outline for biology research paper

This document originally came from the Journal of Mammalogy courtesy of Dr. Ronald Barry, a former editor of the journal.

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Focus: Education — Career Advice

How to write your first research paper.

Writing a research manuscript is an intimidating process for many novice writers in the sciences. One of the stumbling blocks is the beginning of the process and creating the first draft. This paper presents guidelines on how to initiate the writing process and draft each section of a research manuscript. The paper discusses seven rules that allow the writer to prepare a well-structured and comprehensive manuscript for a publication submission. In addition, the author lists different strategies for successful revision. Each of those strategies represents a step in the revision process and should help the writer improve the quality of the manuscript. The paper could be considered a brief manual for publication.

It is late at night. You have been struggling with your project for a year. You generated an enormous amount of interesting data. Your pipette feels like an extension of your hand, and running western blots has become part of your daily routine, similar to brushing your teeth. Your colleagues think you are ready to write a paper, and your lab mates tease you about your “slow” writing progress. Yet days pass, and you cannot force yourself to sit down to write. You have not written anything for a while (lab reports do not count), and you feel you have lost your stamina. How does the writing process work? How can you fit your writing into a daily schedule packed with experiments? What section should you start with? What distinguishes a good research paper from a bad one? How should you revise your paper? These and many other questions buzz in your head and keep you stressed. As a result, you procrastinate. In this paper, I will discuss the issues related to the writing process of a scientific paper. Specifically, I will focus on the best approaches to start a scientific paper, tips for writing each section, and the best revision strategies.

1. Schedule your writing time in Outlook

Whether you have written 100 papers or you are struggling with your first, starting the process is the most difficult part unless you have a rigid writing schedule. Writing is hard. It is a very difficult process of intense concentration and brain work. As stated in Hayes’ framework for the study of writing: “It is a generative activity requiring motivation, and it is an intellectual activity requiring cognitive processes and memory” [ 1 ]. In his book How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing , Paul Silvia says that for some, “it’s easier to embalm the dead than to write an article about it” [ 2 ]. Just as with any type of hard work, you will not succeed unless you practice regularly. If you have not done physical exercises for a year, only regular workouts can get you into good shape again. The same kind of regular exercises, or I call them “writing sessions,” are required to be a productive author. Choose from 1- to 2-hour blocks in your daily work schedule and consider them as non-cancellable appointments. When figuring out which blocks of time will be set for writing, you should select the time that works best for this type of work. For many people, mornings are more productive. One Yale University graduate student spent a semester writing from 8 a.m. to 9 a.m. when her lab was empty. At the end of the semester, she was amazed at how much she accomplished without even interrupting her regular lab hours. In addition, doing the hardest task first thing in the morning contributes to the sense of accomplishment during the rest of the day. This positive feeling spills over into our work and life and has a very positive effect on our overall attitude.

Rule 1: Create regular time blocks for writing as appointments in your calendar and keep these appointments.

2. start with an outline.

Now that you have scheduled time, you need to decide how to start writing. The best strategy is to start with an outline. This will not be an outline that you are used to, with Roman numerals for each section and neat parallel listing of topic sentences and supporting points. This outline will be similar to a template for your paper. Initially, the outline will form a structure for your paper; it will help generate ideas and formulate hypotheses. Following the advice of George M. Whitesides, “. . . start with a blank piece of paper, and write down, in any order, all important ideas that occur to you concerning the paper” [ 3 ]. Use Table 1 as a starting point for your outline. Include your visuals (figures, tables, formulas, equations, and algorithms), and list your findings. These will constitute the first level of your outline, which will eventually expand as you elaborate.

The next stage is to add context and structure. Here you will group all your ideas into sections: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion ( Table 2 ). This step will help add coherence to your work and sift your ideas.

Now that you have expanded your outline, you are ready for the next step: discussing the ideas for your paper with your colleagues and mentor. Many universities have a writing center where graduate students can schedule individual consultations and receive assistance with their paper drafts. Getting feedback during early stages of your draft can save a lot of time. Talking through ideas allows people to conceptualize and organize thoughts to find their direction without wasting time on unnecessary writing. Outlining is the most effective way of communicating your ideas and exchanging thoughts. Moreover, it is also the best stage to decide to which publication you will submit the paper. Many people come up with three choices and discuss them with their mentors and colleagues. Having a list of journal priorities can help you quickly resubmit your paper if your paper is rejected.

Rule 2: Create a detailed outline and discuss it with your mentor and peers.

3. continue with drafts.

After you get enough feedback and decide on the journal you will submit to, the process of real writing begins. Copy your outline into a separate file and expand on each of the points, adding data and elaborating on the details. When you create the first draft, do not succumb to the temptation of editing. Do not slow down to choose a better word or better phrase; do not halt to improve your sentence structure. Pour your ideas into the paper and leave revision and editing for later. As Paul Silvia explains, “Revising while you generate text is like drinking decaffeinated coffee in the early morning: noble idea, wrong time” [ 2 ].

Many students complain that they are not productive writers because they experience writer’s block. Staring at an empty screen is frustrating, but your screen is not really empty: You have a template of your article, and all you need to do is fill in the blanks. Indeed, writer’s block is a logical fallacy for a scientist ― it is just an excuse to procrastinate. When scientists start writing a research paper, they already have their files with data, lab notes with materials and experimental designs, some visuals, and tables with results. All they need to do is scrutinize these pieces and put them together into a comprehensive paper.

3.1. Starting with Materials and Methods

If you still struggle with starting a paper, then write the Materials and Methods section first. Since you have all your notes, it should not be problematic for you to describe the experimental design and procedures. Your most important goal in this section is to be as explicit as possible by providing enough detail and references. In the end, the purpose of this section is to allow other researchers to evaluate and repeat your work. So do not run into the same problems as the writers of the sentences in (1):

1a. Bacteria were pelleted by centrifugation. 1b. To isolate T cells, lymph nodes were collected.

As you can see, crucial pieces of information are missing: the speed of centrifuging your bacteria, the time, and the temperature in (1a); the source of lymph nodes for collection in (b). The sentences can be improved when information is added, as in (2a) and (2b), respectfully:

2a. Bacteria were pelleted by centrifugation at 3000g for 15 min at 25°C. 2b. To isolate T cells, mediastinal and mesenteric lymph nodes from Balb/c mice were collected at day 7 after immunization with ovabumin.

If your method has previously been published and is well-known, then you should provide only the literature reference, as in (3a). If your method is unpublished, then you need to make sure you provide all essential details, as in (3b).

3a. Stem cells were isolated, according to Johnson [23]. 3b. Stem cells were isolated using biotinylated carbon nanotubes coated with anti-CD34 antibodies.

Furthermore, cohesion and fluency are crucial in this section. One of the malpractices resulting in disrupted fluency is switching from passive voice to active and vice versa within the same paragraph, as shown in (4). This switching misleads and distracts the reader.

4. Behavioral computer-based experiments of Study 1 were programmed by using E-Prime. We took ratings of enjoyment, mood, and arousal as the patients listened to preferred pleasant music and unpreferred music by using Visual Analogue Scales (SI Methods). The preferred and unpreferred status of the music was operationalized along a continuum of pleasantness [ 4 ].

The problem with (4) is that the reader has to switch from the point of view of the experiment (passive voice) to the point of view of the experimenter (active voice). This switch causes confusion about the performer of the actions in the first and the third sentences. To improve the coherence and fluency of the paragraph above, you should be consistent in choosing the point of view: first person “we” or passive voice [ 5 ]. Let’s consider two revised examples in (5).

5a. We programmed behavioral computer-based experiments of Study 1 by using E-Prime. We took ratings of enjoyment, mood, and arousal by using Visual Analogue Scales (SI Methods) as the patients listened to preferred pleasant music and unpreferred music. We operationalized the preferred and unpreferred status of the music along a continuum of pleasantness. 5b. Behavioral computer-based experiments of Study 1 were programmed by using E-Prime. Ratings of enjoyment, mood, and arousal were taken as the patients listened to preferred pleasant music and unpreferred music by using Visual Analogue Scales (SI Methods). The preferred and unpreferred status of the music was operationalized along a continuum of pleasantness.

If you choose the point of view of the experimenter, then you may end up with repetitive “we did this” sentences. For many readers, paragraphs with sentences all beginning with “we” may also sound disruptive. So if you choose active sentences, you need to keep the number of “we” subjects to a minimum and vary the beginnings of the sentences [ 6 ].

Interestingly, recent studies have reported that the Materials and Methods section is the only section in research papers in which passive voice predominantly overrides the use of the active voice [ 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. For example, Martínez shows a significant drop in active voice use in the Methods sections based on the corpus of 1 million words of experimental full text research articles in the biological sciences [ 7 ]. According to the author, the active voice patterned with “we” is used only as a tool to reveal personal responsibility for the procedural decisions in designing and performing experimental work. This means that while all other sections of the research paper use active voice, passive voice is still the most predominant in Materials and Methods sections.

Writing Materials and Methods sections is a meticulous and time consuming task requiring extreme accuracy and clarity. This is why when you complete your draft, you should ask for as much feedback from your colleagues as possible. Numerous readers of this section will help you identify the missing links and improve the technical style of this section.

Rule 3: Be meticulous and accurate in describing the Materials and Methods. Do not change the point of view within one paragraph.

3.2. writing results section.

For many authors, writing the Results section is more intimidating than writing the Materials and Methods section . If people are interested in your paper, they are interested in your results. That is why it is vital to use all your writing skills to objectively present your key findings in an orderly and logical sequence using illustrative materials and text.

Your Results should be organized into different segments or subsections where each one presents the purpose of the experiment, your experimental approach, data including text and visuals (tables, figures, schematics, algorithms, and formulas), and data commentary. For most journals, your data commentary will include a meaningful summary of the data presented in the visuals and an explanation of the most significant findings. This data presentation should not repeat the data in the visuals, but rather highlight the most important points. In the “standard” research paper approach, your Results section should exclude data interpretation, leaving it for the Discussion section. However, interpretations gradually and secretly creep into research papers: “Reducing the data, generalizing from the data, and highlighting scientific cases are all highly interpretive processes. It should be clear by now that we do not let the data speak for themselves in research reports; in summarizing our results, we interpret them for the reader” [ 10 ]. As a result, many journals including the Journal of Experimental Medicine and the Journal of Clinical Investigation use joint Results/Discussion sections, where results are immediately followed by interpretations.

Another important aspect of this section is to create a comprehensive and supported argument or a well-researched case. This means that you should be selective in presenting data and choose only those experimental details that are essential for your reader to understand your findings. You might have conducted an experiment 20 times and collected numerous records, but this does not mean that you should present all those records in your paper. You need to distinguish your results from your data and be able to discard excessive experimental details that could distract and confuse the reader. However, creating a picture or an argument should not be confused with data manipulation or falsification, which is a willful distortion of data and results. If some of your findings contradict your ideas, you have to mention this and find a plausible explanation for the contradiction.

In addition, your text should not include irrelevant and peripheral information, including overview sentences, as in (6).

6. To show our results, we first introduce all components of experimental system and then describe the outcome of infections.

Indeed, wordiness convolutes your sentences and conceals your ideas from readers. One common source of wordiness is unnecessary intensifiers. Adverbial intensifiers such as “clearly,” “essential,” “quite,” “basically,” “rather,” “fairly,” “really,” and “virtually” not only add verbosity to your sentences, but also lower your results’ credibility. They appeal to the reader’s emotions but lower objectivity, as in the common examples in (7):

7a. Table 3 clearly shows that … 7b. It is obvious from figure 4 that …

Another source of wordiness is nominalizations, i.e., nouns derived from verbs and adjectives paired with weak verbs including “be,” “have,” “do,” “make,” “cause,” “provide,” and “get” and constructions such as “there is/are.”

8a. We tested the hypothesis that there is a disruption of membrane asymmetry. 8b. In this paper we provide an argument that stem cells repopulate injured organs.

In the sentences above, the abstract nominalizations “disruption” and “argument” do not contribute to the clarity of the sentences, but rather clutter them with useless vocabulary that distracts from the meaning. To improve your sentences, avoid unnecessary nominalizations and change passive verbs and constructions into active and direct sentences.

9a. We tested the hypothesis that the membrane asymmetry is disrupted. 9b. In this paper we argue that stem cells repopulate injured organs.

Your Results section is the heart of your paper, representing a year or more of your daily research. So lead your reader through your story by writing direct, concise, and clear sentences.

Rule 4: Be clear, concise, and objective in describing your Results.

3.3. now it is time for your introduction.

Now that you are almost half through drafting your research paper, it is time to update your outline. While describing your Methods and Results, many of you diverged from the original outline and re-focused your ideas. So before you move on to create your Introduction, re-read your Methods and Results sections and change your outline to match your research focus. The updated outline will help you review the general picture of your paper, the topic, the main idea, and the purpose, which are all important for writing your introduction.

The best way to structure your introduction is to follow the three-move approach shown in Table 3 .

Adapted from Swales and Feak [ 11 ].

The moves and information from your outline can help to create your Introduction efficiently and without missing steps. These moves are traffic signs that lead the reader through the road of your ideas. Each move plays an important role in your paper and should be presented with deep thought and care. When you establish the territory, you place your research in context and highlight the importance of your research topic. By finding the niche, you outline the scope of your research problem and enter the scientific dialogue. The final move, “occupying the niche,” is where you explain your research in a nutshell and highlight your paper’s significance. The three moves allow your readers to evaluate their interest in your paper and play a significant role in the paper review process, determining your paper reviewers.

Some academic writers assume that the reader “should follow the paper” to find the answers about your methodology and your findings. As a result, many novice writers do not present their experimental approach and the major findings, wrongly believing that the reader will locate the necessary information later while reading the subsequent sections [ 5 ]. However, this “suspense” approach is not appropriate for scientific writing. To interest the reader, scientific authors should be direct and straightforward and present informative one-sentence summaries of the results and the approach.

Another problem is that writers understate the significance of the Introduction. Many new researchers mistakenly think that all their readers understand the importance of the research question and omit this part. However, this assumption is faulty because the purpose of the section is not to evaluate the importance of the research question in general. The goal is to present the importance of your research contribution and your findings. Therefore, you should be explicit and clear in describing the benefit of the paper.

The Introduction should not be long. Indeed, for most journals, this is a very brief section of about 250 to 600 words, but it might be the most difficult section due to its importance.

Rule 5: Interest your reader in the Introduction section by signalling all its elements and stating the novelty of the work.

3.4. discussion of the results.

For many scientists, writing a Discussion section is as scary as starting a paper. Most of the fear comes from the variation in the section. Since every paper has its unique results and findings, the Discussion section differs in its length, shape, and structure. However, some general principles of writing this section still exist. Knowing these rules, or “moves,” can change your attitude about this section and help you create a comprehensive interpretation of your results.

The purpose of the Discussion section is to place your findings in the research context and “to explain the meaning of the findings and why they are important, without appearing arrogant, condescending, or patronizing” [ 11 ]. The structure of the first two moves is almost a mirror reflection of the one in the Introduction. In the Introduction, you zoom in from general to specific and from the background to your research question; in the Discussion section, you zoom out from the summary of your findings to the research context, as shown in Table 4 .

Adapted from Swales and Feak and Hess [ 11 , 12 ].

The biggest challenge for many writers is the opening paragraph of the Discussion section. Following the moves in Table 1 , the best choice is to start with the study’s major findings that provide the answer to the research question in your Introduction. The most common starting phrases are “Our findings demonstrate . . .,” or “In this study, we have shown that . . .,” or “Our results suggest . . .” In some cases, however, reminding the reader about the research question or even providing a brief context and then stating the answer would make more sense. This is important in those cases where the researcher presents a number of findings or where more than one research question was presented. Your summary of the study’s major findings should be followed by your presentation of the importance of these findings. One of the most frequent mistakes of the novice writer is to assume the importance of his findings. Even if the importance is clear to you, it may not be obvious to your reader. Digesting the findings and their importance to your reader is as crucial as stating your research question.

Another useful strategy is to be proactive in the first move by predicting and commenting on the alternative explanations of the results. Addressing potential doubts will save you from painful comments about the wrong interpretation of your results and will present you as a thoughtful and considerate researcher. Moreover, the evaluation of the alternative explanations might help you create a logical step to the next move of the discussion section: the research context.

The goal of the research context move is to show how your findings fit into the general picture of the current research and how you contribute to the existing knowledge on the topic. This is also the place to discuss any discrepancies and unexpected findings that may otherwise distort the general picture of your paper. Moreover, outlining the scope of your research by showing the limitations, weaknesses, and assumptions is essential and adds modesty to your image as a scientist. However, make sure that you do not end your paper with the problems that override your findings. Try to suggest feasible explanations and solutions.

If your submission does not require a separate Conclusion section, then adding another paragraph about the “take-home message” is a must. This should be a general statement reiterating your answer to the research question and adding its scientific implications, practical application, or advice.

Just as in all other sections of your paper, the clear and precise language and concise comprehensive sentences are vital. However, in addition to that, your writing should convey confidence and authority. The easiest way to illustrate your tone is to use the active voice and the first person pronouns. Accompanied by clarity and succinctness, these tools are the best to convince your readers of your point and your ideas.

Rule 6: Present the principles, relationships, and generalizations in a concise and convincing tone.

4. choosing the best working revision strategies.

Now that you have created the first draft, your attitude toward your writing should have improved. Moreover, you should feel more confident that you are able to accomplish your project and submit your paper within a reasonable timeframe. You also have worked out your writing schedule and followed it precisely. Do not stop ― you are only at the midpoint from your destination. Just as the best and most precious diamond is no more than an unattractive stone recognized only by trained professionals, your ideas and your results may go unnoticed if they are not polished and brushed. Despite your attempts to present your ideas in a logical and comprehensive way, first drafts are frequently a mess. Use the advice of Paul Silvia: “Your first drafts should sound like they were hastily translated from Icelandic by a non-native speaker” [ 2 ]. The degree of your success will depend on how you are able to revise and edit your paper.

The revision can be done at the macrostructure and the microstructure levels [ 13 ]. The macrostructure revision includes the revision of the organization, content, and flow. The microstructure level includes individual words, sentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

The best way to approach the macrostructure revision is through the outline of the ideas in your paper. The last time you updated your outline was before writing the Introduction and the Discussion. Now that you have the beginning and the conclusion, you can take a bird’s-eye view of the whole paper. The outline will allow you to see if the ideas of your paper are coherently structured, if your results are logically built, and if the discussion is linked to the research question in the Introduction. You will be able to see if something is missing in any of the sections or if you need to rearrange your information to make your point.

The next step is to revise each of the sections starting from the beginning. Ideally, you should limit yourself to working on small sections of about five pages at a time [ 14 ]. After these short sections, your eyes get used to your writing and your efficiency in spotting problems decreases. When reading for content and organization, you should control your urge to edit your paper for sentence structure and grammar and focus only on the flow of your ideas and logic of your presentation. Experienced researchers tend to make almost three times the number of changes to meaning than novice writers [ 15 , 16 ]. Revising is a difficult but useful skill, which academic writers obtain with years of practice.

In contrast to the macrostructure revision, which is a linear process and is done usually through a detailed outline and by sections, microstructure revision is a non-linear process. While the goal of the macrostructure revision is to analyze your ideas and their logic, the goal of the microstructure editing is to scrutinize the form of your ideas: your paragraphs, sentences, and words. You do not need and are not recommended to follow the order of the paper to perform this type of revision. You can start from the end or from different sections. You can even revise by reading sentences backward, sentence by sentence and word by word.

One of the microstructure revision strategies frequently used during writing center consultations is to read the paper aloud [ 17 ]. You may read aloud to yourself, to a tape recorder, or to a colleague or friend. When reading and listening to your paper, you are more likely to notice the places where the fluency is disrupted and where you stumble because of a very long and unclear sentence or a wrong connector.

Another revision strategy is to learn your common errors and to do a targeted search for them [ 13 ]. All writers have a set of problems that are specific to them, i.e., their writing idiosyncrasies. Remembering these problems is as important for an academic writer as remembering your friends’ birthdays. Create a list of these idiosyncrasies and run a search for these problems using your word processor. If your problem is demonstrative pronouns without summary words, then search for “this/these/those” in your text and check if you used the word appropriately. If you have a problem with intensifiers, then search for “really” or “very” and delete them from the text. The same targeted search can be done to eliminate wordiness. Searching for “there is/are” or “and” can help you avoid the bulky sentences.

The final strategy is working with a hard copy and a pencil. Print a double space copy with font size 14 and re-read your paper in several steps. Try reading your paper line by line with the rest of the text covered with a piece of paper. When you are forced to see only a small portion of your writing, you are less likely to get distracted and are more likely to notice problems. You will end up spotting more unnecessary words, wrongly worded phrases, or unparallel constructions.

After you apply all these strategies, you are ready to share your writing with your friends, colleagues, and a writing advisor in the writing center. Get as much feedback as you can, especially from non-specialists in your field. Patiently listen to what others say to you ― you are not expected to defend your writing or explain what you wanted to say. You may decide what you want to change and how after you receive the feedback and sort it in your head. Even though some researchers make the revision an endless process and can hardly stop after a 14th draft; having from five to seven drafts of your paper is a norm in the sciences. If you can’t stop revising, then set a deadline for yourself and stick to it. Deadlines always help.

Rule 7: Revise your paper at the macrostructure and the microstructure level using different strategies and techniques. Receive feedback and revise again.

5. it is time to submit.

It is late at night again. You are still in your lab finishing revisions and getting ready to submit your paper. You feel happy ― you have finally finished a year’s worth of work. You will submit your paper tomorrow, and regardless of the outcome, you know that you can do it. If one journal does not take your paper, you will take advantage of the feedback and resubmit again. You will have a publication, and this is the most important achievement.

What is even more important is that you have your scheduled writing time that you are going to keep for your future publications, for reading and taking notes, for writing grants, and for reviewing papers. You are not going to lose stamina this time, and you will become a productive scientist. But for now, let’s celebrate the end of the paper.

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BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Test And Quizzes for Biology, Pre-AP, Or AP Biology For Teachers And Students

A Step-By-Step Guide on Writing a Biology Research Paper

For many students, writing a biology research paper can seem like a daunting task. They want to come up with the best possible report, but they don’t realize that planning the entire writing process can improve the quality of their work and save them time while writing. In this article, you’ll learn how to find a good topic, outline your paper, use statistical tests, and avoid using hedge words.

Finding a good topic

The first step in writing a well-constructed biology research paper is choosing a topic. There are a variety of topics to choose from within the biological field. Choose one that interests you and captures your attention. A compelling topic motivates you to work hard and produce a high-quality paper.

While choosing a topic, keep in mind that biology research is time-consuming and requires extensive research. For this reason, choosing a topic that piques the interest of the reader is crucial. In addition to this, you should choose a topic that is appropriate for the type of biology paper you need to write. After all, you do not want to bore the reader with an inane paper.

A good biology research paper topic should be well-supported by solid scientific evidence. Select a topic only after thorough research, and be sure to include steps and references from reliable sources. A biological research paper topic can be an interesting journey into the world of nature. You could choose to research the effects of stress on the human body or investigate the biological mechanisms of the human reproductive system.

Outlining your paper

The first step in drafting a biological research paper is to create an outline. This is meant to be a roadmap that helps you understand and visualize the subject. An outline can help you avoid common writing mistakes and shape your paper into a serious piece of work. The next step is to gather information about the subject that will support your main idea.

Once you have a topic, you can start writing your outline. Outlines should include at least one idea, a brief introduction, and a conclusion. The introduction, ideas, and conclusion should be numbered in the order you plan to present your information. The main ideas are generally a collection of facts and figures. For example, in a literature review, these points might be chapters from a book, a series of dates from history, or the methods and results of a scientific paper.

When writing a biological research paper, you should use scholarly sources. While there is a lot of misinformation on the internet, it’s best to stick to  academic essay writing service  to get the most accurate information. Most libraries allow you to select a peer-review filter that will restrict your search results to academic journals. It’s also helpful to be familiar with the differences between scholarly and popular sources.

Using statistical tests

Using statistical tests when writing a biological paper requires that you make certain assumptions about the results you are describing. The most common statistical tests are parametric tests that are based on assumptions about conditions or parameters. About 22% of the papers in our review reported violations of these assumptions, and such violations can lead to inappropriate or invalid conclusions.

Statistical tests are important in biological research because they allow researchers to determine if their data is statistically significant or not. The power of these tests depends on the size of the dataset. Larger datasets produce more significant results. The power of these tests also depends on the assumption of independence between measurements. This is important because the results can be different if there are duplications or different levels of replications.

Hypothesis tests are useful in evaluating experimental data. They identify differences and patterns in data. They are useful tools for structuring biological research.

Avoiding hedge words

Hedge words are phrases or words used to express uncertainty in a scientific paper. They can help writers avoid making inaccurate claims while still being respectful of the reader’s opinion. However, writers must be careful to avoid using too many hedges. 

Listed below are a few guidelines to help you avoid these words:

• Hedge words shift the burden of responsibility from the writer to the reader. 
• Hedge words can be a sign of uncertainty or overstatement. They can also be used to limit the scope of an assertion. They also convey an opinion or hypothesis. When choosing a hedging strategy, be careful not to use words such as “no data” or “unreliable.” These words can convey a degree of uncertainty and imply that the findings cannot be confirmed.

The use of hedge words is common in academic writing. However, they hurt your audience. It is a linguistic strategy that writers use as a way to reassure readers. The goal is to guide readers and make them feel comfortable with the idea that the author does not know all the answers.

Choosing a format

Biological research papers have different formats, and you should choose one that suits the nature of your paper. It should be based on credible and peer-reviewed sources. The best sources to use for biology papers are books, specialized journals, and databases. Avoid personal blogs, social networks, and internet discussions, as these are not suitable for a research paper.

Biology research papers focus on a specific issue and present different arguments in support of a thesis. Traditionally, they are based on peer-reviewed sources, but you can also conduct your independent research and present unique findings. Biology is a complex field of study. The subject matter varies, from the basic structure of living things to the functions of different organs. It also explores the process of evolution and the life span of different species.

Formatting your bibliography

When writing a biological research paper, the format of your bibliography is crucial. It should follow a standardized citation style such as the “Author, Date” scientific style. The format should be arranged alphabetically by author, and you should use numbered references to indicate key sources.

Reference lists must be comprehensive and contain enough information to enable readers to find the sources themselves. Although the format is not as important as completeness, it can help readers quickly identify the authors and sources. Bibliographies are usually reverse-indented to make them easier to find.

In-text citations should include the author’s last name, preferred name, and the page number. Usually, authors do not separate their surname and year of publication. In addition, you should also include the location, which is usually the publisher’s office.

If a work has more than four authors, you should list up to ten in the reference list. The first author’s surname should be used, followed by “et al.” Likewise, you should list more than ten authors in the reference list.

When writing a biological research paper, it is important to ensure that your bibliography is formatted properly. When you write the title, you should use boldface and uppercase letters. The title should also be focused, not too long or too short. It should take one or two lines and all text should be double-spaced. You should also type the author’s name after the title. Don’t forget to indicate the location of your research as well as the date you submitted the paper.

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How to Write a Biology Research Paper: A Comprehensive Guide

In academic circles, mastering the art of writing a biology research paper is imperative. This guide offers you a holistic approach to tackle this challenging task. You'll find detailed insights into planning, structuring, and executing your paper, ensuring that you engage your audience with well-researched, credible data. From the initial steps to the final submission, we'll walk you through each process, dissecting the complex parts to provide a manageable roadmap. We’ll cover topics from starting a biology research paper  to its outline, body, and conclusion, all while keeping your academic goals in focus. So let's dive in!

How to Start a Biology Research Paper

When commencing a biology research paper, your first task is to select a topic that interests both you and your readers. The topic should be relevant to the study of biology and present opportunities for you to showcase your findings. A well-chosen topic will make the research process smoother and help you craft a paper that resonates with your audience. Remember, the success of your paper largely depends on your initial groundwork, so make it count. Check out recent science journals for research publication inspiration.

How to Structure a Biology Research Paper

After picking your topic, the next step is planning the structure of your biology research paper. The structure should comprise of an introduction, body, and conclusion. It's crucial to create an outline before diving into the writing process, as this helps to organize your thoughts and findings. The outline should cover each section of the paper, from the introduction to the conclusion, including the arguments, experimental procedures, and vital information you intend to include.

Understanding the Biology Research Paper Outline

A biology research paper outline serves as your blueprint. It guides you through the writing process, making sure you don't drift off-topic. Your outline should include the thesis statement, the main points for your arguments, the experimental procedures to be followed, and the data you'll collect. It's also the space to decide how you'll present your research findings to your readers in a comprehensible manner. With a well-prepared outline, you'll find that writing your paper becomes significantly easier.

How to End a Biology Research Paper

Concluding a biology research paper effectively involves summarizing your key findings and stating their implications. It's not just about restating what you've already said; it's a final opportunity to leave a lasting impression on your audience. Your conclusion should reiterate your thesis statement and provide a summary of the key points made in the paper's body. It's essential to also discuss the significance of your findings and how they contribute to existing scientific research.

Submitting to Science Journals for Research Publication

After completing your paper, the final step is to submit it to reputable science journals for research publication. Peer-reviewed journals are the gold standard in the scientific community. Your paper will undergo rigorous review, ensuring it meets the academic and scientific criteria of the journal. The process may require revisions, but don't be disheartened. These are steps to ensure that your research is robust, accurate, and worthy of academic recognition.

A Comprehensive Research

The term 'comprehensive research' implies the exhaustive and detailed nature of your study. Make sure your research is thorough and leaves no stone unturned. This will lend credibility and depth to your biology research paper, enhancing its value in academic circles.

Introduction of Biology Research Paper

The introduction sets the tone for your biology research paper. It's where you outline the objective, the research question, and the thesis statement. Make it engaging enough to captivate your readers but academic enough to convey the paper’s significance.

Body of Biology Research Paper

The body is where you present your findings, experimental procedures, and analysis. Structure it logically, using headings and subheadings to guide the reader through your arguments and data. Consistency and clarity are key to keeping your audience engaged.

Conclusion of Biology Research Paper

In your conclusion, make sure to tie all your findings back to your research question and thesis statement. A compelling conclusion will summarize the research, restate the importance of your study, and suggest potential avenues for future research.

Dos and Don'ts

• Do conduct a thorough literature review.
• Do create an exhaustive outline.
• Don't use jargon without explaining it.
• Don't ignore formatting guidelines.

Final Thoughts

Completing a biology research paper is a complex yet rewarding academic exercise. It's a chance to contribute to the scientific community and showcase your ability to conduct research, analyze data, and articulate your findings. With careful planning, diligent research, and thoughtful writing, you can create a paper that not only meets academic standards but also serves as a meaningful addition to existing scientific literature.

Useful Resources:  https://techthanos.com/ways-of-using-chatgpt-in-the-classroom/

Reference management. Clean and simple.

Getting started with your research paper outline

Levels of organization for a research paper outline

First level of organization, second level of organization, third level of organization, fourth level of organization, tips for writing a research paper outline, research paper outline template, my research paper outline is complete: what are the next steps, frequently asked questions about a research paper outline, related articles.

The outline is the skeleton of your research paper. Simply start by writing down your thesis and the main ideas you wish to present. This will likely change as your research progresses; therefore, do not worry about being too specific in the early stages of writing your outline.

A research paper outline typically contains between two and four layers of organization. The first two layers are the most generalized. Each layer thereafter will contain the research you complete and presents more and more detailed information.

The levels are typically represented by a combination of Roman numerals, Arabic numerals, uppercase letters, lowercase letters but may include other symbols. Refer to the guidelines provided by your institution, as formatting is not universal and differs between universities, fields, and subjects. If you are writing the outline for yourself, you may choose any combination you prefer.

This is the most generalized level of information. Begin by numbering the introduction, each idea you will present, and the conclusion. The main ideas contain the bulk of your research paper 's information. Depending on your research, it may be chapters of a book for a literature review , a series of dates for a historical research paper, or the methods and results of a scientific paper.

I. Introduction

II. Main idea

III. Main idea

IV. Main idea

V. Conclusion

The second level consists of topics which support the introduction, main ideas, and the conclusion. Each main idea should have at least two supporting topics listed in the outline.

If your main idea does not have enough support, you should consider presenting another main idea in its place. This is where you should stop outlining if this is your first draft. Continue your research before adding to the next levels of organization.

• A. Background information
• B. Hypothesis or thesis
• A. Supporting topic
• B. Supporting topic

The third level of organization contains supporting information for the topics previously listed. By now, you should have completed enough research to add support for your ideas.

The Introduction and Main Ideas may contain information you discovered about the author, timeframe, or contents of a book for a literature review; the historical events leading up to the research topic for a historical research paper, or an explanation of the problem a scientific research paper intends to address.

• 1. Relevant history
• 2. Relevant history
• 1. The hypothesis or thesis clearly stated
• 1. A brief description of supporting information
• 2. A brief description of supporting information

The fourth level of organization contains the most detailed information such as quotes, references, observations, or specific data needed to support the main idea. It is not typical to have further levels of organization because the information contained here is the most specific.

• a) Quotes or references to another piece of literature
• b) Quotes or references to another piece of literature

Tip: The key to creating a useful outline is to be consistent in your headings, organization, and levels of specificity.

• Be Consistent : ensure every heading has a similar tone. State the topic or write short sentences for each heading but avoid doing both.
• Organize Information : Higher levels of organization are more generally stated and each supporting level becomes more specific. The introduction and conclusion will never be lower than the first level of organization.
• Build Support : Each main idea should have two or more supporting topics. If your research does not have enough information to support the main idea you are presenting, you should, in general, complete additional research or revise the outline.

By now, you should know the basic requirements to create an outline for your paper. With a content framework in place, you can now start writing your paper . To help you start right away, you can use one of our templates and adjust it to suit your needs.

After completing your outline, you should:

• Title your research paper . This is an iterative process and may change when you delve deeper into the topic.
• Begin writing your research paper draft . Continue researching to further build your outline and provide more information to support your hypothesis or thesis.
• Format your draft appropriately . MLA 8 and APA 7 formats have differences between their bibliography page, in-text citations, line spacing, and title.
• Finalize your citations and bibliography . Use a reference manager like Paperpile to organize and cite your research.
• Write the abstract, if required . An abstract will briefly state the information contained within the paper, results of the research, and the conclusion.

An outline is used to organize written ideas about a topic into a logical order. Outlines help us organize major topics, subtopics, and supporting details. Researchers benefit greatly from outlines while writing by addressing which topic to cover in what order.

The most basic outline format consists of: an introduction, a minimum of three topic paragraphs, and a conclusion.

You should make an outline before starting to write your research paper. This will help you organize the main ideas and arguments you want to present in your topic.

• Consistency: ensure every heading has a similar tone. State the topic or write short sentences for each heading but avoid doing both.
• Organization : Higher levels of organization are more generally stated and each supporting level becomes more specific. The introduction and conclusion will never be lower than the first level of organization.
• Support : Each main idea should have two or more supporting topics. If your research does not have enough information to support the main idea you are presenting, you should, in general, complete additional research or revise the outline.

How Can You Create a Well Planned Research Paper Outline

You are staring at the blank document, meaning to start writing your research paper . After months of experiments and procuring results, your PI asked you to write the paper to publish it in a reputed journal. You spoke to your peers and a few seniors and received a few tips on writing a research paper, but you still can’t plan on how to begin!

Writing a research paper is a very common issue among researchers and is often looked upon as a time consuming hurdle. Researchers usually look up to this task as an impending threat, avoiding and procrastinating until they cannot delay it anymore. Seeking advice from internet and seniors they manage to write a paper which goes in for quite a few revisions. Making researchers lose their sense of understanding with respect to their research work and findings. In this article, we would like to discuss how to create a structured research paper outline which will assist a researcher in writing their research paper effectively!

Publication is an important component of research studies in a university for academic promotion and in obtaining funding to support research. However, the primary reason is to provide the data and hypotheses to scientific community to advance the understanding in a specific domain. A scientific paper is a formal record of a research process. It documents research protocols, methods, results, conclusion, and discussion from a research hypothesis .

Table of Contents

What Is a Research Paper Outline?

A research paper outline is a basic format for writing an academic research paper. It follows the IMRAD format (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion). However, this format varies depending on the type of research manuscript. A research paper outline consists of following sections to simplify the paper for readers. These sections help researchers build an effective paper outline.

1. Title Page

The title page provides important information which helps the editors, reviewers, and readers identify the manuscript and the authors at a glance. It also provides an overview of the field of research the research paper belongs to. The title should strike a balance between precise and detailed. Other generic details include author’s given name, affiliation, keywords that will provide indexing, details of the corresponding author etc. are added to the title page.

2. Abstract

Abstract is the most important section of the manuscript and will help the researcher create a detailed research paper outline . To be more precise, an abstract is like an advertisement to the researcher’s work and it influences the editor in deciding whether to submit the manuscript to reviewers or not. Writing an abstract is a challenging task. Researchers can write an exemplary abstract by selecting the content carefully and being concise.

3. Introduction

An introduction is a background statement that provides the context and approach of the research. It describes the problem statement with the assistance of the literature study and elaborates the requirement to update the knowledge gap. It sets the research hypothesis and informs the readers about the big research question.

This section is usually named as “Materials and Methods”, “Experiments” or “Patients and Methods” depending upon the type of journal. This purpose provides complete information on methods used for the research. Researchers should mention clear description of materials and their use in the research work. If the methods used in research are already published, give a brief account and refer to the original publication. However, if the method used is modified from the original method, then researcher should mention the modifications done to the original protocol and validate its accuracy, precision, and repeatability.

It is best to report results as tables and figures wherever possible. Also, avoid duplication of text and ensure that the text summarizes the findings. Report the results with appropriate descriptive statistics. Furthermore, report any unexpected events that could affect the research results, and mention complete account of observations and explanations for missing data (if any).

6. Discussion

The discussion should set the research in context, strengthen its importance and support the research hypothesis. Summarize the main results of the study in one or two paragraphs and show how they logically fit in an overall scheme of studies. Compare the results with other investigations in the field of research and explain the differences.

7. Acknowledgments

Acknowledgements identify and thank the contributors to the study, who are not under the criteria of co-authors. It also includes the recognition of funding agency and universities that award scholarships or fellowships to researchers.

8. Declaration of Competing Interests

Finally, declaring the competing interests is essential to abide by ethical norms of unique research publishing. Competing interests arise when the author has more than one role that may lead to a situation where there is a conflict of interest.

Steps to Write a Research Paper Outline

• Write down all important ideas that occur to you concerning the research paper .
• Answer questions such as – what is the topic of my paper? Why is the topic important? How to formulate the hypothesis? What are the major findings?
• Add context and structure. Group all your ideas into sections – Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion.
• Add relevant questions to each section. It is important to note down the questions. This will help you align your thoughts.
• Expand the ideas based on the questions created in the paper outline.
• After creating a detailed outline, discuss it with your mentors and peers.
• Get enough feedback and decide on the journal you will submit to.
• The process of real writing begins.

Benefits of Creating a Research Paper Outline

As discussed, the research paper subheadings create an outline of what different aspects of research needs elaboration. This provides subtopics on which the researchers brainstorm and reach a conclusion to write. A research paper outline organizes the researcher’s thoughts and gives a clear picture of how to formulate the research protocols and results. It not only helps the researcher to understand the flow of information but also provides relation between the ideas.

A research paper outline helps researcher achieve a smooth transition between topics and ensures that no research point is forgotten. Furthermore, it allows the reader to easily navigate through the research paper and provides a better understanding of the research. The paper outline allows the readers to find relevant information and quotes from different part of the paper.

Research Paper Outline Template

A research paper outline template can help you understand the concept of creating a well planned research paper before beginning to write and walk through your journey of research publishing.

1. Research Title

A. Background i. Support with evidence ii. Support with existing literature studies

B. Thesis Statement i. Link literature with hypothesis ii. Support with evidence iii. Explain the knowledge gap and how this research will help build the gap 4. Body

A. Methods i. Mention materials and protocols used in research ii. Support with evidence

B. Results i. Support with tables and figures ii. Mention appropriate descriptive statistics

C. Discussion i. Support the research with context ii. Support the research hypothesis iii. Compare the results with other investigations in field of research

D. Conclusion i. Support the discussion and research investigation ii. Support with literature studies

E. Acknowledgements i. Identify and thank the contributors ii. Include the funding agency, if any

F. Declaration of Competing Interests

5. References

Download the Research Paper Outline Template!

Have you tried writing a research paper outline ? How did it work for you? Did it help you achieve your research paper writing goal? Do let us know about your experience in the comments below.

Downloadable format shared which is great. 🙂

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Biology Research Paper

Last updated on: May 13, 2024

Understanding the Basics of Biology Research Papers

By: Barbara P.

12 min read

Reviewed By:

Published on: Mar 27, 2024

From structuring to finding suitable topics, many research students struggle with understanding biology research papers. The lack of guidance can lead to confusion and frustration, which hinders academic progress and makes it difficult to craft quality research papers .

Whether you're a high school student or a college researcher, this blog has all the essentials you need to craft a stellar biology research paper. We'll walk you through the basics of structure, formatting, examples, and topics.

Let's explore biology papers together in order to enrich your academic experience.

On this Page

What is a Biology Research Paper? 

A biology research paper explores living organisms, their habitat, structure, and more. These papers contribute to the collective knowledge of biology and are typically written by scientists, researchers, or scholars.

Biology research papers cover a wide range of topics, including molecular biology, genetics, ecology, evolution, physiology, and more.

Just like other types of research papers , the content is based on empirical evidence obtained through experiments, observations, or analyses. 

In these research papers, you analyze specific issues, support claims with evidence, and discuss unique findings. Their primary goal is to broaden the understanding of the biological sciences and contribute to the ongoing development of the field.

How to Structure Your Biology Research Paper?

Similar to structuring other types of research papers, your biology paper requires careful organization to communicate your findings effectively. Here is the standard biology research paper outline you should follow:

• Title of the paper: Be concise and descriptive.
• Author(s) name(s): List all contributors.
• Affiliation(s): Include academic institutions.
• Date: When the paper was completed or submitted.
• For the abstract section , summarize your research question, methods, results, and conclusions in 150–250 words.
• Highlight the significance of your findings within the field of biology.

Introduction

• In the research paper introduction , provide background information on the topic, including relevant biological concepts and previous research.
• Clearly state your research question or hypothesis.
• Explain the importance of your research within the broader context of biology.

Literature Review

• Review existing literature related to your research topic when writing the literature review .
• Discuss key findings, controversies, and gaps in knowledge.
• Justify the need for your research based on previous studies.
• In the method section , describe the experimental design or data collection technique in detail.
• Explain how you manipulated variables or conducted observations.
• Provide sufficient information for others to replicate your study.

Results 

• Present your findings objectively and concisely in the results section . 
• Use tables, graphs, or figures to illustrate data effectively.
• Include statistical analyses if applicable.
• To write the discussion section , interpret your results in relation to your research question or hypothesis.
• Discuss any unexpected findings and potential sources of error.
• Compare your results with previous studies and theories.
• Explore the broader implications of your findings within the field of biology.
• Summarize the main findings of your research in the conclusion section .
• Restate your research question or hypothesis and whether it was supported.
• Suggest directions for future research based on your findings.
• At the end, you should list all sources cited in your paper, using a consistent citation style throughout.

Formatting Your Biology Research Paper

For writing a biology paper, there are no specific formatting rules. Having said that, the APA style is commonly used for scientific research papers. You can get guidance from our APA research paper format guide to write down your biology research paper effectively.

Biology Research Paper Examples

To understand biological research papers better, you should take a look at some examples. Here are some: 

Biology Research Paper Introduction Example

If you are interested in the above paper, you can read the complete biology research paper example here . 

If you're looking for valuable resources and guidance on biology research papers, consider exploring the resources available through the Penn Foster Biology Research Paper Library.

Biology Research Paper Example High School PDF

Biology Research Paper Example PDF

Interesting Biology Research Paper Topics 

Here are some good topics to write a biology research paper on.

Biology Research Paper Topics for College Students

• Investigate the Impact of Biodiversity Loss on Ecosystem Stability.
• Explore the Evolutionary Adaptations of Plants to Environmental Stress.
• Examine the Role of Microorganisms in Soil Fertility and Nutrient Cycling.
• Analyze the Genetic Diversity of Endangered Species and Its Conservation Implications.
• Study the Ecological Effects of Invasive Species on Native Ecosystems.
• Investigate the Relationship Between Climate Change and Species Distribution Patterns.
• Explore the Ecological Significance of Keystone Species in Natural Communities.
• Examine the Effects of Pollution on Aquatic Ecosystems and Biodiversity.
• Analyze the Impact of Habitat Fragmentation on Wildlife Populations.
• Investigate the Role of Ecological Restoration in Ecosystem Rehabilitation and Conservation.

Marine Biology Research Paper Topics

• Explore the Effects of Ocean Acidification on Marine Invertebrates.
• Examine the Relationship Between Marine Microorganisms and Climate Change.
• Investigate the Impact of Oil Spills on Coastal Marine Ecosystems.
• Analyze the Adaptation Strategies of Deep-Sea Creatures to Extreme Environments.
• Study the Effects of Noise Pollution on Marine Mammals.
• Explore the Role of Seagrass Beds in Coastal Carbon Sequestration.
• Examine the Genetic Diversity of Coral Reefs and Its Implications for Conservation.
• Investigate the Ecological Importance of Polar Marine Ecosystems in a Warming Climate.
• Analyze the Behavioral Ecology of Marine Predators in Different Oceanic Regions.
• Explore the Dynamics of Harmful Algal Blooms and Their Impact on Marine Life.

Cancer Biology Research Paper Topics

• Explore the Role of Tumor Microenvironment in Cancer Progression.
• Examine the Molecular Mechanisms of Drug Resistance in Cancer Cells.
• Investigate the Potential of Immunotherapy in Treating Solid Tumors.
• Analyze the Epigenetic Regulation of Gene Expression in Cancer Development.
• Study the Tumor Heterogeneity and Its Implications for Personalized Medicine.
• Explore the Crosstalk Between Cancer Cells and the Immune System.
• Examine the Role of Cancer Stem Cells in Tumor Initiation and Progression.
• Investigate the Impact of Metabolic Reprogramming on Cancer Cell Growth.
• Analyze the Role of Non-Coding RNAs in Cancer Pathogenesis.
• Explore the Development of Targeted Therapies Against Specific Cancer Signaling Pathways.

Molecular Biology Research Paper Topics

• Explore the Mechanisms of DNA Replication and Repair in Eukaryotic Cells.
• Examine the Role of Non-Coding RNAs in Gene Regulation and Genome Stability.
• Investigate the Molecular Basis of Cellular Senescence and Aging.
• Analyze the Regulation of Apoptosis and Its Implications in Disease States.
• Study the Molecular Mechanisms of Chromatin Remodeling and Epigenetic Regulation.
• Explore the Dynamics of Protein Folding and Misfolding in Neurodegenerative Diseases.
• Examine the Role of Autophagy in Cellular Homeostasis and Disease Pathogenesis.
• Investigate the Molecular Basis of Signal Transduction Pathways in Cellular Signaling.
• Analyze the Role of MicroRNAs in Post-Transcriptional Gene Regulation.
• Explore the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Cancer Metastasis and Invasion.

Cell Biology Research Paper Topics

• Explore the Role of Organelle Dynamics in Cellular Function and Homeostasis.
• Examine the Molecular Mechanisms of Cell Division and Mitotic Regulation.
• Investigate the Role of Endocytic Pathways in Cellular Trafficking and Signaling.
• Analyze the Molecular Basis of Cell-Cell Adhesion and Intercellular Communication.
• Study the Regulation of Cell Cycle Progression and Checkpoints in Response to DNA Damage.
• Explore the Dynamics of Cytoskeletal Elements in Cell Morphology and Motility.
• Examine the Role of Cellular Membrane Dynamics in Vesicle Trafficking and Fusion.
• Investigate the Molecular Mechanisms of Cell Fate Determination and Differentiation.
• Analyze the Role of Autophagy in Cellular Homeostasis and Stress Response.
• Explore the Molecular Basis of Cellular Senescence and Aging.

Do’s and Don'ts of Biology Research Papers

When writing biology research papers, there are some important do's and don'ts that you should always take care of. Let’s explore them.

Do Use Clear Language: Use simple and straightforward language to explain your ideas and findings. Avoid jargon and technical terms unless necessary.

Do Provide Clear Definitions: Define any specialized terms or concepts that might be unfamiliar to your readers. This helps ensure that your paper is accessible to a wider audience.

Do Organize Your Paper Clearly: Structure your paper with clear headings and subheadings to help readers navigate through your research easily. A well-organized paper improves readability and comprehension.

Do Support Your Claims with Evidence: Back up your arguments and findings with evidence from reliable sources, such as peer-reviewed journals and reputable textbooks. This strengthens the credibility of your research.

Do Incorporate Articles Published Across Time: Include both recent articles published in scientific journals and classic works from the past. This provides a comprehensive understanding of your research topic's historical context and development.

Do Proofread Your Paper: Before submitting your paper, carefully proofread it for grammatical errors, typos, and inconsistencies. A well-written paper demonstrates professionalism and enhances the clarity of your message.

Don'ts 

Don't Plagiarize: Avoid copying text or ideas from other sources without proper attribution. Plagiarism is unethical and can have serious consequences for your academic or professional reputation.

Don't Overuse Technical Jargon: While some technical terms are necessary for biology papers, avoid overloading your paper with too much specialized language. This can confuse readers who are not familiar with the terminology.

Don't Make Unsupported Claims: Make sure that all statements and conclusions in your paper are supported by evidence. Avoid making unsubstantiated claims or drawing conclusions that are not backed by your research findings.

Don't Use Ambiguous Language: Be precise and specific in your writing to avoid ambiguity. Clearly define terms and concepts to prevent misinterpretation by your readers.

Don't Ignore Contradictory Evidence: Acknowledge and address contradictory evidence or alternative interpretations that may challenge your hypotheses or conclusions. Ignoring conflicting data can undermine the credibility of your research.

Don't Wait Until the Last Minute: Start working on your paper well in advance of the deadline to allow ample time for research, writing, and revisions. Procrastination can lead to rushed work and lower-quality output.

By following these dos and don'ts, you can write a biology research paper that effectively communicates your ideas and findings in a clear and accessible manner.

To sum up, in this blog, we discussed the essentials of biology research papers, including their structure and what they cover. Our blog also discussed various topics in biology like marine, cancer, molecular, and cell biology, which can interest college students.

For those in need of additional support with their biology research papers, SharkPapers.com is a paper writing service online that is always ready to provide writing assistance. Our team of professionals can help navigate the complexities of biology research paper writing. 

Remember, with the right resources and assistance, tackling biology research papers can be a rewarding and enlightening experience. Don't hesitate to reach out to our service, we can help write your research papers with ease! 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a good topic for a biology research paper.

A compelling topic for a biology research paper could be “The Impact of CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing on Genetic Diseases.” This topic allows exploration into the revolutionary gene-editing technology and its potential to treat or prevent genetic disorders, offering insights into the ethical considerations and future implications of genomic interventions.

A compelling topic for a biology research paper could be “The Impact of CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing on Genetic Diseases.” This topic allows exploration into the revolutionary gene-editing technology and its potential to treat or prevent genetic disorders, offering insights into the ethical considerations and future implications of genomic interventions. How long should a biology research paper should be?

Medical and biology research papers and dissertations are typically around 10,000 to 15,000 words long. They cover in-depth studies on important topics, providing valuable information to the scientific community.

What can I research in biology?

• Genetics: Study of genes and heredity.
• Ecology: Interactions between organisms and their environment.
• Cell Biology: Structure and function of cells.
• Evolution: Mechanisms and patterns of species change.
• Physiology: Functions and processes of living organisms.
• Microbiology: Study of microscopic organisms.
• Biotechnology: Application of biological principles in various fields.
• Developmental Biology: Growth and development of organisms.
• Neuroscience: Study of the nervous system.
• Molecular Biology: Study of biological molecules.

Barbara has a Ph.D. in public health from an Ivy League university and extensive experience working in the medical field. With her practical experience conducting research on various health issues, she is skilled in writing innovative papers on healthcare. Her many works have been published in multiple publications.

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Research Paper Outline Examples

Below are examples of research paper outlines. Creating an outline is the first thing you should do before starting on your research paper.

This article is a part of the guide:

• Example of a Paper
• Write a Hypothesis
• Introduction
• Example of a Paper 2

Browse Full Outline

• 1 Write a Research Paper
• 2 Writing a Paper
• 3.1 Write an Outline
• 3.2 Outline Examples
• 4.1 Thesis Statement
• 4.2 Write a Hypothesis
• 5.2 Abstract
• 5.3 Introduction
• 5.4 Methods
• 5.5 Results
• 5.6 Discussion
• 5.7 Conclusion
• 5.8 Bibliography
• 6.1 Table of Contents
• 6.2 Acknowledgements
• 6.3 Appendix
• 7.1 In Text Citations
• 7.2 Footnotes
• 7.3.1 Floating Blocks
• 7.4 Example of a Paper
• 7.5 Example of a Paper 2
• 7.6.1 Citations
• 7.7.1 Writing Style
• 7.7.2 Citations
• 8.1.1 Sham Peer Review
• 8.1.2 Advantages
• 8.1.3 Disadvantages
• 8.2 Publication Bias
• 8.3.1 Journal Rejection
• 9.1 Article Writing
• 9.2 Ideas for Topics

Once you've decided what topic you will be writing about, the next thing you should pay attention to is the scope of your paper or what you will be including in your discussion . The broader your topic is, the more difficult it is to discuss the full details. This is why you should establish early on the scope and limitations of your paper which will provide the foundation for your research paper outline.

Basically, your outline will constitute three main sections: the Introduction, the Body and the Conclusion. But to make sure your paper is complete, consult your instructor for specific parts they wants to be included in your research paper . Sample outlines for research papers will follow. But first, let’s discuss the main sections of your paper and what information each should cover.

The introduction should contain your thesis statement or the topic of your research as well as the purpose of your study. You may include here the reason why you chose that particular topic or simply the significance of your research paper's topic. You may also state what type of approach it is that you'll be using in your paper for the entire discussion of your topic. Generally, your Introduction should orient your readers to the major points the rest of the paper will be covering, and how.

The body of your paper is where you will be presenting all your arguments to support your thesis statement. Remember the “Rule of 3” which states that you should find 3 supporting arguments for each position you take. Start with a strong argument, followed by a stronger one, and end with the strongest argument as your final point.

The conclusion is where you form a summary of all your arguments so you can arrive at your final position. Explain and reiterate why you've ended up with the said conclusion.

As mentioned earlier, here are some sample outlines for research papers:

Thesis Topic: A Study on Factors Affecting the Infant Feeding Practices of Mothers in Las Pinas City

• Statement of the Problem
• Definition of Terms
• Theoretical Framework
• Type of Research
• Respondents
• Questionnaire
• Review of Related Literature
• Scope and Limitations
• Significance of the Study
• Benefits of Breastfeeding
• WHO Recommendations
• The International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes
• The Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative
• The Innocenti Declaration on the Protection, Promotion and Support of Breastfeeding
• National Situationer
• The Milk Code
• BFHI in the Philippines
• Milk Code Violations
• Formula Feeding
• Factors Influencing the Decision Regarding Infant Feeding Method
• Area Situationer
• Socio-economic Demographic Profile of Mothers
• Information Regarding Current (Youngest) Infant
• Exclusive Breastfeeding
• Mixed Feeding
• Previous Infant Feeding Practices
• Maternal Knowledge
• Correlation Tests
• Analytical Summary
• Thesis Reworded
• Recommendations

Topic: Asbestos Poisoning

• Definition of Asbestos Poisoning
• Symptoms of Asbestos Poisoning
• Effects of Asbestos Poisoning
• How to Deal with Asbestos Hazards

Topic: Shakespeare Adapted from AResearchGuide.com .

• Life of Anne Hathaway
• Reference in Shakespeare's Poems
• Romeo and Juliet
• The Tempest
• Much Ado About Nothing
• Richard III
• Other Poems
• Last Two Plays
• Concluding Statement

• Psychology 101
• Flags and Countries
• Capitals and Countries

Explorable.com (Jan 6, 2009). Research Paper Outline Examples. Retrieved Jun 01, 2024 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/research-paper-outline-examples

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Home » Research Paper Outline – Types, Example, Template

Research Paper Outline – Types, Example, Template

Table of Contents

By creating a well-structured research paper outline, writers can easily organize their thoughts and ideas and ensure that their final paper is clear, concise, and effective. In this article, we will explore the essential components of a research paper outline and provide some tips and tricks for creating a successful one.

Research Paper Outline

Research paper outline is a plan or a structural framework that organizes the main ideas , arguments, and supporting evidence in a logical sequence. It serves as a blueprint or a roadmap for the writer to follow while drafting the actual research paper .

Typically, an outline consists of the following elements:

• Introduction : This section presents the topic, research question , and thesis statement of the paper. It also provides a brief overview of the literature review and the methodology used.
• Literature Review: This section provides a comprehensive review of the relevant literature, theories, and concepts related to the research topic. It analyzes the existing research and identifies the research gaps and research questions.
• Methodology: This section explains the research design, data collection methods, data analysis, and ethical considerations of the study.
• Results: This section presents the findings of the study, using tables, graphs, and statistics to illustrate the data.
• Discussion : This section interprets the results of the study, and discusses their implications, significance, and limitations. It also suggests future research directions.
• Conclusion : This section summarizes the main findings of the study and restates the thesis statement.
• References: This section lists all the sources cited in the paper using the appropriate citation style.

Research Paper Outline Types

There are several types of outlines that can be used for research papers, including:

Alphanumeric Outline

This is a traditional outline format that uses Roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic numerals, and lowercase letters to organize the main ideas and supporting details of a research paper. It is commonly used for longer, more complex research papers.

I. Introduction

• A. Background information
• B. Thesis statement
• 1 1. Supporting detail
• 1 2. Supporting detail 2
• 2 1. Supporting detail

III. Conclusion

• A. Restate thesis
• B. Summarize main points

Decimal Outline

This outline format uses numbers to organize the main ideas and supporting details of a research paper. It is similar to the alphanumeric outline, but it uses only numbers and decimals to indicate the hierarchy of the ideas.

• 1.1 Background information
• 1.2 Thesis statement
• 1 2.1.1 Supporting detail
• 1 2.1.2 Supporting detail
• 2 2.2.1 Supporting detail
• 1 2.2.2 Supporting detail
• 3.1 Restate thesis
• 3.2 Summarize main points

Full Sentence Outline

This type of outline uses complete sentences to describe the main ideas and supporting details of a research paper. It is useful for those who prefer to see the entire paper outlined in complete sentences.

• Provide background information on the topic
• State the thesis statement
• Explain main idea 1 and provide supporting details
• Discuss main idea 2 and provide supporting details
• Restate the thesis statement
• Summarize the main points of the paper

Topic Outline

This type of outline uses short phrases or words to describe the main ideas and supporting details of a research paper. It is useful for those who prefer to see a more concise overview of the paper.

• Background information
• Thesis statement
• Supporting detail 1
• Supporting detail 2
• Restate thesis
• Summarize main points

Reverse Outline

This is an outline that is created after the paper has been written. It involves going back through the paper and summarizing each paragraph or section in one sentence. This can be useful for identifying gaps in the paper or areas that need further development.

• Introduction : Provides background information and states the thesis statement.
• Paragraph 1: Discusses main idea 1 and provides supporting details.
• Paragraph 2: Discusses main idea 2 and provides supporting details.
• Paragraph 3: Addresses potential counterarguments.
• Conclusion : Restates thesis and summarizes main points.

Mind Map Outline

This type of outline involves creating a visual representation of the main ideas and supporting details of a research paper. It can be useful for those who prefer a more creative and visual approach to outlining.

• Supporting detail 1: Lack of funding for public schools.
• Supporting detail 2: Decrease in government support for education.
• Supporting detail 1: Increase in income inequality.
• Supporting detail 2: Decrease in social mobility.

Research Paper Outline Example

Research Paper Outline Example on Cyber Security:

A. Overview of Cybersecurity

• B. Importance of Cybersecurity
• C. Purpose of the paper

II. Cyber Threats

A. Definition of Cyber Threats

• B. Types of Cyber Threats
• C. Examples of Cyber Threats

III. Cybersecurity Measures

A. Prevention measures

• Anti-virus software
• Encryption B. Detection measures
• Intrusion Detection System (IDS)
• Security Information and Event Management (SIEM)
• Security Operations Center (SOC) C. Response measures
• Incident Response Plan
• Business Continuity Plan
• Disaster Recovery Plan

IV. Cybersecurity in the Business World

A. Overview of Cybersecurity in the Business World

B. Cybersecurity Risk Assessment

C. Best Practices for Cybersecurity in Business

V. Cybersecurity in Government Organizations

A. Overview of Cybersecurity in Government Organizations

C. Best Practices for Cybersecurity in Government Organizations

VI. Cybersecurity Ethics

A. Definition of Cybersecurity Ethics

B. Importance of Cybersecurity Ethics

C. Examples of Cybersecurity Ethics

VII. Future of Cybersecurity

A. Overview of the Future of Cybersecurity

B. Emerging Cybersecurity Threats

C. Advancements in Cybersecurity Technology

VIII. Conclusion

A. Summary of the paper

B. Recommendations for Cybersecurity

• C. Conclusion.

IX. References

A. List of sources cited in the paper

B. Bibliography of additional resources

Introduction

Cybersecurity refers to the protection of computer systems, networks, and sensitive data from unauthorized access, theft, damage, or any other form of cyber attack. B. Importance of Cybersecurity The increasing reliance on technology and the growing number of cyber threats make cybersecurity an essential aspect of modern society. Cybersecurity breaches can result in financial losses, reputational damage, and legal liabilities. C. Purpose of the paper This paper aims to provide an overview of cybersecurity, cyber threats, cybersecurity measures, cybersecurity in the business and government sectors, cybersecurity ethics, and the future of cybersecurity.

A cyber threat is any malicious act or event that attempts to compromise or disrupt computer systems, networks, or sensitive data. B. Types of Cyber Threats Common types of cyber threats include malware, phishing, social engineering, ransomware, DDoS attacks, and advanced persistent threats (APTs). C. Examples of Cyber Threats Recent cyber threats include the SolarWinds supply chain attack, the Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack, and the Microsoft Exchange Server hack.

Prevention measures aim to minimize the risk of cyber attacks by implementing security controls, such as firewalls, anti-virus software, and encryption.

• Firewalls Firewalls act as a barrier between a computer network and the internet, filtering incoming and outgoing traffic to prevent unauthorized access.
• Anti-virus software Anti-virus software detects, prevents, and removes malware from computer systems.
• Encryption Encryption involves the use of mathematical algorithms to transform sensitive data into a code that can only be accessed by authorized individuals. B. Detection measures Detection measures aim to identify and respond to cyber attacks as quickly as possible, such as intrusion detection systems (IDS), security information and event management (SIEM), and security operations centers (SOCs).
• Intrusion Detection System (IDS) IDS monitors network traffic for signs of unauthorized access, such as unusual patterns or anomalies.
• Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) SIEM combines security information management and security event management to provide real-time monitoring and analysis of security alerts.
• Security Operations Center (SOC) SOC is a dedicated team responsible for monitoring, analyzing, and responding to cyber threats. C. Response measures Response measures aim to mitigate the impact of a cyber attack and restore normal operations, such as incident response plans (IRPs), business continuity plans (BCPs), and disaster recovery plans (DRPs).
• Incident Response Plan IRPs outline the procedures and protocols to follow in the event of a cyber attack, including communication protocols, roles and responsibilities, and recovery processes.
• Business Continuity Plan BCPs ensure that critical business functions can continue in the event of a cyber attack or other disruption.
• Disaster Recovery Plan DRPs outline the procedures to recover from a catastrophic event, such as a natural disaster or cyber attack.

Cybersecurity is crucial for businesses of all sizes and industries, as they handle sensitive data, financial transactions, and intellectual property that are attractive targets for cyber criminals.

Risk assessment is a critical step in developing a cybersecurity strategy, which involves identifying potential threats, vulnerabilities, and consequences to determine the level of risk and prioritize security measures.

Best practices for cybersecurity in business include implementing strong passwords and multi-factor authentication, regularly updating software and hardware, training employees on cybersecurity awareness, and regularly backing up data.

Government organizations face unique cybersecurity challenges, as they handle sensitive information related to national security, defense, and critical infrastructure.

Risk assessment in government organizations involves identifying and assessing potential threats and vulnerabilities, conducting regular audits, and complying with relevant regulations and standards.

Best practices for cybersecurity in government organizations include implementing secure communication protocols, regularly updating and patching software, and conducting regular cybersecurity training and awareness programs for employees.

Cybersecurity ethics refers to the ethical considerations involved in cybersecurity, such as privacy, data protection, and the responsible use of technology.

Cybersecurity ethics are crucial for maintaining trust in technology, protecting privacy and data, and promoting responsible behavior in the digital world.

Examples of cybersecurity ethics include protecting the privacy of user data, ensuring data accuracy and integrity, and implementing fair and unbiased algorithms.

The future of cybersecurity will involve a shift towards more advanced technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and quantum computing.

Emerging cybersecurity threats include AI-powered cyber attacks, the use of deepfakes and synthetic media, and the potential for quantum computing to break current encryption methods.

Advancements in cybersecurity technology include the development of AI and machine learning-based security tools, the use of blockchain for secure data storage and sharing, and the development of post-quantum encryption methods.

This paper has provided an overview of cybersecurity, cyber threats, cybersecurity measures, cybersecurity in the business and government sectors, cybersecurity ethics, and the future of cybersecurity.

To enhance cybersecurity, organizations should prioritize risk assessment and implement a comprehensive cybersecurity strategy that includes prevention, detection, and response measures. Additionally, organizations should prioritize cybersecurity ethics to promote responsible behavior in the digital world.

C. Conclusion

Cybersecurity is an essential aspect of modern society, and organizations must prioritize cybersecurity to protect sensitive data and maintain trust in technology.

for further reading

X. Appendices

A. Glossary of key terms

B. Cybersecurity checklist for organizations

C. Sample cybersecurity policy for businesses

D. Sample cybersecurity incident response plan

E. Cybersecurity training and awareness resources

Note : The content and organization of the paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of the assignment or target audience. This outline serves as a general guide for writing a research paper on cybersecurity. Do not use this in your assingmets.

Research Paper Outline Template

• Background information and context of the research topic
• Research problem and questions
• Purpose and objectives of the research
• Scope and limitations

II. Literature Review

• Overview of existing research on the topic
• Key concepts and theories related to the research problem
• Identification of gaps in the literature
• Summary of relevant studies and their findings

III. Methodology

• Research design and approach
• Data collection methods and procedures
• Data analysis techniques
• Validity and reliability considerations
• Ethical considerations

IV. Results

• Presentation of research findings
• Analysis and interpretation of data
• Explanation of significant results
• Discussion of unexpected results

V. Discussion

• Comparison of research findings with existing literature
• Implications of results for theory and practice
• Limitations and future directions for research
• Conclusion and recommendations

VI. Conclusion

• Summary of research problem, purpose, and objectives
• Discussion of significant findings
• Contribution to the field of study
• Implications for practice
• Suggestions for future research

VII. References

• List of sources cited in the research paper using appropriate citation style.

Note : This is just an template, and depending on the requirements of your assignment or the specific research topic, you may need to modify or adjust the sections or headings accordingly.

Research Paper Outline Writing Guide

Here’s a guide to help you create an effective research paper outline:

• Choose a topic : Select a topic that is interesting, relevant, and meaningful to you.
• Conduct research: Gather information on the topic from a variety of sources, such as books, articles, journals, and websites.
• Organize your ideas: Organize your ideas and information into logical groups and subgroups. This will help you to create a clear and concise outline.
• Create an outline: Begin your outline with an introduction that includes your thesis statement. Then, organize your ideas into main points and subpoints. Each main point should be supported by evidence and examples.
• Introduction: The introduction of your research paper should include the thesis statement, background information, and the purpose of the research paper.
• Body : The body of your research paper should include the main points and subpoints. Each point should be supported by evidence and examples.
• Conclusion : The conclusion of your research paper should summarize the main points and restate the thesis statement.
• Reference List: Include a reference list at the end of your research paper. Make sure to properly cite all sources used in the paper.
• Proofreading : Proofread your research paper to ensure that it is free of errors and grammatical mistakes.
• Finalizing : Finalize your research paper by reviewing the outline and making any necessary changes.

When to Write Research Paper Outline

It’s a good idea to write a research paper outline before you begin drafting your paper. The outline will help you organize your thoughts and ideas, and it can serve as a roadmap for your writing process.

Here are a few situations when you might want to consider writing an outline:

• When you’re starting a new research project: If you’re beginning a new research project, an outline can help you get organized from the very beginning. You can use your outline to brainstorm ideas, map out your research goals, and identify potential sources of information.
• When you’re struggling to organize your thoughts: If you find yourself struggling to organize your thoughts or make sense of your research, an outline can be a helpful tool. It can help you see the big picture of your project and break it down into manageable parts.
• When you’re working with a tight deadline : If you have a deadline for your research paper, an outline can help you stay on track and ensure that you cover all the necessary points. By mapping out your paper in advance, you can work more efficiently and avoid getting stuck or overwhelmed.

Purpose of Research Paper Outline

The purpose of a research paper outline is to provide a structured and organized plan for the writer to follow while conducting research and writing the paper. An outline is essentially a roadmap that guides the writer through the entire research process, from the initial research and analysis of the topic to the final writing and editing of the paper.

A well-constructed outline can help the writer to:

• Organize their thoughts and ideas on the topic, and ensure that all relevant information is included.
• Identify any gaps in their research or argument, and address them before starting to write the paper.
• Ensure that the paper follows a logical and coherent structure, with clear transitions between different sections.
• Save time and effort by providing a clear plan for the writer to follow, rather than starting from scratch and having to revise the paper multiple times.

Advantages of Research Paper Outline

Some of the key advantages of a research paper outline include:

• Helps to organize thoughts and ideas : An outline helps to organize all the different ideas and information that you want to include in your paper. By creating an outline, you can ensure that all the points you want to make are covered and in a logical order.
• Saves time and effort : An outline saves time and effort because it helps you to focus on the key points of your paper. It also helps you to identify any gaps or areas where more research may be needed.
• Makes the writing process easier : With an outline, you have a clear roadmap of what you want to write, and this makes the writing process much easier. You can simply follow your outline and fill in the details as you go.
• Improves the quality of your paper : By having a clear outline, you can ensure that all the important points are covered and in a logical order. This makes your paper more coherent and easier to read, which ultimately improves its overall quality.
• Facilitates collaboration: If you are working on a research paper with others, an outline can help to facilitate collaboration. By sharing your outline, you can ensure that everyone is on the same page and working towards the same goals.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Writing an Introduction for a Scientific Paper

Dr. michelle harris, dr. janet batzli, biocore.

This section provides guidelines on how to construct a solid introduction to a scientific paper including background information, study question , biological rationale, hypothesis , and general approach . If the Introduction is done well, there should be no question in the reader’s mind why and on what basis you have posed a specific hypothesis.

Broad Question : based on an initial observation (e.g., “I see a lot of guppies close to the shore. Do guppies like living in shallow water?”). This observation of the natural world may inspire you to investigate background literature or your observation could be based on previous research by others or your own pilot study. Broad questions are not always included in your written text, but are essential for establishing the direction of your research.

Background Information : key issues, concepts, terminology, and definitions needed to understand the biological rationale for the experiment. It often includes a summary of findings from previous, relevant studies. Remember to cite references, be concise, and only include relevant information given your audience and your experimental design. Concisely summarized background information leads to the identification of specific scientific knowledge gaps that still exist. (e.g., “No studies to date have examined whether guppies do indeed spend more time in shallow water.”)

Testable Question : these questions are much more focused than the initial broad question, are specific to the knowledge gap identified, and can be addressed with data. (e.g., “Do guppies spend different amounts of time in water <1 meter deep as compared to their time in water that is >1 meter deep?”)

Biological Rationale : describes the purpose of your experiment distilling what is known and what is not known that defines the knowledge gap that you are addressing. The “BR” provides the logic for your hypothesis and experimental approach, describing the biological mechanism and assumptions that explain why your hypothesis should be true.

The biological rationale is based on your interpretation of the scientific literature, your personal observations, and the underlying assumptions you are making about how you think the system works. If you have written your biological rationale, your reader should see your hypothesis in your introduction section and say to themselves, “Of course, this hypothesis seems very logical based on the rationale presented.”

• A thorough rationale defines your assumptions about the system that have not been revealed in scientific literature or from previous systematic observation. These assumptions drive the direction of your specific hypothesis or general predictions.
• Defining the rationale is probably the most critical task for a writer, as it tells your reader why your research is biologically meaningful. It may help to think about the rationale as an answer to the questions— how is this investigation related to what we know, what assumptions am I making about what we don’t yet know, AND how will this experiment add to our knowledge? *There may or may not be broader implications for your study; be careful not to overstate these (see note on social justifications below).
• Expect to spend time and mental effort on this. You may have to do considerable digging into the scientific literature to define how your experiment fits into what is already known and why it is relevant to pursue.
• Be open to the possibility that as you work with and think about your data, you may develop a deeper, more accurate understanding of the experimental system. You may find the original rationale needs to be revised to reflect your new, more sophisticated understanding.
• As you progress through Biocore and upper level biology courses, your rationale should become more focused and matched with the level of study e ., cellular, biochemical, or physiological mechanisms that underlie the rationale. Achieving this type of understanding takes effort, but it will lead to better communication of your science.

***Special note on avoiding social justifications: You should not overemphasize the relevance of your experiment and the possible connections to large-scale processes. Be realistic and logical —do not overgeneralize or state grand implications that are not sensible given the structure of your experimental system. Not all science is easily applied to improving the human condition. Performing an investigation just for the sake of adding to our scientific knowledge (“pure or basic science”) is just as important as applied science. In fact, basic science often provides the foundation for applied studies.

Hypothesis / Predictions : specific prediction(s) that you will test during your experiment. For manipulative experiments, the hypothesis should include the independent variable (what you manipulate), the dependent variable(s) (what you measure), the organism or system , the direction of your results, and comparison to be made.

If you are doing a systematic observation , your hypothesis presents a variable or set of variables that you predict are important for helping you characterize the system as a whole, or predict differences between components/areas of the system that help you explain how the system functions or changes over time.

Experimental Approach : Briefly gives the reader a general sense of the experiment, the type of data it will yield, and the kind of conclusions you expect to obtain from the data. Do not confuse the experimental approach with the experimental protocol . The experimental protocol consists of the detailed step-by-step procedures and techniques used during the experiment that are to be reported in the Methods and Materials section.

Some Final Tips on Writing an Introduction

• As you progress through the Biocore sequence, for instance, from organismal level of Biocore 301/302 to the cellular level in Biocore 303/304, we expect the contents of your “Introduction” paragraphs to reflect the level of your coursework and previous writing experience. For example, in Biocore 304 (Cell Biology Lab) biological rationale should draw upon assumptions we are making about cellular and biochemical processes.
• Be Concise yet Specific: Remember to be concise and only include relevant information given your audience and your experimental design. As you write, keep asking, “Is this necessary information or is this irrelevant detail?” For example, if you are writing a paper claiming that a certain compound is a competitive inhibitor to the enzyme alkaline phosphatase and acts by binding to the active site, you need to explain (briefly) Michaelis-Menton kinetics and the meaning and significance of Km and Vmax. This explanation is not necessary if you are reporting the dependence of enzyme activity on pH because you do not need to measure Km and Vmax to get an estimate of enzyme activity.
• Another example: if you are writing a paper reporting an increase in Daphnia magna heart rate upon exposure to caffeine you need not describe the reproductive cycle of magna unless it is germane to your results and discussion. Be specific and concrete, especially when making introductory or summary statements.

Where Do You Discuss Pilot Studies? Many times it is important to do pilot studies to help you get familiar with your experimental system or to improve your experimental design. If your pilot study influences your biological rationale or hypothesis, you need to describe it in your Introduction. If your pilot study simply informs the logistics or techniques, but does not influence your rationale, then the description of your pilot study belongs in the Materials and Methods section.  

How will introductions be evaluated? The following is part of the rubric we will be using to evaluate your papers.

• Where do I find biology resources in the library?
• What if I can't find what I'm looking for?
• How do I know if my source is a "scholarly" source?
• How do I paraphrase something?

Literature Review Basics

• Literature Review Step-by-Step
• Common Questions about Literature Reviews
• How do I craft a basic citation?
• What is citation tracing?
• How do I use Zotero for citation management?
• Who do I contact for help?

This video will provide a short introduction to literature reviews.

Steps For Writing a Literature Review

Recommended steps for writing a literature review:

• Review what a literature review is, and is not 
• Review your assignment and seek clarification from your instructor if needed
• Narrow your topic
• Search and gather literature resources. 
• Read and analyze literature resources
• Write the literature review
• Review appropriate  Citation and Documentation Style  for your assignment and literature review

Common Questions

What is a literature review?

A literature review is a type of scholarly, researched writing that discusses the already published information on a narrow topic . 

What is the purpose of a writing literature review?

Writing a literature review improves your personal understanding of a topic, and demonstrates your knowledge and ability to make connections between concepts and ideas. The literature review is a service to your reader, summarizing past ideas about a topic, bringing them up to date on the latest research, and making sure they have all any background information they need to understand the topic.  

What is "the literature"?

This already published information- called the literature- can be from primary information sources such as speeches, interviews, and reports, or from secondary information sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles, dissertations, and books. These type of sources are probably familiar to you from previous research projects you’ve done in your classes.

Is a literature review it's own paper?

You can write a literature review as a standalone paper , or as part of a larger research paper . When a standalone paper, the literature review acts as a summary, or snapshot, of what has been said and done about a topic in the field so far. When part of the a larger paper, a literature review still acts as a snapshot, but the prior information it provides can also support the new information, research, or arguments presented later in the paper.

Does a literature review contain an argument?

No, a literature review does NOT present an argument or new information. The literature review is a foundation that summarizes and synthesizes the existing literature in order for you and your readers to understand what has already been said and done about your topic.

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• Last Updated: Mar 29, 2024 11:34 AM
• URL: https://fhsuguides.fhsu.edu/biology

How to Write a Research Paper as a High School Student

By Carly Taylor

Senior at Stanford University

6 minute read

Read our guide to learn why you should write a research paper and how to do so, from choosing the right topic to outlining and structuring your argument.

What is a research paper?

A research paper poses an answer to a specific question and defends that answer using academic sources, data, and critical reasoning. Writing a research paper is an excellent way to hone your focus during a research project , synthesize what you’re learning, and explain why your work matters to a broader audience of scholars in your field.

The types of sources and evidence you’ll see used in a research paper can vary widely based on its field of study. A history research paper might examine primary sources like journals and newspaper articles to draw conclusions about the culture of a specific time and place, whereas a biology research paper might analyze data from different published experiments and use textbook explanations of cellular pathways to identify a potential marker for breast cancer.

However, researchers across disciplines must identify and analyze credible sources, formulate a specific research question, generate a clear thesis statement, and organize their ideas in a cohesive manner to support their argument. Read on to learn how this process works and how to get started writing your own research paper.

How do I choose my topic?

Tap into your passions.

A research paper is your chance to explore what genuinely interests you and combine ideas in novel ways. So don’t choose a subject that simply sounds impressive or blindly follow what someone else wants you to do – choose something you’re really passionate about! You should be able to enjoy reading for hours and hours about your topic and feel enthusiastic about synthesizing and sharing what you learn.

We've created these helpful resources to inspire you to think about your own passion project . Polygence also offers a passion exploration experience where you can dive deep into three potential areas of study with expert mentors from those fields.

Ask a difficult question

In the traditional classroom, top students are expected to always know the answers to the questions the teacher asks. But a research paper is YOUR chance to pose a big question that no one has answered yet, and figure out how to make a contribution to answering that question. So don’t be afraid if you have no idea how to answer your question at the start of the research process — this will help you maintain a motivational sense of discovery as you dive deeper into your research. If you need inspiration, explore our database of research project ideas .

Be as specific as possible

It’s essential to be reasonable about what you can accomplish in one paper and narrow your focus down to an issue you can thoroughly address. For example, if you’re interested in the effects of invasive species on ecosystems, it’s best to focus on one invasive species and one ecosystem, such as iguanas in South Florida , or one survival mechanism, such as supercolonies in invasive ant species . If you can, get hands on with your project.

You should approach your paper with the mindset of becoming an expert in this topic. Narrowing your focus will help you achieve this goal without getting lost in the weeds and overwhelming yourself.

Would you like to write your own research paper?

Polygence mentors can help you every step of the way in writing and showcasing your research paper

How do I prepare to write a research paper?

Conduct preliminary research.

Before you dive into writing your research paper, conduct a literature review to see what’s already known about your topic. This can help you find your niche within the existing body of research and formulate your question. For example, Polygence student Jasmita found that researchers had studied the effects of background music on student test performance, but they had not taken into account the effect of a student’s familiarity with the music being played, so she decided to pose this new question in her research paper.

Pro tip: It’s a good idea to skim articles in order to decide whether they’re relevant enough to your research interest before committing to reading them in full. This can help you spend as much time as possible with the sources you’ll actually cite in your paper.

Skimming articles will help you gain a broad-strokes view of the different pockets of existing knowledge in your field and identify the most potentially useful sources. Reading articles in full will allow you to accumulate specific evidence related to your research question and begin to formulate an answer to it.

Draft a thesis statement

Your thesis statement is your succinctly-stated answer to the question you’re posing, which you’ll make your case for in the body of the paper. For example, if you’re studying the effect of K-pop on eating disorders and body image in teenagers of different races, your thesis may be that Asian teenagers who are exposed to K-pop videos experience more negative effects on their body image than Caucasian teenagers.

Pro Tip: It’s okay to refine your thesis as you continue to learn more throughout your research and writing process! A preliminary thesis will help you come up with a structure for presenting your argument, but you should absolutely change your thesis if new information you uncover changes your perspective or adds nuance to it.

Create an outline

An outline is a tool for sketching out the structure of your paper by organizing your points broadly into subheadings and more finely into individual paragraphs. Try putting your thesis at the top of your outline, then brainstorm all the points you need to convey in order to support your thesis.

Pro Tip : Your outline is just a jumping-off point – it will evolve as you gain greater clarity on your argument through your writing and continued research. Sometimes, it takes several iterations of outlining, then writing, then re-outlining, then rewriting in order to find the best structure for your paper.

What are some key tips when writing?

Introduction.

Your introduction should move the reader from your broad area of interest into your specific area of focus for the paper. It generally takes the form of one to two paragraphs that build to your thesis statement and give the reader an idea of the broad argumentative structure of your paper. After reading your introduction, your reader should know what claim you’re going to present and what kinds of evidence you’ll analyze to support it.

Topic sentences

Writing crystal clear topic sentences is a crucial aspect of a successful research paper. A topic sentence is like the thesis statement of a particular paragraph – it should clearly state the point that the paragraph will make. Writing focused topic sentences will help you remain focused while writing your paragraphs and will ensure that the reader can clearly grasp the function of each paragraph in the paper’s overall structure.

Transitions

Sophisticated research papers move beyond tacking on simple transitional phrases such as “Secondly” or “Moreover” to the start of each new paragraph. Instead, each paragraph flows naturally into the next one, with the connection between each idea made very clear. Try using specifically-crafted transitional phrases rather than stock phrases to move from one point to the next that will make your paper as cohesive as possible.

In her research paper on Pakistani youth in the U.S. , Polygence student Iba used the following specifically-crafted transition to move between two paragraphs: “Although the struggles of digital ethnography limited some data collection, there are also many advantages of digital data collection.” This sentence provides the logical link between the discussion of the limitations of digital ethnography from the prior paragraph and the upcoming discussion of this techniques’ advantages in this paragraph.

What is a research paper conclusion?

Your conclusion can have several functions:

To drive home your thesis and summarize your argument

To emphasize the broader significance of your findings and answer the “so what” question

To point out some questions raised by your thesis and/or opportunities for further research

Your conclusion can take on all three of these tasks or just one, depending on what you feel your paper is still lacking up to this point.

How do I cite my sources?

Last but not least, giving credit to your sources is extremely important. There are many different citation formats such as MLA, APA, and Chicago style. Make sure you know which one is standard in your field of interest by researching online or consulting an expert.

You have several options for keeping track of your bibliography:

Use a notebook to record the relevant information from each of your sources: title, author, date of publication, journal name, page numbers, etc.

Create a folder on your computer where you can store your electronic sources

Use an online bibliography creator such as Zotero, Easybib, or Noodletools to track sources and generate citations

You can read research papers by Polygence students under our Projects tab. You can also explore other opportunities for high school research .

If you’re interested in finding an expert mentor to guide you through the process of writing your own independent research paper, consider applying to be a Polygence scholar today!

Your research paper help even you to earn college credit , get published in an academic journal , contribute to your application for college , improve your college admissions chances !

Feeling Inspired?

Interested in doing an exciting research project? Click below to get matched with one of our expert mentors!

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Short Reports offer exciting novel biological findings that may trigger new research directions.

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The human auditory system uses amplitude modulation to distinguish music from speech

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Psychology, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China

Affiliation Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro, México

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America, Ernst Struengmann Institute for Neuroscience, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, Center for Language, Music, and Emotion (CLaME), New York University, New York, New York, United States of America, Music and Audio Research Lab (MARL), New York University, New York, New York, United States of America

• Andrew Chang, 
• Xiangbin Teng, 
• M. Florencia Assaneo, 
• David Poeppel

• Published: May 28, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002631
• Reader Comments

Music and speech are complex and distinct auditory signals that are both foundational to the human experience. The mechanisms underpinning each domain are widely investigated. However, what perceptual mechanism transforms a sound into music or speech and how basic acoustic information is required to distinguish between them remain open questions. Here, we hypothesized that a sound’s amplitude modulation (AM), an essential temporal acoustic feature driving the auditory system across processing levels, is critical for distinguishing music and speech. Specifically, in contrast to paradigms using naturalistic acoustic signals (that can be challenging to interpret), we used a noise-probing approach to untangle the auditory mechanism: If AM rate and regularity are critical for perceptually distinguishing music and speech, judging artificially noise-synthesized ambiguous audio signals should align with their AM parameters. Across 4 experiments ( N = 335), signals with a higher peak AM frequency tend to be judged as speech, lower as music. Interestingly, this principle is consistently used by all listeners for speech judgments, but only by musically sophisticated listeners for music. In addition, signals with more regular AM are judged as music over speech, and this feature is more critical for music judgment, regardless of musical sophistication. The data suggest that the auditory system can rely on a low-level acoustic property as basic as AM to distinguish music from speech, a simple principle that provokes both neurophysiological and evolutionary experiments and speculations.

Citation: Chang A, Teng X, Assaneo MF, Poeppel D (2024) The human auditory system uses amplitude modulation to distinguish music from speech. PLoS Biol 22(5): e3002631. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002631

Academic Editor: Manuel S. Malmierca, Universidad de Salamanca, SPAIN

Received: October 15, 2023; Accepted: April 17, 2024; Published: May 28, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Chang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All stimuli, experimental programs, raw data, and analysis codes have been deposited at a publicly available OSF repository ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RDTGC ).

Funding: A.C. was supported by a Ruth L. Kirschstein Postdoctoral Individual National Research Service Award, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders/National Institutes of Health (F32DC018205) and Leon Levy Scholarships in Neuroscience, Leon Levy Foundation/New York Academy of Sciences. X.T. was supported by Improvement on Competitiveness in Hiring New Faculties Funding Scheme, the Chinese University of Hong Kong (4937113). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Music and speech, two complex auditory signals, are frequently compared across many levels of biological sciences, ranging from system and cognitive neuroscience to comparative and evolutionary biology. As acoustic signals, they exhibit a range of interesting similarities (e.g., temporal structure [ 1 , 2 ]) and differences (e.g., music, but not speech, features discrete pitch intervals). In the brain, they are processed by both shared [ 3 – 6 ] and specialized [ 7 – 10 ] neural substrates. However, which acoustic information underpins a sound to be perceived as music or speech remains an open question.

One way to address the broader question of how music and speech are organized in the human mind/brain is to capitalize on ecologically valid, “real” signals, a more holistic approach. That strategy has the advantage of working with stimulus materials that are naturalistic and, therefore, engage the perceptual and neural systems in a typical manner (e.g., [ 11 , 12 ]). The disadvantage of adopting such an experimental attack is that it can be quite challenging to identify and isolate the components and processes that underpin perception. Here, we pursue the alternative reductionist approach: parametrically generating and manipulating ambiguous auditory stimuli with basic, analytically tractable amplitude modulation (AM) features. If the auditory system distinguishes music and speech according to the low-level acoustic parameters, the music/speech judgment on artificially noise-synthesized ambiguous audio signals should align with their AM parameters, even if no real music or speech is contained in the signal.

In the neural domain, AM is a basic acoustic feature that drives auditory neuronal circuits and underlying complex communicative functions across both humans and nonhuman animals. At the micro- and meso-levels, single-cell and population recording of auditory cortex neurons in nonhuman animals demonstrated various mechanisms to encode AM features (e.g., [ 13 , 14 ]). At the macro-level, human neuroimaging studies showed that the acoustic AM synchronizes the neural activities at auditory cortex and correlated with perception and speech comprehensions (e.g., [ 15 – 18 ]). A critical but underexplored gap is the mechanism of how low-level AM features affect a sound to be processed as a complex high-level signal such as music and speech.

Our experiments tested the hypothesis that a remarkably basic acoustic parameter can, in part , determine a sound to be perceptually judged as music or speech. The conjecture is that AM ( Fig 1 ) is one crucial acoustic factor to distinguish music and speech. Previous studies that quantified many hours and a wide variety of music and speech recordings showed distinct peak AM rates in the modulation spectrum: music peaks at 1 to 2 Hz and speech peaks at 3.5 to 5.5 Hz [ 19 – 21 ]. Consistent with those findings, these rate differences are also observed in spontaneous speech and music production [ 22 ]. Next, temporal regularity of AM could also be important, as music is often metrically organized with an underlying beat, whereas speech is not periodic and is better considered quasirhythmic [ 20 , 23 ]. Also, supporting the relevant role played by AM, neuroimaging evidence showed that temporally scrambled but spectrally intact signals weaken neural activity in speech- or music-related cortical clusters [ 9 , 24 ]. Finally, a preliminary study ( n = 12) showed that listeners were able to near-perfectly categorize 1-channel noise-vocoded realistic speech and music excerpts [ 19 ]. However, the noise-vocoding approach was insufficient to mechanistically pinpoint the degree to which AM rate and regularity contribute to music/speech distinction, as this manipulation preserved all the envelope temporal features above and beyond rate and regularity. For example, onset sharpness of speech envelope is encoded by the spoken language cortical network (superior temporal gyrus) and critical to comprehension [ 25 – 27 ]; also, the onset sharpness of the music envelope is crucial for timbre perception, e.g., a piano tone typically has a sharper onset than violin. We therefore build on the notion that the AM distinction between music and speech signals appears to be acoustically robust. However, in order to advance our understanding of potential mechanisms, we ask what aspects of the AM influence listeners to make this perceptual distinction. How acoustically reduced and simple can a signal be and still be judged to be speech or music?

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002631.g001

Based on the literature, we hypothesized that stimuli with a lower-in-modulation-frequency and narrower-in-variance peak (i.e., higher temporal regularity, more isochrony) in the AM spectrum would be judged as music, while those with higher and broader peaks (i.e., lower temporal regularity) as speech. If these hypotheses are plausible, artificial sounds synthesized with the designated AM properties should be perceptually categorized accordingly. This noise-probing approach is conceptually similar to the reverse-correlation approach in studies seeking to understand what features are driving the “black-box” perceptual system (e.g., [ 28 , 29 ]). In short, we synthesized stimuli with specific AM parameters by “reversing” a pipeline for analyzing realistic, naturalistic music and speech recordings ( Fig 1B ). First, we used a lognormal function that resembles the empirically determined AM spectra reported in previous studies [ 19 , 20 ]; this function permits the independent manipulation of peak frequency and temporal regularity parameters. Next, after transforming each AM spectrum into a time-domain AM signal (inverse Fourier transform), that signal was used to modulate a flat white noise (i.e., low-noise noise) carrier to generate a 4-s duration experimental stimulus. This approach, importantly, eliminates typical spectral features of both music and speech. In our 4 online experiments, participants were told that each stimulus came from a real music or speech recording but was synthesized with noise, and their task was to judge whether it was music or speech. Although none of the stimuli sounded like real music or speech, participants’ judgments revealed how well each stimulus matched their internal representation of one or the other perceptual category.

In Experiment 1, we manipulated peak AM frequency while σ (the regularity parameter, or the width of the peak of the AM spectrum; see Methods ) was fixed at 0.35 (the value was chosen as it sounded the most “natural” or “comfortable” according to the informal feedback from colleagues in the lab). Stimuli were presented one at a time, and participants were requested to judge whether a stimulus is music or speech. Data from 129 participants were included in the analyses. The overall responses are presented in Fig 2A . To investigate the effect of peak frequencies, each participant’s responses (speech = 1, music = 0) were linearly regressed on the peak frequencies (mean ± standard error of R 2 = 0.53 ± 0.03; Fig 2B ). The response slopes were significantly above 0 ( Fig 2C ; t (128) = 7.70, p < 10 −11 , Cohen’s d = 0.68), suggesting that people judge sounds with a higher peak AM frequency as speech and sounds with a lower peak AM frequency as music. We then explored the association of this judgment with participants’ musical sophistication and found that the participants with a higher General Musical Sophistication score (Gold-MSI [ 30 ]; see Methods ) were more likely to have a higher response slope ( r (127) = 0.17, p = 0.056; but after removing 1 outlier: r (126) = 0.20, p = 0.023; Fig 2D ). We further split the participants by slope at 0 and performed an unequal-variance 2-sample t test without removing that 1 outlier. This analysis confirmed that the participants with a positive response slope have higher General Musical Sophistication scores than the participants with a negative slope ( t (57.25) = 2.96, p = 0.005, Cohen’s d = 0.57). We further correlated the response slope with each subscale of the musical sophistication index, but none of them were significant (unsigned r (127) < 0.16, p > 0.075). While null effects should be interpreted with caution, this suggests that general musical sophistication, rather than a specific musical aspect, is driving the outcome. In short, the findings show that the sounds with a higher peak AM frequency are more likely to be judged as speech and lower as music, and this tendency is positively associated with participants’ general musical sophistication.

( A ) The music vs. speech judgment response of each participant at different levels of AM peak frequencies. ( B ) Fitted regression lines of each participant’s response. ( C ) Each dot represents the response slope on peak frequencies of a participant, and the bar and the error bars represent the mean ± standard error. The participants’ response slopes were significantly above 0, suggesting that the participants tend to judge the stimuli with a higher peak AM frequency as speech and lower as music. ( D ) The response slopes and the General Musical Sophistication score of the participants were positively correlated, suggesting that the musically more sophisticated participants are more likely to judge the stimuli with a higher peak AM frequency as speech and a lower peak frequency as music. Note that the gray circle marks the outlier, and the regression line and the p -value reported on the figure were based on the analysis without the outlier. Underlying data and scripts are available at https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RDTGC and in S1 Data .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002631.g002

Note that we attempted to fit the data with a logistic psychometric function. Although the findings were consistent as the fitted slopes of the logistic model were also significantly above 0 ( t (128) = 6.85, p < 10 −9 ), suggesting the sounds with a higher peak AM frequency are more likely to be judged as speech over music, the R 2 of the logistic model were much lower than the linear model (mean R 2 difference: 0.19), so did the following experiments (see Methods for more details), suggesting that the linear model was a more appropriate model. Therefore, only the linear models were interpreted.

To investigate the effect of temporal regularity, in Experiment 2, we manipulated AM temporal regularity (σ) at 3 peak AM frequencies (1, 2.5, and 4 Hz, which roughly correspond to the AM range of music, a midpoint, and speech). The procedure was identical to Experiment 1, and data from 48 participants were included. The overall responses are presented in Fig 3A . Each participant’s responses were linearly regressed on the σ under each peak frequency ( R 2 = 0.37 ± 0.02; Fig 3B ). The response slopes were significantly above 0 for the peak frequency at 1 Hz ( t (47) = 6.19, p < 10 −6 , Cohen’s d = 0.89) and 2.5 Hz ( t (47) = 6.37, p < 10 −7 , Cohen’s d = 0.92), suggesting that listeners tend to judge sounds with lower temporal regularity (higher σ) as speech and higher regularity as music ( Fig 3C ). Note that this pattern was the opposite for the peak frequency at 4 Hz, with a lower effect size ( t (47) = −3.34, p = 0.016, Cohen’s d = 0.48). It suggests that the association between temporal regularity and the music judgment is conditional on the low-to-mid peak AM frequency range, and the influence of temporal regularity is weaker when peak AM frequency is in the AM range of speech. We also examined the associations between participants’ musical sophistication levels and response slope, but no correlation was significant ( Fig 3D ; unsigned r (46) < 0.13, p = 0.404).

( A ) The music vs. speech judgment response of each participant at different levels of temporal regularity (σ). ( B ) Fitted regression lines of each participant’s response. ( C ) The participants’ response slopes on σ were significantly above 0 for the peak AM frequencies at 1 and 2.5 Hz but not 4 Hz. This suggests that participants tend to judge the temporally more regular stimuli as music and irregular as speech, but this tendency was not observed when the peak frequency was as high as 4 Hz. ( D ) The response slopes and the General Musical Sophistication scores were not correlated at any peak AM frequencies. Underlying data and scripts are available at https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RDTGC and in S1 Data . n . s ., nonsignificant.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002631.g003

The dichotomy of the behavioral judgment that our task imposes could be a concern because it only allows a stimulus to be judged as music or speech, while ignoring other possible categories. It is, to be sure, reasonable to directly contrast music and speech, as these are arguably among the most dominant high-level auditory forms in human cognition, sharing many commonalities (cf., [ 1 , 9 ]), and a discrimination task between two categories is usually considered psychophysically more powerful than two separate detection tasks on each category [ 31 ]. However, other auditory categories, such as animal calls and environmental sounds, are critical in human perception as well. Therefore, we tested the robustness of the findings of Experiments 1 and 2 by replicating them with detection tasks, and we investigated whether there were effects specific to music or speech.

In Experiment 3, peak AM frequency was manipulated with σ fixed at 0.35; 80 participants were included in the analyses. In the “music detection” task, participants were instructed that 50% of the stimuli were music and 50% were not music (“others”), and they were asked to judge whether it was music or something else. For the “speech detection” task, the task was analogous. The 50% instruction was added to prevent participants with a strong response bias. Each participant performed both tasks with the same stimuli. The overall responses are presented in Fig 4A . Each participant’s responses (music or speech = 1, others = 0) were linearly regressed on peak frequency for each task ( R 2 = 0.68 ± 0.02; Fig 4B ). For the speech task, the response slopes were significantly above 0 ( t (79) = 12.79, p < 10 −20 , Cohen’s d = 1.43; Fig 4C ), suggesting that the sounds with a higher peak AM frequencies are more likely to be judged as speech over others. Musical sophistication did not correlate with the speech response slope ( r (78) = 0.04, p = 0.717; Fig 4D ). For the music task, the response slope was not significantly different from 0 ( t (79) = 0.49, p = 0.628, Cohen’s d = 0.05; Fig 4C ). Interestingly, there was a significant correlation suggesting that the more musically sophisticated participants are more likely to judge the sound with a lower peak AM frequency as music ( r (78) = −0.28, p = 0.011; Fig 4D ), and this is again confirmed by the unequal-variance 2-sample t test between split-data at slope equals to 0 ( t (72.57) = 2.66, p = 0.010, Cohen’s d = 0.58). We also correlated the response slope with each subscale; however, once again, none of them passed the Bonferroni-corrected statistical threshold at 0.01 (unsigned r (78) < 0.28, p > 0.013). Together, the effect of peak AM frequency reported in Experiment 1 is robustly replicated for the speech judgment, but the music judgment was conditional on participants’ general musical sophistication.

Results of Experiments 3 (A-D) and 4 (E-H). ( A ) The “music vs. others” and “speech vs. others” judgment response of each participant at different levels of peak AM frequencies. ( B ) The fitted regression line of each participant’s response. ( C ) The participants’ response slopes on peak frequencies were significantly above 0 for the speech task but not for the music task, suggesting that the participants tend to judge the stimuli with a higher peak AM frequency as speech. ( D ) The response slopes and the General Musical Sophistication scores of the participants were positively correlated for the music task but not for the speech task, suggesting that the musically more sophisticated participants are more likely to judge the stimuli with a lower peak AM frequency as music. ( E - H ) The same format as above, but at different levels of temporal regularity (σ). The participants tend to judge the stimuli with a higher temporal regularity as music. Underlying data and scripts are available at https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RDTGC and in S1 Data . n . s ., nonsignificant.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002631.g004

In Experiment 4, AM temporal regularity was manipulated while the peak AM frequency was fixed at 2 Hz (equally likely to be judged as music or speech, according to the previous experiments). The tasks were as in Experiment 3, and data from 78 participants were included. The overall responses are shown in Fig 4E . Each participant’s responses were linearly regressed on σ for each task ( R 2 = 0.32 ± 0.02; Fig 4F ). For the music task, the response slope was significantly below 0 ( t (77) = -4.95, p < 10 −5 , Cohen’s d = 0.56; Fig 4G ), suggesting that people tend to judge the sounds with higher temporal regularity (lower σ) as music. For the speech task, the response slopes were slightly above 0 but not reaching the statistical threshold ( t (77) = 1.89, p = 0.063, Cohen’s d = 0.21; Fig 4G ). We did not observe any associations between participants’ musical sophistication and response slope (unsigned r (76) < 0.13, p > 0.293; Fig 4H ). Together, the effect of AM temporal regularity reported in Experiment 2 was robustly replicated for music but only a trend was observed for speech.

These surprising findings and their replications show that listeners use acoustic amplitude modulations in sounds, one of the most basic features, fundamental to human auditory perception, to judge whether a sound is “like” music or speech, even when spectral features are eliminated. We show that peak AM frequency can affect high-level categorization: Sounds with a higher peak AM frequency tend to be judged as speech, those with a lower peak as music, especially among musically sophisticated participants. This pattern is consistent with previous quantifications of natural music recordings showing that the peak AM frequency of music is lower than speech [ 19 ]. This result might arise because of participants’ (implicit) knowledge of this acoustic feature. We note that, while the effect of peak AM frequency in Experiment 1 was robustly replicated in the speech task in Experiment 3, in the music task, the effect was more salient among musically sophisticated participants but not visible when pooling all participants. In other words, peak AM frequency is a universal cue for speech but not for music. A possible explanation is that this effect depends on listeners’ experience or sophistication with music or speech sounds. While our participants exhibited a ceiling effect for speech (as university students, every listener can be classified as an “expert” in speech), their musical sophistication scores appeared lower than the norm (Experiment 3 versus Müllensiefen and colleagues [ 30 ]: 71.39 versus 81.58, Cohen’s d = 0.49; but it is similar to other studies (e.g., [ 32 , 33 ])). The potential effect of speech expertise would need to be examined, for example, in future developmental studies in which expertise can be more carefully controlled.

Temporal regularity (and, in the extreme, isochrony, if σ = 0) of AM also has an effect: Sounds with more regular modulation are more likely to be judged as music than speech. This is consistent with the fact that Western music is usually metrically organized while speech is quasirhythmic [ 20 , 23 ]. There are a few aspects worth discussing. First, this effect is more relevant to music than to speech. The detection tasks in Experiment 4 show that the effect of temporal regularity is only robustly observed for music but not for speech. It appears that temporal regularity is a more prevalent principle than peak AM frequency to judge a sound as music as this effect does not depend on the listener’s musical sophistication. Second, in Experiment 2, the effect of temporal regularity was slightly opposite when the peak AM frequency was at 4 Hz. A possible explanation is that temporal regularity might be less critical for distinguishing music and speech when peak AM frequency is already in the canonical speech range 3.5 to 5.5 Hz [ 19 – 21 ]. Last but not least, while temporal regularity in the current parameter range did not drastically influence the auditory judgments, the current data demonstrate a clear pattern across participants: A sound with a more temporally regular AM is more like music.

AM is one of the most fundamental building blocks for auditory perception, and especially so for human speech. While frequency/spectral information is critical for auditory object identification, pitch perception, and timbre, AM is considered a key information-bearing component and critical for speech intelligibility [ 34 , 35 ]. AM, especially around the 2-4 Hz, is faithfully encoded by neurons in the primary auditory cortex [ 14 , 36 ]. While previous studies have demonstrated that temporal envelope information alone is arguably sufficient for speech perception (e.g., [ 37 ]), the current findings further show that AM rate can be used to identify a sound as speech or not (i.e., Fig 4C ). Relatedly, AM rate helps identify music, at least among musically sophisticated listeners. This could be for different reasons. First, music has salient features in both time and frequency domains. A recent survey showed that adults explicitly consider both AM regularity (rhythm/beat) and melody (frequency/spectral domain), but not AM rate, as being the primary acoustic features for distinguishing speech and song [ 38 ]. This is consistent with the current finding that people rely on AM regularity more than rate to identify music. Second, the association between AM rate and music perception might require musical experience. This is consistent with the neural entrainment studies showing that the fidelity of auditory cortex entraining to music rhythm is positively associated with the musical expertise of the listeners [ 25 , 39 ]. Together, our data provide the empirical advance that AM rate or regularity alone, regardless of the fine temporal features (e.g., onset sharpness) preserved by the noise-vocoded approach [ 19 ], have an effect on the music/speech judgment. Given that the AM rate and regularity are processed early in the auditory cortex [ 14 ], notably prior to superior temporal gyrus encoding of speech onset (e.g., [ 26 , 27 ]), AM rate or regularity should have more decisive roles than temporal envelope features for distinguishing music and speech at an early stage of the auditory cortical pathway.

The current study has four noteworthy limitations. First, the lognormal function can resemble the average AM spectrum of many hours of music or speech recordings [ 19 ], but it does not necessarily approximate individual recordings well. Second, the current forced-choice task design can only demonstrate how acoustic features affect the auditory judgments , but whether participants subjectively experienced the percepts of our stimuli as “reduced” forms of music or speech is unclear, as the rich spectral and timbral features of typical music or speech were by design eliminated from the stimuli. Third, while the current experimental design only showed the influences of AM rate and regularity on distinguishing music and speech, we did not compare their influences to those of other acoustic features. Although spectral or frequency modulation, orthogonal to AM, is another promising acoustic feature fundamental to auditory perception, the current study focuses on only the AM aspect as it has been demonstrated distinct between music and speech acoustics while the spectral aspect has not. Lastly, the factors that contributed to the substantial individual differences in music-related tasks remain unclear, and musical sophistication only partially accounts for it. Other perceptual and cognitive factors (e.g., preference for fast or slow music, unawareness of hearing loss among young adults) and experimental factors (e.g., whether the participants were exposed to any specific music or speech in the environment while performing our experiment online, remotely, and on their own) likely contributed to the individual differences as well. Nevertheless, our reductionist approach demonstrates the striking fact that music or speech judgment starts from basic acoustic features such as AM.

A related phenomenon that builds on the role of temporal structure can be illuminated by these data. The speech-to-song illusion demonstrates that, by looping a (real) speech excerpt, the perceptual judgment can gradually shift from speech toward song [ 40 – 42 ]. The effects reported here are consistent with the speech-to-song illusion: The low frequency power of the AM spectrum would emerge from the repeating-segment periodicity and, therefore, bias the judgment toward music. Supporting this view, this illusion disappears if speech is temporally jumbled in every repetition [ 40 ], which eliminates low-frequency periodicity across repetitions. Furthermore, consistent with our findings, the strength of the illusion is also positively associated with beat regularity and participants’ musical expertise [ 41 , 43 – 45 ].

The properties of AM that support the distinction of music and speech merit consideration in the context of human evolution and neurophysiology. Group cohesion and interpersonal interaction have been hypothesized as one primary function of music [ 46 – 53 ]. If music serves as an auditory cue for coordinating group behaviors, predictable temporal regularity at the optimal rate for human movements and audiomotor synchronization (1 to 2 Hz; [ 54 – 56 ]) would be important. And, in fact, motor brain networks are involved while processing auditory rhythms (e.g., [ 57 – 64 ]). The AM rate of speech, analogously, has been attributed to the neurophysiological properties of the specialized auditory-motor oscillatory network for speech perception and production, as well as the associated biomechanics of the articulatory movements [ 17 , 20 , 65 , 66 ]. Consistent with these data patterns, perceptual studies have also shown a general pattern that music versus speech task performance is optimal with rates ranging around 0.5 to 6.7 and 2 to 9 Hz, respectively [ 67 , 68 ].

The experimental results we present demonstrate that human listeners can use a basic acoustic feature fundamental to auditory perception to judge whether a sound is like music or speech. These data reveal a potential processing principle that invites both neurophysiological and evolutionary experiments and speculations that could further address the long-lasting questions on the comparison between music and speech in both the humanities and the sciences.

Resource availability

All stimuli, experimental programs, raw data, and analysis codes have been deposited at a publicly available OSF repository ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RDTGC ).

Participants

The participants were students at New York University who signed up for the studies via the SONA online platform and received course credit for completing the experiments. The local Institutional Review Board (New York University’s Committee on Activities Involving Human Subjects) approved all protocols (IRB-FY2016-1357), in complete adherence to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants provided informed consent via an online form. Participants had self-reported normal hearing, were at least 18 years old, and reported no cognitive, developmental, neurological, psychiatric, or speech-language disorders. The total number of online participants was 488, and the data of 335 participants (208 females, 122 males, 5 other/prefer not to say, age range: 18 to 25) were included for analysis (see Quantification and statistical analysis for exclusion criteria, and Results for the sample size of each experiment).

The pipeline to generate audio stimuli with a designated peak AM frequency and temporal regularity parameters is composed of the following steps (resembling an inverse pipeline for analyzing audio recordings), which are conceptually illustrated in Fig 1 .

• An inverse fast Fourier transformation with random phases was applied to an AM spectrum to generate a 20-s time-domain signal with a 44.1-kHz sampling rate, and then it was transformed to an amplitude envelope [ 69 , 70 ].
• The resulting amplitude envelope was used to modulate a 20- to 20,000-Hz low-noise noise (LNN) carrier sound. The LNN is a white noise with a flat amplitude envelope [ 71 , 72 ], which ensures that the amplitude fluctuations of the final stimuli were not caused by the carrier signal.
• The middle 4-s segment of each 20-s amplitude-modulated LNN was extracted as a stimulus.
• There were 100, 50, 50, and 50 stimuli generated for each condition of Experiments 1 to 4, respectively, and the root-mean-square values of all the stimuli were equalized within each experiment. All steps were performed using MATLAB R2020a.

The experiments were programmed on PsychoPy Builder (v2020.1.2) and executed on the Pavlovia.org platform.

The participants were required to perform the experiment using a browser on their personal computer, in a quiet environment with headphones on, and each listener could set the audio volume at a comfortable level. First, only those participants who passed a headphone screening task (see below) could proceed. Next, the practice phase included 4 trials; the AM parameters of these stimuli were within the range of, but not identical to, the parameter values used in the subsequent testing phase. On each practice trial, a stimulus was presented, and then participants were asked to make a binary judgment by clicking a button on the screen, without time limit. After the response, the next trial started. A probe trial was inserted in the practice phase, which presented 1 to 4 brief tones without warning in a 2-s window with random stimulus-onset asynchronies, and the participants were requested to indicate the number of tones by pressing the corresponding key. Participants could repeat the practice phase until they felt comfortable to proceed to the testing phase. Only in Experiments 3 and 4, a practice phase was inserted prior to each of the first music and speech blocks.

In the testing phase, for Experiments 1 and 2, for each participant, a set of 150 unique stimuli (15 or 10 per condition in Experiments 1 or 2, respectively) were randomly drawn from the stimulus pool, and they were randomly ordered within each of the first and second half of the experiment, resulting in a total of 300 testing trials. There was no cue between two halves of the experiment. The participants were not instructed regarding the occurrence rates of “music” or “speech.”

For Experiments 3 and 4, within each of the first and second halves of the experiment, there were 1 music block and 1 speech block, randomly ordered. Within each block, there were 75 unique stimuli (15 per condition) randomly drawn from the stimulus pool, and the same set of stimuli was used for all 4 blocks for each participant, resulting in a total of 150 trials for each task and, therefore, totaling 300 testing trials for the entire experiment. Before and during each block, there were text and visual cues on the screen to remind the participants of the current block type. The participants were instructed that 50% of the trials were music or speech and 50% were not music or speech (“others”), respectively, for each block type.

For all the experiments, the procedure of each testing trial was identical to the practice trial. A self-paced break was inserted every 10 trials, and the percentage of progress in the experiment was shown on the screen during the break. Twelve probe trials were mixed with roughly even spaces with the testing trials.

After the experiment, participants were directed to another webpage to anonymously fill out demographic information, the Goldsmiths musical sophistication index, and other background and task-related questions (not analyzed).

Headphone screening task.

The participants were requested to perform a headphone screening task prior to the main task, to ensure that they used headphones to complete our online experiments [ 73 ]. On each trial, participants were asked to identify the quietest tone (3-alternative forced choice) among three 1-s duration 200 Hz pure tones (with 100 ms ramps), including a binaurally in-phase loud tone, an antiphase loud tone, and an in-phase quiet tone of (−6 dB). Stimuli were presented sequentially with counterbalanced orders across 6 trials. Because the antiphase loud tone would be attenuated by phase cancelation in the air if it was played through loudspeakers, the quietest tone can only be correctly identified with headphones. Participants had to perform at least 5 out of 6 trials correctly to proceed.

Goldsmith musical sophistication index (Gold-MSI).

The Gold-MSI is one of the most common and reliable indices and for assessing musicality [ 30 ]. It is composed of 39 questions to assess multiple aspects of music expertise, including active engagement, perceptual abilities, musical training, singing abilities, and emotional responses. The General Musical Sophistication subscale is a general index that covers all the aspects of Gold-MSI, which ranges from 18 to 126; the mean and the standard deviation of the norm (147,633 participants) are 81.58 and 20.62, and the reliability α is 0.926.

Quantification and statistical analysis

Since all participants completed the study online without supervision, we used several exclusion criteria to ensure data quality. (1) The participants who did not complete both the experiment and the questionnaire, who did not pass the headphone screening task, admitted not using headphones throughout the experiment, made the same response for all the trials, or whose probe trial accuracy below 90%, were excluded. These criteria excluded 41, 19, 31, and 23 participants from Experiments 1, 2, 3, and 4. (2) Since the participants were instructed that the occurrence rate of music/speech was 50% in Experiments 3 and 4, the participants whose response biases exceeded 50 ± 15% in any task were excluded. This criterion excluded 16 and 23 participants from Experiments 3 and 4. Statistical test significance was assessed with α = .05, two-tailed. The specific tests used are reported in the Results section. The computations were performed on MATLAB R2020a and R2021b.

Power analysis and sample sizes

As the effect size of this task was unknown, in the Experiment 1, we recruited more than 100 participants to reduce the risk of being underpowered and to estimate the statistical power for the following experiments. Based on the data of Experiment 1, a power analysis showed that the required number of participants was 20 when alpha level was set at 0.05 and statistical power at 0.8, and 36 when alpha level was set at 0.01 and statistical power at 0.9. Therefore, we targeted the sample size of Experiment 2 to be slightly above those levels ( n > 40). Although the tasks of Experiments 3 and 4 were similar to Experiments 1 and 2, the judgment of “speech versus others” and “music versus others” might have a lower statistical power than “music versus speech,” as “others” is not a well-defined category. Therefore, we set the target sample sizes to be double ( n ≈ 80) as the required sample size of alpha at 0.01 and power at 0.9.

Supporting information

S1 data. data underlying the plots in fig 2 – 4 ..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002631.s001

Acknowledgments

We thank the Poeppel Lab members at New York University, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Ernst Struengmann Institute for Neuroscience, and Benjamin Morillon for their comments and support.

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