air pollution in karachi essay

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State of gaseous air pollutants and resulting health effects in Karachi, Pakistan

Affiliations.

1 Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA.
2 Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA.
3 Department of Community Health Sciences, The Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan.
4 Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, 34110, Qatar.
5 Chemistry Department, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan.
6 Department of Environmental and Health Research, The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Institute for Hajj and Umrah Research, Umm Al Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia.
7 Institute for the Health and the Environment, University at Albany, Albany, NY, USA.
8 Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA. [email protected].
9 Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA. [email protected].
PMID: 36602617
DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-10787-1

Karachi, Pakistan, is a priority site for air pollution research due to high emissions of air pollutants from vehicular traffic, industrial activities, and biomass burning, as well as rapid growth in population. The objectives of this study were to investigate the levels of gaseous pollutants (NO, NO 2 , O 3 , HNO 3 , and SO 2 ) in Karachi, to determine temporal and seasonal variations, to compare Karachi's air quality with other urban centers, to identify relationships with meteorological conditions, to identify source characterization, and to perform a backward-in-time trajectory analysis and a health impact assessment. Daily samples of gaseous pollutants were collected for six consecutive weeks in each of the four seasons for a year. Daily maximum concentrations of NO (90 parts per billion by volume (ppbv)), NO 2 (28.1 ppbv), O 3 (57.8 ppbv), and SO 2 (331 ppbv) were recorded in fall, while HNO 3 (9129 parts per trillion by volume (pptv)) was recorded in spring. Seasonal average concentrations were high in winter for NO (9.47 ± 7.82 ppbv), NO 2 (4.84 ± 3.35 ppbv), and O 3 (8.92 ± 7.65 ppbv), while HNO 3 (629 ± 1316 pptv) and SO 2 (20.2 ± 39.4 ppbv) were high in spring and fall, respectively. The observed SO 2 seasonal average concentration in fall (20.2 ± 39.4) was 5 times higher than that in summer (3.97 ± 2.77) with the fall 24-h average (120 ppbv) exceeding the WHO daily guideline (7.64 ppbv) by a factor of about 15.7. A health impact assessment estimated an increase of 1200 and 569 deaths due to short-term exposure to SO 2 in fall and spring, respectively. Chronic daily intake estimated risk per 1000 was 0.99, 0.47, 0.45, and 0.26 for SO 2 in fall, NO in winter, O 3 in winter, and NO 2 in spring, respectively. This study confirms the effect of poor urban air quality on public health and demonstrated the influence of photochemical reactions as well as unfavorable meteorological conditions on the formation of secondary pollutants.

Keywords: Gaseous pollutants; Karachi; Nitric acid; Seasonal variation; Urban pollution.

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Industrial emission monitoring and assessment of air quality in karachi coastal city, pakistan, 1. introduction, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. study area, 2.2. instrumentation, 2.3. field experiment and sampling procedure, 2.4. statistical analysis, 3. results and discussion, 4. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

Major Industrial Zones	Description of Industrial Zones in Karachi
Sindh Industrial Trading Estates (SITE)	The total covered area of 4500 acres land in west of the Lyari River, there are more than 2000 industrial units. The Textile, Steel, Pharmaceutical, Automotive, Chemical, and Engineering, Beverage, and Grain mills are some of the major industries. The worker colonies grew up around the industrial estate, the town expanded.
Korangi Industrial Area	It is spread over an area of 8500 acres. 8500 acres make up its total surface area. Around 3000 facilities, including those for the Textile, Steel, Pharmaceutical, Automotive, Chemical, Engineering, Food, and Wheat milling industries, are located in the Korangi Industrial Area.
Landhi Industrial Area	Its land area is around 11,000 acres (4500 ha), and it is made up of medium- and large-sized industries. Numerous industries are located in the industrial area, including Wheat mills, Textile, Pharmaceutical, Automotive, Chemical, and Steel.
North Karachi Industrial Area	It came into existence in 1974. It is scattered and spread over an area of 725 acres with more than 2000 commercial, industrial, and service units containing Automobile, Textile, Engineering, and Food, etc.

Contamination	Instrument	Range	Accuracy	Resolution	Manufacturer
SO	HIM-6000	0–5000 ppb	±5 ppb	5 min	Haz-Scanner, Plaistow, NH, USA
NO	HIM-6000	0–5000 ppb	±5 ppb	5 min	Haz-Scanner, Plaistow, NH, USA
CO	HIM-6000	0–100 ppm	±0.01 ppm	5 min	Haz-Scanner, Plaistow, NH, USA
PM	11 R	0.1 µg/m –100 mg/m	±3%	1 min	GRIMM, Berlin, Germany
PM	11 R	0.1 µg/m –00 mg/m	±3%	1 min	GRIMM, Berlin, Germany

		CO		NO		SO		TSPM		PM		PM
	SEQs (µg/m )	10		80		120		500		150		75
	Sampling Sites	PMS	PtMS	PMS	PtMS	PMS	PtMS	PMS	PtMS	PMS	PtMS	PMS	PtMS
1	H B Chorangi	1.1	1.2	32	27	22	25	485	275	130	135	55	62
2	Siemen Square	1.5	1.5	35	33	25	21	490	375	150	150	87	74
3	Ghani square	1.56	1.01	40	28	41	31	550	515	175	177	92	80
4	Valika Road	2.1	1	45	25	35	19	320	240	140	130	73	64
5	Labour Square	2.2	0.9	49	36	29	23	550	240	150	110	87	48
6	Denim Road	2.2	1	51	25	33	25	411	210	140	98	77	39
7	Bilal Chorangi	0.3	0.2	49	38	27	22	295	250	129	120	76	55
8	Vita Chorangi	0.8	2.4	28	33	21	19	370	270	167	120	88	65
9	Singer Square	1.5	2.7	25	42	35	25	301	190	128	99	75	51
10	Murtaza Square	2.11	3	35	48	24	34	540	490	185	185	105	85
11	Dar ul Aloom	0.5	1.8	20	38	26	27	725	201	390	95	227	37
12	Shan Chorangi	0.7	2.1	39	35	35	19	350	180	115	90	50	27
13	Nagan square	0.5	0.3	62	37	47	25	260	425	120	135	53	65
14	Sohrab Goth	2.5	1.2	71	45	39	21	620	515	275	150	150	87
15	Shafiq Morr	1.1	0.8	21	33	27	17	590	190	260	85	150	52
16	Godhra Road	3.98	2.11	31	49	27	22	450	200	130	98	65	45
17	Sakhi Hassan	2.7	2.5	20	22	20	25	290	190	130	96	65	35
18	Water pump	0.2	0.15	20	26	21	16	260	210	115	97	66	25
19	Yunus square	3.4	2.5	67	55	35	31	290	550	125	197	46	120
20	Dawood square	2.1	1.5	45	33	34	26	640	575	360	195	185	130
21	LIAR	0.2	0.5	30	24	22	19	740	240	301	115	185	50
22	YB Chorangi	0.9	0.4	55	28	38	25	365	290	175	192	83	37
23	Zafar Town	0.6	0.7	73	44	31	23	275	220	133	90	55	36
24	Future Morr	1.8	1.6	39	51	35	28	245	340	114	130	55	54

Parameters	Structural Equation Model
CO
NO
SO
TSPM
PM
PM

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Idrees, M.; Nergis, Y.; Irfan, M. Industrial Emission Monitoring and Assessment of Air Quality in Karachi Coastal City, Pakistan. Atmosphere 2023 , 14 , 1515. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14101515

Idrees M, Nergis Y, Irfan M. Industrial Emission Monitoring and Assessment of Air Quality in Karachi Coastal City, Pakistan. Atmosphere . 2023; 14(10):1515. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14101515

Idrees, Mohammad, Yasmin Nergis, and Muhammad Irfan. 2023. "Industrial Emission Monitoring and Assessment of Air Quality in Karachi Coastal City, Pakistan" Atmosphere 14, no. 10: 1515. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14101515

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State of gaseous air pollutants and resulting health effects in Karachi, Pakistan

Published: 05 January 2023
Volume 195 , article number 266 , ( 2023 )

Cite this article

Omosehin D. Moyebi 1 , 2 ,
Fatim Sannoh 1 , 2 ,
Zafar Fatmi 3 ,
Azhar Siddique 4 ,
Kamran Khan 5 ,
Jahan Zeb 6 ,
Mirza M. Hussain 1 , 2 ,
David O. Carpenter 1 , 7 &
Haider A. Khwaja 1 , 2

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Karachi, Pakistan, is a priority site for air pollution research due to high emissions of air pollutants from vehicular traffic, industrial activities, and biomass burning, as well as rapid growth in population. The objectives of this study were to investigate the levels of gaseous pollutants (NO, NO 2 , O 3 , HNO 3 , and SO 2 ) in Karachi, to determine temporal and seasonal variations, to compare Karachi’s air quality with other urban centers, to identify relationships with meteorological conditions, to identify source characterization, and to perform a backward-in-time trajectory analysis and a health impact assessment. Daily samples of gaseous pollutants were collected for six consecutive weeks in each of the four seasons for a year. Daily maximum concentrations of NO (90 parts per billion by volume (ppbv)), NO 2 (28.1 ppbv), O 3 (57.8 ppbv), and SO 2 (331 ppbv) were recorded in fall, while HNO 3 (9129 parts per trillion by volume (pptv)) was recorded in spring. Seasonal average concentrations were high in winter for NO (9.47 ± 7.82 ppbv), NO 2 (4.84 ± 3.35 ppbv), and O 3 (8.92 ± 7.65 ppbv), while HNO 3 (629 ± 1316 pptv) and SO 2 (20.2 ± 39.4 ppbv) were high in spring and fall, respectively. The observed SO 2 seasonal average concentration in fall (20.2 ± 39.4) was 5 times higher than that in summer (3.97 ± 2.77) with the fall 24-h average (120 ppbv) exceeding the WHO daily guideline (7.64 ppbv) by a factor of about 15.7. A health impact assessment estimated an increase of 1200 and 569 deaths due to short-term exposure to SO 2 in fall and spring, respectively. Chronic daily intake estimated risk per 1000 was 0.99, 0.47, 0.45, and 0.26 for SO 2 in fall, NO in winter, O 3 in winter, and NO 2 in spring, respectively. This study confirms the effect of poor urban air quality on public health and demonstrated the influence of photochemical reactions as well as unfavorable meteorological conditions on the formation of secondary pollutants.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health; University at Albany; Higher Education Commission, Pakistan; and University of Karachi.

This work was supported by the Pakistan-US Science and Technology Cooperative Program (administered by the National Academy of Sciences, USA, and Higher Education Commission, Pakistan) under the grant # PGA-7251–07-010 to David O. Carpenter, Haider A. Khwaja, and Zafar Fatmi.

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Omosehin D. Moyebi, Fatim Sannoh, Mirza M. Hussain, David O. Carpenter & Haider A. Khwaja

Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA

Omosehin D. Moyebi, Fatim Sannoh, Mirza M. Hussain & Haider A. Khwaja

Department of Community Health Sciences, The Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan

Zafar Fatmi

Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, 34110, Qatar

Azhar Siddique

Chemistry Department, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan

Kamran Khan

Department of Environmental and Health Research, The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Institute for Hajj and Umrah Research, Umm Al Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia

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Haider A. Khwaja: conceptualization, project administration, supervision, and writing, including review and editing. Fatim Sannoh and Omosehin Moyebi: data curation, formal analysis, and writing of original draft. Azhar Siddique, Kamran Khan, and Jahan Zeb: sampling. Mirza M. Hussain: methodology. David Carpenter and Zafar Fatmi: project administration and writing, including review and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Moyebi, O.D., Sannoh, F., Fatmi, Z. et al. State of gaseous air pollutants and resulting health effects in Karachi, Pakistan. Environ Monit Assess 195 , 266 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10787-1

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A polluted Karachi

A city-wide anti-pollution project needs to be initiated that systematically tackles the causes of pollution

It comes as no surprise that Karachi has been deemed as the world’s fourth largest polluted city in the world according to investigative reports. The IQAir, an international apex body monitoring air quality, has revealed that Karachi’s air quality has increased to a dangerous and unhealthy level of 193 while in February the concentration of Particulate Matter (PM) in the city’s air was recorded at 2.5 — almost 11 times higher than the standard set by the WHO.

There are four major factors contributing to pollution in Karachi: poor drainage and sewage system; burning of 13,000 tonnes of garbage a week; vehicular emission; and, emission and dumping of waste from industrial units. All this has contributed to making Karachi one of the least liveable cities in the world. Another astonishing revelation made by IQAir was the false promises made by the Centre as well as the Sindh government of improving public health, air quality and the environment. The truth is that little effort has been made by the authorities to mitigate the problem. In such a situation, it is up to the citizens to take ownership of their city and advocate for a clean and green Karachi. If citizens are able to collaborate with civil society organisations and push government officials to develop an accountability framework, it will immensely help their cause.

A city-wide anti-pollution project needs to be initiated that systematically tackles the causes of pollution. Considering that emissions from motor vehicles account for 70% of the air pollution in Karachi, the Transport and Mass Transit Department must work together with the Climate Change Department to revamp the entire transport structure and ban the use of dilapidated buses and 4-stroke rickshaws in order to reduce the overall emission rate. Other factors need to be dealt with accordingly. The bottom-line is that pollution can have adverse impacts on human health due to which the rate of diseases in Karachi is already rapidly increasing. The concerned officials must therefore realise the gravity of the situation and devise a long-term plan at the earliest.

Published in The Express Tribune, March 4 th , 2022.

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EISSN: 2223-0440

oa Effect of air pollution on daily morbidity in Karachi, Pakistan

Authors: Haider A. Khwaja 1,2 , Zafar Fatmi 3 , Daniel Malashock 2 , Zafar Aminov 2 , Ambreen Kazi 3 , Azhar Siddique 4,5 , JahanZeb Qureshi 5 and David O. Carpenter 6
View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: 1 1 Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA 2 2 Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, NY, USA 3 3 Department of Community Health Sciences, The Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan 4 4 Chemistry Department, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan 5 5 UAZRGR, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 6 6 Institute for the Health and the Environment, University at Albany, Albany, NY, USA
Source: Journal of Local and Global Health Science , Volume 2012, Issue 1 , Nov 2012, 3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5339/jlghs.2012.3
Accepted: 28 November 2012
Published online: 01 September 2013
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Levels of daily particulates (PM 2.5 ) were monitored at two sites in Karachi, Pakistan. One site (Korangi) is an industrial and residential neighborhood, while the other (Tibet Center) is a commercial and residential area near a major highway. Monitoring was done daily for a period of six weeks during spring, summer, fall and winter. Particulate levels were extraordinarily high, with the great majority of days falling into the “unhealthy for sensitive groups” or “very unhealthy” categories. The mean PM 2.5 levels in Karachi exceeded the WHO's 24 h air quality guideline almost every day and often by a factor of greater than 5-fold. Daily emergency room (ER) visits and hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases were obtained by review of medical records at three major tertiary and specialized hospitals. ER and hospitalizations were reported relative to days in which the concentration of PM 2.5 was less than 50 μg/m 3 , and by 50 μg/m 3 increments up to 300 μg/m 3 . There were statistically significant elevations in rates of hospital admissions at each of the PM 2.5 categories at the Korangi site, and at concentrations >150 μg/m 3 at the Tibet Center site. ER visits were significantly elevated only at PM 2.5 concentrations of between 151 and 200 μg/m 3 at both sites. These results show that the extremely elevated concentrations of PM 2.5 in Karachi, Pakistan are, as expected, associated with significantly elevated rates of hospital admission, and to a lesser extent, ER visits for cardiovascular disease.

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A Study of Ambient Air Quality Status in Karachi, By Applying Air Quality Index (AQI)

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International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews

Muhammad Imran

Dr. Akhtar Shareef

Present study was carried out to analyze the concentration of the pollutants due to air born particulate matter (PM10) and infectious trace gases and their effects on human health at ten different locations along busy intersections in the commercial, residential and industrial areas of Karachi city. At each selected location, the study was carried out to determine the level of particulate matter and trace gases for a period of 8 h twice in a month during the year 2015. Samples were collected at ten selected locations i.e. Karimabad(C-1), Tibet Centre(C-2), and Liaquatabad(C-3) in commercial areas; PIB Colony(R-1), Nazimabad(R-2) and Gulshan-e-Iqbal(R-3) in residential areas; Siemens G. Belt(I-E1), Naurus G Belt (I-E2), Singer Chowrangi(I-W3) and Chamra Chowrangi(I-W4) in industrial areas of the city. Resultsreceived from different air quality categories were calculated according to National Environmental Quality Standard (NEQS) at selected locations, as in commercial areas showing p...

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment

BADAR GHAURI

During 2003–2004, SUPARCO, the Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission has conducted a year long baseline air quality study in country’s major urban areas (Karachi, Lahore, Quetta, Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Peshawar). The objective of this study was to establish baseline levels and behavior of airborne pollutants in urban centers with temporal and spatial parameters. This study reveals that the highest concentrations of CO were observed at Quetta (14 ppm) while other pollutants like SO2 (52.5 ppb), NOx (60.75 ppb) and O3 (50 ppb) were higher at Lahore compared to other urban centers like Karachi, Peshawar etc. The maximum particulate (TSP) and PM10 levels were observed at Lahore (996 ug/m3 and 368 ug/m3 respectively), Quetta (778 ug/m3, 298 ug/m3) and in Karachi (410 ug/m3, 302 ug/m3). In all major cities the highest levels were recorded at major intersections and variations were directly correlated with traffic density. These pollutants showed highest levels in summer and spring while lowest were observed in winter and monsoon. A data bank has been generated for future planning and air pollution impact studies.

Ecology, Environment and Conservation

The current study assessed the air quality of area 3 most populated cities of Punjab- Ludhiana, Jalandhar and Amritsar. Air quality Index (AQI) parameters- PM2.5, PM10, O2, NO3, SO2, CO of recent 3 years (2021, 2020, 2019) of the 3 areas is studied. The highest annual average concentration of PM2.5 is found to be 163.5 μg/m³ in December 2021 at Ludhiana, while the lowest value found to be 55.2 μg/m³ in Jalandharin September, 2021. It is important to review the literature regarding pollution in India’s polluted areas. Air pollution significantly hurts soil and water resources. The findings of this paper indicate over last few years the rate at which air pollution in India is grown especially in urban areas is alarming. Excessive concentrations of pollutants in air have triggered a state of emergency in polluted areas around the world, particularly in developing countries like India.

Shahida Waheed , Dr. Yasir Faiz , Naila Siddique

Urban air quality of industrial cities of Pakistan, namely Gujranwala and Faisalabad was assessed in terms of pollution level indicators such as pollution load index (PLI), geoaccumulation index (Igeo), pollution index (PI) and integrated pollution index (IPI). It was found that both cities have elevated metal concentrations indicating heavy to extreme contamination for most of the sites. Local anthropogenic activities and elevated geoaccumulation indices for different suite of elements were used to indicate possible pollutant sources in these two industrial cities to be traffic derived emissions, suspended soil, road dust, construction materials, fossil fuel and industrial emissions, tanneries, chrome plating units and metal smelters. Comparison of the pollution indices shows that Ba, Br, Ca, Cd, Na, Pb, Sb and Zn have mean PLI, Igeo, PI and IPI for both cities which are in the highly polluted category. Cu, La, Sc, V and Zr have pollution indices corresponding to high or extreme levels in Faisalabad only while Cr and Ti are highly polluting only in Gujranwala. In Faisalabad and Gujranwala it was found that 91.43 % and 85.29 % respectively of the PI data occurs in high level of pollution implying that to some extent Faisalabad is more polluted as compared to Gujranwala.

Journal of Engineering and Technology

Muhammad Majid

Today’s environmental issues are systematic in nature and cannot be tackled in isolation from man-made activities and impacts. The change in land use and land cover resulting from urbanization has aggravated air quality in urban centers of the country. One of the main sources of air pollution is the use of automobiles in human populated regions resulting in an excess of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen compounds. The emission of greenhouse gases in the form of carbon dioxide from 1990 to 2005 showed an increase of 97.4%. The main source of this increment were vehicular and industrial emissions due to which Pakistan is facing glacier melt in northern areas, earthquakes, flooding and lack of fresh water availability. The authors analyze the effects of vehicular emission on human health; this study is focused on the commercial and industrial areas of Karachi where the flow of heavy traffic and heavy vehicular exhaust emissions are common. The sampled areas are Port Qasim, University Road, K...

Pakistan Journal Of Urban Affairs (PJUA)

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44.73 Particulate Pollution (µg/m 3 )

3.89 Gain in life expectancy if WHO Guideline is met

15 National Standard

Pakistan is the world’s fourth most polluted country. Fine particulate air pollution (PM 2.5 ) shortens the average Pakistani resident’s life expectancy by 3.9 years, relative to what it would be if the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m 3 was met. Some areas of Pakistan fare much worse than average, with air pollution shortening lives by almost 7 years in the country’s most polluted regions like Lahore, Sheikhupura, Kasur and Peshawar.

KEY TAKE-AWAYS

All of Pakistan’s 238 million people live in areas where the annual average particulate pollution level exceeds the WHO guideline; 98.3 percent of the population live in areas that exceed the country’s own national air quality standard of 15 µg/m 3 .
Measured in terms of life expectancy, particulate pollution is the second greatest threat to human health in Pakistan (behind cardiovascular diseases), taking 3.9 years off the life of the average Pakistani. In contrast, child and maternal malnutrition, and maternal and neonatal disorders reduce average life expectancy by 2.7 years.
Particulate pollution has increased over time. From 1998 to 2021, average annual particulate pollution increased by 49.9 percent, further reducing life expectancy by 1.5 years.
In the most polluted provinces of the country—Punjab, Islamabad Capital Territory and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa—165.5 million residents or 69.5 percent of Pakistan’s population are on track to lose between 3.7 to 4.6 years of life expectancy on average relative to the WHO guideline and between 2.7 to 3.6 years relative to the national standard if the current pollution levels persist.

[1] This data is based on the AQLI 2021 dataset. All annual average PM 2.5 values (measured in micrograms per cubic meter: µg/m³) are population weighted.

[2] We define Karachi as the following six regions: Central Karachi, East Karachi, Korangi Karachi, Malir Karachi, South Karachi and West Karachi.

Related Reports

Pakistan fact sheet.

Pakistan is the world’s fourth most polluted country. Fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) shortens the average Pakistani resident’s life expectancy by 3.9 years, relative to what it would be if the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m3 was met. Some areas of Pakistan fare much worse than average, with air pollution shortening lives by almost 7 years in the country’s most polluted regions like Lahore, Sheikhupura, Kasur and Peshawar.

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In South Asia, Vehicle Exhaust, Agricultural Burning and In-Home Cooking Produce Some of the Most Toxic Air in the World

Pakistan’s Rising Air Pollution Prompts Concern

Pakistan Orders Monday Closure of Schools and Offices in Lahore to Cut Smog

OP-ED: Toxic Air Knows No Boundaries

For media requests regarding our pakistan research, please contact:.

Vicki Ekstrom High

Senior Director, Communications & External Engagement (EPIC)

[email protected]

The AQLI converts air pollution concentrations into their impact on life expectancy. From this, the public and policymakers alike can determine the benefits of air pollution policies in perhaps the most important measure that exists: longer lives.

The aqli estimates the relationship between air pollution and life expectancy, allowing users to view the gain in life expectancy they could experience if their community met world health organization (who) guidelines, national standards or some other standard..

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PM2.5 concentration in Karachi is currently 3.1 times the WHO annual air quality guideline value

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Does karachi have bad air quality.

Karachi is a city located in Pakistan, being one of the largest in the country as well as the 12 th largest city worldwide, with nearly 15 million inhabitants living within the city’s limits. A large amount of Pakistan's economy relies on Karachi, and with a high level of industry as well as people living there, Karachi will subsequently suffer from the pollution related issues, as all densely populated and rapidly developing cities often do.

In 2019 Karachi came in with a PM2.5 reading of 40.2 μg/m³, putting it into the ‘unhealthy for sensitive groups bracket’, which requires a PM2.5 reading of anywhere between 35.5 to 55.4 μg/m³ to be classed as such. PM2.5 refers to particulate matter that is 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter, making it 3% the size of a human hair, and as such extremely damaging to human health when respired, hence why it is used as a major component of calculating the air quality as well as pollution levels.

Karachi's 2019 reading of 40.2 μg/m³ put it in 231 st place out of all the most polluted cities worldwide, as well as being the 9 th most polluted city in Pakistan. Despite being so densely populated, and with a whole host of pollution problems, with some months coming in with dangerous levels of PM2.5 readings, there are cities in Pakistan with considerably more severe pollution levels. However, as it stands, Karachi does indeed have pollution issues with its air that should not be overlooked

What are the main causes of pollution in Karachi?

With such a densely populated city, there is always the accompanying high level of vehicles of all types to come along with the citizens. Many bikes, cars and trucks populate the roads, with a large amount of them being far under what would constitute a safe level of pollution output (due to factors such as vehicle age, as well as the fuel they run on). Many of these vehicles would still run on diesel fuel, which can cause far more elevated levels of pollution in the exhaust fumes than their cleaner counterparts often would.

Besides cars and motorbikes, rickshaws running on two stroke engines (a type of engine that has a high-power output to weight ratio, however due to the design nature they often have mixtures of oil as well as fuel in them, thus creating far more pollution that a four-stroke engine) contribute massively to pollution levels. Other sources include the open burning of refuse and garbage, much of which can contain dangerous materials such as plastic and other synthetic man-made products, as well as organic materials that also releases its own plethora of smoke filled with pollutants. Further contributions come from factory emissions as well as dust from poorly maintained roads and construction sites, which can add heavily to the PM2.5 and PM10 count.

What type of pollutants would you find in the air in Karachi?

With pollutive sources such as vehicles being large offenders for air pollution levels, particularly the ambient ones that are seen year-round due to personal vehicle use being a constant, high levels of compounds such as nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) would be found in the air. Nitrogen dioxide is of particular pertinence due to the large amount of it given off primarily by vehicles (as well as it being found in open burn sources and industrial emissions), so much so to the point that high levels of nitrogen dioxide in the air will often directly correlate with a large amount of traffic.

Other materials and compounds would include ozone (O 3 ) and carbon monoxide (CO), as well as particulate matter such as black carbon, which can be created through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels as well as the burning of organic matter.

It is often found as a major component in soot and thus will be seen coating large amounts of roadside areas that witness high volumes of traffic. Others would include finely ground silica dust from construction sites, volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) and benzene, formaldehyde as well as furans, dioxins, mercury, cadmium and lead, the latter of which are released through the burning of plastic materials, as well as any industrial process that uses plastic in its production line (plastic recycling plants or factories that produce plastic containers, casings or goods).

When is pollution at its worst in Karachi?

Observing the data taken over 2019, pollution seems to find itself highest at the beginning and end of the year, a trait which is mirrored in all cities in Pakistan. The cleanest months are April through to June, with numbers of PM2.5 coming in at 18.2 μg/m³ in April, 16.1 μg/m³ in May (making it the cleanest month of the year) and 18.1 μg/m³ in June.

After this, levels of PM2.5 went up gradually, indicating that the amount of smog, haze and smoke would be far more prominent in the atmosphere. October saw a leap up to 44.9 μg/m³, followed by 67.1 μg/m³ in November and 75.9 μg/m³ in December. The month that came in with the absolute worst levels of pollution was January, with a reading of 86.7 μg/m³, putting it into the ‘unhealthy’ ratings bracket. This means that air at this time of the year would be extremely dangerous for all sections of the population to breathe.

Is air quality improving in Karachi?

Observing the date from years past, it appears that pollution levels in Karachi are actually getting worse rather than improving. In 2017, Karachi came in with a PM2.5 reading of 38.5 μg/m³, and then followed with a slight improvement of 33.7 μg/m³ in 2018. This of course was followed by the more recent reading of 40.2 μg/m³ in 2019, which shows that overall levels of year-round pollution have indeed gotten worse.

This would be due to the lack of any significant changes to polluting sources, and if Karachi is to see improvements in its level of pollution, initiatives such as the fining of over polluting factories, home businesses or open burning offenders would go a long way to reducing pollution levels and getting large amounts of dangerous chemicals out of the air. Other initiatives would include the eventual removal of ancient vehicles off the road and a move over to cleaner fuel sources.

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Dirty old town: tackling air pollution in Karachi

Government officials put green stickers on vehicles fit for the road while owners of unfit vehicles are fined and given red stickers, article bookmarked.

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This article first appeared on our partner site, Independent Urdu

Given the failure of the provincial government of Sindh in Pakistan to introduce a public transport system in the country’s largest city, Karachi , the majority of residents travel in old and rusty private buses, which are not only an inconvenience to travellers but also a big cause of air pollution .

According to the Air Quality Index, Karachi is among the most polluted cities in the world, along with India’s capital New Delhi, and Bishkek, capital of Kyrgyzstan. According to this index, if polluted particles in the air range from 151 to 200 particulate matters, there is a danger to health. On Tuesday, 301 particulate matters were recorded in Karachi’s air, which indicates a dangerous level of air pollution.

The Sindh Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) has recently started monitoring vehicles for gas emissions in Karachi and other major cities in the province. SEPA's subsidiary, the Vehicular Emission Control Programme, checks vehicles with state-of-the-art gas emission monitoring devices.

According to the deputy director of the programme, Sada Bakhsh Dars, congestion is another major cause of air pollution in Karachi along with the large number of factories that operate in the city.

Speaking to Independent Urdu , Mr Dars said that with the assistance of traffic police, he checks the gas emissions and noise pollution of vehicles daily at various places in Karachi. Up to 35 per cent of vehicles in Karachi are environmentally unfit because the amount of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and other harmful gasses emitted from them is many times higher than the standard.

The suburban neighbourhood in Karachi shocked by passenger jet crash

According to Mr Dars, large trucks and loading vehicles emit the most environmentally harmful gasses along with two-stroke rickshaws, vehicles banned by the government 10 years ago but still found in large numbers in the city.

Work is yet to begin on the Green Line bus project in Karachi, which the federal government announced six years ago. Asad Umar, the Federal Minister for Planning, Development, Reforms and Special Initiatives and a member of the Karachi Committee – set up to oversee major federal government projects in Karachi – said the project is expected to begin in June 2021.

Similarly, following the order of the Supreme Court, Pakistan Railways – the national, state-owned railway company – has partially restored the Karachi Circular Railway, which had not been operating for 21 years. Due to an inadequate public transport system, residents have to travel in privately owned mini buses and these vehicles are not even repaired in order to keep costs low and profits high.

Along with the assistance of traffic police, Sada Bakhsh Dars and his staff stop vehicles in Karachi, install a sensor in the silencer and check the amount of pollutants being emitted. "When the amount of gasses emitted from a vehicle are within the threshold, a green sticker is placed on the vehicle, however those that fail the check are given a red sticker along with a fine and instructed to get the vehicle repaired.”

He further added, “At times, the vehicle owners have a fitness certificate from the Transport Department, but upon inspection the vehicle turns out to be unfit, therefore the procedure of issuing these certificates needs to be changed.”

Translated by Taimur Rehman, Edited and proofread by Tooba Ali & Celine Assaf

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Problems of Karachi Essay | 200 & 500 Words

by Pakiology | Jun 22, 2024 | Essay | 0 comments

Explore the multifaceted challenges faced by Karachi in this comprehensive essay. From overpopulation to traffic congestion, and water scarcity to political instability, discover the key issues affecting this bustling metropolis in our “Problems of Karachi Essay | 200 & 500 Words.”

Problems of Karachi Essay 200 Words

Karachi, Pakistan’s largest city, grapples with a myriad of complex issues that impact its diverse population, including students. Overpopulation, a pressing concern, strains resources, and infrastructure, leading to housing shortages and traffic congestion. The latter not only wastes valuable time but also contributes to air pollution and economic disruptions.

The city’s infrastructure is in decay, with potholed roads and inadequate public transport hindering students’ daily commute. Moreover, a severe water crisis, unequal water distribution, and contamination pose health risks, particularly for children. Energy shortages disrupt students’ study routines and hamper economic growth.

Political instability, ethnic tensions, and corruption further compound Karachi’s problems. Crime and security concerns, from street crimes to extortion threats, disrupt daily life and education. Environmental degradation, including air pollution and coastal erosion, jeopardizes the city’s future.

Educational challenges, such as limited access and varying educational quality, add to the city’s woes. The digital divide, highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic, has exacerbated educational disparities.

In conclusion, Karachi faces a complex web of problems that affect students and residents alike, ranging from overpopulation and traffic congestion to water scarcity, political instability, and educational challenges. Addressing these issues requires collective efforts to ensure a better and more livable future for all in this vibrant metropolis.

Problems of Karachi Essay 500 Words

Introduction.

Karachi, the largest city in Pakistan and its economic hub, is a bustling metropolis known for its vibrant culture, diverse population, and economic opportunities. However, beneath its surface lies a myriad of complex and pressing problems that impact the daily lives of its residents. This essay aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the problems faced by Karachi, catering to all types of students, ranging from school to college levels.

I. Overpopulation

One of the most glaring issues plaguing Karachi is overpopulation. With a population of over 14 million (as of my last knowledge update in September 2021), Karachi is Pakistan’s most populous city. This rapid population growth has resulted in various challenges:

A. Housing Shortage: The city lacks adequate housing facilities to accommodate its ever-growing population. This has led to the emergence of informal settlements, commonly known as katchi abadis, characterized by substandard living conditions and a lack of basic amenities.

B. Strain on Infrastructure: Overpopulation places immense stress on infrastructure, including roads, public transport, and utilities. Traffic congestion is a daily ordeal for residents, leading to time wastage and increased air pollution.

C. Resource Scarcity: Overpopulation exacerbates the scarcity of essential resources such as water and electricity, leading to frequent shortages and increased prices.

II. Traffic Congestion

Karachi’s traffic congestion is a problem that affects everyone, from schoolchildren to working professionals. The city’s road infrastructure is inadequate to support its population’s vehicular needs, resulting in numerous issues:

A. Time Wastage: Commuters in Karachi often spend hours stuck in traffic, leading to productivity losses and stressful daily routines.

B. Air Pollution: Prolonged traffic congestion contributes to air pollution, which poses serious health risks to residents, particularly children and the elderly.

C. Economic Impact: Traffic congestion has a negative impact on the city’s economy as it disrupts the movement of goods and services, increasing costs for businesses and consumers.

III. Infrastructure Decay

The deteriorating state of Karachi’s infrastructure is a critical issue that affects students and the general population alike:

A. Poor Road Conditions: Many of Karachi’s roads are in disrepair, riddled with potholes and cracks, which not only cause traffic congestion but also pose safety hazards for commuters.

B. Inadequate Public Transport: The city’s public transportation system is outdated and inefficient, making it challenging for students to commute to schools and colleges.

C. Sanitation Problems: Karachi faces sanitation issues due to inadequate waste management infrastructure. This leads to unhygienic conditions that can contribute to the spread of diseases.

IV. Water Crisis

Access to clean and safe drinking water is a fundamental right, but Karachi faces a severe water crisis:

A. Unequal Distribution: Water is distributed inequitably across the city, with some areas receiving a more consistent supply than others. This disparity affects students’ ability to study and maintain good hygiene.

B. Contamination: Contaminated water sources in some parts of Karachi pose health risks, especially for children, who are more susceptible to waterborne diseases.

C. Groundwater Depletion: The over-extraction of groundwater has led to a decline in the water table, further exacerbating the water crisis.

V. Energy Shortages

Karachi, like many parts of Pakistan, grapples with energy shortages:

A. Frequent Load Shedding: Unplanned load shedding disrupts students’ study routines, making it difficult to rely on consistent electricity for lighting and electronic devices.

B. Economic Impact: Energy shortages also have a significant economic impact, affecting businesses and industries in Karachi, which, in turn, affects job opportunities for college graduates.

VI. Political Instability

Political instability has a far-reaching impact on Karachi’s problems:

A. Governance Challenges: Frequent changes in local and provincial governments have hindered long-term planning and the implementation of sustainable solutions to the city’s problems.

B. Ethnic Tensions: Karachi is known for its ethnic diversity, but political instability has sometimes fueled ethnic tensions, leading to violence and disruptions in daily life.

C. Corruption: Corruption within the bureaucracy can hinder development projects and the equitable distribution of resources.

VII. Crime and Security

Crime and security issues in Karachi are a concern for students and residents alike:

A. Street Crimes: Incidents of street crimes, such as theft and muggings, can make students and their families anxious about their safety.

B. Extortion: Some businesses and individuals face extortion threats, impacting their ability to operate freely.

C. Impact on Education: Security concerns can disrupt education, making it difficult for students to attend school or college regularly.

VIII. Environmental Degradation

Karachi’s environment is deteriorating rapidly, which can have long-term consequences for students:

A. Air Pollution: High levels of air pollution can lead to respiratory problems, affecting students’ health and concentration in school.

B. Coastal Degradation: Karachi’s coastline is under threat due to industrial pollution and unplanned development, impacting its natural beauty and ecosystem.

C. Climate Change: Karachi is vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including extreme weather events and sea-level rise, which can have far-reaching consequences for students’ lives.

IX. Educational Challenges

Finally, Karachi faces unique educational challenges:

A. Limited Access: Many children in the city, particularly those from low-income backgrounds, struggle to access quality education due to a lack of schools and resources.

B. Quality of Education: Even when schools are available, the quality of education varies widely, affecting students’ academic development.

C. Digital Divide: The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the digital divide in Karachi, where many students lacked access to online learning resources.

In conclusion, Karachi, Pakistan’s largest and most populous city, faces a multitude of interconnected problems that affect students and residents of all ages. These problems include overpopulation, traffic congestion, infrastructure decay, water and energy shortages, political instability, crime and security issues, environmental degradation, and educational challenges. Solving these issues requires concerted efforts from government authorities, civil society, and citizens. It is crucial for students to be aware of these problems and actively engage in finding solutions, as they represent the city’s future. Karachi’s challenges are immense, but with the right approach and commitment, they can be overcome to create a better and more livable city for all its residents.

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Air pollution and associated self-reported effects on the exposed students at Malakand division, Pakistan

1 School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023 People’s Republic of China

2 Department of Zoology, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education, Lahore, 54000 Pakistan

Naeem Ullah

3 Department of Management Sciences, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Timergara Campus, Timergara, 18300 Pakistan

Sohail Ahmed Rajper

Ilyas ahmad.

4 Department of Economics and Business Administration, University of Education, Jauharabad Campus, 41200 Jauharabad, Pakistan

Zhongqiu Li

Associated data.

All the required data is provided in the article and associated supplementary material.

Air pollution is associated with several severe physical, behavioral, and psychological health risks and glitches. Air pollution has been linked to 11 million premature deaths in Pakistan, out of the total 153 million premature deaths worldwide. Air pollution is continuously growing as a threatening challenge for Pakistan. Keeping this in view, the current study was designed to assess air pollution in terms of air quality index (AQI), particulate matters (PM 2.5 and PM 10 ), SO 2 , NO 2 , and O 3 over six districts of Malakand division, Northern Pakistan. The second part of the study appraised the associated self-reported effects of air pollution on Pakistani students and the practices, perceptions, and awareness of the students regarding air pollution through a closed-ended questionnaire, administered to 4100 students. The first section of the questionnaire was focused on the physical effects associated with air pollution; the second section was focused on air pollution–linked behavior and psychology; the third portion was focused on perception and awareness of the subjects, whereas the final section was focused on practices and concerns of the subjects regarding air pollution. The students reported that exposure to air pollution significantly affected their physical health, behavior, and psychology. The subjects were aware of the different air pollutants and health complications associated with air pollution, and therefore had adopted preventive measures. It was concluded that air pollution had adverse impacts on the physical and psychological health of the respondents, which consequently altered their behavior. Mass awareness, proper mitigating plan, suitable management, and implementation of strict environmental laws are suggested before the air gets further polluted and becomes life-threatening.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10661-021-09484-2.

Introduction

Humans are continuously evolving to be better adapted and suited to their surroundings; however, pollution has been an off-putting factor for them for a very long. Air pollution got more severe and threatening with material and technological advancements. These developmental approaches led to chemical, physical, and biological modifications of the environment. These alterations are in different aspects including air, water, and general environmental setups, which consequently disturb nature’s balance and its regenerative capabilities. Rapid and continuously increasing industrialization, mechanized transportation, population growth, and alarming urbanization introduce and add hundreds of new elements, which subsequently disturb the environment. Factories and mills add a mammoth 25 billion pounds of toxic pollutants every year to the atmosphere and 22 billion pounds of pesticides are employed in the agriculture sector per year, which means eight pounds of pesticides per citizen (Roman & Idrees, 2013 ). Even, some illegal pesticides carrying different hazardous materials are used. Most of the artificial chemicals are not screened from a toxicological standpoint; still, the annual global production of synthetic chemicals exponentially grew since the start of the twentieth century (Donohoe, 2003 ).

In Pakistan, the swift increase in vehicles’ number and common use of low-quality fuel is prominent sources of air pollution. Emission from vehicles (carbon and lead) contributes the highest to air pollution in urbanized cities including Karachi, Islamabad, Faisalabad, and Lahore (Roman & Idrees, 2013 ). The scenario remains the same globally and a 29% increase has been recorded in the atmospheric CO 2 since the start of industrialization, while its production reached 6–8 billion tons per year (Donohoe, 2003 ). Apart from this, there are other different natural and anthropogenic causes of air pollution. The natural ones include dust from barren lands, methane from food digestion by the animals, radioactive decay of the earth’s crust emitting radon and wildfires giving rise to CO and smoke, and volcanic eruption producing ash particulates, chlorine, and sulfur. However, the most important and lethal cause of atmospheric pollution is ill-anthropogenic activities. These include the excessive use of fossil fuels (coal, gas, and oil use — largest source of air pollution), mobile sources (marine vessels, aircraft, motor vehicles, etc.), chemicals, dust, fumes (paints, aerosol sprays, varnish, hair spray, etc.), and continuous population growth.

Air pollution is the result of introducing new biological materials, particulate matter, and chemicals that can harm or adversely affect human beings and other organisms. These can seriously damage the built environment or natural environment and disrupt the atmosphere, which is a complex dynamic system of natural gases and essential for life. Man-made advancements led to the depletion of the Strato spherico zone, identified as grave threatening for earth’s ecosystem generally and for human health in particular. However, the concerns and threats are continuously increasing with different environmental deteriorating factors, for example, the addition of new machines, chemical mills, vehicles, factories, industrial smoke, and atomic radiations. Air pollution adversely affects the biosphere (humans, animals, and plants) and damage human property such as their houses or other buildings. The major classes of pollutants are hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter (i.e., PM 2.5 , PM 10 , etc.). An increase in the concentration of these pollutants leads to different problems for human health. These problems may be in the form of a medical emergency (different diseases and disorders) or an economic burden. Several studies have explored and discussed the association of different disorders with air pollution (Abelsohn & Stieb, 2011 ; Rajper et al., 2018 ). In severe cases of air pollution, it can lead to death. According to a report published by The News, 153 million premature deaths are linked with air pollution globally and 11 million of these deaths have been reported from Pakistan (Hasan, 2018 ).

Due to the threatening consequence of air pollution across the globe, more specifically around the developing counties including Pakistan, breakthrough research, enormous positive input, mass awareness, and pollution mitigating steps are necessarily required. The bigger cities in Pakistan enjoy the existence of different environmental promoting activities from different environmental protection agencies and government or non-governmental organizations. However, the smaller and farther cities, towns, villages, valleys, and some divisions or districts lack such kind of attention. Malakand division is among those divisions of Pakistan, lacking proper attention. The scenario is even more threatening from the new developmental point of view. On account of having dense forests, rivers, and hill stations, different projects have been initiated in the districts of Malakand division such as hydropower projects, industries, and expanding networks of roads without proper environmental management planning leading to excessive deforestation and polluted water and air (Ullah & Li, 2019 ).

In recent times when due to the COVID-19 lockdown across the globe a significant decrease in air pollution was observed, recent reports revealed an increase in air pollution in Pakistan even in the capital city, Islamabad (The Express Tribune, 2020 ). Keeping in view the current scenario, the current study was carried out in six districts (Dir Lower, Dir Upper, Chitral, Swat, Buner, and Shangla) of the Malakand division (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, north-western province of Pakistan) to know the self-reported physical and psychological effects of air pollution on the students. The study also evaluated the level of awareness, adoption of preventive measures against air pollution, and sources of knowledge of the recruited subjects.

Materials and methods

The study was undertaken according to the Ethics Review Committee of NJU (No. 2009–116). To acquire data/information, the review committee approves informed verbal consent. Therefore, the questionnaire was administered after the informed consent of the students. They were informed thoroughly regarding the content and purpose of the study. The students were told about their right to answering all or part of the Google survey form and that they can withdraw from the study or stop at any time point.

We designed a comprehensive questionnaire and administered it randomly among students from different universities in China (Rajper et al., 2018 ). The same questionnaire was administered to 4100 students through Google form, mostly from the universities of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The questionnaires sharing identical answers to all the questions or missing answers were excluded. A total of 4021 questionnaires were selected for analysis and inclusion in the study. The respondents were from six districts of the northern part of Pakistan, known as the Malakand division. The districts included district Dir Lower, district Upper Dir, district Chitral, district Swat, district Buner, and district Shangla (Fig. 1 ).

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Geographical locations of the sampled districts

The questionnaire was consisting of several questions to know about the individual impacts of air pollution on both physical, and psychological, and behavioral health of the students. The questionnaire was in English because of being the official language for higher education in Pakistan. The questionnaire consisted of four sections. The first two parts were dedicated to reporting any physical effects, and psychological and behavioral adversity associated with air pollution. The third part was about the knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of the students about air pollution. The fourth part evaluated the sources of knowledge and general perceptions of the students regarding air pollution and the different health risks associated with air pollution. The survey was conducted from December 2018 through February 2019.

Malakand division was selected for the study because of bearing in mind the continuously increasing population, several under-construction hydro-power projects, and other developmental projects such as a major link (by the name of Swat Expressway) to the main motorway scheme of roads, and variation among the districts such as different population density, road networks, weather, literacy rate, forests and vegetation, ecotourism, and industries. The randomly recruited students were from different areas such as living in industrial zones (higher fossil fuel use, combustions, and effluent emissions), having complex road networks (higher emission from transportation), highly congested areas, and remote areas (mostly less crowded, lesser population, and lesser or no industries and/or road networks). Based on these differences, these districts were supposed to have different levels or concentrations of air pollutants and were therefore observed every month (Dec 2018–Feb 2019). The level and concentrations of air pollutants were measured by using portable multifunctional air quality detectors (VSON Technology Co. Ltd. China).

The collected data was imported to MS Excel and analyzed in Statistix (V. 10). Based on our previous study, the data was explored through chi-square (independence) test to examine different types of associations such as gender-, district-, and age-dependent association of physical and behavioral or psychological effects, adoption of preventive measures, awareness, and perceptions of the respondents. The demographics and all the sections of the questionnaires were summarized using descriptive statistics (proportion/frequencies/percentages). Bonferroni adjustment (correction) was carried out to avoid and adjust family-wise error, through adjusting α value (α original ) by defining new α value (α altered = 0.05/number of possible analysis/comparisons for each question/section of the questionnaire). The Bonferroni type adjustment and the calculated values are shown in Table S1 . To find out the difference among the studied districts for the level of pollutants, the data were analyzed through ANOVA followed by Tukey HSD. A p- value of less than 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.

A total of 4100 students were recruited for the study from the Malakand division, studying at different universities across Pakistan. However, most of the subjects were from the larger universities of northwestern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province such as the University of Malakand (14.9%), University of Swat (13.8%), University of Peshawar (12.0%), and Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan (10.7%). Table S2 shows the list of the universities and the gender-wise number of students from each university. The highest number of subjects was recruited from the district Dir Lower (28.2), followed by district Swat (24.5) and district Dir Upper (20.7%). The students were divided into five age classes. Most of the recruited subjects were in the age range 26–30 (34.5%) followed by the age range 16–20 (32.5). Similarly, 58.4% of the subjects were males while 41.6% were female students. Table S2 shows district-, gender-, and age-wise division of the subjects whereas Table S3 shows the number of students recruited across different universities across the country.

The level of air pollutants was varying across the districts as well as across the observing months (Dec 2018, Jan 2019, and Feb 2019). Table S4 shows the recorded level and concentration of air pollution in terms of AQI (air quality index), PM 2.5 (particulate matters having a smaller size than 2.5 μm), PM 10 (particulate matters having a smaller size than 10 μm), SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, and O 3 . The highest level of AQI, PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , and NO 2 was recorded at district Swat; however, the least level of the pollutants was recorded at district Chitral. Figure 2 shows the variation of air pollutants across the Malakand division.

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Level of pollutants across the studied districts. Data presented as mean ± SE ( n = 3). Means with different superscripted letters are significantly different ( p < 0.05). (ANOVA followed by Tukey HSD test)

The first section of the questionnaire covered the physical effects reported by the students in response to air pollution. Over 90% of the students reported that they always or often felt the adverse effects of air pollution, indicating a serious concern regarding air pollution in the near future. Of the total respondents, 31.3% (always) and 48.8% (often) faced ENT (ear, nose, and throat) problems, irritations, or allergies. The respiratory problems were reported to be lesser as compared to the previous question, i.e., always (15.1%) and often (15.7%). Similarly, 13.7% of the students reported that they always suffer from sleeping disorders or disruption; however, 52.5% and 27.4% of the students reported that they often and sometimes suffer so, respectively. Table Table1 1 shows the reported physical health effects of air pollution.

Air pollution caused physical health effects reported by the respondents

Physical effects	Always (%)	Often (%)	Sometimes (%)	Rarely (%)	Never (%)
Felt air pollution effects	2969 (73.8)	868 (21.6)	173 (4.3)	8 (0.2)	3 (0.1)
ENT problems/irritation/allergies	1258 (31.3)	1964 (48.8)	736 (18.3)	59 (1.5)	4 (0.1)
Respiratory problems	607 (15.1)	632 (15.7)	1638 (40.7)	838 (20.8)	306 (7.6)
Coughing or wheezing	227 (5.6)	1409 (35.1)	1317 (32.8)	946 (23.5)	122 (3)
Headaches and dizziness	390 (9.7)	1198 (29.8)	1117 (27.8)	1024 (25.5)	292 (7.3)
Reduced energy level	253 (6.3)	630 (15.7)	709 (17.6)	1045 (26)	1384 (34.4)
Sleeping disorder/disruption, i.e., insomnia	549 (13.7)	2110 (52.5)	1104 (27.4)	195 (4.8)	63 (1.6)

The second portion of the questionnaire consisted of the behavioral and psychological effects of air pollution. A total of 82.0%, 85.7%, 88.8%, and 82.5% of students reported that they feel depressed, jog faster and for a shorter time, walk faster, and feel aggressive on hazy days or when there is heavy air pollution. Table Table2 2 shows the reported behavioral and psychological effects of air pollution.

Reported behavioral and psychological effects associated with air pollution

Behavioral effects	Yes (%)	No (%)
Depressed	3297 (82.0)	724 (18.0)
Jog faster and for a short time	3444 (85.7)	577 (14.3)
Walk faster	3570 (88.8)	451 (11.2)
Anxiety	3037 (75.5)	984 (24.5)
Aggressiveness	3316 (82.5)	705 (17.5)
Aggressiveness during cold days	1059 (26.3)	2962 (73.7)
Aggressiveness during hot days	3117 (77.5)	904 (22.5)

The third portion of the questionnaire was regarding the adoption of preventive measures to mitigate air pollution–based health effects. Of the total respondents, 71.2% reported that they use respiratory masks, 51.7% wear eyeglasses or goggles, 69.4% drink more water to flush out toxins, and 56.6% reported that they eat rich food to enhance their immunity. Table Table3 3 shows the preventive measures adopted by the recruited students to prevent the ill effects of air pollution.

Preventive measure adapted to prevent ill effects of air pollution

Preventive measures	Yes (%)	No (%)
Use of respiratory mask	2862 (71.2)	1159 (28.8)
Wear eyeglasses or goggles	2080 (51.7)	1941 (48.3)
Drink more water	2789 (69.4)	1232 (30.6)
Build immunity with rich food	2270 (56.5)	1751 (43.5)

The fourth and last part of the questionnaire assessed the knowledge, perception, and sources of knowledge of the students regarding air pollution. Over 93% of the students were of the view that there should be smoking designated places and should be prohibited in general places. Of the total subjects, 77.2% were aware of the disorders and deaths associated with air pollution, 63.3% were aware of the major air pollutants, and 69.1% of students reported that the GDP growth of Pakistan leading to health losses is not acceptable or affordable. Table Table4 4 shows the level of awareness and perceptions of the subject of air pollution.

Level of awareness and perceptions of the respondents regarding air pollution

Awareness/perception	Yes (%)	No (%)
Smoking should be prohibited	3758 (93.5)	263 (6.5)
Air pollution mediated deaths	3104 (77.2)	917 (22.8)
Accept health loss over GDP growth	1244 (30.9)	2777 (69.1)
Awareness about air pollutants	2545 (63.3)	1476 (36.7)

In response to a question regarding the sources of pollution (three options selection), the students reported vehicle exhaust, biomass burning, and emission from industries to be the major sources of pollution in Pakistan. Figure 3 A shows the responses regarding air pollution sources. However, in response to a question regarding the source of knowledge about air pollution (selection of as many options as applicable), most of the students reported television to be the major source of knowledge, followed by the internet and newspaper. Figure 3 B shows the reported sources of knowledge about air pollution.

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A Perception of the sources of air pollution generation (selection of any three options). B Sources of knowledge of the respondents regarding air pollution (selection as much options as apply)

Table Table5 5 shows gender- and district-dependent, while Table Table6 6 shows age-dependent physical health effects of air pollution. Table Table7 7 shows gender- and district-dependent while Table Table8 8 shows age-dependent behavioral and psychological effects of air pollution. Tables 9 and 10 show gender- and district-dependent, and age-dependent adoption of practices to prevent ill effects of air pollution. Table Table11 11 shows gender- and district-dependent while Table Table12 12 shows age-dependent knowledge and perception of the students regarding air pollution.

Gender- and district-dependent physical effects of air pollution on the respondents

Gender	Always		Often		Sometimes		Rarely		Never		value*
Gender											value*
Felt effects of air pollution
Male	1825	77.7	411	17.5	102	4.3	8	0.3	3	0.1		63.00
Female	1144	68.4	457	27.3	71	4.2	0	0.0	0	0.0		63.00
Sneezing, runny nose, dry throat, or eye Irritation
Male	671	28.6	1057	45.0	561	23.9	56	2.4	4	0.2		161.72
Female	587	35.1	907	54.2	175	10.5	3	0.2	0	0.0		161.72
Breath shortening or reduced lung function
Male	283	12.0	321	13.7	987	42.0	521	22.2	237	10.1		102.67
Female	324	19.4	311	18.6	651	38.9	317	19.0	69	4.1		102.67
Coughing or wheezing
Male	74	3.2	571	24.3	746	31.8	847	36.1	111	4.7		680.05
Female	153	9.2	838	50.1	571	34.2	99	5.9	11	0.7		680.05
Headache and dizziness
Male	177	7.5	540	23.0	361	15.4	993	42.3	278	11.8		1217.6
Female	213	12.7	658	39.4	756	45.2	31	1.9	14	0.8		1217.6
Reduced energy level
Male	67	2.9	273	11.6	220	9.4	549	23.4	1240	52.8		952.88
Female	186	11.1	357	21.4	489	29.2	496	29.7	144	8.6		952.88
Sleep deprivation or sleeping disorders
Male	340	14.5	996	42.4	780	33.2	181	7.7	52	2.2		290.15
Female	209	12.5	1114	66.6	324	19.4	14	0.8	11	0.7		290.15
Adverse physical effects reported by the respondents across the studied districts
Dir (Lower)	1367	17.2	2321	29.2	1689	21.3	1711	21.6	850	10.7		2416.74
Dir (Upper)	1034	17.8	1234	21.2	1735	29.8	1234	21.2	587	10.1
Chitral	763	26.1	798	27.3	987	33.8	201	6.9	170	5.8
Swat	1675	24.2	2756	39.9	1604	23.2	578	8.4	296	4.3
Buner	876	29.9	921	31.5	540	18.5	357	12.2	232	7.9
Shangla	538	33.0	781	47.9	239	14.7	34	2.1	39	2.4
Total responses	6253	22.2	8811	31.3	6794	24.1	4115	14.6	2174	7.7	28,147

* Bold value represents p -value < 0.05

a p -value < αaltered (significant after Bonferroni adjustment)

Age-dependent physical effects of air pollution on the respondents

Age range	Always		Often		Sometimes		Rarely		Never		value
Age range											value
Felt effects of air pollution
16–20	954	73.0	283	21.7	70	5.4	0	0.0	0	0.0		276.84
21–25	612	87.8	51	7.3	31	4.4	2	0.3	1	0.1
26–30	993	71.6	389	28.0	4	0.3	0	0.0	1	0.1
31–35	321	67.2	102	21.3	51	10.7	3	0.6	1	0.2
≥ 36	89	58.6	43	28.3	17	11.2	3	2.0	0	0.0
Sneezing, runny nose, dry throat, or eye irritation
16–20	519	39.7	532	40.7	239	18.3	15	1.1	2	0.2		166.82
21–25	198	28.4	421	60.4	66	9.5	11	1.6	1	0.1
26–30	351	25.3	741	53.4	273	19.7	21	1.5	1	0.1
31–35	134	28.0	213	44.6	127	26.6	4	0.8	0	0.0
≥ 36	56	36.8	57	37.5	31	20.4	8	5.3	0	0.0
Breath shortening or reduced lung function
16–20	198	15.1	201	15.4	683	52.3	201	15.4	24	1.8		1018.6
21–25	107	15.4	178	25.5	289	41.5	97	13.9	26	3.7
26–30	92	6.6	214	15.4	523	37.7	467	33.7	91	6.6
31–35	145	30.3	30	6.3	99	20.7	50	10.5	154	32.2
≥ 36	65	42.8	9	5.9	44	28.9	23	15.1	11	7.2
Coughing or wheezing
16–20	78	6.0	546	41.8	601	46.0	77	5.9	5	0.4		1309.12
21–25	66	9.5	102	14.6	314	45.1	213	30.6	2	0.3
26–30	73	5.3	467	33.7	287	20.7	558	40.2	2	0.1
31–35	8	1.7	205	42.9	87	18.2	85	17.8	93	19.5
≥ 36	2	1.3	89	58.5	28	18.4	13	8.6	20	13.2
Headache and dizziness
16–20	119	9.1	366	28.0	465	35.6	201	15.4	156	11.9		574.39
21–25	84	12.1	163	23.4	217	31.1	197	28.3	36	5.2
26–30	123	8.9	512	36.9	389	28.0	285	20.5	78	5.6
31–35	43	9.0	99	20.7	29	6.1	297	62.1	10	2.1
≥ 36	21	13.8	58	38.2	17	11.2	44	28.9	12	7.9
Reduced energy level
16–20	54	4.1	178	13.6	213	16.3	587	44.9	275	21.0		717.7
21–25	41	5.9	87	12.5	178	25.5	211	30.3	180	25.8
26–30	145	10.5	227	16.4	267	19.3	204	14.7	544	39.2
31–35	10	2.1	101	21.1	43	9.0	36	7.5	288	60.3
≥ 36	3	2.0	37	24.3	8	5.3	7	4.6	97	63.8
Sleep deprivation or sleeping disorders
16–20	139	10.6	699	53.5	431	33.0	32	2.4	6	0.5		390.49
21–25	97	13.9	302	43.3	170	24.4	104	14.9	24	3.4
26–30	201	14.5	796	57.4	370	26.7	11	0.8	9	0.6
31–35	78	16.3	246	51.5	116	24.3	27	5.6	11	2.3
≥ 36	34	22.4	67	44.1	17	11.2	21	13.8	13	8.6

Reported gender- and district-dependent behavioral and psychological effects of air pollution

Gender	Yes		No		-value *
Gender					-value *
Feeling sad, depressed and unpleasant during hazy climate
Male	1776	75.6	573	24.4		156.14
Female	1521	91.0	151	9.0		156.14
Haze affecting the daily routine exercise
Male	1890	80.5	459	19.5		123.83
Female	1554	92.9	118	7.1		123.83
Haze affecting routine exercise speed
Male	2164	92.1	185	7.9		63.3
Female	1406	84.1	266	15.9		63.3
Anxiety and depression
Male	1753	74.6	596	25.4	0.1152	2.48
Female	1284	76.8	388	23.2	0.1152	2.48
Aggression/aggressive behavior
Male	1954	83.2	395	16.8	0.1562	2.01
Female	1362	81.5	310	18.5	0.1562	2.01
More aggressive in colder days/season
Male	644	27.4	1705	72.6	0.0655	3.39
Female	415	24.8	1257	75.2	0.0655	3.39
More aggressive in hotter/warmer days/season
Male	1976	84.1	373	15.9		141.32
Female	1141	68.2	531	31.8		141.32
Adverse behavioral effects reported by the respondents across study sites/cities
Dir (L)	6484	81.7	1454	18.3		2767.55
Dir (U)	3107	53.5	2717	46.7
Chitral	1729	59.2	1190	40.8
Swat	6096	88.2	813	11.8
Buner	2383	81.4	543	18.6
Shangla	1041	63.8	590	36.2
Total responses	20,840	74.0	7307	26.0	28,147

b p -value > αaltered (non-significant after Bonferroni adjustment)

Age-dependent behavioral and psychological effects of air pollution on the students

Age ranges	Yes		No		-value*
Age ranges					-value*
Feeling sad, depressed, and unpleasant during hazy climate
16–20	1198	91.7	109	8.3		408.62
21–25	550	78.9	147	21.1
26–30	1194	86.1	193	13.9
31–35	290	60.7	188	39.3
≥ 36	65	42.8	87	57.2
Haze affecting the daily routine exercise
16–20	1182	90.4	125	9.6		337.38
21–25	640	91.8	57	8.2
26–30	1188	95.7	199	14.3
31–35	375	78.5	103	21.5
≥ 36	59	38.8	93	61.2
Haze affecting routine exercise speed
16–20	1202	92.0	105	8.0		140.54
21–25	646	92.7	51	7.3
26–30	1235	89.0	152	11.0
31–35	389	81.4	89	18.6
≥ 36	98	64.5	54	35.5
Anxiety and depression
16–20	928	71.0	379	29.0		125.54
21–25	548	78.6	149	21.4
26–30	1120	80.7	267	19.3
31–35	375	78.5	103	21.5
≥ 36	66	43.4	86	56.6
Aggression/aggressive behavior
16–20	1164	89.1	143	10.9		281.86
21–25	592	84.9	105	15.1
26–30	1185	85.4	202	14.6
31–35	279	58.4	199	41.6
≥ 36	96	63.2	56	36.8
More aggressive in colder days/season
16–20	456	34.9	851	65.1		125.2
21–25	121	17.4	576	82.6
26–30	389	28.0	998	72.0
31–35	65	13.6	413	86.4
≥ 36	28	18.4	124	81.6
More aggressive in hotter/warmer days/season
16–20	1032	79.0	275	21.0		27.52
21–25	554	79.5	143	20.5
26–30	1042	75.1	345	24.9
31–35	391	81.8	87	18.2
≥ 36	98	64.5	54	35.5

Gender- and district-dependent adoption of practices to prevent the adverse effects of air pollution

Gender	Yes		No		-value *
Gender					-value *
Use of respiratory mask to cover nose and mouth
Male	1491	63.5	858	36.5		163.37
Female	1371	82.0	301	18.0		163.37
Use of glasses/goggles during the haze
Male	1278	54.4	1071	45.6		16.22
Female	802	48.0	870	52.0		16.22
Drinking enough water
Male	1425	60.7	924	39.3		201.05
Female	1364	81.6	308	18.4		201.05
Boost up immunity by eating a rich diet including Vit. C, E, or omega-3-fatty acid, etc
Male	1065	45.3	1284	54.7		283.9
Female	1205	72.1	467	27.9		283.9
Preventive measures adopted by the respondents across study sites/cities
Dir (L)	2765	61.0	1771	39.0		641.96
Dir (U)	2082	62.6	1246	37.4
Chitral	901	54.0	767	46.0
Swat	3021	76.5	927	23.5
Buner	776	46.4	896	53.6
Shangla	456	48.9	476	51.1
Total responses	10,001	62.2	6083	37.8	16,084

Age-dependent adoption of practices to prevent adverse effects of air pollution

Age ranges	Yes		No		-value
Age ranges					-value
Use of respiratory mask to cover nose and mouth
16–20	940	71.9	367	28.1		62.88
21–25	420	60.3	277	39.7
26–30	1064	76.7	323	23.3
31–35	329	68.8	149	31.2
≥ 36	109	71.7	43	28.3
Use of glasses/goggles during the haze
16–20	660	50.5	647	49.5		39.75
21–25	332	47.6	365	52.4
26–30	709	51.1	678	48.9
31–35	266	55.6	212	44.4
≥ 36	113	74.3	39	25.7
Drinking enough water
16–20	804	61.5	503	38.5		153.71
21–25	430	61.7	267	38.3
26–30	1009	72.7	378	27.3
31–35	417	87.2	61	12.8
≥ 36	129	84.9	23	15.1
Boost up immunity by eating a rich diet including Vit. C, E or Omega–3–Fatty acid, etc
16–20	689	52.7	618	47.3		62.25
21–25	394	56.5	303	43.5
26–30	789	56.9	598	43.1
31–35	267	55.9	211	44.1
≥ 36	131	86.2	21	13.8

Gender- and district-dependent awareness and perceptions of air pollution

Gender	Yes		No		-value*
Gender					-value*
Prevention of smoking in public areas/there should be smoking designated areas
Male	2116	90.1	233	9.9		105.48
Female	1642	98.2	30	1.8		105.48
Air pollution is linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases/disorders
Male	1697	72.2	652	27.8		78.67
Female	1407	84.2	265	15.8		78.67
Pakistan’s growth in GDP affecting the environment, is it acceptable/affordable?
Male	923	39.3	1426	60.7		184.6
Female	321	19.2	1351	80.8		184.6
Aware of different toxic substances such as CO, SO , NO , PM, etc
Male	1458	62.1	891	37.9	0.0564	3.64
Female	1087	65.0	585	35	0.0564	3.64
Awareness level/perception of the respondents across study sites/cities
Dir (L)	2968	65.4	1568	34.6		469.64
Dir (U)	2234	67.1	1094	32.9
Chitral	1121	67.2	547	32.8
Swat	3004	76.1	944	23.9
Buner	901	53.9	771	46.1
Shangla	423	45.4	509	54.6
Total responses	10,651	66.2	5433	33.8	16,084

Age-dependent awareness and perceptions of air pollution

Age ranges	Yes		No		-value*
Age ranges					-value*
Smoke prevention in public areas/ restricted to smoke designated areas
16–20	1217	93.1	90	6.9		34.9
21–25	655	94.0	42	6.0
26–30	1326	95.6	61	4.4
31–35	429	89.7	49	10.3
≥ 36	131	86.2	21	13.8
Air pollution is linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases/disorders
16–20	961	73.5	346	26.5		67.59
21–25	499	71.6	198	28.4
26–30	1089	78.5	298	21.5
31–35	416	87.0	62	13.0
≥ 36	139	91.4	13	8.6
Pakistan’s growth in GDP affecting the environment, is it acceptable/affordable?
16–20	591	45.2	716	54.8		214.18
21–25	209	30.0	488	70.0
26–30	320	23.1	1067	76.9
31–35	111	23.2	367	76.8
≥ 36	13	8.6	139	91.4
Aware of different toxic substances such as CO, SO , NO , PM, etc
16–20	724	55.4	583	44.6		160.51
21–25	398	57.1	299	42.9
26–30	901	65.0	486	35.0
31–35	381	79.7	97	20.3
≥ 36	141	92.8	11	7.2

Pakistan has been named as one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia. However, this advancement is coupled with the rapid growth of population, industrialization, and urbanization leading to severe air pollution. At this stage, Pakistan is faced with many challenges; however, urban air pollution is one of the most challenging and notable issues. Air pollution is more severe in the larger cities as compared to rural setups or countrysides due to modern industrialization and urban reconstructions. For example cities like Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, and Islamabad established different industries and improved substantially an infrastructure point of view such as initiation of subway or metro systems. These advancements attracted a lot of migrant workers to move to these cities and increased the pressure on the carrying capacities of these cities resulting in urban air pollution. Consequently, consistent and long-term air pollution has been the major source of respiratory diseases and weak immune system in big cities around the globe (Fossati et al., 2006 ; Gül et al., 2011 ; Roman & Idrees, 2013 ; Zhang et al., 2008 ).

The current study assessed the self-reported physical and behavioral or psychological effects of air pollution, adopting different strategies to avoid the ill effects of air pollution. The perception of the students regarding air pollution and their level of awareness regarding air pollution were investigated. This study was the first of its type in the northern part of Pakistan for developing a model regarding a prominent and threatening social dilemma — air pollution. Our study provides valuable insight for covering the gap between health risk awareness of air pollution and scientific research. It also provides key theoretical references for decision-makers and risk management of air pollution and useful measure to prevent or reduce the risks. Understanding public perceptions of air pollution and associated health risk is important for designing policies and intervention programs (Omanga et al., 2014 ). It is also necessary for air pollution reduction, and health risk reduction or prevention (Howel et al., 2002 ). However, the local masses must be aware of and rectify misunderstandings regarding air pollution and associated health risk. This will enhance their comprehension as well as they can cooperate with the policymakers or environmental protection management agencies or organizations. This will not only make the execution of the policies easy but will also lower the policy cost.

There is plenty of literature available demonstrating the adverse impact of air pollution on humans. A plethora of research studies revealed the hostile effects of polluted air on the respiratory system (Fossati et al., 2006 ; Gül et al., 2011 ; Zhang et al., 2008 ). The key respiratory disorders reported are coughing, emphysema, bronchitis, and lung cancer (Mabahwi et al., 2014 ). Exposure to air pollution for a prolonged duration renders the already suffering individuals more vulnerable such as asthmatic patients and those who suffered from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or cardiac failure (Abelsohn & Stieb, 2011 ). Similarly, the most vulnerable individuals are those who are already suffering from respiratory disorders (Rajper et al., 2018 ).

In the current study, over 73% of students reported that they always experience the physical effects of air pollution, over 21% reported that they often experience so, while a meager 0.1% reported that they never felt so. This indicated the intimidating consequences of air pollution in the study areas. Over 31% of the students always and over 48% often experienced ENT problems (irritation and allergies), over 15% often and over 15% often experienced respiratory problems, over 5% always and over 35% often experienced coughing or wheezing, over 9% always and 29.8% often experienced headaches and dizziness, and over 6% always and over 15% often felt reduced energy level, whereas over 13% always and 52.5% often suffered from sleeping disorders due to air pollution. Significant ( p < 0.05) gender-, age-, and district-dependent differences were observed in the reported physical effects of air pollution. The variation in the responses might be attributed to the different health status of the subjects, their genetic polymorphism, and the duration of exposure to polluted air or variation in the level of air pollution across the districts (Gilliland, 2009 ; London, 2007 ; Sandström & Kelly, 2009 ). The results of the current study are consistent with earlier studies, demonstrating similar adverse impacts of polluted air on the health of the recruited subjects (Donaldson & William, 1998 ; Pope III et al., 2002 ; Yu et al., 2016 ).

A suitable environment, comfortable weather, and pollution-free air result in better mental health, positive psychological effects, and appropriate behaviors (Denissen et al., 2008 ; Guéguen, 2013 ; Guéguen & Jacob, 2014 ; Keller et al., 2005 ). Similarly, an unhealthy environment and polluted air result in hostile effects on psychological, behavioral, and mental health and lead to different abnormalities (Calderón-Garcidueñas et al., 2015 ; Hsiang et al., 2013 ; Lim et al., 2012 ; Vrijheid, 2000 ; Woodward et al., 2014 ). Air pollution mediates stress, leading to depression and altered behavior (Cho et al., 2014 ; Lim et al., 2012 ; Mabahwi et al., 2014 ). Poor atmospheric condition including polluted air is identified as the major reason for stress in humans (Sahari et al., 2017 ). In the current study, 82% of students reported that they feel depressed, 85.7% jog faster and for a shorter period, 88.8% walk faster, 75.5% suffer from anxiety, and 82.5% feel aggressive in response to polluted air. Of the total students, 26.3% reported that they feel more aggressive when it is cold while 77.5% of the students reported that they feel more aggressive in hotter weather. The impacts of air pollution on the psychological conditions and sporting behavior of the respondents were obvious. Gender-, district-, and age-dependent significant ( p < 0.05) differences were observed. Females and students from the 16–20 age range were observed to be more vulnerable as compared to males and students from the older age range (≥ 36 years), respectively. Similarly, the respondents from district Swat were observed to be more affected (psychologically or behaviorally) as compared to the other districts. The responses of the respondents from district Buner and district Lower Dir were observed to be relatively similar. We also observed the same adverse effects of air pollution on Chinese students in our earlier study (Rajper et al., 2018 ).

Air pollutants such as PMs, trace metals, and aerosols, lead to human bodies and penetrate deeply into the lungs. These are not easily removed through exhalation and disturb the physical strength and stamina to partake in sporty activities as well as alter the general willingness or duration of these activities (Chaudhari et al., 2012 ). Drinking more water and consuming energy-rich food is recommended to cope with such a scenario. In the current study, 69.4% of the students reported that they drink more water while 56.6% of the students reported that they consume rich food to build or boost their immunity. Likewise, 71.2% of students use respiratory masks and 51.7% wear goggles or eyeglasses to avoid harmful impacts when air gets polluted. A significant ( p < 0.05) gender-dependent difference was observed in the adoption of preventive measures. A higher number of female students (82.0%) reported using respiratory masks as compared to male students (63.5%); however, a total of 54.4% male students reported using goggles or glasses as compared to 48.0% of the female students. Similarly, more female students (81.6%) reported that they drink more water to flush out toxins as compared to male students (60.7%). Over 72% of the female students consume a rich diet to boost up their immunity while 45.3% of the male students reported doing so. An age-dependent significant ( p < 0.05) difference was also observed, wherein in most of the cases the older (≥ 36 years old) were adopting more preventive measures such as using respiratory masks, wearing goggles or glasses, drinking more water, and consuming a rich diet.

The current study also evaluated the level of awareness and perceptions of the subject regarding air pollution. A total of 93.5% of students believed that open smoking should be prohibited and there should be separate smoking designated places, 77.2% were aware of the disorders or deaths associated with air pollution, 63.3% were aware of air pollutants, and 30.9% of the students reported that health losses in favor of GDP growth of Pakistan are acceptable and affordable. A gender-dependent significant ( p < 0.05) difference was observed in the awareness level and perception except for awareness regarding different air pollutants (CO, SO 2 , NO 2 , and particulate matters). It was observed that females were more aware of air pollution and its consequences. Females were more cautious about smoking and less than 20% were of the view that the growth of Pakistan’s GDP affecting the environment is acceptable. An age-dependent significant ( p < 0.05) difference was also observed. The older students were more aware as compared to the younger ones. Previous studies also revealed gender-dependent differences in the level of awareness and perceptions of air pollution (Badland & Duncan, 2009 ; Shi, 2015 ). Similarly, studies also revealed age-dependent satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the ambient air quality (Kim et al., 2012 ; Liu et al., 2016 ).

A linear association between literacy and knowledge about the adverse health effects of air pollution has been reported (Brody et al., 2004 ; Ferreira et al., 2013 ). Similarly, an income-dependent significant difference in the knowledge of the respondents has also been reported (Fang et al., 2009 ; Onkal-Engin et al., 2004 ). In the current study, vehicle exhaust was reported as the major source of air pollution (85.0%), followed by biomass burning (51.4%), and emission from the industries (50.4%). Television (77.9%) was reported to be the main source of knowledge regarding air pollution for the subjects, followed by the internet (59.9%), newspaper (59.6%), and radio (51.7%). Previous studies also reported television and the internet to be the main sources of knowledge about air pollution for the recruited students (Liu et al., 2016 ; Rajper et al., 2018 ).

The negative impacts of air pollution can be minimized by mass awareness; spreading knowledge regarding the hostilities of air pollution; its mitigation, reduction, or prevention; and rectifying the misunderstandings and misperceptions regarding air pollution among the general public. Informal communications, discussion, public conversations, and exchange of information about air pollution among relatives, family members, colleagues, and friends can play a key role in mass awareness and influencing risk perceptions of the public. Health and social workers can play a very positive role by disseminating knowledge and practices to be adopted against air pollution. Governmental and non-governmental environmental management and environmental protection agencies should arrange training, symposia, seminars, and campaigns to increase awareness among local masses about air pollution and associated health risks. Alleviating remedies against air pollutions shall be broadcasted through TV channels and radio, published on the internet (blogs) and newspapers, and spread through the social media platform.

In the current study, an attempt was made to approach as many students as possible and equally from all the districts of the study area. However, like other studies, we had some limitations regarding the duration of the study, and time management while recruiting new students. During the current study, the main administrative units of the districts were selected for air quality detection, such as Timergara at district Lower Dir, Khas Dir Bazar at district Upper Dir, Mingora at district Swat, and Sawarhy at district Buner. However, it is suggested that the air quality parameters of the farther areas of the districts should be assessed. The appraisal of the air quality index and level of the air pollutants at regular intervals is also suggested in the study area.

The baseline physiological conditions at the individual level were not adjusted for mental and behavioral health, due to the limited time frame and off-campus recruitment of the students through Google form (because most of the universities were closed at the study area). Moreover, the administered questionnaire was closed-ended. Therefore, for conducting the same survey in the future in another area, we recommend the inclusion of open-ended questions. This will extend the level of understanding regarding public perceptions, practices, attitudes, and the level of awareness regarding air pollution. These key points should be considered and the findings of the current study should be applied cautiously to another area or population.

The students of the Malakand division reported different physical (respiratory problems, ENT problems, allergies, reduced energy, sleeping disorder or disruption, etc.), behavioral (sporty behavior such as jogging speed and duration), and psychological (depression, anxiety, and aggression) effects of air pollution. These effects were observed to be gender-, age-, and district-dependent, as females, younger, and students from district Swat were more suffering. Owing to these health effects, the student adopted different prevention measures such as using masks, wearing goggles or eyeglasses, drinking more water, and consuming energy-rich food. Females were observed to be more careful and adopting preventive measures more often such as using masks, drinking more water, and consuming an energy-rich diet. Older respondents were found to be more caring as compared to younger ones. The subjects were aware of the major air pollutants and no gender-dependent difference was observed in this regard; however, an age-dependent difference was observed. Vehicle exhaust was reported to be the major source of air pollution and television to be the major source of information regarding air pollution.

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Acknowledgements

The author S. Ullah has been supported by the Chinese Scholarship Council and National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 31772470) for his Ph.D. study. We are thankful to all the students, who participated in this study.

Data availability

Declarations.

The authors declare no competing interests.

The study was undertaken according to the Ethics Review Committee of NJU (No. 2009–116). To acquire data/information, the review committee approves informed verbal/written consent. Therefore, the questionnaire was administered after the informed consent of the students.

Publisher's Note

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Contributor Information

Sana Ullah, Email: kp.ude.eu@halluanas .

Zhongqiu Li, Email: nc.ude.ujn@qzil .

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Air Pollution In Pakistan Causes And Effects And Their Solutions

Air Pollution in Pakistan, its causes and effects are given on this page. Air Pollution is a condition in which air is contaminated with toxic chemical or substances which has a harmful and poisonous effect on human health, plant, and animals too. Air Pollution is the worst form of pollution. The world is facing one of the growing and greatest challenges in the form of air pollution. There are so many causes and effect of air pollution which adversely affects human health and the environment. Air pollution is one of the major issues in most of the countries of the world. Here below we are going to present some of the causes and effects of air pollution along with the solution to avoid this serious issue. so check out Air Pollution In Pakistan Causes And Effects And Their Solutions through this page. It is one of the major Environmental Issues in Pakistan.

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The density of Air Pollution in Pakistan has much increased as well this is necessary to know for all students about Air Pollution in Pakistan Causes and Effects and Their Solution. Moreover, causes of air pollution, effects that generate from air pollution and their solution is mentioned with detail.

Air Pollution In Pakistan Causes And Effects And Their Solutions

Sources of Air Pollution

The major cause of air pollution includes;

Vehicle Emission
Power Plant
Deforestation
Vehicle Emission: Vehicle Emission is one of the major sources or causes of air pollution for a decade. Fossil Fuel emission reacts with the air and makes some poisonous and harmful compounds and pollutants contaminate the air badly and responsible for various disorders. It is one of the major Air Pollution In Pakistan Causes.
Power Plants: Undoubtedly power plants play a vital role in contaminating the air with pollutants. Fossil fuel burning comprises major greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and fluorinated gases. Smog is also the result of the combustion of fossil fuel with heat and sunlight.
Industry: Our industry is also the major contributor to air pollution in more than 80 countries of the world. The industrial sector of a particular country contributes 40% to 50% in polluting the air with toxic gases such as nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide.
Smoking: Smoking also affects the air in several ways. Tobacco smoking also kills a person who is even a non-smoker. Tobacco smoke is comprised of 40 carcinogens which are considered as the lethal form of air pollution.
Deforestation: Forests are the natural defender of air pollution in the environment. Because through the process of carbon sequestration forests act as sinks for carbon dioxide which automatically removes carbon dioxide from the air and uncontaminated the air to breathe.

Effects of Air Pollution in Pakistan

There are so many severe and serious effects of air pollution are there on both health and the environment.

Health Effects: Air pollution may cause some short-term and long-term health effects on human beings. Respiratory and inflammatory disorders are the common diseases of air pollution. It also affects the eyes; nose and throat, even increasing the chances of a heart attack.
Environmental Effects: Air pollution adversely affects plants and animals and is also responsible for environmental changes in the atmosphere. Global temperature has risen for so many years due to air pollution. It is also responsible for causing the effects of ozone depletion, acid rain, and photochemical smog. Acid rain, haze, eutrophication, wildlife effect, crop and forest damage, global climate change are also the environmental effects of air pollution.

Solution of Air Pollution in Pakistan

Every matter or issue can be cured in this world by taking particular measures and precautions. The selection of air-friendly products such as VOC-free products is helpful in reducing air pollution. Limited consumption of fossil fuels such as natural gas, coal, and gasoline is the key factor to reducing air pollution. Our government should try to support clean air programs and bring awareness regarding air pollution causes and effects. Scientists are also trying to find out the best ways and sources to reduce air pollution by taking specific measures. Reforestation is also the major precaution to reduce air pollution because it stores carbon dioxide from the air which is considered the major pollutant. Hence it’s our obligation to reduce pollution in order to live in a healthy environment. So these are the Air Pollution In Pakistan Causes And Effects And Their Solutions mentioned on this page.

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Pollution in Karachi

A prevailing problem in Karachi is pollution. Being an industrial city, it produces thousands of tonnes of solid waste. Some of Karachi’s fertile land is used to dump waste products. Due to the accumulation of waste, many diseases are spreading in Karachi. People from lower socio-economic class search these heaps of garbage for material that can be recycled. This practice has adverse effects on their health. The streets of the city are very poorly kept. Gutters and water pipelines leak in many areas mixing clean water with polluted water. Water borne diseases are spreading at a rapid pace. The hygienic conditions of the city are poor. Garbage is sold and burnt as a fuel. This produces air pollution. Moreover, it also gives way to many diseases such as lung diseases etc. The environment is put under harm and thus nature suffers greatly. According to a research 80 percent of the garbage can be recycled if the collectors collect it separately as in, put similar materials into the same place. I urge the Government of Sindh to take necessary reforms to improve the state of environmental affairs in Karachi. If prevailing practices continue, life in the city will face even more challenges as it does today. Burning of garbage should be banned. Those who illegally sell garbage should be put to punishment.

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Guest Essay

Enough With the Fireworks Already

Strands of yellow light coming from a lit sparkler against a background of trees, mountains and sky.

By Margaret Renkl

Ms. Renkl is a contributing Opinion writer who covers flora, fauna, politics and culture in the American South.

For 15 straight years, our old dog Clark — a hound-shepherd-retriever mix who was born in the woods and loved the outdoors ever after — spent the Fourth of July in our walk-in shower. He seemed to believe a windowless shower in a windowless bathroom offered his best chance of surviving the shrieking terror that was raining down from the night sky outside.

Did he think the fireworks, with their window-rattling booms, were the work of some cosmic predator big enough to eat him whole? Did he think they were gunshots or claps of thunder spreading out from inexplicable lightning bolts tearing open the sky above our house?

There’s no way to know what he was thinking, but every single year that rangy, 75-pound, country-born yard dog spent the Fourth of July in our shower, trembling, drooling and whimpering in terror.

Clark was lucky. We have friends whose terrified dog spent one Fourth of July fruitlessly trying to outrun the explosions. The next day a good Samaritan found him lying on a hot sidewalk miles away, close to death. Other friends came home from watching the fireworks to discover that their dog had bolted in terror from their fenced backyard and been killed by a car.

And those were all companion animals, the ones whose terror is clear to us. We have no real way of knowing how many wild animals suffer because the patterns of their lives are disrupted with no warning every year on a night in early July. People shooting bottle rockets in the backyard might not see the sleeping songbirds, startled from their safe roosts, exploding into a darkness they did not evolve to navigate — crashing into buildings or depleting crucial energy reserves . People firing Roman candles into the sky above the ocean may have no idea that the explosions can cause seabirds to abandon their nests or frighten nesting shorebirds to death .

Then there’s the wildlife driven into roads — deer and foxes, opossums and skunks, coyotes and raccoons. Any nocturnal creature in a blind panic can find itself staring into oncoming headlights, unsure whether the greater danger lies in the road or in the sky or in the neighborhood yards surrounding them.

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Air pollution in Karachi
Air pollution in Karachi. Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan and the 12th largest city in the world is facing a significant air pollution problem. [1] The air quality of Karachi has been deteriorating over the years, with pollution levels often exceeding safe limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO). [2]
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Separately, Pakistan Medical Association Secretary General SM Qaisar Sajjad noted that Karachi had turned out to be the world's fourth largest air polluting city. "Air pollution is a slow ...
State of gaseous air pollutants and resulting health effects in Karachi
Karachi, Pakistan, is a priority site for air pollution research due to high emissions of air pollutants from vehicular traffic, industrial activities, and biomass burning, as well as rapid growth in population. The objectives of this study were to investigate the levels of gaseous pollutants (NO, NO 2, O 3, HNO 3, and SO 2) in Karachi, to ...
Industrial Emission Monitoring and Assessment of Air Quality in Karachi
The physical, chemical and biological agents that modify the natural composition are defined as air pollution [].It is one of the leading causes of death in the 21st century and poses a serious threat to human health [].WHO (2022) estimates that 99% of people worldwide breathe poor-quality air, and low-income countries are more vulnerable and live at high risk [].
State of gaseous air pollutants and resulting health effects in Karachi
Karachi, Pakistan, is a priority site for air pollution research due to high emissions of air pollutants from vehicular traffic, industrial activities, and biomass burning, as well as rapid growth in population. The objectives of this study were to investigate the levels of gaseous pollutants (NO, NO2, O3, HNO3, and SO2) in Karachi, to determine temporal and seasonal variations, to compare ...
Why pollution is so high in Pakistan's cities
Air pollution is a major problem confronting Pakistan, with cities like Lahore and Karachi ranking among the most polluted worldwide. According to data released by IQAir, a global environmental ...
Impact of climate change on health in Karachi, Pakistan
Air pollution due to traffic and low standards in engine quality has also increased in Pakistan [14]. This is typical of low-income countries and regions, where governmental implementation of clean-air standards for automobiles may not be financially feasible. ... Effect of air pollution on daily morbidity in Karachi, Pakistan. J Local Global ...
A polluted Karachi
March 04, 2022. facebook twitter whatsup linkded email. It comes as no surprise that Karachi has been deemed as the world's fourth largest polluted city in the world according to investigative ...
PDF Pakistan's Air Pollution Challenge & Potential for Longer Lives
of particulate air pollution, the studies were able to plausibly isolate the effect of particulates air pollution from other factors that affect health. The more recent of the two studies found that sustained ... Sindh Karachi City 22.4 16 11 0.5 0.1 0.5 Punjab Lahore 9.4 64 43 5.3 4.8 2.0 Punjab Faisalabad 8.1 59 40 4.8 4.3 1.8
Effect of air pollution on daily morbidity in Karachi, Pakistan
Levels of daily particulates (PM2.5) were monitored at two sites in Karachi, Pakistan. One site (Korangi) is an industrial and residential neighborhood, while the other (Tibet Center) is a commercial and residential area near a major highway. Monitoring was done daily for a period of six weeks during spring, summer, fall and winter. Particulate levels were extraordinarily high, with the great ...
Effect of Air Pollution on daily morbidity in Karachi, Pakistan
Effect of Air Pollution on daily morbidity in Karachi, Pakistan. November 2012. Journal of Local and Global Health Science 2012 (3):1-13. DOI: 10.5339/jlghs.2012.3. Authors: Haider Khwaja ...
(PDF) Air Pollution in Pakistan
perspective, the harm done by air pollution exceeds most other high-profile. causes of mortality and morbidity that receive significantly more attention in. Pakistan, including road accidents ...
A Study of Ambient Air Quality Status in Karachi, By Applying Air
A: phys. sci. 2018 61A(2) 106-114 A Study of Ambient Air Quality Status in Karachi, By Applying Air Quality Index (AQI) Durdana Rais Hashmi*, Akhtar Shareef and Razia Begum Centre for Environmental Studies, PCSIR Laboratories Complex, Karachi-75280, Pakistan (received October 10, 2017; revised February 23, 2018; accepted March 8, 2018) Abstract.
Pakistan
Pakistan is the world's fourth most polluted country. Fine particulate air pollution (PM 2.5) shortens the average Pakistani resident's life expectancy by 3.9 years, relative to what it would be if the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m 3 was met. Some areas of Pakistan fare much worse than average, with air pollution shortening lives by almost 7 years in the country's ...
Karachi Air Quality Index (AQI) and Pakistan Air Pollution
Karachi's 2019 reading of 40.2 μg/m³ put it in 231 st place out of all the most polluted cities worldwide, as well as being the 9 th most polluted city in Pakistan. Despite being so densely populated, and with a whole host of pollution problems, with some months coming in with dangerous levels of PM2.5 readings, there are cities in Pakistan ...
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According to this index, if polluted particles in the air range from 151 to 200 particulate matters, there is a danger to health. On Tuesday, 301 particulate matters were recorded in Karachi's ...
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A. Time Wastage: Commuters in Karachi often spend hours stuck in traffic, leading to productivity losses and stressful daily routines. B. Air Pollution: Prolonged traffic congestion contributes to air pollution, which poses serious health risks to residents, particularly children and the elderly.
Air pollution and associated self-reported effects on the exposed
Air pollution is continuously growing as a threatening challenge for Pakistan. Keeping this in view, the current study was designed to assess air pollution in terms of air quality index (AQI), particulate matters (PM 2.5 and PM 10), SO 2, NO 2, and O 3 over six districts of Malakand division, Northern Pakistan. The second part of the study ...
Air Pollution In Pakistan Causes And Effects And Their Solutions
Health Effects: Air pollution may cause some short-term and long-term health effects on human beings. Respiratory and inflammatory disorders are the common diseases of air pollution. It also affects the eyes; nose and throat, even increasing the chances of a heart attack. Environmental Effects: Air pollution adversely affects plants and animals ...
Environment of Karachi
Air pollution is the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by their ...
Pollution in Karachi
Pollution in Karachi. September 01, 2016. Letters. A prevailing problem in Karachi is pollution. Being an industrial city, it produces thousands of tonnes of solid waste. Some of Karachi's fertile land is used to dump waste products. Due to the accumulation of waste, many diseases are spreading in Karachi. People from lower socio-economic ...
Essay on Air Pollution
Essay on Air Pollution, download free essays. a memorable day of in my life essay, 100 words, 200 words, 300, 400 words essay Skip to content Education In Karachi
Pakistan Withers Under Deadly Heat and Fears the Coming Rains
Karachi, Pakistan's largest city, endured days of temperatures above 100 Fahrenheit, made worse by power cuts and high humidity. By Zia ur-Rehman Reporting from Karachi In nearly every corner of ...
Opinion
Such measures wouldn't address the pollution caused by fireworks, though. On average, Fourth of July displays account for the 42 percent more pollutants found in the air on July 4 and 5 than on ...

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Problems of Karachi Essay | 200 & 500 Words

Problems of Karachi Essay 200 Words

Problems of Karachi Essay 500 Words

I. Overpopulation

II. Traffic Congestion

III. Infrastructure Decay

IV. Water Crisis