or humorous instance, if appropriate.
• An interesting quote or paraphrasing of a well-known source.
• A startling fact or statistic related to the topic.
• A reference to the occasion.
• A piece of folklore—a fable, saying, poem, or rhyme.
• A brief demonstration of a procedure or skill.
• A intriguing piece of multimedia (picture or a short audio/video clip).

Relate to Your Audience

Another major function of an introduction is motivating the audience to listen. We cannot expect that once we take our place in front of the room all eyes will turn to us and they will immediately want to listen. Even if we have successfully grabbed their attention, we still must make the topic relevant to the audience. In a way, we must prove that our topic is worthy of their attention because the subject matter impacts them directly. Direct and meaningful is the name of the game! Think about what might motivate you to listen. Do you always walk into class motivated to listen to your professor? Hopefully! When a professor works hard to motivate you, you are more likely to want to listen and will tend to be more successful in that class.

Think of your favorite professor from a subject you don’t like very much. Is it easy to be motivated to listen? Probably not, so rather than the professor giving up and saying, “oh well, no one likes my subject,” they work hard to capture your attention and make the subject relevant to your life (even if you tend to dislike the subject). Have you ever taken a class that you thought you’d hate, but the professor made it so compelling and relevant that you completely changed your mind, or even your major? Connecting the audience and the topic can completely change the audience’s perception of the topic.

Motivating your audience to listen in the introduction is also critical to help establish a connection between the speaker and the audience. One of the most effective means of establishing a connection with your audience is to provide them with a brief list of reasons why they should listen to your speech. This audience-speaker relationship starts the moment you step to the front of the room to start speaking. What can you say that makes the audience truly know how they are impacted by what you are about to say? For example, it might be easy for an audience of car mechanics to be motivated to listen to a speech about lowering the costs of fixing cars, but would they also be interested in the subject of space travel or home design as therapeutic work? What can we say to the audience of car mechanics about home design that will motivate them to listen? Go ahead, give it a try! But remember that these considerations should take place during the topic selection phase of speech writing. Typically, we are speaking to general audiences, which makes speech writing challenging. It may be easier to write for a group of aficionados on a subject.

Overall, you must remember that humans are complex. Car mechanics are not only interested in cars, just like students aren’t only interested in school. When we are drafting a speech with the audience in mind, we must find a way to get to know the audience and craft our writing to motivate them to listen. Remember, this is critical in the process of audience analysis. Don’t simply assume the audience will make their own connections to the material, you must explicitly state how your information might be useful to your audience. Tell them directly how they might use your information themselves. One mistake students often make is assuming their attention-getter is a sufficient way to connect the audience and the topic. For instance, if the speech topic is car mechanics, it is not enough to just ask the audience “Who in here owns a car?”. Rather, tell them how proper car maintenance is necessary for their safety and the safety of their loved ones. It is not enough for you alone to know the topic is relevant to them – explain to them why and how the topic is important for them personally. You need to build a bridge to the audience by explicitly connecting your topic to their possible needs.

Establish Credibility

One of the most researched areas within the field of communication has been Aristotle’s concept of ethos or credibility . The concept of credibility must be understood as a perception of receivers. How are you perceived by the audience? Why? Give some thought to how others see you and what that means for writing a speech. You may be the most competent, caring, and trustworthy speaker in the world on a given topic, but if your audience does not perceive you as credible, then your expertise and passion will not matter.

James C. McCroskey and Jason J. Teven (1999) have conducted extensive research on credibility and have determined that an individual’s credibility is composed of three factors: competence, trustworthiness, and caring/goodwill. These factors make up a speaker’s perceived knowledge or expertise in a given subject by an audience member. Some individuals are given expert status because of the positions they hold in society. Can you think of a person you label as credible in our society? Maybe Oprah Winfrey or former President Barack Obama? Have you ever considered that you have never met (most likely) either of these individuals in person, but rely on their communication and speechmaking to know them and understand them? This means that they have both established their ethos, their credibility, by showcasing who they are, what they do, and what it means for you as an audience member.

Figure 9.2: Oprah Winfrey 2

As public speakers, we need to make sure that we explain to our audiences why we are credible speakers on our topic. People in the audience most likely do not know you, so it is your job as the speaker to establish what the audience needs to know in order for them to believe you are the right person to be speaking on the given topic. Credibility is domain-specific; it does not automatically transfer. Is President Obama the best person to teach us how to make an award-winning dessert, or should we learn this from Martha Stewart? Share with your audience what makes you competent on the topic and reveal your quality character by showing them that you have their best interest in mind.

State the Thesis (Central Idea)

A study by Baker (1965) found that individuals who were unorganized while speaking were perceived as less credible than individuals who were organized. Having a solid central idea within your speech will help your audience keep track of where you are in the speech. The thesis statement , or central idea, acts as the part of the introduction that tells the audience exactly what you want them to know when the speech is complete. Recall from Chapter 5, your thesis statement is a concise statement that identifies the speech goal and clearly outlines what the audience can expect to hear in your speech.

Preview the Main Points

The last element you should include in your introduction is a preview of your main points. This preview establishes the direction your speech will take. In a basic speech format, speakers generally use two to five main points for the body of the speech, but your professor will guide you for your specific assignment. The number of main points will depend on the speech topic and the time parameters of the speaking occasions.

During the preview of main points, a speaker outlines what these points will be, and in doing so, also demonstrates to the audience that the speaker is organized. Think of the preview as the “GPS” given to the audience; when you introduce the topic with a clear thesis and preview of the main points, it will keep the audience following the “GPS” on your figurative map.

Optional Features of the Introduction

• Including background information for context.
• Defining unfamiliar or technical terms.
• Mentioning handouts if they are integrated into the actual speech prior to the conclusion.

Speech Conclusions

Have you ever noticed that many public speakers reach the end of their speech and say “that’s it”? Usually, it is because speakers want to make sure the audience knows they are finished. This is important, but there are better ways to conclude one’s speech. Of course, a simple “thank you” indicates the end of the speech, but we can enhance our speech by making the ending more organized and memorable. A complete conclusion will accomplish four tasks: signal the speech is coming to a close, restate the thesis, review the main points covered in the speech and leave the audience with a memorable thought. An effective conclusion should take no more than five to ten percent of the total speaking time, so you have to end quickly and strongly!

Figure 9.3: End of Path 3

Elements of the Conclusion

Organizing the conclusion helps ensure your audience understands what you have said, helps them remember all points, and provides closure. It is recommended that your conclusion signals the speech is ending, reviews the main points, restates the thesis, and incorporates a final memorable thought.

Signal the Ending

The ultimate goal of the conclusion is to signal that the end of a speech is near. Some might think this is a “no brainer,” but many beginner speakers don’t usually prepare their audience for the end well enough. When a speaker just suddenly stops speaking, the audience can be left confused and disappointed. Instead, we want to make sure that the audience is left knowledgeable and satisfied with our speech. We like to think of the conclusion as a highway off-ramp. We slow down, we signal, and we figure out what is next (turn or go forward), and we make it to our final destination. Your planning can help do the same for a speech.

To avoid ending abruptly, craft a few concluding statements that will guarantee the audience knows you’re wrapping up. When the credits roll on a television show, we know it is the end, but the scene right before the credits buttons up the entire show. Audiences like it when things are tied up at the end, and it can also help audiences retain the information if the speech comes to an organized conclusion.

Restate the Thesis

Recall that the thesis is the primary goal of your speech. In the introduction, you told the audience the purpose of your speech and the specific points they would learn throughout your speech. During the speech delivery, you shared a lot of information to help accomplish your primary speech goal. But, since some time has passed from when you stated the thesis in the introduction of your speech, it is critical to remind the audience again. This part of the conclusion is your chance to remind the audience of the purpose of your speech and make sure they know exactly what they need to know.

Review the Main Points

In the conclusion, you should also remind the audience “what you told them” by restating the main ideas from the body of your speech. This is necessary to make sure they remember the key points that you covered. In reviewing the main points, you should provide a short summary of the main ideas without going into too much detail (because you already covered the sub-points in the body). It is very important that you do not introduce new ideas or main points in the conclusion. The conclusion is meant to bring the speech to logical ending and new ideas will just confuse the audience, leaving them to ponder, maybe the speech is not ending, or is this new point as important as the others?

End Memorably

This section isn’t as clear-cut as the others, but it is important. It is the last detail you’ll share with the audience and the most recent thing for them to recall. Your goal is to make it memorable. Let’s say you delivered a speech on how-to make the best salsa in Fort Myers, but you never told the audience the secret location of the best locally grown tomatoes. At the end, you could reveal the location of your favorite local farm. Or, maybe you delivered a speech on the importance of voting in the next election. For your ending, you might help the audience members by showing them how to locate the closest polling place. The ending is your opportunity to make the speech complete. Imagine your speech as a circle – now is when the circle comes to a close.

For persuasive speeches, your final task is a call to action which is when you state the specific actions for your audience to take. Depending on the persuasive organizational pattern used, you may have given the audience specific steps to take action, but here in the conclusion, you will remind them of the best way to act. For example, you might say something like, “Don’t forget to send a letter to your congressperson today!” This step in the conclusion is your final chance to make the information relevant to the audience and accomplish what you planned to accomplish when you started drafting your speech.

Pro-Tip: Circle Back

An excellent public speaking strategy is a “tie-back” or “ circling back” , which involves referring your attention-getter or a detail from the introduction. If you like stand-up comedy, you probably have seen this technique before. Referring to the attention-getter or introduction helps tie up the entire speech and connect the very beginning to the very end.

When you end your speech by connecting it directly to your attention-getter/introduction, you allow the audience to come “full circle.” For example, if you start with a story about a girl named Maria, you should refer back to the story about Maria and give some final comments in the conclusion. Or, if your speech was about euthanasia, and you started with the story of Jorge and his family, in the end, you might tell us how Jorge’s family is doing now. Or, maybe your speech was about the importance of going to graduate school, and you started with a personal story about your mother going to graduate school. In the conclusion, you might tell us how your mom is doing now, share a picture, and discuss the impact that a graduate degree can have on one’s family.

Do you remember how we started this chapter? Test yourself now to see if you remember. Do you? Now, what kind of conclusion to this chapter would it be if we didn’t circle back? Let’s do it!

This chapter focused on the basic elements for writing the introduction and the conclusion. (here I signaled the end is coming)

The goal of this chapter was to prepare you to be successful and identify the specific components needed to be organized at the beginning and the end of your speech. (here I restated the thesis)

I want you to remember some key “takeaways.” Introductions and conclusions are only approximately ten percent of one’s speech, so speakers need to make sure they think through these critical parts of the speech. A strong introduction is important because that is your chance to get the audience to follow you. It consists of five elements: an attention-getter, relating to the audience, establishing credibility, stating the thesis, and previewing the main points. A strong conclusion is very important because it’s a speaker’s final chance to explain the importance of their message. An effective conclusion signals the end of the speech, restates the thesis, reviews the main points, and ends on a memorable note. As such, speakers need to thoroughly examine how they will start and how they will finish with power. (Here I reviewed the main points)

Audiences tend to remember ideas stated at the beginning and the end. Think about that television show we discussed at the very start of this chapter. How often do you watch something on television you didn’t plan to watch? If you continued to watch, was it because the show captured your attention? Today, we are inundated with videos. If the videos start strong, we keep watching. If they end strong, we may become fans, become a follower, subscribe to a channel, etc. You also need to harness the power of the introduction and the conclusion. You are the one who will grab and keep the audience’s attention and generate credibility and goodwill along the way. (here I end memorably by circling back)

Reflection Questions

• What catches your attention when you are watching a movie? How about talking to a friend? What typically occurs to grab your attention and encourage you to listen?
• What method of introducing a speech do you think your audience will be most intrigued by?
• How do you think a cliffhanger can be used for an informative or persuasive speech? Why might this be a great technique?
• How can a speaker’s attitude and demeanor change how the audience feels at the end of a speech? How does this connect to the aspects of a conclusion?

Call to Action

Circling-Back

Credibility (Ethos)

Baker, E. E. (1965). The immediate effects of perceived speaker disorganization on speaker credibility and audience attitude change in persuasive speaking. Western Speech , 29, 148–161.

McCroskey, J. C., & Teven, J. J. (1999). Goodwill: A reexamination of the construct and its measurement. Communication Monographs, 66 , 90–103.

Introduction to Public Speaking Copyright © by Jamie C. Votraw, M.A.; Katharine O'Connor, Ph.D.; and William F. Kelvin, Ph.D.. All Rights Reserved.

Share This Book

Introductions & Conclusions

Introductions.

• Get the audience’s attention with a story, quotation, personal experience, etc.
• Identify the topic and indicate why it is relevant, important, or interesting.
• Establish your credibility through words or behavior.
• Provide context, background, and definitions listeners might need.
• State your purpose, thesis, or research question.
• Preview the body of your speech.
• Make a transition to the first point in the body of the speech.
• Start with “um" or "OK.”
• Apologize for weaknesses in your content, preparation or speaking ability.
• Complain about food, accommodations, equipment, facilities or other speakers.
• Use “humor” that might disparage, offend or alienate your listeners.
• Use cheap tricks to get attention.
• Go on about how hard it was to choose a topic.

Conclusions

Conclusions should reinforce the message and give the speech unity and closure.

• Summarize the main points of your speech.
• Restate your purpose or thesis.
• Create closure, a sense of finality.
• In persuasive speeches, make a final call for commitment or action.
• Open new areas of discussion or argument.
• Change position or viewpoint.
• Resort to feeble closing phrases like “and that's all I have to say.”
• Say “thank you” just because the audience doesn't seem to realize that your speech is over.

Office / Department Name

Oral Communication Center

Contact Name

Amy Gaffney

Oral Communication Center Director

Help us provide an accessible education, offer innovative resources and programs, and foster intellectual exploration.

Site Search

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

11.1 Why Conclusions Matter

Learning objectives.

• Understand the basic benefits of a strong conclusion.
• Explain the serial position effect and its importance on public speaking.

Willi Heidelbach – Puzzle2 – CC BY 2.0.

As public speaking professors and authors, we have seen many students give otherwise good speeches that seem to fall apart at the end. We’ve seen students end their three main points by saying things such as “OK, I’m done”; “Thank God that’s over!”; or “Thanks. Now what? Do I just sit down?” It’s understandable to feel relief at the end of a speech, but remember that as a speaker, your conclusion is the last chance you have to drive home your ideas. When a speaker opts to end the speech with an ineffective conclusion—or no conclusion at all—the speech loses the energy that’s been created, and the audience is left confused and disappointed. Instead of falling prey to emotional exhaustion, remind yourself to keep your energy up as you approach the end of your speech, and plan ahead so that your conclusion will be an effective one.

Of course, a good conclusion will not rescue a poorly prepared speech. Thinking again of the chapters in a novel, if one bypasses all the content in the middle, the ending often isn’t very meaningful or helpful. So to take advantage of the advice in this chapter, you need to keep in mind the importance of developing a speech with an effective introduction and an effective body; if you have these elements, you will have the foundation you need to be able to conclude effectively. Just as a good introduction helps bring an audience member into the world of your speech, and a good speech body holds the audience in that world, a good conclusion helps bring that audience member back to the reality outside of your speech.

In this section, we’re going to examine the functions fulfilled by the conclusion of a speech. A strong conclusion serves to signal the end of the speech and to help your listeners remember your speech.

Signals the End

The first thing a good conclusion can do is to signal the end of a speech. You may be thinking that showing an audience that you’re about to stop speaking is a “no brainer,” but many speakers really don’t prepare their audience for the end. When a speaker just suddenly stops speaking, the audience is left confused and disappointed. Instead, we want to make sure that audiences are left knowledgeable and satisfied with our speeches. In Section 11.2 “Steps of a Conclusion” , we’ll explain in great detail about how to ensure that you signal the end of your speech in a manner that is both effective and powerful.

Aids Audience’s Memory of Your Speech

The second reason for a good conclusion stems out of some very interesting research reported by the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus back in 1885 in his book Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology (Ebbinghaus, 1885). Ebbinghaus proposed that humans remember information in a linear fashion, which he called the serial position effect . He found an individual’s ability to remember information in a list (e.g., a grocery list, a chores list, or a to-do list) depends on the location of an item on the list. Specifically, he found that items toward the top of the list and items toward the bottom of the list tended to have the highest recall rates. The serial position effect basically finds that information at the beginning of a list ( primacy ) and information at the end of the list ( recency ) are easier to recall than information in the middle of the list.

So what does this have to do with conclusions? A lot! Ray Ehrensberger wanted to test Ebbinghaus’ serial position effect in public speaking. Ehrensberger created an experiment that rearranged the ordering of a speech to determine the recall of information (Ehrensberger, 1945). Ehrensberger’s study reaffirmed the importance of primacy and recency when listening to speeches. In fact, Ehrensberger found that the information delivered during the conclusion (recency) had the highest level of recall overall.

Key Takeaways

• A strong conclusion is very important because it’s a speaker’s final chance to really explain the importance of her or his message and allows the speaker to both signal the end of the speech and help the audience to remember the main ideas. As such, speakers need to thoroughly examine how they will conclude their speeches with power.
• The serial position effect is the idea that people remember ideas that are stated either first (primacy) or last (recency) in a list the most. It is important to speech conclusions because restating your main ideas helps you to take advantage of the recency effect and helps your audience remember your ideas.
• Think about a recent speech you heard either in class or elsewhere. Did the speaker have a strong conclusion? List the elements of the conclusion that were particularly effective and ineffective. Identify two ways you could have made the speaker’s conclusion stronger.
• After listening to a speech or class lecture, close your eyes and say aloud the main points you remember from the presentation. Does your memory follow what you would expect according to the serial position effect?

Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology [Online version]. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/index.htm .

Ehrensberger, R. (1945). An experimental study of the relative effectiveness of certain forms of emphasis in public speaking. Speech Monographs, 12 , 94–111. doi: 10.1080/03637754509390108.

Stand up, Speak out Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Module Three: Drafting Demonstration Speeches

Introductions & conclusions: conclusion.

“Classic Raux” by Tim Samoff. CC-BY-ND .

This chapter first shows how to structure and develop introductions and conclusions. Second, it argues that introductions function to gain audience attention and goodwill, and that introductions help structure the speech with a thesis statement and preview. Third, the chapter explains that conclusions help audiences remember the key ideas of a speech. Finally, the chapter reveals that there are a variety of different techniques for introductions and conclusions, and that many of the techniques for introductions apply to conclusions as well.

Introductions set the stage for the speech that is to come; conclusions make sure that the audience goes away changed in a positive manner. Short in time, they require careful thought and precise language to be effective. Done well, introductions prepare an audience to learn, and conclusions help to insure that an audience has understood the purpose of the speech.

When you can do the common things of life in an uncommon way, you will command the attention of the world. ~ George Washington Carver

• Chapter 9 Conclusion. Authored by : Warren Sandmann, Ph.D.. Provided by : Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN. Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : The Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
• Classic Raux. Authored by : Tim Samoff. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/timsamoff/2396792882/ . License : CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Chapter Ten – Introductions and Conclusions

The importance of an introduction.

While not a hard science, it’s generally recognized that the introduction for a speech should only encompass about 10 to 20 percent of the entire time the speaker will spend speaking. This means that if your speech is meant to be five minutes long, your introduction should be no more than about forty-five seconds. If your speech is to be ten minutes long, then your introduction should be no more than about a minute and a half. Keep in mind, that 10 to 20 percent of your speech can either make your audience interested in what you have to say or cause them to tune out before you’ve really gotten started. Overall, a good introduction should serve five functions. Let’s examine each of these.

Gain Audience Attention and Interest

The first major purpose of an introduction is to gain your audience’s attention and make them interested in what you have to say. This is oftentimes called the hook. One of the biggest mistakes that novice speakers make is to assume that people will naturally listen because the speaker is speaking. While many audiences may be polite and not talk while you’re speaking, actually getting them to listen to what you are saying is a completely different challenge. Let’s face it—we’ve all tuned someone out at some point because we weren’t interested in what they had to say. If you do not get the audience’s attention at the outset, it will only become more difficult to do so as you continue speaking. We’ll talk about some strategies for grabbing an audience’s attention later on in this chapter.

State the Purpose of Your Speech

The second major function of an introduction is to reveal the purpose of your speech to your audience. Have you ever sat through a speech wondering what the basic point was? Have you ever come away after a speech and had no idea what the speaker was talking about? An introduction is important because it forces the speaker to be mindfully aware of explaining the topic of the speech to the audience. If the speaker doesn’t know their topic and cannot convey that topic to the audience, then we’ve got really big problems! Robert Cavett, the founder of the National Speaker’s Association, used the analogy of a preacher giving a sermon when he noted, “ When it’s foggy in the pulpit, it’s cloudy in the pews .”

As you previously learned, the specific purpose is the one idea you want your audience to remember when you are finished with your speech. Your specific purpose is the rudder that guides your research, organization, and development of main points. The more clearly focused your purpose is, the easier your task will be in developing your speech. In addition, a clear purpose provides the audience with a single, simple idea to remember even if they daydream during the body of your speech. To develop a specific purpose, you should complete the following sentence: “I want my audience to understand that…” Notice that your specific speech purpose is phrased in terms of expected audience responses, not in terms of your own perspective.

Establish Credibility

One of the most researched areas within the field of communication has been Aristotle’s concept of  ethos or credibility. First, and foremost, the concept of credibility must be understood as the perception of your listeners. You may be the most competent, caring, and trustworthy speaker in the world on a given topic, but if your audience does not perceive you as credible, then your expertise and passion will not matter. As public speakers, we need to make sure that we explain to our audiences why we are credible speakers on a given topic.

James C. McCroskey and Jason J. Teven have conducted extensive research on credibility and have determined that an individual’s credibility is composed of three factors: competence, trustworthiness, and goodwill [1] . Competence is the degree to which a speaker is perceived to be knowledgeable or expert in a given subject by an audience member. Some individuals are given expert status because of positions they hold in society. For example, Dr. Regina Benjamin, the US Surgeon General, is expected to be competent in matters related to health and wellness as a result of being the United States’ top physician.

Regina Benjamin. Photo by Lawrence Jackson.

But what if you do not possess a fancy title that lends itself to established competence? You need to explain to the audience why you are competent to speak on your topic. Keep in mind that even well-known speakers are not perceived as universally credible. US Surgeon General Regina Benjamin may be seen as competent on health and wellness issues but may not be seen as a competent speaker on trends in Latin American music or different ways to cook summer squash. Like well-known speakers, you will need to establish your credibility on each topic you address. For example, if you are an undergraduate student and are delivering a speech about the importance of string theory in physics, unless you are a prodigy of some kind, you are probably not a recognized expert on the subject. Conversely, if your number one hobby in life is collecting memorabilia about the Three Stooges, then you may be an expert about the Three Stooges. However, you would need to explain to your audience your passion for collecting Three Stooges memorabilia and how this has made you an expert on the topic.

If, on the other hand, you are not actually a recognized expert on a topic, you need to demonstrate that you have done your homework to become more knowledgeable than your audience about your topic. The easiest way to demonstrate your competence is through the use of appropriate references from leading thinkers and researchers on your topic. When you demonstrate to your audience that you have done your homework, they are more likely to view you as competent.

The second characteristic of credibility, trustworthiness , is a little more complicated than competence, for it ultimately relies on audience perceptions. This factor of credibility noted by McCroskey and Teven, is the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as honest. One way to increase the likelihood that a speaker will be perceived as trustworthy is to use reputable sources. If you’re quoting Dr. John Smith, you need to explain who Dr. John Smith is so your audience will see the quotation as being more trustworthy. As speakers we can easily manipulate our sources into appearing more credible than they actually are, which would be unethical. When you are honest about your sources with your audience, they will trust you and your information more so than when you are ambiguous. Many speakers have attempted to lie to an audience because it will serve their own purposes or even because they believe their message is in their audience’s best interest, but lying is one of the fastest ways to turn off an audience and get them to distrust both the speaker and the message. Not only is lying highly unethical, but if you are caught lying, your audience will deem you untrustworthy and perceive everything you are saying as untrustworthy. For example, in the summer of 2009, many Democratic members of Congress attempted to hold public town-hall meetings about health care. For a range of reasons, many of the people who attended these town-hall meetings refused to let their elected officials actually speak because the audiences were convinced that the Congressmen and Congresswomen were lying.

In these situations, where a speaker is in front of a very hostile audience, there is little a speaker can do to reestablish that sense of trustworthiness. These public town-hall meetings became screaming matches between the riled-up audiences and the congressional representatives. Some police departments actually ended up having to escort the representatives from the buildings because they feared for their safety. Check out this video from CNN.com to see what some of these events actually looked like: Hostile Town Hall Meeting . We hope that you will not be in physical danger when you speak to your classmates or in other settings, but these incidents serve to underscore how important speaker trustworthiness is across speaking contexts.

Goodwill is the final factor of credibility noted by McCroskey and Teven. Goodwill refers to the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as caring about the audience member. As noted by Wrench, McCroskey, and Richmond, “If a receiver does not believe that a source has the best intentions in mind for the receiver, the receiver will not see the source as credible. Simply put, we are going to listen to people who we think truly care for us and are looking out for our welfare” [3] . As a speaker, then, you need to establish that your information is being presented because you care about your audience and are not just trying to manipulate them. We should note that research has indicated that goodwill is the most important factor of credibility. This means that if an audience believes that a speaker truly cares about the audience’s best interests, the audience may overlook some competence and trust issues. One way to show that you have your audience’s best interests in mind is to acknowledge disagreement from the start:

Today I’m going to talk about why I believe we should enforce stricter immigration laws in the United States. I realize that many of you will disagree with me on this topic. I used to believe that open immigration was necessary for the United States to survive and thrive, but after researching this topic, I’ve changed my mind. While I may not change all of your minds today, I do ask that you listen with an open mind, set your personal feelings on this topic aside, and judge my arguments on their merits.  

While clearly not all audience members will be open or receptive to opening their minds and listening to your arguments, by establishing that there is known disagreement, you are telling the audience that you understand their possible views and are not trying to attack their intellect or their opinions.

Provide Reasons to Listen

The fourth major function of an introduction is to establish a connection between the speaker and the audience, often described as relating to your audience. We call this the “why should I care?” part of your speech because it tells your audience why the topic is directly important to them. One of the most effective means of establishing a connection with your audience is to provide them with reasons why they should listen to your speech. The idea of establishing a connection is an extension of the notion of caring/goodwill. In the chapter on Speech Delivery, we’ll spend a lot more time talking about how you can establish a good relationship with your audience. However, this relationship starts the moment you step to the front of the room to start speaking.

People in today’s world are very busy, and they do not like their time wasted. Nothing is worse than having to sit through a speech that has nothing to do with you. Imagine sitting through a speech about a new software package you don’t own and you will never hear of again. How would you react to the speaker? Most of us would be pretty annoyed at having had our time wasted in this way. Obviously, this particular speaker didn’t do a great job of analyzing her or his audience if the audience isn’t going to use the software package—but even when speaking on a topic that is highly relevant to the audience, speakers often totally forget to explain how and why it is important.

Instead of assuming the audience will make their own connections to your material, you should explicitly state how your information might be useful to your audience. Tell them directly how they might use your information themselves. It is not enough for you alone to be interested in your topic! You need to build a bridge to the audience by explicitly connecting your topic to their possible needs.

Preview Main Ideas

The last major function of an introduction is to preview the main ideas that your speech will discuss. A preview establishes the direction your speech will take. In the most basic speech format, speakers generally have three to five major points they plan on making. During the preview, a speaker outlines what these points will be, which demonstrates to the audience that the speaker is organized.

Having a solid preview of the information contained within one’s speech and then following that preview will definitely help a speaker’s credibility. It also helps your audience keep track of where you are if they momentarily daydream or get distracted.

The preview may also be called your  thesis statement,  that is, a summary of your main points. The preview or thesis statement explicitly states and summarizes your main points, to ensure your audience knows what to expect. A strong, clear thesis statement is valuable within an introduction because it lays out the basic goal of the entire speech. We strongly believe that it is worthwhile to invest some time in framing and writing a good thesis statement because it helps your audience by letting them know “in a nutshell” what you are going to talk about.

Attention-Getting Strategies

Now that we have discussed the five basic functions of the introduction, let’s discuss potential attention-getting strategies. This is not an exhaustive list, and many of these attention getters can be combined or adapted to fit the needs of the speaker, the occasion and the audience. Regardless of the specific strategy used for the introduction, all introductions still need to meet the basic functions of an introduction.

You will get good attention and people will be more inclined to listen to you if you can make a statement whereby their response is… “No kidding!” – Gael Boardman

Tell a Story

Humans love stories. In all cultures, stories are used to communicate and share values, traditions and knowledge. Rhetorician Walter Fisher [4]  argues that human beings are best understood as  homo narrans , as people who tell stories. As an introductory device, stories (and anecdotes and illustrations) are very effective attention getters.

First, stories have a built-in structure that everyone recognizes and expects. Stories have a beginning, middle and end, and this built-in structure allows the audience and the speaker to immediately share this experience.

Secondly, because this built-in structure, stories as attention getters lend themselves readily to a well- structured speech. You as speaker can start the story, get right to the climax, and then stop. You have the attention of the audience; you have shared experiences with them; and now you also have the conclusion of the speech all set to go—the end of the story.

Speakers who talk about what life has taught them never fail to keep the attention of their listeners. – Dale Carnegie

Refer to the Occasion

You are presenting this speech for a reason. The audience is present at this speech for a reason. These reasons can provide you with an effective attention getter. Referring to the occasion is often used as an introduction to tribute speeches, toasts, dedication ceremonies and historical events. Speech scholar Lloyd Bitzer [5]  argues that all speeches are made at least in part in response to specific occasions, so referring to the occasion seems a good idea.

Bono, lead singer of the rock group U2 and an activist for a number of humanitarian issues, addressed the 54th annual National Prayer Breakfast, and started his speech with these words:

Well, thank you. Thank you, Mr. President, First Lady, King Abdullah of Jordan, Norm [Coleman], distinguished guests. Please join me in praying that I don’t say something we’ll all regret. [6]

“National Prayer Breakfast”  by Paul Morse. Public domain.

Refer to Recent or Historical Events

In addition to referring to the occasion, another effective attention- getting device is to refer to current events or to historical events. This style of reference again helps to create a shared experience for the speaker and the audience, as the speaker reminds all present that they have these events in common. Additionally, referring to current or historical events can also help establish goodwill and personal credibility by demonstrating that the speaker is aware of the relationship between this particular speech and what is going on in the world at that time, or what has occurred in the past.

Abraham Lincoln (1863), in one of the most well-known speeches in American history, refers both to historical events and current events in the beginning of the Gettysburg Address :

Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure.

“Abraham Lincoln”  by Alexander Gardner. Public domain.

Refer to Previous Speeches

Most of you reading this material are doing so because you are in a public speaking or introductory communication class of some kind. And that means that most of you will be presenting your speeches right after someone else has presented. Even if you are not in a classroom situation, many other speaking situations (such as presenting at a city council or other government meeting or taking part in a forum or lecture series) result in speakers presenting right after another person has spoken.

In these situations, speakers before you may have already addressed some of the information you were planning to discuss, or perhaps have given a speech on the same topic you are now planning to address. By referring to the previous speeches, you enhance your credibility by showing your knowledge of the previous speech, and you have the opportunity to either compare or contrast your speech to the previous speeches (you could also demonstrate your listening skills).

Edward (Ted) Kennedy, at the 1980 Democratic National Convention, began his speech with a short tribute and acknowledgement to the previous speaker, member of Congress Barbara Mikulski:

Thanks very much, Barbara Mikulski, for your very eloquent, your eloquent introduction. Distinguished legislator, great spokeswoman for economic democracy and social justice in this country, I thank you for your eloquent introduction.

“Ted Kennedy, Senator from Massachusetts” by United States Senate. Public domain.

Refer to Personal Interest

One of the key considerations in choosing an appropriate topic for your speech is that you have a personal interest in that topic. An effective attention getter then, can be your description of that personal interest. By noting your personal interest, you will demonstrate your credibility by showing your knowledge and experience with this topic, and because you have a personal interest, you are more likely to present this information in a lively and clear manner—again, enhancing your credibility. Referring to your personal interest in this topic in the introduction also helps you set the stage for additional anecdotes or examples from your personal experience later in the speech.

In speaking at the 1992 Democratic National Convention, Elizabeth Glaser began her speech by acknowledging her very personal interest in the topic:

I’m Elizabeth Glaser. Eleven years ago, while giving birth to my first child, I hemorrhaged and was transfused with seven pints of blood. Four years later, I found out that I had been infected with the AIDS virus and had unknowingly passed it to my daughter, Ariel, through my breast milk, and my son, Jake, in utero. [7]

Use Startling Statistics

Startling statistics startle an audience and catch its attention and encourage that audience to listen further as you present the context of the surprising statistic. Long-time radio announcer Paul Harvey is well known for the catch phrase “And now, the rest of the story.” The same function should be at work here. When you startle the audience, you set them up to want to hear the “rest of the story.”

Be careful, though. Use of startling statistics requires that you do a number of things. First, make sure the statistic is accurate. Second, make sure the statistic is relevant to the topic of the speech. Startling an audience with an irrelevant statistic diminishes the speech and decreases your credibility. Third, make sure you then present “the rest of the story.” You need to place this startling statistic in the context of your speech so that everything fits together.

One speaker used an effective startling statistic to help introduce a speech on the dangers of heart disease:

According to the Center for Disease Control, in the United States 26.6 million adults have heart disease. This would be about 12% of adults, or three people in this room.

Use an Analogy

Analogies compare something that your audience knows and understands with something new and different. For your speech, then, you can use an  analogy  to show a connection between your speech topic (something new and different for the audience) and something that is known by your audience.

“Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes”  by National Photo Company. Public domain.

One very common (and often misquoted) analogy comes from the 1919 Supreme Court case of  Schenck v United States . Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes used this analogy to support his reasoning that some forms of expression can be suppressed because they present a “clear and present danger.” Holmes noted that “[t]he most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man falsely shouting fire in a theater and causing a panic.” [8]

Use a Quotation

Using a quotation from a well-known figure or using a quotation from a lesser-known figure if the quotation is particularly suitable for your speech topic, is a common attention-getting technique. When you quote that well-known figure, you are in a sense, borrowing some of that person’s credibility for your speech, enhancing your credibility with the audience. Even when you use a less than well-known figure, the quotation can be effective if it nicely sets up your speech topic and is something to which your audience can relate.

Be careful with quotations, however. First, just using the quotation is not sufficient. You need to place the quotation in the context of your speech (as well as meet the other required functions of an introduction, of course). Second, it is easy to fall into a bad (and somewhat lazy) habit of simply finding a quotation and using it to start every speech. Third, simply using a quotation is no guarantee that your audience will find that quotation interesting or apt for the speech and may also find the author of the quotation to be lacking in credibility—or your audience may simply not like the author of the quotation. Finally, beware of overly- long quotations (three or more sentences): Remember, this is just part of the introduction, not a main point of the speech.

“Reagan farewell salute”  by White House Photographic Office. Public domain.

In his farewell address, former President Ronald Reagan (1989) utilized a very short quotation to emphasize his feelings upon leaving office.

People ask how I feel about leaving. And the fact is, “parting is such sweet sorrow.” The sweet part is California and the ranch and freedom. The sorrow — the goodbyes, of course, and leaving this beautiful place.

Ask a Question

Using rhetorical questions in speeches is a great way to keep the audience involved. Don’t you think those kinds of questions would keep your attention? – Bo Bennett

The use of questions can be a very effective way to get attention, whether those questions are rhetorical in nature, and are only meant to be considered and pondered by the audience or are meant to be answered by the audience (generally a good technique to get audience involvement and interest).

Rhetorical questions are designed to allow you as speaker to get the audience to think about your topic without actually speaking the answer to the question. Rhetorical questions allow you as speaker to maintain the most control over a speech situation and allow you to guard against an inappropriate or even offensive response.

Using questions that ask for real responses, however, has additional benefits, if a speaker feels comfortable with the audience, and is able to handle some impromptu situations. Getting the audience to physically and verbally involve themselves in your topic guarantees that they’re paying attention. Using questions that lead to positive answers can also enhance your connection to and credibility with the audience.

Starting a speech with a question whether rhetorical or actual does require thought and practice on your part. You need to carefully consider the question and possible answers. Remember—even if you think the question is rhetorical, your audience may not know this and may answer the question. You also need to carefully deliver the question. Too often, speakers will use a question as an introduction—but then give the audience no time to either think about the answer or answer the question. You need to use timing and pause when starting with a question. You also need to be careful to use eye contact in asking questions, since you are above all asking for audience involvement, and your eye contact requests that involvement.

It is not enough for me to ask questions; I want to know how to answer the one question that seems to encompass everything I face: What am I here for? – Abraham Joshua Heschel

In 1992, Ross Perot selected a little-known retired military figure, Admiral James Stockdale, as his Vice-Presidential running mate. In the fall debates, Stockdale began his opening statement with two questions: “Who am I? Why am I here?” (Stockdale, 1992). The questions received applause and also laughter, though the later reaction to these questions was mixed at best. Some saw this as confusion on the part of Stockdale. [9] Stockdale considered these two questions to illustrate his difference from the other two “mainstream” candidates, Al Gore and then Vice President Dan Quayle. Traditional politicians, Gore and Quayle were readily recognized as compared to Stockdale.

“Audience enjoy Stallman’s jokes”  by Wikimania2009 and Damiu00e1n Buonamico.  CC-BY .

The use of humor in an introduction can be one of the most effective types of introductions—if done well. Humor can create a connection between the speaker and audience, can get an audience relaxed and in a receptive frame of mind, and can allow an audience to perceive the speaker (and the topic) in a positive light.

Humor done badly can destroy the speech and ruin a speaker’s credibility.

So first, a word of warning: None of us (those reading this, those teaching this class, and those writing this) are as funny as we think we are. If we were that funny, we would be making our living that way. Humor is hard. Humor can backfire. Humor is to a large extent situation bound. Most likely, there will be a number of members of your audience who do not use English as a first language (there are plenty of people reading this who are English as a Second Language learners). Much humor requires a native understanding of English. Most likely, there will be a number of people in your audience who do not share your cultural upbringing—and humor is often culture-bound. Be careful with humor.

In general, there is basically only one safe and suitable style of humor: light and subtle self-deprecation. In other words, you as speaker are the only really safe subject for humor.

“Ann Richards”  by Kenneth C. Zirkel.  CC-BY-SA .

Using humor to tell stories about other people, other groups, and even other situations, may work—but it is just as likely to offend those people, members of those groups, and people in that situation. Using self-deprecating humor will not offend others, but unless you can do this with a light and subtle touch, you may be harming your credibility rather than creating a connection between yourself and the audience.

Now, with all these warnings, you may want to stay far away from humor as an introduction. Humor can work, however.

Ann Richards, at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, used humor in the introduction to her Keynote Address. Knowing the audience, Richards was able to use partisan humor to establish a connection to the audience and score points against the political opposition.

I’m delighted to be here with you this evening, because after listening to George Bush all these years, I figured you needed to know what a real Texas accent sounds like.

Steps of a Conclusion

Matthew Culnane –  Steps  – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Signal the Ending

Letting your audience know that the conclusion is coming is the first step in a powerful conclusion. When we show the audience we have come to the end, we ensure that our speech end is intentional, and not abrupt. Suppose your purpose was, “I will analyze Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” You could start your conclusion with “In the past few minutes, I have analyzed Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” Notice the shift in tense: the statement has gone from the future tense (this is what I will speak about) to the past tense (this is what I have spoken about). Not only does this remind them of the major purpose or goal of your speech, but it ushers in a memorable conclusion.

You may have used the line “In Conclusion” as a signal when writing an essay for your English class. While certainly a signal, this is a cliché phrase that you may want to avoid, using more creative means to signal the end.

Review of Main Points

Once you have stated the main idea of your speech, the second step in a powerful conclusion is to review the main points from your speech. One of the biggest differences between written and oral communication is the necessity of repetition in oral communication. When we preview our main points in the introduction, effectively discuss and make transitions to our main points during the body of the speech, and finally, review the main points in the conclusion, we increase the likelihood that the audience will retain our main points after the speech is over.

In the introduction of a speech, we deliver a  preview of our main body points, and in the conclusion, we deliver a  review . Let’s look at a sample preview:

In order to understand the field of gender and communication, I will first differentiate between the terms biological sex and gender. I will then explain the history of gender research in communication. Lastly, I will examine a series of important findings related to gender and communication.

In this preview, we have three clear main points. Let’s see how we can review them at the conclusion of our speech:

Today, we have differentiated between the terms biological sex and gender, examined the history of gender research in communication, and analyzed a series of research findings on the topic.

In the past few minutes, I have explained the difference between the terms “biological sex” and “gender,” discussed the rise of gender research in the field of communication, and examined a series of groundbreaking studies in the field.  

Notice that both of these conclusions review the main points originally set forth. Both variations are equally effective reviews of the main points, but you might like the linguistic turn of one over the other. Remember, while there is a lot of science to help us understand public speaking, there’s also a lot of art as well, so you are always encouraged to choose the wording that you think will be most effective for your audience.

Concluding Devices

The final part of a powerful conclusion is the concluding device. A concluding device is essentially the final thought you want your audience members to have when you stop speaking. It also provides a definitive sense of closure to your speech. Imagine the summer Olympics and you’re watching your favorite gymnast.  You could make the analogy between a gymnast’s dismount and the concluding device in a speech. Just as a gymnast dismounting the parallel bars or balance beam wants to stick the landing and avoid taking two or three steps, a speaker wants to “stick” the ending of the presentation by ending with a concluding device instead of with, “Well, umm, I guess I’m done.” Miller observed that speakers tend to use one of ten concluding devices when ending a speech (Miller, 1946). The rest of this section will examine these ten concluding devices.

Conclude with a Challenge

The first way that Miller found that some speakers end their speeches is with a challenge. A challenge is a call to engage in some kind of activity that requires a contest or special effort. In a speech on the necessity of fund-raising, a speaker could conclude by challenging the audience to raise 10 percent more than their original projections. In a speech on eating more vegetables, you could challenge your audience to increase their current intake of vegetables by two portions daily. In both of these challenges, audience members are being asked to go out of their way to do something different that involves effort on their part.

Conclude with a Quotation

A second way you can conclude a speech is by reciting a quotation relevant to the speech topic. When using a quotation, you need to think about whether your goal is to end on a persuasive note or an informative note. Some quotations will have a clear call to action, while other quotations summarize or provoke thought. For example, let’s say you are delivering an informative speech about dissident writers in the former Soviet Union. You could end by citing this quotation from Alexander Solzhenitsyn: “ A great writer is, so to speak, a second government in his country. And for that reason, no regime has ever loved great writers ” (Solzhenitsyn, 1964). Notice that this quotation underscores the idea of writers as dissidents, but it doesn’t ask listeners to put forth effort to engage in any specific thought process or behavior. If, on the other hand, you were delivering a persuasive speech urging your audience to participate in a very risky political demonstration, you might use this quotation from Martin Luther King Jr.: “ If a man hasn’t discovered something that he will die for, he isn’t fit to live” (King, 1963). In this case, the quotation leaves the audience with the message that great risks are worth taking, that they make our lives worthwhile, and that the right thing to do is to go ahead and take that great risk.

Conclude with a Summary

When speakers end with a summary, they are simply elongating the review of the main points. While this may not be the most exciting concluding device, it can be useful for information that was highly technical or complex or for speeches lasting longer than thirty minutes. Typically, for short speeches (like those in your class), this summary device should be avoided.

Conclude by Visualizing the Future

The purpose of a conclusion that refers to the future is to help your audience imagine the future you believe can occur. If you are giving a speech on the development of video games for learning, you could conclude by depicting the classroom of the future where video games are perceived as true learning tools and how those tools could be utilized. More often, speakers use visualization of the future to depict how society would be, or how individual listeners’ lives would be different, if the speaker’s persuasive attempt worked. For example, if a speaker proposes that a solution to illiteracy is hiring more reading specialists in public schools, the speaker could ask the audience to imagine a world without illiteracy. In this use of visualization, the goal is to persuade people to adopt the speaker’s point of view. By showing that the speaker’s vision of the future is a positive one, the conclusion should help to persuade the audience to help create this future.

Conclude with an Appeal for Action

Probably the most common persuasive concluding device is the appeal for action or the call to action. In essence, the appeal for action occurs when a speaker asks the audience to engage in a specific behavior or change in thinking. When a speaker concludes by asking the audience “to do” or “to think” in a specific manner, the speaker wants to see an actual change. Whether the speaker appeals for people to eat more fruit, buy a car, vote for a candidate, oppose the death penalty, or sing more in the shower, the speaker is asking the audience to engage in action.

One specific type of appeal for action is the immediate call to action. Whereas some appeals ask for people to engage in behavior in the future, the immediate call to action asks people to engage in behavior right now. If a speaker wants to see a new traffic light placed at a dangerous intersection, they may conclude by asking all the audience members to sign a digital petition right then and there, using a computer the speaker has made available ( http://www.petitiononline.com ). Here are some more examples of immediate calls to action:

• In a speech on eating more vegetables, pass out raw veggies and dip at the conclusion of the speech.
• In a speech on petitioning a lawmaker for a new law, provide audience members with a prewritten e-mail they can send to the lawmaker.
• In a speech on the importance of using hand sanitizer, hand out little bottles of hand sanitizer and show audience members how to correctly apply the sanitizer.
• In a speech asking for donations for a charity, send a box around the room asking for donations.

These are just a handful of different examples we’ve actually seen students use in our classrooms to elicit an immediate change in behavior. These immediate calls to action may not lead to long-term change, but they can be very effective at increasing the likelihood that an audience will change behavior in the short term.

Conclude by Inspiration

By definition, the word inspire means to affect or arouse someone. Both affect and arouse have strong emotional connotations. The ultimate goal of an inspiration concluding device is similar to an “appeal for action” but the ultimate goal is more lofty or ambiguous; the goal is to stir someone’s emotions in a specific manner. Maybe a speaker is giving an informative speech on the prevalence of domestic violence in our society today. That speaker could end the speech by reading Paulette Kelly’s powerful poem “I Got Flowers Today.” “I Got Flowers Today” is a poem that evokes strong emotions because it’s about an abuse victim who received flowers from her abuser every time she was victimized. The poem ends by saying, “I got flowers today… / Today was a special day—it was the day of my funeral / Last night he killed me” (Kelly, 1994).

Conclude with Advice

The next concluding device is one that should be used primarily by speakers who are recognized as expert authorities on a given subject. Advice is essentially a speaker’s opinion about what should or should not be done. The problem with opinions is that everyone has one-, and one-person’s opinion is not necessarily any more correct than another’s. There needs to be a really good reason your opinion—and therefore your advice—should matter to your audience. If, for example, you are an expert in nuclear physics, you might conclude a speech on energy by giving advice about the benefits of nuclear energy.

Conclude by Proposing a Solution

Another way a speaker can conclude a speech powerfully is to offer a solution to the problem discussed within a speech. For example, perhaps a speaker has been discussing the problems associated with the disappearance of art education in the United States. The speaker could then propose a solution of creating more community-based art experiences for school children as a way to fill this gap. Although this can be an effective conclusion, a speaker must reflect upon whether the solution should be discussed in more depth as a stand-alone main point within the body of the speech, so that audience concerns about the proposed solution may be addressed.

Conclude with a Question

Another way you can end a speech is to ask a rhetorical question that forces the audience to ponder an idea. Maybe you are giving a speech on the importance of the environment, so you end the speech by saying, “Think about your children’s future. What kind of world do you want them raised in? A world that is clean, vibrant, and beautiful—or one that is filled with smog, pollution, filth, and disease?” Notice that you aren’t actually asking the audience to verbally or nonverbally answer the question; the goal of this question is to force the audience into thinking about what kind of world they want for their children.

Conclude with a Reference to Audience

The last concluding device discussed by Miller (1946) was a reference to one’s audience. This concluding device is when a speaker attempts to answer the basic audience question, “What’s in it for me?” The goal of this concluding device is to spell out the direct benefits a behavior or thought change has for audience members. For example, a speaker talking about stress reduction techniques could conclude by clearly listing all the physical health benefits stress reduction offers (e.g., improved reflexes, improved immune system, improved hearing, reduction in blood pressure). In this case, the speaker is clearly spelling out why audience members should care—what’s in it for them!

Informative versus Persuasive Conclusions

As you read through the possible ways to conclude a speech, hopefully you noticed that some of the methods are more appropriate for persuasive speeches and others are more appropriate for informative speeches. To help you choose appropriate conclusions for informative, persuasive, or entertaining speeches, we’ve created a table — Table 11.1 — to help you quickly identify appropriate concluding devices. Additionally, you may have noticed the concluding devices were similar to the introductory devices. This is not a mistake! Ending your speech in the same way you began can bring uniformity to your speech, making it feel “full circle.”

Table 10.1  Your Speech Purpose and Concluding Devices

• McCroskey, J. C., & Teven, J. J. (1999). Goodwill: A reexamination of the construct and its measurement.  Communication Monographs, 66 , 90–103.
• Wrench, J. S., McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (2008).  Human communication in everyday life: Explanations and applications . Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, pp. 33–34.
• Baker, E. E. (1965). The immediate effects of perceived speaker disorganization on speaker credibility and audience attitude change in persuasive speaking. Western Speech, 29 , 148–161.
• Fisher, W. (1987).  Human communication as narration: Toward a philosophy of reason, value, and action.  Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.  ↵
• Bitzer, L. (1968). The rhetorical situation.  Philosophy and Rhetoric , 1, 1 – 14.  ↵
• Bono. (2006, February 2). Keynote address at the 54th national prayer breakfast. Speech posted at  http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/bononationalprayerbreakfast . htm  ↵
• Glaser, E. (1992, July 14). 1992 Democratic national convention address. Speech posted at  http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp  eeches/elizabethglaser1992dnc.htm  ↵
• Schenck v. United States, 249 US 47 (1919).  ↵
• Lehrer, J. (Interviewer) & Stockdale, J. (Interviewee). (1999). Debating our Destiny: Admiral James Stockdale. Retrieved from  http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debati ngourdestiny/interviews/stockdale.html   ↵
• Kelly, P. (1994). I got flowers today. In C. J. Palmer & J. Palmer, Fire from within . Painted Post, NY: Creative Arts & Science Enterprises.
• King, M. L. (1963, June 23). Speech in Detroit. Cited in Bartlett, J., & Kaplan, J. (Eds.),  Bartlett’s familiar quotations  (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., p. 760.
• Miller, E. (1946). Speech introductions and conclusions.  Quarterly Journal of Speech, 32 , 181–183.
• Solzhenitsyn, A. (1964).  The first circle.  New York: Harper & Row. Cited in Bartlett, J., & Kaplan, J. (Eds.),  Bartlett’s familiar quotations (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., p. 746.
• https://www.pexels.com/photo/pile-of-assorted-novel-books-694740/
• https://www.pexels.com/photo/man-on-a-protest-talking-through-a-megaphone-8899177/
• https://www.pexels.com/photo/young-ethnic-man-looking-of-mirror-at-home-4307825/

LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS

• Parts of an Introduction  adapted from  Stand up, Speak out. Stand up, Speak out Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
• Chapter 9 Attention Getting Strategies.  Authored by : Warren Sandmann, Ph.D..  Provided by : Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN.  Located at :  http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html .  Project : The Public Speaking Project.  License :  CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
• Ann Richards.  Authored by : Kenneth C. Zirkel.  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ann_Richards.jpg .  License :  CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Audience enjoy Stallman’s jokes.  Authored by : Wikimania2009 and Damiu00e1n Buonamico.  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Audience_enjoy_Stallman%27s_jokes.jpg .  License :  CC BY: Attribution

PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT

• Image of Regina Benjamin. http://www.whitehouse.gov/assets/images/surgeon_general-0075.jpg .
• Image of Abraham Lincoln.  Authored by : Alexander Gardner .  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg .  License :  Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• National prayer breakfast 2006.  Authored by : Paul Morse.  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:National_prayer_breakfast_2006.jpg%20 .  License :  Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Ted Kennedy, official photo portrait crop.  Provided by : United States Senate.  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ted_Kennedy,_official_photo_portrait_crop.jpg .  License :  Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes standing.  Authored by : National Photo Company.  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Justice_Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_standing.jpg .  License :  Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Reagan farewell salute.  Authored by : White House Photographic Office.  Located at :  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reagan_farewell_salute.jpg .  License :  Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Principles of Public Speaking Copyright © 2022 by Katie Gruber is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

eCore Public Speaking Textbook (COMM 1113)

• Download PDF Prints
• The Basics of Public Speaking
• Listening in Public Speaking Settings
• Ethics in Public Speaking
• Unit 1 Glossary
• Developing Topics for Your Speech
• Organizing and Outlining

Introductions and Conclusions

• Special Occasions
• Unit 2 Glossary
• Audience Analysis
• Researching Your Speeches
• Supporting Your Speech Ideas
• Informative Speaking
• Unit 3 Glossary
• Persuasive Speaking
• Logical Reasoning
• Presentation Aids
• Unit 4 Glossary
• Attribution and References

After reading this section, the student will be able to:

• Recognize the functions of introductions and conclusions
• Identify the primary elements of a speech introduction
• Identify the primary elements of a speech conclusion
• Construct introductions and conclusions

General Guidelines for Introductions and Conclusions

Can you imagine how strange a speech would sound without an introduction? Or how jarring it would be if, after making a point, a speaker just walked away from the lectern and sat down? You would most likely be pretty confused, and the takeaway from that speech—even if the content was really good—would likely be, “I was confused” or “That was a weird speech.”

This is just one of the reasons all speeches need introductions and conclusions. Introductions and conclusions serve to frame the speech and give it a clearly defined beginning and end. They help the audience to see what is to come in the speech, and then let them mentally prepare for the end. In doing this, introductions and conclusions provide a “preview/review” of your speech as a means to reiterate or re-emphasize to your audience what you are talking about.

If you remember back to the section on Organizing and Outlining, we talked about “planned redundancy” as a strategy for aiding retention and understanding of your purpose and supporting speech ideas. Since speeches are auditory and live, you need to make sure the audience remembers what you are saying. So one of the primary functions of an introduction is to preview what you will be covering in your speech, and one of the main roles of the conclusion is to review what you have covered. It may seem like you are repeating yourself and saying the same things over and over, but that repetition ensures that your audience understands and retains what you are saying.

The challenge, however, is that there is much more that a speaker must do in the introduction and conclusion than just preview or review the topic and main points. The roles that introductions and conclusions fulfill are numerous, and, when done correctly, can make your speech stronger. However, the introduction and conclusion are not the main parts of the speech; that is the body section where the bulk of your research and information will be housed. So to that end, the introduction and conclusion need to be relatively short and to the point.

The general rule is that the introduction and conclusion should each be about 10% of your total speech, leaving 80% for the body section. You can extend the introduction to 15% if there is good reason to, so 10-15% of the speech time is a good guideline for the introduction Let’s say that your informative speech has a time limit of 5-7 minutes: if we average that out to 6 minutes that gives us 360 seconds. Ten to fifteen percent of 360 is 36-54, meaning your full introduction—which includes the thesis and preview—should come in at about a minute. That isn’t to say that your speech instructor will be timing you and penalize you for hitting the 60 second mark, but rather to highlight the fact that you need to be economical with your time. An introduction or conclusion of a 6-minute speech that lasts 90 seconds is taking up 25% or your speech. leaving much less time for the body.

Consequently, there are some common errors to avoid in introductions:

• rambling and meandering, not getting to the point
• speaking to become comfortable
• saying the specific purpose statement, especially as first words
• choosing a technique that hurts credibility, such as pedantic (defining words like “love”) or a method that is not audience-centered
• beginning to talk as you approach the platform or lectern; instead, it is preferable to reach your destination, pause, smile, and then begin
• reading your introduction from your notes; instead, it is vital to establish eye contact in the introduction, so knowing it very well is important
• talking too fast; instead, let your audience get used to your voice by speaking emphatically and clearly

As we have mentioned before, it is best to write your introduction after you have a clear sense of the body of your presentation. The challenge to introductions is that there is a lot you need to get done in that 10%-15%, and all of it is vital to establishing yourself as a knowledgeable and credible speaker.

In terms of the conclusions, be careful NOT to:

• signal the end multiple times. In other words, no “multiple conclusions” or saying “As I close” more than once
• rambling; if you signal the end, end
• talking as you leave the platform or lectern
• indicating with facial expression or body language that you were not happy with the speech

In the following sections, we will discuss specifically what you should include in the introduction and conclusion, and offer a number of options for accomplishing each.

Structuring the Introduction

A common concern many students have as the date of their first major speech approaches is “I don’t know how I should start my speech.” What they are really saying is they aren’t sure what words will be memorable, attention-capturing, and clever enough to get their audience interested or, on a more basic level, sound good. This is a problem most speakers have, since the first words you say, in many ways, set the tone for the rest of your speech. There may not be any one “best” way to start a speech, but we can provide some helpful guidelines that will make starting a speech much easier.

With that in mind, there are five basic elements that you will want to incorporate into your introduction. And while you have some leeway to structure your introduction in a way that best fits with your speech and you wouldn’t necessarily always do all of these in the order below, the following order of these five elements is fairly standard. Unless you have a specific reason to do otherwise, it is probably a pretty good order for you to use.

Element 1: Get the Audience’s Attention

The first major purpose of an introduction is to gain your audience’s attention and make them interested in what you have to say. While many audiences may be polite and not talk while you’re speaking, actually getting them to listen to what you are saying is a completely different challenge. Let’s face it—we’ve all tuned someone out at some point because we weren’t interested in what they had to say. If you do not get the audience’s attention at the outset, it will only become more difficult to do so as you continue speaking.

That’s why every speech should start with an attention getter , or some sort of statement or question that piques the audience’s interest in what you have to say at the very start of a speech. Sometime these are called “grabbers.” The first words out of your mouth should be something that will perk up the audience’s ears. Starting a speech with “Hey everybody. I’m going to talk to you today about soccer” already sounds boring and has not tried to engage the individuals in the audience who don’t care about soccer. Once your audience has deemed your speech to be boring, trying to inform, persuade, or entertain them becomes exponentially more difficult. So let’s briefly discuss what you can do to capture your audience’s attention from the onset.

First, when selecting an attention-getting device, you want to make sure that the option you choose is actually appropriate and relevant to your specific audience. Different audiences will have different backgrounds and knowledge, so you should use your audience analysis to determine whether specific information you plan on using would be appropriate for a specific audience. For example, if you’re giving a speech on family units to a group of individuals over the age of sixty-five, starting your speech with a reference to the television show Stranger Things may not be the best idea because the audience may be unfamiliar with that show.

You will also want to choose an attention-getting device appropriate for your speech topic. Ideally, your attention-getting device should have a relevant connection to your speech. Imagine if a speaker pulled condoms out of his pocket, yelled “Free sex!” and threw the condoms at the audience in the beginning of a speech about the economy. While this may clearly get the audience’s attention, this isn’t really a good way to prepare an audience for a speech about the stock market, or really much else. To help you out, below we have listed a number of different attention getters that you may find useful for opening your speech.

Anecdotes and Narratives

An anecdote is a brief account or story of an interesting or humorous event. Notice the emphasis here is on the word “brief.” A common mistake speakers make when telling an anecdote is to make the anecdote too long. An example of an anecdote used in a speech about the pervasiveness of technology might look something like this:

In July 2009, a high school student named Miranda Becker was walking along a main boulevard near her home on Staten Island, New York, typing in a message on her cell phone. Not paying attention to the world around her, she took a step and fell right into an open manhole.

Notice that the anecdote is short and has a clear point. From here the speaker can begin to make his or her point about how technology is controlling our lives.

A second type of anecdote is a parable or fable. A parable or fable is an allegorical anecdote designed to teach general life lessons. The most widely known parables for most Americans are those given in the Bible and the best-known fables are Aesop’s Fables (http://www.umass.edu/aesop/index.php). So if you decide your speech will focus on the benefits of remaining in college for more than four years in order to obtain multiple degrees, you may want to adapt some version of “The Tortoise and The Hare” as your attention getter.

It is sometimes helpful to begin your speech in a way that your audience finds familiar, since this can make them feel more connected to your speech. This may be particularly helpful for topics with which your audience is unfamiliar. One of the best and easiest ways to do this is to begin with a story that your audience is likely to have heard before. These types of stories come in a number of forms, but the most common ones include fables, tall tales, ghost stories, parables, fairy tales, myths, and legends.

Two primary issues that you should be aware of often arise with using stories as attention getters. First, you shouldn’t let your story go on for too long. If you are going to use a story to begin your speech, you need to think of it more in terms of summarizing the story rather than actually reciting the entire thing. Even a relatively simple story like “The Tortoise and the Hare” can take a couple of minutes to get through in its entirety, so you’ll need to cut it down to the main points or highlights. The second issue with using stories as attention getters is that the story must in some way relate to your speech. If you begin your speech by recounting the events in “Goldilocks and the Three Bears,” your speech will in some way need to address such topics as finding balance or coming to a compromise. If your story doesn’t relate to your topic, you will likely confuse your audience and they may spend the remainder of your speech trying to figure out the connection rather than listening to what you have to say.

A personal story is another option here. You may consider starting your speech with a story about yourself that is relevant to your topic. Some of the best speeches are ones that come from personal knowledge and experience. If you are an expert or have firsthand experience related to your topic, sharing this information with the audience is a great way to show that you are credible during your attention getter. For example, if you had a gastric bypass surgery and you wanted to give an informative speech about the procedure, you could introduce your speech in this way:

In the fall of 2015, I decided that it was time that I took my life into my own hands. After suffering for years with the disease of obesity, I decided to take a leap of faith and get a gastric bypass in an attempt to finally beat the disease.

If you use a personal example, don’t get carried away with the focus on yourself and your own life. Your speech topic is the purpose of the attention getter, not the other way around. Another pitfall in using a personal example is that it may be too personal for you to maintain your composure. For example, a student once started a speech about her grandmother by stating, “My grandmother died of cancer at 3:30 this morning.” The student then proceeded to burst into uncontrollable tears. While this is an extreme example, we strongly recommend that you avoid any material that could get you upset while speaking. When speakers have an emotional breakdown during their speech, audience members stop listening to the message and become very uncomfortable. They may empathize with the distraught speaker, but the effectiveness has been diminished in other ways.

Startling Statement/Statistic/Fact

Another way to start your speech is to surprise your audience with startling information about your topic. Often, startling statements come in the form of statistics and strange facts. The goal of a good startling statistic is that it surprises the audience and gets them engaged in your topic. For example, if you’re giving a speech about oil conservation, you could start by saying, “A Boeing 747 airliner holds 57,285 gallons of fuel.” You could start a speech on the psychology of dreams by noting, “The average person has over 1,460 dreams a year.”

A strange fact, on the other hand, is a statement that does not involve numbers but is equally surprising to most audiences. For example, you could start a speech on the gambling industry by saying, “There are no clocks in any casinos in Las Vegas.” You could start a speech on the Harlem Globetrotters by saying, “In 2000, Pope John Paul II became the most famous honorary member of the Harlem Globetrotters.” All four of these examples came from a website for strange facts (http://www. strangefacts.com).

Although startling statements are fun, it is important to use them ethically. First, make sure that your startling statement is factual. The Internet is full of startling statements and claims that are simply not factual, so when you find a statement you’d like to use, you have an ethical duty to ascertain its truth before you use it and to provide a reliable citation. Second, make sure that your startling statement is relevant to your speech and not just thrown in for shock value. We’ve all heard startling claims made in the media that are clearly made for purposes of shock or fear mongering, such as “Do you know what common household appliance could kill you? Film at 11:00.” As speakers, we have an ethical obligation to avoid playing on people’s emotions in this way.

A Rhetorical Question

A rhetorical question is a question to which no actual reply is expected. For example, a speaker talking about the history of Mother’s Day could start by asking the audience, “Do you remember the last time you told your mom you loved her?” In this case, the speaker does not expect the audience to shout out an answer, but rather to think about the question as the speech goes on.

Immediate Reference to Subject

The most direct (but probably the least interesting of the possible attention getters) is to tell your audience the subject of your speech. Here’s an example:

We are surrounded by statistical information in today’s world, so understanding statistics is becoming paramount to citizenship in the twenty-first century.

This sentence explicitly tells an audience that the speech they are about to hear is about the importance of understanding statistics. While this isn’t the most entertaining or interesting attention getter, it is very clear and direct. And note that it justifies the importance of the audience paying attention while avoiding being completely snooze-inducing, as it would have been if it were reworded as, “I want to talk to you about statistics.”

Reference to Audience or Appeal to Self-Interest

As we have tried to emphasize throughout this book, your audience is the single most important factor is crafting your speech, so it makes sense that one approach to opening your speech is to make a direct reference to the audience. In this case, the speaker has a clear understanding of the audience and points out that there is something unique about the audience that should make them interested in the speech’s content. Here’s an example:

As students at State College, you and I know the importance of selecting a major that will benefit us in the future. In today’s competitive world, we need to study a topic that will help us be desirable to employers and provide us with lucrative and fulfilling careers. That’s why I want you all to consider majoring in communication.

In this example, the speaker reminds the audience of their shared status as students and uses the common ground to acknowledge the importance of selecting a major that will benefit them in the future. Earlier in this unit, we used the expression WIIFM (“What’s in it for me?”) to remind you that your topic and approach should appeal to the self-interests and needs of the audience members.

Another way to capture your listeners’ attention is to use the words of another person that relate directly to your topic. Maybe you’ve found a really great quotation in one of the articles or books you read while researching your speech. If not, you can also use a number of Internet or library sources that compile useful quotations from noted individuals. Quotations are a great way to start a speech, so let’s look at an example that could be used during the opening of a commencement address (a type of special occasion speech discussed later in this unit.  The late actress, fashion icon, and social activist Audrey Hepburn once noted that,

“Nothing is impossible. The word itself says ‘I’m possible’!”

If you use a quotation as your attention getter, be sure to give the source first (as in this example) so that it isn’t mistaken as your own wording.

Reference to Current Events

Referring to a current news event that relates to your topic is often an effective way to capture attention, as it immediately makes the audience aware of how relevant the topic is in today’s world. For example, consider this attention getter for a persuasive speech on frivolous lawsuits:

On January 10 of this year, Scott Anthony Gomez, Jr., and a fellow inmate escaped from a Pueblo, Colorado, jail. During their escape the duo attempted to rappel from the roof of the jail using a makeshift ladder of bed sheets. During Gomez’s attempt to scale the building, he slipped, fell forty feet, and injured his back. After being quickly apprehended, Gomez filed a lawsuit against the jail for making it too easy for him to escape.

In this case, the speaker is highlighting a news event that illustrates what a frivolous lawsuit is, setting up the speech topic of a need for change in how such lawsuits are handled.

Historical Reference

You may also capture your listeners’ attention by referring to a historical event related to your topic. Obviously, this strategy is closely related to the previous one, except that instead of a recent news event you are reaching further back in history to find a relevant reference. For example, if you are giving a speech on the perception of modern music as crass or having no redeeming values, you could refer back to Elvis Presley and his musical breakout in the 1950s as a way of making a comparison:

During the mid-1950s, Elvis Presley introduced the United States to a new genre of music: rock and roll. Initially viewed as distasteful, and Presley was himself chastised for his gyrating dance moves and flashy style. Today he is revered as “The King of Rock ‘n Roll.” So when we criticize modern artists for being flamboyant or over the top, we may be ridiculing some of the most important musical innovators we will know in our lifetimes.

In this example, the speaker is evoking the audience’s knowledge of Elvis to raise awareness of similarities to current artists that may be viewed today as he was in the 1950s.

Humor is another effective method for gaining an audience’s attention. Humor is an amazing tool when used properly. We cannot begin to explain all the facets of humor within this chapter, but we can say that humor is a great way of focusing an audience on what you are saying. However, humor is a double-edged sword. If you do not wield the sword carefully, you can turn your audience against you very quickly.

When using humor, you really need to know your audience and understand what they will find humorous. One of the biggest mistakes a speaker can make is to use some form of humor that the audience either doesn’t find funny or, worse, finds offensive. Think about how incompetent the character of Michael Scott seems on the television program The Office, in large part because of his ineffective use of humor. We always recommend that you test out humor of any kind on a sample of potential audience members prior to actually using it during a speech. If you do use a typical narrative “joke,” don’t say it happened to you. Anyone who heard the joke before will think you are less than truthful!

Now that we’ve warned you about the perils of using humor, let’s talk about how to use humor as an attention getter. Humor can be incorporated into several of the attention-getting devices mentioned. You could use a humorous anecdote, quotation, or current event. As with other attention-getting devices, you need to make sure your humor is relevant to your topic, as one of the biggest mistakes some novices make when using humor is to add humor that really doesn’t support the overall goal of the speech. So when looking for humorous attention getters, you want to make sure that the humor is not going to be offensive to your audience and relevant to your speech.

For example, here’s a humorous quotation from Nicolas Chamfort, a French author during the sixteenth century: “The only thing that stops God from sending another flood is that the first one was useless.” While this quotation could be effective for some audiences, other audiences may find this humorous quotation offensive. The Chamfort quotation could be appropriate for a speech on the ills of modern society, but probably not for a speech on the state of modern religious conflict. It also would not be appropriate in an area that had just experienced damaging floods. You want to make sure that the leap from your attention getter to your topic isn’t too complicated for your audience, or the attention getter will backfire.

This list of attention-getting devices represents a thorough, but not necessarily exhaustive, range of ways that you can begin your speech. Certainly these would be the more common attention getters that most people employ. Again, as mentioned earlier, your selection of attention getter is not only dependent on your audience, your topic, and the occasion, but also on your preferences and skills as a speaker. If you know that you are a bad storyteller, you might elect not to start your speech with a story. If you tend to tell jokes that no one laughs at, avoid starting your speech off with humor. 

We will discuss the factors of attention in a later unit, but to summarize, the best attention getters are:

• concrete (they bring up or refer to real experiences)
• novel (they use material that is new or fresh to the audience)
• familiarity (makes the audience perk up with something comfortable and close to their experience)
• movement-oriented (don’t spend too long in the introduction because the audience will wonder where you are headed)
• need-oriented (your attention getter and introduction in general should relate to the needs or interests of the audience)

Other factors like suspense (introducing a story and finishing it at the end) or conflict (telling a story with strong opposing forces and tension) can also be used.

Element 2: Establish or Enhance Your Credibility

Whether you are informing, persuading, or entertaining an audience, one of the things they will be expecting is for you to know what you are talking about. So the second element of an introduction is to let your audience know that you are a knowledgeable and credible source for this information. To do this, you will need to explain how you know what you know about your topic.

For some people, this will be simple. If you are informing your audience how a baseball is thrown, and you have played baseball since you were eight years old, that makes you a fairly credible source. You probably know what you are talking about. So let us know that by saying something like, “Having played baseball for over ten years, including two years as the starting pitcher on my high school’s varsity team, I can tell you about the ways that pitchers use to throw different kind of balls in a baseball game.” With regard to persuasive speaking, if you are trying to convince your audience to join Big Brothers Big Sisters and you have been volunteering for years, let them know: “I’ve been serving with Big Brothers Big Sisters for the last two years, and I can tell you that the experience is very rewarding.” By telling your audience you volunteer, you are saying to them “I’m not asking you to do anything I wouldn’t do myself.”

However, you may be speaking on a subject with which you have no history of credibility. If you are just curious about when streetlights were installed at intersections and why they are red, yellow, and green, you can give an interesting speech on that. But you will still need to give your audience some sort of reason to trust your knowledge. Since you were required to do research, you are at least more knowledgeable on the subject than anyone else in the class. In this case you might say, “After doing some research and consulting several books on the subject, I want to share what I’ve learned about the evolution of traffic lights in America.”

Element 3: Establish Rapport

The next element of your introduction will be to establish rapport with your audience. Rapport is basically a relationship or connection you make with your audience. In everyday life, we say that two people have a rapport when they get along really well and are good friends. In your introduction, you will want to explain to your audience why you are giving them this information and why it is important to them (answering the WIIFM question). You will be making a connection through this shared information and explaining to them how it will benefit them. One of the best examples of rapport we have seen came from an informative speech on the poet Lord Byron:

You may be asking yourselves why you need to know about Lord Byron. If you take Humanities 1202 as I did last semester, you will be discussing his life and works, so after this speech you will have a good basis for the class material.

What is important here is that this speaker used the audience analysis techniques discussed in Chapter 2 to determine the demographic make-up of the audience and determine what would motivate them to listen. Knowing that they are all college students, the speaker enticed them to listen with the suggestion that this information would benefit them in a future class they might take.

Another important thing to note here is that there is not necessarily a right or wrong way to establish rapport with your audience. You as the speaker must determine what you think will work best and help make a connection. Take for example an informative speech on “how to throw a baseball.” How would you establish rapport with your audience on that topic? Maybe you choose to focus on the age of your audience, and noting that they are all relatively young and that some of them are already parents, you might say, “A lot of people in this room have or may have children someday, and if you decide you want to throw a ball with them or help them with sports, here are three steps you can use to teach them how to throw a baseball.” Will everyone in the class have kids someday? Probably not, but it is reasonable to guess that most about your audience will relate to this approach based on a demographic analysis.

Element 4: Preview Your Topic/Purpose/Central Idea

The fourth major function of an introduction after getting the audience’s attention is to reveal the purpose of your speech to your audience. Have you ever sat through a speech wondering what the basic point was? Have you ever come away after a speech and had no idea what the speaker was talking about? An introduction should make the topic, purpose, and central idea clear. This might be a good place for you to review the material earlier in this unit about writing central idea statements and specific purposes. For most speeches, the central idea and preview (Element 5) should come at the end of the introduction.

While not a hard and fast rule, you will probably also want to avoid having the audience “guess” what your topic is through clues. Consider the following topic reveal:

Today I’d like to talk to you about a man who overcame great adversity to become the President of the United States. During his time in office he faced increasing opposition from conservative voices in government, as well as some dissension among his own party, all while being thrust into a war he didn’t want.

As an attention getter, this may not be bad, but what it doesn’t do is reveal the topic. The speaker at this point might assume the audience has clearly figured out who this speech is about and moved on. Unfortunately, the above passage could refer to either Abraham Lincoln or Barack Obama, and members of the audience might either be confused or disappointed when they figure out the speech isn’t covering what they thought it was.

It should also be noted here that at no point in your introduction do you ever want to read your specific purpose statement as a way of revealing your topic. Your specific purpose is included on your outline for your instructor’s sake and to keep you on track during preparation. The language used in the specific purpose (“To inform my audience…”) is too awkward to be actually read aloud.

Element 5: Preview Your Main Points

Just like previewing your topic, previewing your main points helps your audience know what to expect throughout the course of your speech and prepares them to listen. Your preview of main points should be clear and easy to follow so that there is no question in your audience’s minds what they are. Long, complicated, or verbose main points can get confusing. Be succinct and simple: “Today, in our discussion of Abraham Lincoln’s life, we will look at his birth, his role a president, and his assassination.” From that there is little question as to what specific aspects of Lincoln’s life the speech will cover. However, if you want to be extra sure they get it, you can always enumerate them by using signposts (as we discussed in Chapter 6): “In discussing how to make chocolate chip cookies, first we will cover what ingredients you need, second we will talk about how to mix them, and third we will look at baking them.”

What these five elements do is prepare your audience for the bulk of the speech (i.e. the body section) by letting them know what they can expect, why they should listen, and why they can trust you as a speaker. Having all five elements starts your speech off on much more solid ground that you would get without having them.

Examples of Introductions

Below you will find examples of informative and persuasive introductions. Notice that each contains the five elements necessary for a good introduction: an attention getter, the establishment of rapport with the audience, the speaker’s credibility, a clear topic reveal, and clearly articulated main points. An important point to mention about the introduction is that the parts should flow or “bridge” into each other. You do not want to have a disconnect between the attention getter, the credibility enhancer, the rapport, and the reveal. You also can switch the rapport and credibility sections if it makes more sense, but definitely start with the attention-getter and end with the preview.

(Note: We have written these introductions out as paragraphs, but your instructor may require you to present them in a different format in your outline.)

Informative Speech Introductions

Topic: Allergies

My parents knew that something was really wrong when my mom received a call from my home economics teacher saying that she needed to get to the school immediately and pick me up. This was all because of an allergy, something that everyone in this room is either vaguely or extremely familiar with. Allergies affect a large number of people, and three very common allergies include pet and animal allergies, seasonal allergies, and food allergies. All three of these allergies take control over certain areas of my life, as all three types affect me, starting when I was just a kid and continuing today [attention-getter]. Because of this, I have done extensive research on the subject, [credibility] and would like to share some of what I’ve learned with all of you today. Whether you just finished your freshman year of college, you are a new parent, or you have kids that are grown and out of the house, allergies will most likely affect everyone in this room at some point [rapport]. So it will benefit you all to know more about them, specifically the three most common sources of allergies and the most recent approaches to treating them [purpose and preview].

Topic: Seasonal Affective Disorder

(See if you can identify the parts on Example 2.) When winter is approaching and the days are getting darker and shorter, do you feel a dramatic reduction in energy or do you sleep longer than usual during the fall or winter months? If you answered “yes” to either of these questions, you may be one of the millions of people who suffer from Seasonal Affective Disorder, or SAD. For most people these problems do not cause great suffering in their life, but for an estimated six percent of the United States population these problems can result in major suffering. As a student in the registered nursing program here at State College, I became interested in SAD after learning more about it and want to share this information with all of you in case you recognize some of these symptoms in yourself or someone you love. In order to fully understand SAD, it is important to look at the medical definition of SAD, the symptoms of this disorder, and the measures that are commonly used to ease symptoms.

Persuasive Speech Introduction

Topic: Term Life Insurance

You have cried silent tears and uttered desperate prayers, but as you watch the medical team unhook the tubes, turn off the heart monitor and shoot furtive, helpless glances your way, you face the unmistakable reality that cancer has won over your loved one and you are left with unimaginable grief, despair and yes, financial burden. Most of us would not choose to cause our loved ones financial pain on top of the emotional pain of our deaths, but by failing to plan for their financial needs, that is exactly what we do. I have learned a lot about life insurance in my research for this presentation, from taking a thirteen-week course about financial matters, and from the experience of purchasing a term life insurance policy just last year. I know most of you probably have not thought much about life insurance, but someday each and every one of us in this room will pass away and somebody is going to have to pay for our funerals. Term life insurance is affordable, protects those you love from the financial devastation of your uninsured death, and reinforces your commitment to their financial and emotional well-being while you are living. Let’s examine the definition of term life insurance and then its benefits.

Structuring the Conclusion

Similar to the introduction, the conclusion has three specific elements that you will want to incorporate in order to make it as strong as possible. Given the nature of these elements and what they do, these should generally be incorporated into your conclusion in the order they are presented below.

Element 1: Signal the End

The first thing a good conclusion should do is to signal the end of a speech. You may be thinking that telling an audience that you’re about to stop speaking is a “no brainer,” but many speakers really don’t prepare their audience for the end. When a speaker just suddenly stops speaking, the audience is left confused and disappointed. Instead, you want to make sure that audiences are left knowledgeable and satisfied with your speech. In a way, it gives them time to begin mentally organizing and cataloging all the points you have made for further consideration later.

Generally, the easiest way to signal that it is the end of your speech is to begin your conclusion with the words, “In conclusion.” Similarly, “In summary” or “To conclude” work just as well. While these may seem very blunt ways of communicating the end of your speech to the audience, you want it to be extremely clear to everyone that you are wrapping things up. Certainly you can choose to employ more elegant, interesting, or creative language here, but you then run the risk of the audience not catching on to the fact that your speech is ending.

On the other hand, saying “In conclusion” (and definitely saying it more than once) can have an unintended negative effect. The audience may figure you are finished and turn you off, sort of like how we get up and leave during the credits in a movie. Therefore, you can also go straight to the summary, which is Element 2.

Element 2: Restate Main Points

In the introduction of a speech you delivered a preview of your main points; now in the conclusion you will deliver a review. One of the biggest differences between written and oral communication is the necessity of repetition in oral communication (the issue of “planned redundancy” again). When you preview your main points in the introduction, effectively discuss and make transitions to your main points during the body of the speech, and finally, review the main points in the conclusion, you increase the likelihood that the audience will understand and retain your main points after the speech is over. Remember, your English instructors can re-read your essays as many times as they want, but your audience – and your instructor – only have one opportunity to catch and remember the points you are trying to get across in your speech.

Because you are trying to remind the audience of your main points, you want to be sure not to bring up any new material or ideas. For example, if you said, “There are several other issues related to this topic, such as…but I don’t have time for them,” that would make the audience confused and perhaps wonder why you did not address those issues in the body section. Or if you were giving a persuasive speech on wind energy and you ended with, “Wind energy is the energy of the future, but there are still a few problems with it, such as noise and killing lots of birds,” you are bringing up a counter-argument that should have been dealt within the body of the speech.

This is a good place to remind you that the introduction, preview, transitions, and conclusion are for helping the audience be interested and prepared to listen, to retain, and to follow your speech. The conclusion is too late for that. The hardcore facts and content are in the body. If you are tempted to cram lots of material into the conclusion, that is not the place for it, nor is it the place to provide the important steps to a solution.

As you progress as a public speaker, you will want to work on rephrasing your summary statement so that it does not sound like an exact repeat of the preview. For example, if your preview was:

The three arguments in favor of medical marijuana that I will present are that it would make necessary treatments available to all, it would cut down on the costs to law enforcement, and it would bring revenue to state budgets.

Your summary might be:

In the minutes we’ve had together, I have shown you that approving medical marijuana in our state will greatly help persons with a variety of chronic and severe conditions. Also, funds spent on law enforcement to find and convict legitimate marijuana users would go down as revenues from medical marijuana to the state budget would go up.

Element 3: Clincher

The third element of your conclusion is the clincher, or something memorable with which to conclude your speech. The clincher is sometimes referred to as a Concluding Device. These are the very last words you will say in your speech, so you need to make them count. This is the last thing your audience will hear, so you want to make it good. A good clincher prevents your audience from feeling let down, and in fact can even make an audience remember a speech more favorably.

In many ways the clincher is like the inverse of the attention getter. You want to start the speech off with something strong, and you want to end the speech with something strong. To that end, similar to what we discussed above with attention getters, there are a number of ways you can make your clincher strong and memorable.

Conclude with a Challenge

One way you can end your speech is with a challenge. A challenge is a call to engage in some kind of activity that requires a special effort. In a speech on the necessity of fundraising, a speaker could conclude by challenging the audience to raise 10 percent more than their original projections. In a speech on eating more vegetables, you could challenge your audience to increase their current intake of vegetables by two portions daily. In both of these challenges, audience members are being asked to go out of their way to do something different that involves effort on their part.

In a challenge, try to make it aspirational but reasonable. The challenge should be something they can strive for but not see as something impossible. The audience may see two more servings a day of fruits and vegetables as reasonable, but six probably as too much.

In the same category as a challenge, probably the most common persuasive concluding device is the appeal for action or the call to action. In essence, the appeal for action occurs when a speaker asks her or his audience to engage in a specific behavior. Whether the speaker appeals for people to eat more fruit, buy a car, vote for a candidate, oppose the death penalty, get more sleep, or sing more in the shower, the speaker is asking the audience to engage in action.

One specific type of appeal for action is the immediate call to action. Whereas some appeals ask for people to engage in behavior in the future, the immediate call to action asks people to engage in behavior right now. If a speaker wants to see a new traffic light placed at a dangerous intersection, he or she may conclude by asking all the audience members to sign a digital petition right then and there, using a computer the speaker has made available. For a speech on eating more vegetables, pass out raw veggies and dip at the conclusion of the speech; someone giving a speech on petitioning a lawmaker for a new law could provide audience members with a prewritten e-mail they can send to the lawmaker.

If you are giving a persuasive speech about a solution to a problem, you should not relegate the call to action to the very end of the speech. It should probably be a main point where you can deal with the steps and specifics of the solution in more detail. For example, perhaps a speaker has been discussing the problems associated with the disappearance of art education in the United States. The speaker could then propose a solution of creating more community-based art experiences for school children as a way to fill this gap. Although this can be an effective conclusion, speakers should ask themselves whether the solution should be discussed in more depth as a stand-alone main point within the body of the speech so that audience concerns about the proposed solution may be addressed.

Conclude with a Quotation

Another way you can conclude a speech is by providing a quotation relevant to the speech topic. When using a quotation, you need to think about whether your goal is to end on a persuasive note or an informative note. Some quotations will have a clear call to action, while other quotations summarize or provoke thought. For example, let’s say you are delivering an informative speech about dissident writers in the former Soviet Union. You could end by citing this quotation from Alexander Solzhenitsyn: “A great writer is, so to speak, a second government in his country. And for that reason no regime has ever loved great writers.”

Notice that this quotation underscores the idea of writers as dissidents, but it doesn’t ask listeners to put forth effort to engage in any specific thought process or behavior. If, on the other hand, you were delivering a persuasive speech urging your audience to sponsor a child in a developing country for $40 per month, you might use this quotation by Forest Witcraft:

“A hundred years from now it will not matter what my bank account was, the sort of house I lived in, or the kind of car I drove. But the world may be different, because I was important in the life of a child.”

In this case, the quotation leaves the audience with the message that monetary sacrifices are worth taking, that they make our lives worthwhile, and that the right thing to do is to go ahead and make that sacrifice.

Conclude by Visualizing the Future

The purpose of a conclusion that refers to the future is to help your audience imagine the future you believe can occur. If you are giving a speech on the development of video games for learning, you could conclude by depicting the classroom of the future where video games are perceived as true learning tools. More often, speakers use visualization of the future to depict how society or how individual listeners’ lives would be different if the audience accepts and acts on the speaker’s main idea. For example, if a speaker proposes that a solution to illiteracy is hiring more reading specialists in public schools, the speaker could ask her or his audience to imagine a world without illiteracy.

Conclude by Inspiration

By definition, the word inspire means to affect or arouse someone. Both affect and arouse have strong emotional connotations. The ultimate goal of an inspirational concluding device is similar to an “appeal for action” but the ultimate goal is more lofty or ambiguous; the goal is to stir someone’s emotions in a specific manner. This is done by sharing a story, poem, or quotation that appeals to the audience’s basic values and therefore appeals to emotions. Stories or allusions to “underdogs” who overcame obstacles to achieve something worthwhile or those who make sacrifices for the good of others can help inspire. You probably know of such stories (Olympic athletes and a well-known figure such as Captain Sullenberg are examples) that would be of value, as long as they are relevant to your topic and purpose. Poetry is sometimes used to inspire, but you want to use a short passage (eight lines or less) of poetry that is clear to the audience.

Conclude with a Question

Another way you can end a speech is to ask a rhetorical question that forces the audience to ponder an idea. Maybe you are giving a speech on the importance of the environment, so you end the speech by saying, “Think about your children’s future. What kind of world do you want them raised in? A world that is clean, vibrant, and beautiful—or one that is filled with smog, pollution, filth, and disease?” Notice that you aren’t actually asking the audience to verbally or nonverbally answer the question; the goal of this question is to force the audience into thinking about what kind of world they want for their children.

Refer Back to the Introduction

This method provides a good sense of closure to the speech and can be one of the most effective methods. If you started the speech with a startling statistic or fact, such as “Last year, according to the official website of the American Humane Society, four million pets were euthanized in shelters in the United States,” in the end you could say, “Remember that shocking number of four million euthanized pets? With your donation of time or money to the Northwest Georgia Rescue Shelter, you can help lower that number in our region.”

Conclude with an Anecdote or Personal Story

As with your attention getter, a brief story can be a strong way to conclude. However, it must be relevant and not go on too long. Combining this method and the previous one, you might finish telling a story that you started in the introduction as your clincher. This method is probably better with persuasive speeches where you want to end with a strong emotional appeal.

Conclude with a Reference to Audience or Audience Self-Interest

The last concluding device involves a direct reference to your audience. This concluding device is used when a speaker attempts to answer the basic audience question, “What’s in it for me?” (the WIIFM question). The goal of this concluding device is to spell out the direct benefits a behavior or thought change has for audience members. For example, a speaker talking about stress reduction techniques could conclude by clearly listing all the physical health benefits stress reduction offers (e.g., improved reflexes, improved immune system, improved hearing, reduction in blood pressure). In this case, the speaker is spelling out why audience members should care about the topic and what’s in it for them.

Informative versus Persuasive Conclusions

As you read through the above possible ways to conclude a speech, hopefully you noticed that some of the methods are more appropriate for persuasive speeches and others are more appropriate for informative speeches. An appeal to action, for example, may not be appropriate for an informative speech since asking your audience to do something often borders on persuasion, which isn’t what an informative speech is intended to do. Similarly, if your persuasive speech is on the importance of voting in the next local election, an appeal to action clincher would probably be one of your stronger options.

Examples of Conclusions

Here are two examples of conclusions. More examples can be found on the outlines in future units. As before, try to determine what sentences in the conclusion relate to the three elements.

Informative Speech Conclusion

Topic: Anxiety

Anxiety is a complex emotion that afflicts people of all ages and social backgrounds and is experienced uniquely by each individual. We have seen that there are multiple symptoms, causes, and remedies, all of which can often be related either directly or indirectly to cognitive behaviors. While most people do not enjoy anxiety, it seems to be part of the universal human experience, so realize that you are not alone, but also realize that you are not powerless against it. With that said, the following quote, attributed to an anonymous source, could not be more true, “Worry does not relieve tomorrow of its stress; it merely empties today of its strength.”

Persuasive Speech Conclusion

Topic: Adopting a Rescue Animal

I believe you should adopt a rescue animal because it helps stop forms of animal cruelty, you can add a healthy companion to your home, and it is a relatively simple process that can save a life. Each and every one of you should go to your nearest animal shelter, which may include the Catoosa Citizens for Animal Care, the Humane Society of NWGA in Dalton, the Murray County Humane Society, or the multiple other shelters in the area to bring a new animal companion into your life. I’ll leave you with a paraphrased quote from Deborah Jacobs’s article “Westminster Dog Show Junkie” on Forbes.com: “You may start out thinking that you are rescuing the animal, and ultimately find that the animal rescues you right back.”

Something to Think About

Read out loud one of the example introductions earlier in the chapter, and time your reading. If an introduction should not be longer than about 10%-15% of the total speech time, how long would the speech attached to this introduction be? (You’ll have to do the math!) If you had to give a shorter speech using this introduction, how would you edit it to make it for the time limit but still be an effective introduction?

Final Note: If you are wondering about the photo at the beginning of this chapter, it is of the headstone of poet Emily Dickinson in Amherst, Massachusetts. Her parting words, as shown on the marker, were “Called Back.” That was her “life” conclusion

• << Previous: Organizing and Outlining
• Next: Delivery >>
• Last Updated: May 13, 2024 2:19 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.tulsacc.edu/publicspeakingtextbook

  Metro Campus Library : 918.595.7172 | Northeast Campus Library : 918.595.7501 |  Southeast Campus Library : 918.595.7701 | West Campus Library : 918.595.8010 --> email: Library Website Help  | MyTCC |  © 2024 Tulsa Community College

10.2 Conclusions

You have riveted your audience with an engaging introduction. Your introduction led to a compellingly written and logically organized speech. Now, it is time to wrap up the entire experience, but how? Do not make the mistake of thinking, “Well, my speech is just about over at this point, so it doesn’t matter how I end it.” You need a conclusion just as dynamic and memorable as your speech opener. How do you feel when a movie has a disappointing ending that does not wrap up the story or, worse, simply leaves you hanging? You feel frustrated, quite possibly like you wasted your money and time. Your audience will feel the same way if your closing remarks do not provide effective closure for your speech. Too many speakers do not realize that when a speech fizzles out, the audience is left with a negative impression. Your speech introduction and body may have included the most profound words known to man, but it could be said that a speaker is only as strong as her/his last sentence. You want your final sentences to be ones that are remembered and valued.  The conclusion is the last opportunity to share anything with the audience; you don’t want to waste those valuable seconds.

What a Speech Conclusion Is Meant to Do

The speech conclusion has four basic missions:

• Wraps things up: This portion is often referred to as a “ Brakelight .” Much like brake lights on a car warn us the car will be stopping, this “brake light” or transitional statement warns the audience that the speech is ending.
• Summarizes: A solid conclusion briefly restates the preview statement in past tense to remind the audience of the main points that were covered in the presentation.
• Tells the audience where to go from here: Depending on the purpose of your presentation, this component may play different roles. If your goal was to inform the audience, this is where you might tell them of a rich source they can go to for more information if their curiosity was piqued. If your goal is to persuade, this spot serves as a great opportunity to challenge the audience to take action based on the goals of your speech. Tell them what you want them to do now that they heard your speech.
• Closes the speech: The note of finality, clincher, closing statement, or whatever you want to call it is an important element that leaves the audience reflecting on the topic.

Wrapping Things Up: It Says, “We Are Nearing the End!”

Hopefully, your audience will want you to speak for an hour, rather than just five or eight minutes. However, when you transition into your conclusion and use appropriate signposting, your audience realizes that the speech will come full circle. Usually, the first transitional phrase is a “brake light” of sorts. It lets the audience know that you are starting to wrap up your presentation. You may use a transitional statement to illustrate this such as “In conclusion…” “In summary…” or “To wrap things up….”

The Summary: It Tells the Audience, “Here’s What I Told You.”

Just as you used a mapping statement to preview your main points, now you will summarize your points within your conclusion. Simply rewording—or even restating—your original thesis statement or preview statement in the past tense will effectively summarize your speech. While this will feel very repetitive to you as a speaker, it is useful in helping the audience understand and retain the information you covered. While you may be tempted to revisit all the details of your speech, this element is best served by a clear, concise, declarative sentence that restates the main points you addressed.

Your conclusion for the fire extinguisher speech might begin with wrapping up and a summary for the audience.

“In conclusion, I have explained how to safely use a fire extinguisher.  We have to talk about the PASS system of pulling the pin, aiming the nozzle, squeezing the trigger, and sweeping the fire.”

Where to Go From Here: It Says, “Here’s What To Do Now!”

The conclusion is the last chance you have to speak to the audience about this topic. Depending on your general purpose, this portion of the speech will vary. Informative speaking often creates an interest in the audience to learn more about your topic. It’s best to give the audience a good resource to check out if they want to learn more information. Avoid telling the audience to “google it.” We all know how to do that. Since you’ve done the research, tell us the best one you found. An example is, “If you’d like to learn more about the history of Stillwater, I recommend visiting The Sheerar Museum at 702 South Duncan here in Stillwater.”

Persuasive presentation conclusions want to utilize the last opportunity to challenge the listeners to action. A conclusion in a persuasive speech is where the call to action or advocacy is provided and is what makes your speech truly persuasive. This portion gives you a specific opportunity to tell them what you hope they do as a result of hearing your speech. You may say something like “As you leave here today, I challenge you to pick up five pieces of trash as you walk back to your dorm or car.”

Note of Finality: It Lets the Audience Know, “The Speech Is Over.”

Your speech conclusion is a mental takeaway for the audience, and you will want a strong note of finality . Your conclusion should contain enough memorable words and phrases that will help the audience positively recall the experience—and even recollect certain points that you made. Do not forget to include that “ta-da” moment. The last statement of your presentation should be thoroughly planned to let the audience know you are done. You want your final statement to leave a strong lasting impact. It should leave the audience reflecting on your topic and your information. Some speech writers like to reference the attention-getter as a nice way to bring the speech full circle by revisiting a story, question, or video clip they used originally to grab the audience’s attention. After your closing statement and applause from the audience, you are, of course, welcome to thank them for their attention and/or attendance.

To complete our fire extinguisher speech, we might end strong by saying, “While a fire can be a scary event, having the knowledge to put it out can make all the difference for loss of property or even lives.”

Putting It All Together

Your introduction and conclusion should be thought of as bookends to the speech, holding up the body and all the important information the speech is sharing.  Bookends are similar but not exactly the same.  When creating your introduction and conclusion, you are setting the tone for the speech; how do you want the audience to feel about this topic?  Choose an introduction that creates that feel. If the speech is scary, use a quote or startling statistic; if the speech is fun, use humor or a recent event. When you conclude, you want to bring the speech full circle, back to where the speech started.  If you used humor in the introduction, you want to leave the audience with a laugh, if the speech was scary, you want to help them find more information.  Everything in a speech is planned, and the introduction and conclusion help to make the speech memorable and interesting to the audience.

transitional phrase that lets the audience know the speech is coming to a close

clear sentence that restates the preview statement in past tense, outlining the main points that were addressed in the speech

last statement that wraps up your entire presentation and lets the audience know the speech is finished

It’s About Them: Public Speaking in the 21st Century Copyright © 2022 by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Speech conclusions

The introduction and conclusion are essential to a speech. The audience will remember the main ideas even If the middle of the speech is a mess or nerves overtake the speaker. So if nothing else, get these parts down!

Conclusions

The speech is almost over and the audience needs closure. The conclusion needs to be a clincher (definitive end to the speech) – “That’s it” is not a conclusion.

Signal the ending

Just as the audience has been led through the speech, there must also be a signal to the end of the speech.

• Tone of voice
• My purpose was to make sure everyone knows how to make a better PB&J.

Logical conclusion

The main points and topic are brought together in a logical conclusion.

• Emphasize the thesis statement
• Soggy bread
• Sticky hands
• Starving children

Psychological conclusion

Psychologically the audience should walk away emotionally touched.

• Make a reference back to the introduction and the attention getter.
• Now that you know the secret to making a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, go home and try this technique .
• If you want change, vote for Snoopy! Or Go out and collect 100 more signatures!
• Remember to savor each bite as the jelly remains safely in the sandwich and not on your hands.

As you decide which of these conclusion styles will work best with your speech, keep in mind your conclusion needs to restate your claim.       

• Especially important if there is a question and answer period

COMM101: Public Speaking (2015.A.01)

Unit 9: introductions and conclusions.

Now that you have an understanding of how to develop the body of your speech, it is time to focus on creating an engaging introduction and memorable conclusion. This unit will provide information on the functions of an introduction and conclusion, as well as it will provide tips on developing effective openings and closings to your speech. You will also review analysis of introductions and conclusions in this unit to use as models in understanding which techniques work best in developing strong introductions and conclusions. As you review the resources in this unit, keep in mind that terminology used in instruction can vary from source to source. Moreover, some sources will group together information which others keep separate. These two traits are often the case with resources which discuss the functions of speech introductions and conclusions. When you encounter differences in the resources in this section, consider focusing on that resource which breaks down the information the most. Such a breakdown can be used as a checklist of what you must accomplish to be effective when you present these sections of your speech. This is particularly important with introductions and conclusions since different sources identify between three and five functions which these sections must fulfill. As a result, you should favor that source which identifies the most functions, thereby insuring that your introduction and conclusion sections are as effective as possible.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 5 hours.

Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

• identify the functions of an introduction;
• demonstrate effective techniques for attracting the attention of an audience based on an audience analysis/profile;
• construct clear and complete thesis statements;
• identify the functions of an effective conclusion;
• define the serial position effect; and
• demonstrate effective techniques for concluding a speech.

9.1: Functions of the Introduction

Read the Chapter 9 introduction and Section 9.1. These sections describe five functions your introduction must accomplish. Introductions are essential, not optional. You must start your speech with an attention-getter because if your audience is not paying attention to your words, they won't hear or understand you. Your audience must understand why you are addressing them, what you hope to accomplish, and why you are worthy of their attention. Starting with your introduction, you want to make sure your audience anticipates the information you present. Their comprehension will increase when they know what to expect. Attempt the exercises at the end of the section.

Read this overview of the functions of introductions and conclusions, strategies for preparing them, and samples. This chapter reinforces why we write the introduction and conclusion AFTER the body of the speech.

Watch this video about the functions of introductions, their components, and tips for creating an effective introduction.

This interactive presentation summarizes the purposes of an introduction, gives examples of introduction tactics, and explains why we write the introduction after the body of the speech. Complete the exercise at the end of the presentation.

9.2: The Attention-Getter: The First Step of an Introduction

Public speaking has existed for a very long time. As a result, many experienced and knowledgeable individuals have contributed ready-made ideas and techniques. Use these suggestions rather than struggling to produce brand new ideas or techniques. Try to answer the questions at the end of the section.

9.3: Putting It Together: Steps to Complete Your Introduction

This section goes into greater depth on how to fulfill the functions of an introduction. It explores how to get your audience's attention, using the introduction to build credibility, and developing a thesis statement as a forecasting device. Attempt the questions at the end of the section.

Watch this example of how to use the introduction model in an impromptu speech.

9.4: Analyzing an Introduction

This section gives an introduction to a sample speech. You will encounter it again later. If you want, check out some of the other sample speeches.

Watch this video and practice your speech evaluation skills.

9.5: Functions of a Conclusion

Read the introduction to chapter 11 and section 11.1. Inexperienced speakers frequently leave their audiences unimpressed because the speaker has put little effort into developing their conclusion. The three primary functions of a conclusion are to restate the thesis, review the main points, and use a memorable closing device. However, this resource doesn't mention two other important functions of a conclusion: signal to your audience that the speech is about to end and remind them of the topic's significance or their relationship to it. Answer the questions at the end of the section.

This interactive presentation summarizes the purposes of a conclusion and gives examples of common tactics. Complete the exercise at the end of the presentation.

9.6: Steps In Developing a Conclusion

Each part of a speech – introduction, body, and conclusion – repeats information from previous parts. Effective communicators use repetition to ensure the audience absorbs their message accurately. Repetition is sometimes referred to as the Tell'em 3 Principle (pronounced "Tell 'em cubed"): tell your audience what you are going to tell them, then tell them, and then tell them what you told them. The Tell'em 3 Principle is particularly important to use with listeners because they can't go back and review what you said earlier.

9.7: Analyzing a Conclusion

Section 11.3 presents the conclusion of a sample speech for you to analyze. Complete the "Your Turn" exercise using what you have learned from the speech analysis as a model.

Watch this speech conclusion and evaluate it based on the criteria we've discussed. Does the speaker use all three parts in the conclusion? How could the conclusion be improved?

9.8: Unit 9 Exercises

After you finish this unit, respond to the activities in sections 9.5 and 11.4 . If you get any questions incorrect, review that material from the chapter.

COMM 101: Fundamentals of Public Speaking - Valparaiso

• Delivery Skills
• Stage Fright
• Body Language / Non-Verbal Communication
• Listening Skills
• Quotation Resources
• Speech Outline Examples
• Speech Examples
• More Speech Examples
• Presentation Options
• Citation Resources This link opens in a new window

A basic speech outline should include three main sections:

• The Introduction --  This is where you tell them what you're going to tell them.
• The Body -- This is where you tell them.
• The Conclusion -- This is where you tell them what you've told them.
• Speech Outline Formatting Guide The outline for a public speech, according to COMM 101 online textbook  The Public Speaking Project , p.p. 8-9.

Use these samples to help prepare your speech outlines and bibliographies:

• Sample Speech Preparation Outline This type of outline is very detailed with all the main points and subpoints written in complete sentences. Your bibliography should be included with this outline.
• Sample Speech Speaking Outline This type of outline is very brief and uses phrases or key words for the main points and subpoints. This outline is used by the speaker during the speech.
• << Previous: Quotation Resources
• Next: Informative Speeches >>
• Last Updated: May 16, 2024 10:02 AM
• URL: https://library.ivytech.edu/Valpo_COMM101
• Ask-a-Librarian
• [email protected]
• (219) 464-8514 x 3021
• Library staff | Find people
• Library Guides
• Student Life & Activities
• Testing Services
• B&N Bookstore

Advertisement

Supported by

Who Won the Debate? Biden Stumbles Left Trump on Top

A halting debate performance by President Biden left Democratic strategists reeling, raising questions about his fitness to stay in the race.

• Share full article

By Alan Rappeport

Reporting from Washington

In the first presidential debate of the year between the leading Democratic and Republican candidates, President Biden and former President Donald J. Trump clashed on inflation, taxes, Ukraine and the future of democracy.

A halting performance from Mr. Biden and a relatively steady and measured delivery by Mr. Trump left Democrats deeply concerned about Mr. Biden’s prospects. Personal attacks overshadowed discussions of policy during the debate, with the candidates sparring over who had a better golf game, their respective cognitive abilities and their legal problems.

On cable news and social media, strategists from both parties wondered if Mr. Biden could continue in the race against Mr. Trump. Few Democrats could muster an upbeat assessment of the president’s performance.

Here is a sampling of the reaction.

“It was a really disappointing debate performance from Joe Biden. I don’t think there’s any other way to slice it. His biggest issue was to prove to the American people that he had the energy, the stamina — and he didn’t do that,” Kate Bedingfield, Mr. Biden’s former White House communications director, said on CNN.

“Biden is even whiffing on his easy pitches — abortion and Jan. 6. I mean, my God,” said Matt Gorman, a Republican strategist and former senior adviser to the presidential campaign for Senator Tim Scott of South Carolina.

“Look, I debated Joe 7 times in 2020. He’s a different guy in 2024,” Andrew Yang, a Democratic presidential candidate in 2020, said on the social media platform X, adding the hashtag #swapJoeout.

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

Who won the Biden-Trump debate? Biden's freeze draws age concerns

WASHINGTON – Presidential debates are always about expectations. And Thursday’s verbal sparring match between President Joe Biden and former President Donald Trump was no exception.  

The stakes were highest for Biden who, at age 81, was already battling perceptions he is too elderly for a second term. Meanwhile, Trump, 78, was facing concerns from moderate and swing voters about his at times bombastic style.  

The biggest moment of the night came early, when Biden froze for several seconds while answering a question about the economy. 

That – and all of the many other gaffes of the evening − will be replayed on cable news shows and shared thousands of times on social media for weeks to come. But how will it influence the 2024 election?  

Here’s a breakdown of who came out on top and who fell short in the immediate aftermath.  

Trump showed more energy than Biden  

Experts USA TODAY spoke with said they saw sharp differences in the stamina of the two candidates on stage Thursday night, and they said Biden’s low-energy demeanor could hurt him for months to come.  

In one of the most defining moments of the debate, Biden took a prolonged pause and froze while answering a question about the economy. After stuttering, the president continued, but began talking about COVID-19 and Medicare. 

Even some of Biden's Democratic supporters felt his freeze on stage and his somewhat wooden performance tipped the scales in Trump's favor.

Trump sought to highlight Biden’s slower responses, at one point saying, “I really don't know what he said at the end of this, and I don't think he knows what he said, either."

Thomas Whalen, a presidential historian and professor at Boston University, said Biden was “looking his age,” while Trump was “more controlled and sticking to his talking points.” 

Aaron Kall, director of Debate for the University of Michigan Debate Program, suggested Biden’s pauses “could spur endless news cycles about (his) age and fitness to serve another term in office.” 

New debate format aimed to decrease chaos

If seeing Trump and Biden on stage together again didn’t provide enough deja vu, their matchup also marked the first time since 1960 that a presidential debate was held without a live audience . The last time was when John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon clashed.

The format was designed to eliminate immediate reactions to candidates’ remarks. Aaron Kall, director of debate for the University of Michigan, suggested it forced genuine responses rather than scripted statements from the candidates. 

Rather than rely on audience energy, Trump and Biden had to “trust their guts and instincts and previous debate experiences,” Kall said. 

The  use of muted microphones in the debate also nearly eliminated the type of candidate crosstalk that has plagued past debates, including most recently during the GOP primary. 

Georgia voters are central focus  

Trump and Biden weren’t the only ones in the spotlight Thursday night. All-important Georgia voters were, too. 

The location of the debate at CNN’s studios in Atlanta underscored Georgia’s role as crucial swing state in the election and served as a reminder that the candidate's messages − and bickering − will echo far beyond the stage. 

Biden won Georgia by just under 12,000 votes in 2020. But recent polling this year has shown Trump with a slight edge over his competitor in the key battleground territory. 

And the side-by-side comparison of the two candidates Thursday could very well sway the minds of undecided voters in the state. It was one of few opportunities the public will have to hear from the two men directly and judge for themselves who is the better pick for the country. 

Not to mention that the location gave both candidates an opportunity to campaign around the Atlanta suburbs. Trump called in to a local barbershop on Wednesday to talk with a group his campaign called the Black American Business Leaders Barbershop Roundtable. And Biden’s campaign said the president planned to attend watch parties across the city after the debate to talk with voters.  

Also of significance: The debate occurred only a few miles from the jail where Trump was booked last year on charges related to claims that he conspired to overturn the 2020 election.  

A major money boost for Democrats and Republicans  

Both major parties are expected to raise big dollars off Thursday’s affair. Similarly well-watched events have brought in the green for the two candidates.  

Biden’s campaign said he raised $10 million in the 24 hours after the State of the Union address. After Trump’s felony conviction in his New York hush money trial, his campaign said it raised $34.8 million in small-dollar donations.  

And both groups we’re leaning into their fundraising.  

Hours before the debate began, Biden’s team sent out a message telling supporters that he was “counting on” them to donate at least $30.  

“Tens of thousands of new supporters stepped up following my debates against Trump in 2020. And tonight, can’t be any different,” the message said.  

The Democratic Party of Georgia also hosted a watch party charging $24 per advance ticket. Former Georgia Sen. Kelly Loeffler was similarly hosting a high-dollar event for Trump the night of the debate.  

Biden’s campaign said it had its best grassroots fundraising hours of the entire campaign leading up to the debate. 

False claims abound

Ashley Koning, director of the Rutgers Eagleton Center for Public Interest Polling, argued that “facts and truth” were the biggest losers of the night.  

Both Trump and Biden made false comments throughout the debate that largely went unchecked by the moderators.  

Trump repeated claims that the Jan. 6, 2021, attack on the U.S. Capitol was former House Speaker Nancy Pelosi’s fault. Trump claimed he offered Pelosi “10,000 soldiers” to stop the attack. Pelosi’s office has said, however, that she never received such an officer and that she wouldn’t have had the power to refuse either way.  

The former real estate mogul also claimed the U.S. southern border is the most dangerous place in the world. There is no evidence to suggest this.  

Biden also made incorrect claims. At one point, he claimed he was “the only president this century ... that doesn’t have any troops dying anywhere in the world.”  

In 2021, during Biden’s presidency, 13 U.S. service members were killed in a suicide bombing attack in Afghanistan as thousands tried to flee the Taliban’s takeover of the country. 

RFK and third-party candidates absent from the conversation  

Noticeably absent from the CNN stage? Robert F. Kennedy Jr .  

Kennedy didn’t meet the qualifications for the debate, which required candidates to appear on a “sufficient number of state ballots to reach the 270 electoral vote thresholds to win the presidency” and receive at least 15% in four qualifying national polls, according to CNN.  

In a three-way matchup with Biden and Trump, Kennedy receives 10.7% of the vote, according to a Real Clear Politics average of polling .  

Kennedy counterprogrammed the prime-time debate by answering the same questions as Biden and Trump live on a social media stream and on his website. But he remained largely out of sight for most voters on a night that centered on the two major party candidates. 

Mobile Menu Overlay

The White House 1600 Pennsylvania Ave NW Washington, DC 20500

Impacts of the Expiration of Federal Child Care Stabilization Funding and the Mitigating Effects of State-Level Stopgap   Funding

Introduction.

The March 2021 enactment of the American Rescue Plan provided historic federal funding to the child care industry. The unprecedented $24 billion in subsidies to providers helped to stabilize the industry during the COVID-19 pandemic, while also addressing preexisting challenges in the market for child care. The flexibility of the funds helped providers stabilize their businesses in one of the most tumultuous periods in recent history.

In November 2023, the CEA published a working paper that evaluated the impact of the child care stabilization funds allocated by the American Rescue Plan. The working paper largely focused on the onset of those funds and found that the child care stabilization funds accomplished their eponymous goal of stabilizing the industry, resulting in increases in wages and employment for child care workers, as well as increases in the labor force participation rate (LFPR) and employment for mothers of young children.

The end of June 2024 marks nine months since the child care stabilization funds formally expired. As the child care industry is one that often operates on slim margins and has historically been unable to provide enough affordable slots for families ( U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2021 ), the expiration of funds posed a threat to the positive progress made. Recognizing this threat, eleven states plus the District of Columbia have implemented some level of “ stopgap funding ” to fill the gaps left in child care funding when federal dollars from the American Rescue Plan ran out. We define “stopgap funding” as state-level (or district-level in the case of DC) funds —usually via state-level budgetary processes—for stabilization purposes, which often take the form of direct grants to child care providers. Figure 1 shows the level of state stabilization as defined by spending per child under the age of 5 (i.e., the age group most likely to benefit from the funding).

Given limited follow-up data on outcomes in the post-funding period at the time of publication, CEA’s original analysis could only examine preliminary impacts of the expiration of ARP child care stabilization funding—finding suggestive evidence of a slowing of the growth in maternal labor supply that started with the onset of ARP funds. This issue brief updates and extends that analysis with new outcomes and more data to examine the effect of the expiration of funds on child care prices, maternal labor supply, and survey-based measures of access to child care. We also leverage data on state efforts to stabilize child care, which helps us understand if, and how much, state-level funding supported the child care industry when federal funds expired. 

Our results suggest an overall slowdown in progress on outcomes such as child care prices and labor force participation and employment for women who are likely to rely on child care. We also show early evidence that states that implemented stopgap funding after federal ARP dollars ran out may have been more resilient in the post-funding period (after October 2023). Survey evidence shows that families with young children are having a harder time finding child care after ARP expiration, but the effects are less pronounced in states that implemented stopgap funding. Moreover, we find suggestive evidence of relatively stronger labor market outcomes for families and parents with young children in these states. We conclude with a summary of actions taken and proposed—in the President’s FY 2025 Budget —by the Biden-Harris Administration to increase access to and affordability of child care for parents across the country.

T he Child Care Market and the ARP Stabilization Funds

The CEA has previously detailed the importance of access, affordability, and quality in the child care market. With roughly 60 percent of children under the age of six in the United States spending some time in nonparental care on a regular basis, the ability of parents to access affordable care has economic benefits for families and society as a whole. There is extensive research relating access to child care and maternal labor supply ( Blau and Tekin 2007 ; Gelbach 2002 ; Herbst 2017 ; CEA 2023 ). Consistent with this, employment in the child care industry (a proxy for the size of the industry) over the last three decades has largely grown in tandem with the female labor force participation rate among 25–54 year-olds. Figure 2 shows the rapid increase in both indicators up to the early 2000s. At this time, prime-age female LFPR stagnated and child care employment began to decline. Both began to see a resurgence in the later 2010s and have started to recover following the COVID-19 shock. Ultimately, the ability of mothers, and parents more broadly, to participate fully in the labor force is often dependent on the extent to which child care supply can meet families’ growing demand at a price they can afford.

The majority of child care in the United States is provided by the private market ( Child Care Aware, 2023) and the business model is fragile. Child care is very labor intensive and state and local regulations, seeking to provide high-quality care, often stipulate the required ratio of children per adult in a classroom ( Workman, 2018 ; Childcare.Gov ). The average child care center has 3 to 4 adults per classroom serving roughly 10 children under age 3, and 6 to 7 adults in classrooms serving about 17 children between ages 3 and 5 ( National Survey of Early Care and Education, 2023 ). As such, care providers must choose a wage at which they can attract enough teachers to be in compliance with state standards while also charging a price that families can afford to pay. This often results in a gap between what families can afford and the cost of providing quality care ( US Department of the Treasury 2021 ; CAP 2023 ). In other words, there is a fundamental imbalance in the child care market, where the structure of the market is such that, left to itself, the market will invariably provide too few affordable, quality slots to enable families with low or even middle incomes to be able to access it.

On top of these pre-existing structural challenges, the COVID-19 pandemic took a particularly high toll on the industry. While the pandemic kept parents and children at home, many child care providers lost the entirety of the revenue base that helped them stay afloat: between February 2020 and April 2020, child care employment fell more than 30 percent. This is more than double the economy as a whole, which saw a 13 percent decline in employment.

Recognizing the persistent disruptions of the care infrastructure wrought by the pandemic, the American Rescue Plan (ARP) Act allocated additional funds to stabilize the supply side of child care, including $24 billion in funding for the new Child Care Stabilization Program—roughly $12 billion per year. For comparison, the child care and development fund ( CCDF )—the country’s largest federal funding stream dedicated to affordable child care—was funded at just over $8 billion in 2019 and $9.5 billion in 2022 (after upwards adjustments in response to the pandemic) ( Bipartisan Policy Center 2023 ). Supply side interventions are important in an industry where capacity constraints are binding. Although many lower-income households would likely qualify for subsidized care, these constraints contribute to low participation rates among eligible families. [1] The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services estimates that in 2019, roughly  one in six  children eligible for care benefits received them.

Data indicate that more than 225,000 child care programs in the United States, with total capacity to serve as many as 10 million children, received funding through stabilization grants intended to help the industry recover by providing funds to child care programs to help cover operational costs such as wages and benefits, rent and utilities, and program materials and supplies ( White House 2023 ). Many states report that these funds went towards personnel costs at centers, and rent and utilities at family child care homes. In short, these funds went towards reducing the direct cost to families as well as increasing the capacity of child care centers to meet demand for care.  

Summary of Previous Results

The original 2023 CEA analysis relied on carefully chosen comparison groups to isolate the causal effect of stabilization funds on outcomes of interest. The first part of the analysis provided evidence that the stabilization funds were effective at increasing child care access. Specifically, it showed that the stabilization funds led to lower relative price growth in the child care industry, more child care workers (a proxy for increased supply), and higher wages for child care workers.

The second part of the 2023 analysis, sought to identity the causal effect of this stabilization on maternal labor supply. Using mothers with children over age 6 or women without children (those less likely to benefit directly from the funds) as a basis for comparison, the labor force participation of mothers of young children (under 6 years old) increased by between 2 and 3 percentage points after stabilization funds were made available. Because (a) all women would have been affected by underlying trends such as working from home and (b) these relative changes occur right after ARP stabilization, these patterns likely reflect the effect of ARP child care stabilization net of other potentially confounding factors.

Results Part 1: Exhaustion of Federal Funds

The expiration of the stabilization funds on September 30, 2023 potentially led to an unravelling of the gains documented in the original CEA analysis. Here we examine some of these effects.

Impact of ARP Expiration on Prices

Looking at prices, Figure 3 shows the difference between predicted child care prices and actual prices faced by families during this time. To estimate the predicted versus actual prices, we use a similar bundle of service prices between 2016 and 2019 to estimate the trend of child care prices in normal times. This prediction represents our best guess of what child care prices would have been given the evolution of other prices at the same time. Even during a time characterized by price turbulence during the COVID-19 pandemic, this prediction methods succeeds in accurately predicting child care prices; Figure 3 sets the difference between actual and predicted prices equal to zero in January 2019 and the difference stays largely stable until early 2021. After the onset of ARP funds, the relative price of child care declines significantly. Despite significant changes to care arrangements over the course of 2020 and 2021, with the popularization of work from home and hybrid work, we would not expect to see such a sharp decline in prices due to depressed demand for care specifically in the months when ARP stabilization funds onset. The timing of the funds coinciding with price changes is strong evidence of a relationship between prices and the distribution of stabilization funds. [2]

With several months of follow-up data after the expiration of ARP funds, we can now see that after these funds expire, we begin to see a stagnation of price declines. In late 2023 the difference in predicted versus actual child care prices reverses course and the gap between child care prices and the similar bundle of services began to shrink. Despite a short follow-up period, this indicates stalled progress on child care pricing in the wake of ARP funding expiration. This stagnation could restrict access to child care for low-to-middle-income families.

Impact of ARP Expiration on Maternal Labor Supply

We now turn to maternal labor supply. The original CEA analysis shows that these original price declines coincided with an increase in the labor force participation rate of mothers of young children (relative to mothers of older children). The analysis, which we extend in this brief, relies on several facts to inform the empirical strategy: mainly that the child care industry primarily serves children under the age of 6, while most children 6 and older attend primary and secondary school. If parents and families are constrained in their ability to participate in the labor force by their inability to find and/or pay for child care, then the increased supply of child care enrollment slots and lower prices resulting from an influx of federal funds such as the ARP stabilization funds should have a positive impact on the labor market outcomes of mothers with young children (under the age of 6).

In the results that follow, we identify three groups for comparison. The “treated” group, or the group that should be most directly and significantly affected by the stabilization funds, are women with children under the age of six. We identify two relevant comparison groups: first, mothers of older, school-aged kids, and second, women with no children. To the extent that we think all three of these groups would be similarly affected by underlying labor market or macroeconomic shifts (such as general trends toward work from home or shifts in the macroeconomy), any divergence in outcome trends between women with young kids and women with older or no children around the time that child care stabilization funds are exhausted can plausibly be attributed to the expiration of funds.

Figure 4 shows how the labor force participation rate (LFPR) among mothers with young kids (our treated group) evolved in relation to mothers of older children and other women. We use a similar, prediction approach in this analysis to show that, in comparison to the LFPR trends of our comparison groups, labor force participation among mothers of kids under 6 showed significant growth after the onset of ARP stabilization funds (the topic of our original work) and has slowed significantly compared to control group LFPR since the exhaustion of these funds. Similar to the price comparison in Figure 3, we use LFPR from 2016 through the end of 2018 to predict how LFPR would have evolved in the absence of the onset of ARP funds. Like Figure 3, the prediction does a reasonable job of predicting LFPR before the pandemic. In 2020 we see a modest increase in LFPR soon after the CARES funding is distributed, before the LFPR of mothers of young kids drops precipitously in the middle of 2020 (relative to other women). However, only after ARP funds are distributed does actual LFPR start to increase and exceed the prediction range — indicating that, at the onset of ARP stabilization, women with children under the age of 6 participated in the labor force at a higher rate than predicted (based on the behavior of mothers of older children and women without children). By late 2023, the actual LFPR of this group is well above what would have been predicted–compelling evidence that the ARP stabilization funds allowed mothers of young children to participate in the labor force at a higher rate. At the point of funds expiration (the third dashed green line), however, this overall trend changes and we see an actual decline in LFPR. While not conclusive evidence of a slowdown or reversal of progress, this is the longest sustained period of slowdown since the onset of ARP funds and may portend what is to come.

While the national trends are compelling, we also examine county-level data to see if the timing of the relative slowdown at the county level coincides with the timing of when funds ran out. We use data from the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to estimate LFPR impacts at the county level which allows us to identify when individual states and counties liquidated all ARP funds: some states may have spent down the funds earlier than others. The ARP stabilization funds had a liquidation date of September 30, 2023, meaning that all funds needed to be spent-down or distributed by states before the September deadline. Spending data from the HHS allows us to see when states distributed funds at the county level. Unlike the onset of funds, which was highly concentrated in the first few months of the program, the final distribution of funds at the county level varied widely. Our analysis isolates the effect of the expiration of funds by comparing the labor force participation of mothers of young children to that of women in counties that reached final spend-down before and after the point of exhaustion of funds. The resulting estimates have a causal interpretation so long as labor force participation among our treated group (mothers of children with young kids) and our comparison groups would have trended in parallel in the absence of ARP stabilization funds, and that there weren’t any coincident changes that affected mothers of children under six when ARP funds were exhausted.

Figure 5 plots the trend in relative LFPR for mothers of young children over time. The x-axis is the month relative to the last distribution of ARP funds to a given county; we use this payout date to roughly approximate when the county will have spent down all their ARP stabilization funds. Negative values indicate months before fund expiration and positive value are the months after. Figure 5 shows that the relative increase in labor force participation shown in the original analysis slows to a halt around the time of expiration of funds. While we do not see a significant decline in labor market outcomes as the result of exhaustion of funds, any significant progress for women of young children can be seen to stall as the child care market slows its expansion. As in the onset of funds analysis, these results are robust to using either the combined control group (mothers of older children and women with no children) or the comparison of mothers with younger children to mothers with older children. It should be noted that the results presented in Figure 5 show that labor market outcomes appear to stall before the final payout of funds from states to counties. This early effect could be attributed to the possibility that payments made are for services rendered and any expansion of the market stalls before the final official payment.

Impact of ARP Expiration on Access to Care

As a final piece of corroborating evidence that the expiration of funds affected the supply of child care, we use data from the 2023 and 2024 Census Household Pulse survey (referred to as “the pulse survey”) to understand the extent to which demand for child care is being met across the country. Albeit suggestive, insofar as the expiration of funds led to a contraction or slowing of the growth of the child care sector, one would see more families reporting difficulty finding child care after October 2023 than before. The survey data, summarized in Figure 6, show exactly this. Figure 6 represent the share of respondents (households with children under the age of 5) who report being unable to find child care in the last four months due to issues with cost, distance, safety, or supply. Figure 6 shows that across the country, the share of households who could not access care increased from 24% to 31% after the expiration of ARP funds (between Q3:2023 and Q1:2024). [3]

Results Part 2: Difference By Stopgap Funding

State-Level Funding Initiatives

Anticipating these potential, negative effects, many states have implemented some form of what we refer to as “stopgap” funding: state-level funding that fills the role of the expired federal funding. Eleven states plus the District of Columbia have made significant state investments in child care programs and providers. In this section of the brief, we focus on states that have, through their state legislature, dedicated funding specifically for “stabilization” purposes, meaning that these are direct grants or solutions for providers similar to the structure of ARP funds. [4]

Table 1 outlines the level of spending across states that implemented stopgap funding. The second and third columns show the level of per-capita spending where per capita is limited to the under age 5 population—i.e., the group that the funds will most likely be spent on. The District of Columbia, Massachusetts, and Minnesota allocate the most, per-capita. All three spend upwards of $1,000 per child under five, with DC topping the list at nearly $1,800 per child. [5] These are also the three states in which the state-level funding exceeds that allocated by the federal ARP funding scheme. DC spends nearly twice as much, per capita, as the ARP funding whereas other states, such as Alaska, Illinois, and Kentucky have implemented lower levels of funding that amount to less than 20% of ARP funding. These funding discrepancies across states mean that stopgap funding will likely have varying effects based on how much of the budget holes left by the ARP funds expiration these state funds account for. Indeed, we find that states that provided at least a one-to-one match of federal ARP funds saw limited disruption to progress made following the original inflow of federal funds to providers.

As mentioned above, eleven states plus the District of Columbia have taken legislative action to introduce comparable, state-level funding in place of federal ARP dollars. These funds are meant to be similarly utilized as “stabilization” funding, i.e., directly supporting child care providers in meeting demand for care. [6]

Impact of State Stopgap Funding on Access to Care

To shed light on whether the stop gap funding made states more resilient, we first examine change in the reposes to the pulse survey for stopgap and non-stopgap states. That is, Figure 7 shows the difference in access to care before and after the expiration of funds between states that implemented stopgap stabilization funding and those did not. In the pre-period (when federal ARP funds were being distributed), states with and without state-level stabilization funds, nearly identical shares of households reported that they were unable to access child care. After federal funds ran out, families in states that failed to implement stopgap funding were nearly 3 percentage points more likely to report having trouble accessing care. If we believe that, in the absence of stopgap funding, states that introduced funding would have trended similarly to those that did not, we can conclude that the stopgap funding aided in mitigating the loss of access to care. While this relationship is not dispositive, it shows that stopgap funding has likely helped maintain access to affordable care. 

Impact of State Stopgap Funding on Maternal Labor Supply

Now we turn to labor supply. We provide early suggestive evidence that these differences in access to child care between stopgap and non-stopgap states may be leading to differences in maternal labor supply. To assess this, as before, we rely on the difference in outcomes between mothers of young children (treated) and mothers of older children. If the stopgap funding led to increased ability to access care, which in turn increased the labor supply of mother of young children, one should observe that the LFPR of mothers of younger children (the treated group) relative to that of mothers of older children (the comparison group) would increase in stopgap states relative to non-stop-gap states at the expiration of ARP funds. Moreover, this relationship should be more pronounced in state that had larger stop gap amounts. We test this notion using a regression model and find evidence of this.

Consistent with stopgap funding continuing the relative gains from ARP funding, our regression model indicates that in states that replaced about 50 percent of ARP funding, the change in LFPR for mothers of young kids was 1 percentage point higher than that is areas with no stopgap funding, and in areas that replace the ARP funding level fully, the change in LFPR for mothers of young kids was nearly 2.5 percentage point higher than that in areas with no state funding (Figure 8). These results are nearly identical for the employment rate. Coincidentally, the effect of fully replacing the ARP funding level is very similar to the effect of the onset of these funds. Although these results are only marginally statistically significant, they are suggestive that the access issues highlighted in the Household Pulse survey are bearing out in the labor market, putting mothers and families with young children at elevated risk compared to other women. It is important to note that these results should be taken as simply suggestive evidence of slowing progress in the post-federal funding period. We use only states that implemented state-level stopgap funding that accounts for at least 50% of federal ARP funding. There are also states that could be implementing other family-friendly policies to aid families in accessing affordable child care.

Discussion and Conclusions

The American Rescue Plan made a historic investment in the child care industry. The funds were allocated to stabilize a critical industry during unprecedented times. This investment, however, was always meant to be temporary, and there was broad-based concern about the impact of the expiration of funds on child care providers, parents, and children. This brief highlights the stalled progress as a result of expiring ARP funds, which evidence suggests is leading to higher prices and depressed access to child care for families who need it most. The Biden-Harris Administration has called on Congress to provide $16 billion in supplemental funding to extend the ARP funding and provide relief to child care workers and the families that depend on them.

The findings underscore the need for sustained, transformative federal investments to ensure affordable child care is available to all families that need it. The Biden Administration has proposed such a program in the President’s most recent budget , which would create a historic program offering guaranteed, affordable, high-quality care from birth to kindergarten for families making up to $200,000 per year: most families would pay no more than $10 per day and the lowest income families would pay nothing. The Administration stands ready to work with Congress on a long-term solution that ensures all families can access affordable, high-quality care and education. 

In the absence of action from Congress towards this proposal, several states have stepped up funding to providers at the state-level, which—as this brief shows—has had significant, positive effects on families and parents. Despite positive effects of these state efforts, it is not sufficient. As such, federal investment is necessary to aid a market that has long been plagued by staffing, cost, and access issues for providers and families. This brief shows that the ill-effects of expiring ARP funds will stall progress without further action, and underscores the importance of child care providers, not only for children and families, but for the economy at-large.

[1] Other factors contributing to low participation include limited funding for subsidies and high family copayment rates.

[2] It should be noted that, although the national expiration date occurs between September and October 2023, our later analysis highlights that counties and states spent down their funds in various months before the deadline. The expiration of funds date should be seen as fuzzy in Figures 3 and 4, which may contribute some noise to the estimates provided.

[3] Ideally, we would test that this relationship only holds in the pre- and post-ARP stabilization funds period. As the question of access to child care was only posed to households over the given dates, however, we are unable to run this falsification test.

[4] This definition is consistent with recent research from the National Women’s Law Center.

[5] It should be noted that DC represents a unique case in that not all children participating in child care in DC may represent DC residents. Considering the considerable labor spillover into the District from surrounding states such as Maryland and Virginia, this may be an overestimation of per capita dollars.

[6] It should be noted that, similar to the ARP stabilization funds, not all state funding is ongoing. Some states will see a significant shift away from state funding in the next fiscal year.

Stay Connected

We'll be in touch with the latest information on how President Biden and his administration are working for the American people, as well as ways you can get involved and help our country build back better.

Opt in to send and receive text messages from President Biden.

Search Results

Preparing for the next decade of European banking supervision: risk-focused, impactful and legally sound

Speech by frank elderson, member of the executive board of the ecb and vice-chair of the supervisory board of the ecb, at the “10 years ssm and beyond” event organised by allen & overy.

Frankfurt, 27 June 2024

Introduction

Thank you for inviting me to this conference on ten years of European banking supervision.

It is hard to believe that it’s only a decade since supervisors from across Europe first came together in truly European supervisory teams on a Tuesday morning in November 2014.

Just like the first ten years of a child’s life, the first decade of European banking supervision has also been a period of growth and development. During this time, we have matured from a start-up into a well-established, effective supervisor, building on the best practices of supervisors across Europe. And this is more relevant than ever given the increasingly complex external risk landscape. Think about heightening risks from geopolitical shocks, cyber risks and the climate and nature crises.

These evolving risks require supervision to evolve, too. This is why we have embarked on a journey to make European banking supervision more risk-focused, efficient and effective. For example, we recently announced change to the Supervisory Review and Evaluation Process (SREP) – our annual health check of banks – making it more targeted and more risk-focused in a new risk environment. [ 1 ] The revised SREP also puts greater emphasis on impact and effectiveness, which is the focus of my remarks today.

In this context, I am pleased to be speaking to an audience of general counsels from the banks under our supervision. The way we – ECB Banking Supervision – interact with you – representatives of the banks we supervise – is of paramount importance for our shared goal of safe and sound banks.

Our supervisory toolkit: broad, effective and going beyond capital

So, what does effective supervision mean in practice?

Our experience of almost ten years of European supervision shows that, in most cases, banks address the root causes of supervisors’ findings and that’s the end of the story. If banks remediate shortcomings in a timely manner based on what we refer to as “supervisory dialogue”, we have a very efficient and effective way of supervising.

But there are also cases where banks fail to address deficiencies in good time. For these cases, the legislator has given the ECB a very broad supervisory toolbox that we are able and willing to use – always in a proportionate manner.

Internationally, various reports on the lessons from the banking turmoil in March 2023 all explicitly recommended that supervisors should make active use of their supervisory tools to compel banks to take timely and concrete remedial action. [ 2 ] In fact, International Monetary Fund staff concluded in a paper published in 2010 that a willingness to act is a key ingredient for good supervision. [ 3 ]

Moreover, in 2022 we took the initiative to ask a group of independent experts to review our SREP. In their report, which was published last year, they also urged the ECB to use the full range of supervisory tools available. [ 4 ]

The use of supervisory powers to compel banks to make concrete improvements is therefore not merely a nice-to-have – it is international best practice to ensure that banks remain safe and sound, which is the ultimate goal of prudential supervision.

So, when and how do we use these tools?

We act fully in line with the principle of proportionality, using supervisory tools as appropriate, as necessary and – once the appropriateness and need has been established – decisively. Central to this approach is an escalation ladder, giving banks the opportunity to address shortcomings and their root causes within a defined time frame, with interim deadlines if and when appropriate. If using a less intrusive tool does not lead to the desired outcome being achieved in a timely manner, we will expeditiously deploy more intrusive tools to compel banks to take the necessary remedial actions in time.

The escalation process is not, however, automatic and it always depends on the specific circumstances. This means that some serious issues requiring immediate remediation could lead to more intrusive supervisory measures being used at an early stage.

The tools available to us range from binding quantitative and qualitative supervisory measures to sanctions and enforcement measures such as periodic penalty payments. [ 5 ]

Let’s look at these tools more closely.

Some might think of Pillar 2 capital add-ons [ 6 ] , the most common quantitative supervisory measure, as the sharpest tool that a supervisor has. But while setting bank-specific Pillar 2 capital requirements is undoubtedly a vital element of our toolbox, it is far from being the only one.

Article 16 of the SSM Regulation gives the ECB the power to impose a wide range of what we call “qualitative requirements”, based on a bank’s specific circumstances. [ 7 ] These tools are particularly relevant for addressing the root causes of weaknesses, for instance in internal governance or risk management. These qualitative areas are very often the source of problems that subsequently materialise in risks to capital and liquidity. The banking turmoil in March 2023, for instance, was a clear reminder that shortcomings stemming from weak governance can, if left unaddressed, later resurface in quantitative areas such as banks’ liquidity positions. Consider Silicon Valley Bank, which had significant interest rate risk as a result of holding long-term securities. Despite the bank having repeatedly breached internal risk limits, its management did not adequately address these issues and supervisors did not escalate their concerns until it was too late. As interest rates rose, the value of those securities fell, and SVB incurred substantial losses when it was forced to sell them to cover withdrawals. [ 8 ]

Periodic penalty payments, an example of an enforcement measure , are another vital part of our toolbox. [ 9 ] They are an effective tool that we can use as part of an escalation process to compel individual banks to comply, by a specific date, with our requirements in respect of any prudential risk that is not properly covered and managed. While the decision to impose periodic penalty payments is always specific to an individual bank, if there are breaches of requirements related to risks that affect several institutions simultaneously, we may need to consider imposing this measure on various banks at the same time. And this is precisely what we have been doing in the area of climate-related and environmental (C&E) risks.

Let me focus on this example. Considering the clear requirements set out in the Capital Requirements Directive and the need for banks to implement a regular process for identifying all material risks, we have been clear that all banks under our supervision must ensure that their practices are fully aligned with the sound management of C&E risks. Building on what banks themselves considered reasonable, we have set a series of (interim) deadlines by which banks have to reach certain milestones.

As a first step, we asked all banks to ensure that they had sound and comprehensive materiality assessments in place, which is the basis for managing any kind of risk. We were clear that we expected all banks to meet this deadline by March 2023 and that, if necessary, we would use all the tools at our disposal to enforce it, as well as any subsequent deadlines.

Most, but not all, of the banks under our supervision made significant strides in advancing their materiality assessments by the March 2023 deadline. So, it should be no surprise that we took action on this: we moved further up the supervisory escalation ladder and issued binding supervisory decisions for 23 banks, which included the potential imposition of periodic penalty payments for 18 banks if they failed to comply with the requirements by the deadlines set out in these decisions.

Encouragingly, most banks have now submitted a meaningful materiality assessment. This shows that our supervisory pressure has been effective and has led to the desired outcome for the majority of banks.

In parallel to our actions in relation to the first interim deadline, we are currently concluding our assessment of banks’ progress in meeting the second interim deadline. For this second deadline, we asked banks to clearly include C&E risks in their governance, strategy and risk management by December 2023. As with the first interim deadline, if we see that banks have not satisfactorily delivered, we will consider adopting supervisory measures that already contain an enforcement measure. In other words, we may tell those banks to remedy the shortcoming by a certain date and, if they don’t comply, they will have to pay a penalty for every day the shortcoming remains unresolved.

The last tool that I would like to mention is sanctions , which are intended to punish banks for misconduct and to deter future infringements. [ 10 ] For instance, we have imposed penalties on banks that failed to comply with the requirements set out in binding ECB decisions [ 11 ] or with EU prudential requirements.

Legal considerations for effective supervision

Let me now turn to the legal considerations that constitute our guiding principles for exercising our supervisory powers.

When we – European banking supervisors – are using our rich supervisory toolkit and exercising our margin of discretion in imposing supervisory and enforcement measures, as well as sanctions, we take great care to remain within our mandate, to act in accordance with the relevant EU law and to act proportionally.

We make sure that both our findings and the requirements we impose in our supervisory decisions fall squarely within the prudential tasks conferred on us under Article 4 of the SSM Regulation. We use all powers available to us to ensure that banks manage and cover their risks properly and that they comply with the applicable prudential legislation.

Our underlying objective is to ensure the safety and soundness of credit institutions and the stability of the financial system.

When deploying our supervisory toolkit in the exercise of our mandate, we apply the relevant Union law. We carefully analyse EU and national legislative texts, when applicable, taking into account the wording, context and objectives of the legislative provisions.

We consider relevant case-law and general principles of law.

We state the reasons on which our decisions are based with the aim that banks understand what we perceive their shortcomings to be and what we expect from them.

When we issue sanctions or impose periodic penalty payments, we use a coherent methodology.

We always make sure that we use our tools in line with the principle of proportionality. In other words, we consider whether the powers we use at any given time are appropriate for attaining our prudential objectives. We ascertain that we are not going beyond what is necessary and that the effects of our measures are not disproportionate to the prudential objective we are pursuing. Accordingly, one of the objectives when escalating supervisory action is to enable us to act swiftly and proportionally.

In doing all this, we also ensure that our decisions are based only on facts and findings on which the banks have been able to comment. [ 12 ]

The right to be heard is a key procedural safeguard. We take it seriously and are committed to listening to banks’ arguments and comments. In a number of cases we have changed supervisory decisions based on the comments made during the right to be heard process. For example, there have been cases where we have changed requirements into recommendations or prolonged the deadlines for compliance with our requirements, reflecting our willingness to consider the specific circumstances and arguments of individual banks.

We – as European banking supervisors – believe that both the supervisory dialogue and banks’ comments during the drafting phase of the decision can lead to increased mutual understanding and better decisions with better calibrated measures.

Finally, if after those exchanges you – the supervised banks – still doubt the substantive and procedural conformity of the ECB’s decision with the SSM Regulation, you may request an internal administrative review at the Administrative Board of Review . [ 13 ]

While we do everything we can to ensure that we act within our mandate, correctly apply the relevant Union law, act proportionally and listen to your arguments, we note that banks are fully within their rights to ask EU courts to review our decisions. Litigation is, in a sense, a natural aspects of supervision, with supervisors actually using the tools they have been granted by the legislator to ensure compliance and timely remediation. Indeed, in the past ten years the ECB has been involved in 98 cases involving 102 actions requesting either annulment or damages, or alleging that the ECB was failing to act.

So far, in most cases the courts have upheld our decisions in which we exercised our supervisory powers. And whenever one of our decisions has been annulled, we have drawn lessons from that experience to further improve the way we work.

A very recent example I can mention is the ECB decisions requiring part of the prefunding given to the national deposit guarantee schemes and the Single Resolution Fund to be deducted from banks’ capital in cases when the banks did not reflect the loss of economic resources from this funding in their capital. These decisions revolved around the technicalities of the so-called irrevocable payment commitments, how these commitments are secured by collateral and how banks reflect the loss of economic resources in their capital, liquidity and internal arrangements. Our first set of decisions was annulled in 2020 by the General Court [ 14 ] , which considered that our reasoning for imposing these measures lacked an individual assessment of how the risk we identified was managed and covered by the arrangements implemented by the banks and the capital and liquidity held by them. Following these judgments of the General Court, the ECB improved its methodology to better cater for this individual assessment and took new decisions in relation to the irrevocable payment commitments with an improved motivation. These new decisions were again challenged by some banks, but this time the General Court upheld the new decisions with our improved methodology. [ 15 ] This learning process is part of us striving to be an effective supervisor that, while always acting legally and proportionally, never rests until material prudential risks are covered and managed, necessary compliance has been achieved and remediation has been ensured. In this sense, we will not stop using our toolbox for fear of litigation, as we firmly believe that we can also learn when subject to judicial scrutiny.

Let me conclude.

As we approach the next decade of European banking supervision, the fundamental objective of supervision – ensuring safe and sound banks – will not change. To achieve this objective, we are putting greater emphasis on impact and effectiveness. We need to have a razor-sharp analytical focus on risks, and we need to insist that the weaknesses we identify are remedied in good time. Ensuring timely remediation is more relevant than ever considering the fast-evolving environment that we live in.

And crucially, we have an extensive toolkit at our disposal that we are willing to use to meet that objective.

In our supervisory process, we listen to you – representatives of the banks we supervise – because, ultimately, both supervisors and banks have a common objective: ensuring that the banks remain safe and sound.

So let us make good use of every aspect of our supervisory dialogue, including the right to be heard, so you – the banks we supervise – can better understand our prudential concerns and we – European banking supervisors – can better understand the implementation challenges you may face.

Together, we can navigate the challenges of this new risk environment.

Together, we can make sure that European banks are also able to weather these storms.

Together, we can ensure that banks remain safe and sound in the decades to come.

Thank you for your attention.

Buch, C. (2024), “ Reforming the SREP: an important milestone towards more efficient and effective supervision in a new risk environment ”, The Supervision Blog , 28 May.

Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (2023), Review of the Federal Reserve’s Supervision and Regulation of Silicon Valley Bank , April, p. 8; Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (2023), Report on the 2023 banking turmoil , October, p. 26; International Monetary Fund (2023), Good Supervision: Lessons from the Field , September, pp. 4 et seq.

Viñals, J. et al. (2010), “ The Making of Good Supervision: Learning to Say “No” ”, IMF Staff Position Note , International Monetary Fund, 18 May.

ECB (2023), “ ECB welcomes expert group recommendations on European banking supervision ”, press release, 17 April.

Elderson, F. (2024), “ You have to know your risks to manage them – banks’ materiality assessments as a crucial precondition for managing climate and environmental risks ”, The Supervision Blog , 8 May.

Article 16(2)(a) of the SSM Regulation (Council Regulation (EU) No 1024/2013 of 15 October 2013 conferring specific tasks on the European Central Bank concerning policies relating to the prudential supervision of credit institutions (OJ L 287, 29.10.2013, p. 63).

Elderson, F. (2023), “ Powers, ability and willingness to act – the mainstay of effective banking supervision ”, speech at the House of the Euro, 7 December.

Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (2023), Review of the Federal Reserve’s Supervision and Regulation of Silicon Valley Bank , April.

Periodic penalty payments require the bank concerned to pay a daily amount – up to 5% of its average daily turnover – for every day the infringement continues during a maximum period of six months.

Sanctioning proceedings can be initiated both in the case of ongoing breaches and after the breach has ceased. The ECB can impose pecuniary penalties on banks for failing to comply with EU prudential requirements. The ECB may impose penalties of up to 10% of a bank’s total annual turnover in the preceding business year, or twice the amount of profits gained or losses avoided as a result of the breach, where those can be determined.

See the ECB’s banking supervision website for an overview of sanctions imposed by the ECB and the national competent authorities in proceedings opened at the ECB’s request, as well as statistics on sanctioning activities in the context of European banking supervision.

Article 22(1) of the SSM Regulation.

To date the Administrative Board of Review has delivered 36 opinions.

See the judgments of the General Court in cases T-143/18, T-144/18, T-145/18, T-146/18, T-149/18 and T-150/18.

See the judgments of the General Court in cases T-182/22, T-186/22, T-187/22, T-188/22, T-189/22, T-190/22 and T-191/22.

European Central Bank

Directorate general communications.

• Sonnemannstrasse 20
• 60314 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
• +49 69 1344 7455
• [email protected]

Reproduction is permitted provided that the source is acknowledged.

Our website uses cookies

We are always working to improve this website for our users. To do this, we use the anonymous data provided by cookies. Learn more about how we use cookies

We have updated our privacy policy

We are always working to improve this website for our users. To do this, we use the anonymous data provided by cookies. See what has changed in our privacy policy

Your cookie preference has expired