Validity
Among the selected 141 articles, 28 (19.86%) were published in the Journal of Cleaner Production , 20 (14.18%) were published in Food Policy , and 5 (3.55%) were published in Quality-Access to Success . The rest of the journal names are visualized in Figure 2 .
The most popular journals publishing the 141 included articles. Others denotes journals that were cited once or twice.
After the 141 articles have been extracted, they were analyzed and summarized individually by listing all the discussed food security drivers, as well as the recommended policies for the improvement of food security and sustainable food production. Then, we synthesized the extracted information from all sources in order to identify the gaps, list the similarities between all the resources, and extract significant insights regarding the main drivers of food security and the recommended policies [ 26 ].
Analysis of the retrieved literature revealed 34 different drivers of food security, as visualized in Figure 3 . Detailed information, along with a full citation list for all the drivers, is provided in Appendix A .
Summary of the major drivers of food security.
Most papers discussed food loss and waste (FLW) and emphasized its impact on food security [ 6 , 19 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 ]. Around one-third of the food produced globally (1.3 million tons) is wasted or lost [ 96 ]. Basher, Raboy [ 43 ] has argued that, if we could save just one-fourth of the wasted food, it would be enough to feed all the world’s undernourished people, contributing positively to FS. The previous finding supports our research findings that FLW is the primary driver of FS. To reduce FLW, Halloran, Clement [ 6 ] has argued that effective communication, more efficient food packaging, and a better consumer understanding of food packaging could lead to solutions. To decrease food loss, Garcia-Herrero, Hoehn [ 62 ] has suggested improving food labelling, enhancing consumer planning, and developing technological advances in packaging and shelf life for perishable products. Morone, Falcone [ 83 ] has suggested the repetition of large-scale research to help define a set of policies encouraging the transition to a new model for consumption that promotes sustainably procured food and dramatically reduces the amount of waste (more details are provided in Section 3.2 ).
Additionally, several authors have considered food security policy (FSP) as a driver of food security in its different forms [ 56 , 63 , 65 , 69 , 70 , 74 , 79 , 85 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 ]. The primary goal of establishing food security policies that consider the factors influencing individuals and groups is to reduce poverty and eliminate hunger. One example is safety-net programs or public food assistance programs (FAPs). The main goal of providing safety-net programs is to increase food consumption among poor people and improve food security [ 102 ].
Many papers have discussed the importance of technological advancement as an enabler of food security [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 63 , 69 , 71 , 74 , 77 , 85 , 90 , 94 , 95 , 109 , 116 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 ]. The use of technology to promote behavioral changes has increasingly become a vital instrument to reduce food waste and indirectly improve food security [ 130 ]. Mobile applications offer households helpful guidance on increasing shelf life and experimenting with dishes using leftovers [ 58 ]. Shukla, Singh [ 130 ] has elaborated that, at present, farmers have access to mobile applications that provide them with reasonably and timely priced information.
Some authors have discussed sustainable agricultural development and practices as enablers of food security [ 56 , 57 , 59 , 64 , 71 , 73 , 94 , 97 , 105 , 109 , 111 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 124 , 130 , 132 , 134 , 136 , 137 , 139 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 ]. Some authors have discussed local production enhancement as a driver of food security to enhance the self-reliance of countries [ 57 , 69 , 85 , 87 , 89 , 94 , 98 , 103 , 105 , 109 , 112 , 117 , 120 , 134 , 137 , 144 , 148 , 149 ]. For example, Ahmed, Begum [ 98 ] has emphasized how, following the GCC ban, Qatar took several successful steps to foster local production, support domestic businesses, and promote the consumption of locally produced food by its citizens. Some authors have argued that building the capacities of small farmers is essential to achieving FS. Education policies are critical for educating farmers, building their capacities, and increasing their human capital; moreover, educational programs should also include food preparation and health education programs in order to ensure the safety of consumed food [ 101 ].
The government’s role in managing a country’s agriculture can also be seen as a driver of food security [ 67 , 75 , 84 , 86 , 100 , 109 , 116 , 117 , 119 , 121 , 137 , 138 , 147 , 150 , 151 , 152 ], as it is responsible for various aspects such as designing, testing, and implementing the right policies to ensure the welfare of its citizens, while providing the necessary assistance to small-scale farmers and ensuring their safety and security in all aspects of life. Governments in developing nations must focus on R&D, agriculture infrastructure (e.g., technologies for irrigation and soil preservation), expansion services, early warning systems, or subsidized farm income in order to alter the production function of the population [ 101 ].
Many authors have discussed the importance of food safety policies as an enabler of food security [ 61 , 64 , 69 , 103 , 105 , 111 , 112 , 129 , 149 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 ]. Food safety policies include food and water safety at several points throughout the supply chain where food-borne diseases might develop [ 69 ]. Environmental policies are also seen as a fundamental enabler of food security [ 59 , 73 , 121 , 124 , 130 , 135 , 139 , 147 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 ]. Regardless of the various approaches discussed by the authors, they all agreed that environmental protection would help to ensure food availability for current and future generations. According to some authors, trade policies [ 69 , 94 , 95 , 103 , 111 , 112 , 114 , 123 , 129 , 141 , 146 , 161 , 164 ] and import policies [ 69 , 95 , 100 , 103 , 120 , 124 , 126 , 129 , 146 ] are enablers of food security. Regulating international trade can help to ensure food security. Lowering trade barriers, for example, has been proposed as a way to mitigate the adverse effects of market regulation caused by climate change [ 141 ].
Many authors have recognized policies that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption and increase consumer awareness and knowledge of the environmental impact of their purchases as a driver of food security [ 52 , 60 , 67 , 69 , 86 , 133 , 144 , 151 , 163 , 165 , 166 , 167 ]. Others have stressed proper communication among all stakeholders as a driver of food security [ 6 , 56 , 68 , 69 , 84 , 92 , 129 , 130 , 156 , 157 , 168 ]. Some authors have considered risk management as an enabler of food security [ 94 , 117 , 118 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 145 , 154 , 155 , 157 ]. For example, the aims of building a disaster risk reduction framework in the Pacific include boosting resilience, protecting investments (e.g., in infrastructure, operations, and FS), and decreasing poverty and hunger [ 169 ].
Some authors have proposed the effective gleaning process as a driver of food security [ 70 , 72 , 74 , 80 , 84 , 92 , 142 , 170 ]. Gleaning is the collection of the remaining crops in agricultural fields after their commercial harvest, or just in crop fields where their harvest is not cost-effective. Some old cultures have fostered gleaning as an early form of social assistance [ 80 ]. Some authors have considered the management of government food reserves to be a food security driver [ 64 , 104 , 112 , 117 , 118 , 124 , 136 ]. Despite the high cost of storing food, any country must maintain adequate food reserves to serve the country in case of a crisis scenario [ 171 ]. Some authors have considered integrative policies (i.e., food–water–energy, food–energy, or water–food) as a driver of food security due to their impact on environmental improvement through natural resource handling efficiency [ 56 , 73 , 133 , 139 , 172 , 173 ]. Some authors have considered establishing dietary standard policies as an enabler of food security [ 69 , 151 , 163 , 174 ]. The government should impose policies on healthy food consumption to prevent obesity, such as prohibiting trans-fats. Moreover, they should restrict trans-fat usage in food outlets, establish institutional food standards, implement menu labelling regulations for chain restaurants, and ensure that disadvantaged people have better access to healthy meals [ 151 ].
Authors have highlighted various additional arguments or policies that are considered drivers for FS such as establishing public programs to influence diets in a healthy manner, reducing yield volatility [ 85 , 94 , 105 , 119 , 124 , 126 , 175 ], the country’s natural resources [ 85 , 105 , 119 , 124 , 137 , 145 , 162 , 163 , 176 ], geopolitical and political stability [ 69 , 98 , 104 , 117 , 123 , 124 , 142 ], agricultural infrastructure [ 64 , 114 , 116 , 118 , 142 , 146 , 175 ], food distribution infrastructure [ 71 , 75 , 76 , 112 , 177 , 178 ], economic integration [ 109 , 112 , 123 , 179 , 180 ], collaboration among all supply chain stakeholders [ 75 , 130 , 134 , 157 ], proper measurement of food security dimensions [ 123 , 181 , 182 , 183 ], urban agriculture policies [ 56 , 147 , 148 ], adjustments in dietary structure [ 59 , 86 , 163 ], establishing employment programs for poor household representatives [ 110 , 152 ], customer engagement in designing public policies [ 158 ], and trust in public institutions [ 166 ].
Analysis of the 141 retrieved papers revealed 17 major recommended policies, as visualized in Figure 4 . We also determined sub-policies under each category which were grouped based on common characteristics, relevance, and how they were categorized in the papers. The complete list of sub-policy categories and related references is provided in Appendix B .
The main 17 recommended policies and statistics.
Most authors recommended establishing FSP, in general, as a primary solution for food insecurity in developing and developed countries [ 56 , 57 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 69 , 81 , 85 , 87 , 89 , 91 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 126 , 127 , 130 , 131 , 133 , 134 , 137 , 142 , 144 , 145 , 148 , 149 , 151 , 152 , 175 , 177 , 180 , 182 , 184 , 185 ]. Many authors have suggested food consumption policies that offer safety-net programs or public food assistance programs (FAPs) such as food price subsidies, cash-based programs, structural pricing adjustments, or micro-credits as enablers of FS. The main goal of providing safety-net programs is to increase food consumption among poor people and improve food security [ 102 ]. Given the solid bidirectional causal link between poverty and malnutrition, FAPs have been recognized as critical components of the overall poverty reduction strategy. Food aid policies and initiatives can fill the gaps left by the for-profit food system and the informal (non-profit) social safety nets, ensuring food security for disadvantaged individuals, families, and communities [ 108 ]. Several authors have recommended establishing policies to enhance the performance and asset bases of small-scale farmers, such as loans, subsidies, access to information, and knowledge-sharing, to address food insecurity. Governments should adopt direct interventions such as structural price adjustments and targeted food subsidies to enhance the food access of farmers by lowering market prices and stabilizing consumption during high food price inflation [ 116 ]. Others have recommended establishing government input subsidy programs (input subsidy policies) that provide farmers with subsidies for investment into high-yielding technology (e.g., automation, fertilizers, high-yield seed). They all claimed this as an effective policy instrument for agricultural development, but each focused on a different mechanism. Shukla, Singh [ 130 ], for example, has discussed public distribution programs; Sinyolo [ 131 ] has emphasized policies aimed at increasing the amount of land planted with enhanced maize varieties among smallholder farmers; Wiebelt, Breisinger [ 124 ] has suggested investments in water-saving technologies, while Tokhayeva, Almukhambetova [ 137 ] have proposed the development of an agricultural innovation system. Others have recommended rural development policies to reduce yield volatility and improve the agricultural infrastructure (e.g., irrigation and water-saving technologies). Governments in developing nations must focus on R&D, agricultural infrastructure (technologies for irrigation and soil preservation), expansion services, and early warning systems [ 101 ]. Technological advancement, in general, is seen as a vital element in reducing yield volatility [ 85 ]. Capacity-building policies (e.g., educational, training, and technical support) have received considerable attention in the literature as a fundamental component of urban farming initiatives, and as attempts to promote self-reliance and networking. Capacity building in many areas connected to urban agriculture is essential for equipping residents with knowledge and expertise [ 148 ]. To enhance FS, some researchers have suggested policies supporting locally produced food, diversified agricultural production policies, policies that impact farm-level commodity pricing, food stock policies, establishing policies to increase the income of farmers, buffer stock policies, and resource allocation policies (for a complete list of references, see Appendix B ).
Many authors have proposed different policy recommendations to reduce food waste and, thus, food insecurity [ 6 , 19 , 51 , 52 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 103 , 130 , 138 , 144 , 150 , 160 , 167 , 168 , 170 , 177 ]. Many have agreed on the importance of policies that promote information and education campaigns that spread awareness at household and public levels by improving meal planning and management in consumers. However, each author suggested a different approach. For example, Schanes, Dobernig [ 58 ] have discussed face-to-face door-stepping campaigns (online and in traditional newspaper leaflets), word-of-mouth, and television shows or movies. However, Septianto, Kemper [ 66 ] have highlighted the importance of social marketing campaign design and framing (having vs. not having) in conveying the intended message to consumers. Tucho and Okoth [ 73 ] have asserted the advantages of producing bio-wastes and bio-fertilizers from food waste and human excreta (in a food–energy–sanitation nexus approach), and also advocated for educating families on how to do so at the household level. Xu, Zhang [ 86 ] has argued that governments should help society to develop a logical perspective on food consumption and aggressively promote the habit of eating simple meals, particularly in social catering. Von Kameke and Fischer [ 52 ] and Zorpas, Lasaridi [ 60 ] have emphasized the importance of teaching customers about efficient meal planning to reduce food waste. Von Kameke and Fischer [ 52 ] have proposed using the Nudging tool rather than campaigning. Xu, Zhang [ 86 ] have suggested initiating suitable policy instruments to nudge individuals to adopt sustainable consumption habits, with important implications for decreasing food waste and increasing food security in China. Smart (innovative) food packaging and labelling policies have received significant attention in the literature, as they are critical in reducing food waste and, thus, improving FS. The nature, size, and labelling of the packaging impact the lifetime of the food. Smart packaging innovations and new technologies are steadily penetrating markets, thus increasing the shelf-life of foods through enhanced protection, communication, convenience, and control [ 58 ].
Food banks, food sharing, and food rescue policies have also received significant attention in the global literature, as they help reduce food waste and improve FS. Food banking is a critical long-term rescue policy for re-distributing surplus food to those in need and reducing poverty and food insecurity [ 80 , 92 ]. Several authors have recommended positive sanctions such as financial rewards, tax credits, federal and state funding, vouchers, or reduced taxes to decrease food waste and improve FS. Positive sanctions consist mainly of financial incentives to encourage restaurants and grocery retailers to donate their leftover food [ 60 ]. Addressing liability concerns might be one incentive, as the research participants have highlighted this as a universal barrier and that this issue, in particular, must be handled [ 51 ]. Negative sanction policies have received considerable attention in the literature as a tool for reducing food waste and improving FS. These include fines and fees imposed on companies and individuals accountable for food waste [ 58 ]. Taxes and fines are a potential way to manage and motivate restaurants and retailers to donate their leftover food to charities and community centers [ 65 ].
The establishment of policies that regulate the sharing of information and knowledge among supply chain stakeholders has received some attention in the literature in terms of reducing food waste and improving food security. Comprehensive food waste legislation has been discussed as a potential enabler of food security. A possible regulatory tool would be to revise and remove unnecessary food safety requirements that result in excessive food waste levels [ 58 ]. According to Halloran, Clement [ 6 ], food waste increased due to European food safety regulations and standardization. Food waste recycling policies have been used as a method to reduce food waste. Food waste can be utilized for value generation at any point of the food supply chain process through efficient techniques, then reincorporated into the cycle [ 77 ]. Food waste has a long history as a source of ecologically friendly animal feed [ 61 ].
A few authors have highlighted the impact of technological advancement (e.g., mobile applications) as a strategy to reduce food waste. Some authors have proposed implementing gleaning operation policies that provide tax incentives and government assistance to gleaners in order to decrease food waste. Some authors have proposed implementing peak storage reduction policies, such as stock-holding incentives. Nudging tools (which nudge people toward forming sustainable consumption behaviors) have been mentioned by a few authors.
Food safety policies received significant attention in the retrieved literature [ 61 , 64 , 69 , 70 , 103 , 105 , 111 , 112 , 120 , 125 , 129 , 130 , 137 , 138 , 149 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 ]; however, they have been discussed in various different forms. Few authors have discussed food quality and food hygiene compliance certifications. Compliance with sanitary standards is required to maintain the best practices for preventing food-borne diseases and food security threats [ 155 ]. Other authors have discussed the importance of food safety standards. Meanwhile, few authors have emphasized the importance of food safety throughout the supply chain, but each proposed a different strategy to achieve it. For example, some authors have suggested using an effective IT system [ 130 ], RFID [ 138 ], or developing food safety training policies [ 155 ].
Many authors have advocated for the implementation of trade policies to address food insecurity in developing and developed countries [ 94 , 95 , 101 , 103 , 111 , 112 , 119 , 123 , 129 , 136 , 141 , 146 , 148 , 149 , 152 , 157 , 161 , 164 , 178 , 180 ], but in different contexts. For example, some have suggested establishing infrastructure development policies that target agricultural logistic infrastructure, or improving the speed and quality of shipping logistics. In contrast, some authors have agreed on the importance of state trading and private trade-supporting policies. Others have suggested the removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers, while a few authors recommended reliable marine connection and transportation logistics policies.
Environmental policies are a fundamental enabler of food security [ 59 , 73 , 94 , 120 , 121 , 124 , 130 , 135 , 139 , 141 , 145 , 147 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 166 ]. However, authors have focused on many different aspects of these policies. Some authors, for example, have emphasized the importance of establishing policies to mitigate the effects of climate change. Others were too specific, suggesting greenhouse gas reduction policies, and proposed penalizing non-compliance. Due to the strong links between climate change, poverty, and food insecurity, some authors have proposed establishing coordinating policies among the three. Other authors have stressed the consideration of policies that encourage the optimization of fertilizer use.
Many authors have considered food import policies as a solution to food insecurity [ 94 , 95 , 100 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 109 , 112 , 116 , 117 , 119 , 120 , 124 , 126 , 134 , 146 ]; however, most authors provided different opinions regarding the most effective policy to implement. For example, some authors have stressed the importance of policies that provide direct government financial assistance to local agriculture, or the importance of policies that sustain local agricultural product prices compared to imported products. Some have recommended providing temporary tax benefits for agricultural investment, while others recommended import ban (substitution) policies. A few authors have recommended direct budget subsidies, subsidized loan interest rates, and strategies for the diversification of imported food origin.
Many authors have discussed the importance of establishing a common agricultural policy (CAP) to address sustainable agriculture [ 56 , 57 , 64 , 89 , 109 , 111 , 118 , 119 , 132 , 142 , 143 , 149 , 161 , 172 , 184 , 186 ]. Others have stressed the importance of food surplus policies in enhancing a country’s food security status [ 51 , 58 , 70 , 72 , 75 , 76 , 79 , 82 , 84 , 90 , 91 ]. Some authors have suggested strategies to regulate a company’s liability regarding the donation of surplus food. A few authors have proposed food policies that subsidize the purchase of surplus food—also known as “ugly food”—by controlling for prices and surplus item characteristics. Some authors have suggested establishing food loss policies. However, few authors have specified the need for policies promoting food loss quantification.
Many authors have discussed the policies that promote traceability across the whole supply chain as an enabler for food security [ 56 , 69 , 103 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 137 , 138 , 168 , 178 ]. However, the different authors discussed different technologies such as investment into information technology such as RFID, effective IT systems, ICT systems, and blockchain technology. Government policies should promote investments into traceability systems that focus on rapid withdrawal in unsafe food scenarios such as product recall regulations, fines imposed on hazardous product distributors, and food-borne food risk monitoring [ 129 ]. Many authors have discussed various risk management strategies to improve a country’s food security [ 94 , 117 , 118 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 145 , 154 , 155 , 157 ]. However, each considered a different approach to overcome the risk. Specifically, they have discussed food scandal policies, the COVID-19 pandemic, programmed risk identification, proactive policy measures to handle flood crises, early warning systems for natural disasters, or risk management throughout the food supply chain. Some authors have highlighted water quality policies such as efficient water-use policies, improving water resources policies, using water-efficient crops, investments into water-saving technologies, and food and water safety throughout the supply chain.
Some authors have discussed the management of government food reserves as an enabler of food security [ 64 , 104 , 112 , 117 , 118 , 124 , 136 ], and others have discussed integrative and coherent policies between food, water, and energy (as a nexus) [ 56 , 73 , 133 , 139 , 172 , 173 ]. Meanwhile, other authors have discussed policies that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption, improving consumer status awareness and knowledge regarding the ecological impact of their purchases [ 60 , 69 , 133 , 144 , 163 , 165 ]. Few authors have addressed the importance of dietary standard policies [ 69 , 151 , 163 , 174 ], urban agriculture policies [ 56 , 147 , 148 ], and food-aid policies [ 118 , 150 ].
Some policies were suggested in one paper only such as devising the right population policy in China [ 85 ], flexible retail modernization policies [ 158 ], policies that facilitate short-term migration [ 187 ], policies to stimulate equitable economic growth through manufacturing and services [ 95 ], and sound research governance policies [ 140 ].
In this section, we discuss the polices and drivers in the greater areas, then compare them based on specific contexts. This approach serves to provide better understanding, thus informing decision-makers about the importance of choosing the right policies through considering many food security dimensions. By looking deeply at the extracted food security drivers and policies and the way in which they can be applied to each country’s context, we take an example from the MENA region. The MENA region includes a diverse range of nations, including low-income and less-developed (e.g., Sudan, Syria, and Yemen), low–middle-income (e.g., Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Morocco, and Tunisia), upper middle-income (e.g., Jordan, Lebanon, and Libya), and high-income (e.g., the UAE, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, Israel, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia) countries [ 126 ]. As food availability is a serious problem in the MENA region low-income countries (Syria and Yemen), due to war and violent conflicts [ 188 ], policies aimed at increasing food availability continue to pique the interest of policy-makers. In these countries, where citizens are incapable of fulfilling their basic food needs [ 189 ], the existence of food security policies in different forms is crucial for achieving food security [ 53 , 97 , 98 , 124 , 184 ], more than FLW policies. Policy-makers should focus on ensuring the availability of either locally produced or imported food, which requires appropriate trade policies to deal with food shortages and improve the availability dimension in these countries. Trade policies should focus on creating infrastructure development policies that target agricultural logistic infrastructure, improve the speed and quality of shipping logistics, and establish reliable marine connections and transportation logistics policies that remove tariff and non-tariff barriers.
Policy-makers should establish import policies that sustain local agricultural product prices compared to imported products, provide direct government financial assistance to local agriculture, and provide temporary tax benefits for agricultural investment.
Additionally, the governments should improve food access in the MENA region low-income countries by reducing or stabilizing consumer and producer food prices. To enhance food access, FSPs (e.g., education policies in general and capacity-building policies) may help to improve individual human capital. Governments also must provide supplemental feeding programs, typically targeting vulnerable groups in need of special diets, such as pregnant women and children [ 101 ].
Moreover, the government should improve credit access through the following means: policies that enhance the performance and asset base of small-scale farmers; the existence of policies that impact farm-level commodity pricing, thus retaining farmers and increasing local production; the existence of government input subsidy programs for individuals, and the existence of policies supporting locally produced food. These are all possible policies to improve the MENA region FS. Governments and global health organizations should promote food utilization in MENA low-income countries through the development of policies that monitor overall food quality, such as access to clean water and micronutrient fortification, or through individual educational programs on safe food preparation [ 155 ]. Finally, enhancing food quality can optimize the individual nutrient absorption [ 101 ].
In contrast, discussions of food security in the MENA region high-income countries have indicated that food availability, access, and utilization are generally higher and not a problem. However, food stability is low, which requires the attention of policy-makers to improve FS. Food stability impacts the other food security pillars (access, availability, and utilization). Moreover, it requires the economic, political, and social sustainability of food systems, which are vulnerable to environmental conditions, land distribution, available resources, conflicts, and political situations [ 190 ]. Food stability necessitates increased efforts and expenditures to achieve food security in the sustainable development goals, especially in light of increased academic and governmental interest in incorporating sustainability values into policies.
As food waste is prevalent in these countries, FLW policies are more critical than FSP, which is in alignment with our findings regarding food security drivers. FLW makes it difficult for the poor in developing countries to access food by significantly depleting natural resources such as land, water, and fossil fuels while raising the greenhouse gas emissions related to food production [ 115 ]. Addressing food loss and waste in these countries can hugely influence the reduction of wasted food and indirectly enhance food security. The number of food-insecure individuals may be reduced in developing regions by up to 63 million by reducing food loss, which will directly reduce the over-consumption of cultivated areas, water, and greenhouse gas emissions related to food production [ 115 ]. According to Abiad and Meho [ 189 ], food waste produced at the household level differs across MENA-region countries. For example, it ranges from 68 to 150 kg/individual/year in Oman, 62–76 kg/individual/year in Iraq, 194–230 kg/individual/year in Palestine, and 177–400 kg/individual/year in the UAE. It is critical to take more aggressive but scientifically sound initiatives to minimize FLW, which will require the participation of everyone involved in the food supply chain such as policy-makers, food producers and suppliers, and the final consumers [ 191 , 192 ]. Food waste reflects an inefficient usage of valuable agricultural input resources and contributes to unnecessary environmental depletion [ 191 , 193 ]. Furthermore, food loss is widely recognized as a major obstacle to environmental sustainability and food security in developing nations [ 194 ]. Preventing FLW can result in a much more environmentally sustainable agricultural production and consumption process by increasing the efficiency and productivity of resources, especially water, cropland, and nutrients [ 115 , 191 , 192 , 195 ]. Preventing FLW is crucial in areas where water scarcity is a prevalent concern, as irrigated agriculture makes up a sizeable portion of total food production, and yield potential may not be fully achieved under nutrient or water shortages [ 191 , 196 , 197 ]. According to the study of Chen, Chaudhary [ 197 ], food waste per capita in high-income countries is enough to feed one individual a healthy balanced diet for 18 days. Chen, Chaudhary [ 197 ] also found that high-income countries have embedded environmental effects that are ten times greater than those of low-income countries, and they tend to waste six times more food by weight than low-income countries. Consequently, implementing proper FLW policies in high-income countries can help to alleviate the food insecurity problem while maintaining the economic, social, and environmental sustainability of future food production.
Implementing effective food storage techniques and capacities is considered a key component of a comprehensive national food security plan to promote both food utilization and food stability; furthermore, proper food storage at the household level maintains food products for a more prolonged period [ 198 ]. Encouragement of economic integration between MENA region countries is very applicable considering the heterogeneity of these countries. For example, countries with limited arable land and high income, such as the UAE and Saudi Arabia, can invest in countries with a lower middle income, such as Egypt, and use its land to benefit both countries. On the other hand, Boratynska and Huseynov [ 101 ] have proposed food technology innovation as a sustainable driver of food security and a promising solution to the problem of food insecurity in developing countries. Due to the higher food production demand to support the expanding urban population while having limited water and land availability, higher investments in technology and innovation are needed to ensure that food systems are more resilient [ 190 ]. Boratynska and Huseynov [ 101 ] have argued that, in general, using innovative technologies to produce healthy food products is frequently a concern. However, improving the probability that innovative food technology will enable the production of a diverse range of food products with enhanced texture and flavor while also providing a variety of health advantages to the final consumer is essential. Jalava, Guillaume [ 193 ] have argued that, along with reducing FLW, shifting people’s diets from animal- to plant-based foods can help to slow environmental degradation.
The MENA region example described above can be adapted to different regions based on their food security situation, and relevant policies can be devised to improve food security more sustainably.
Food security is a complicated and multi-faceted issue that cannot be restricted to a single variable, necessitating the deeper integration of many disciplinary viewpoints. It is essential to admit the complexity of designing the right policy to improve food security that matches each country’s context [ 46 ] while considering the three pillars of sustainability. Furthermore, it is of utmost importance to implement climate-friendly agricultural production methods to combat food insecurity and climate change [ 12 ]. Mapping the determinants of food security contributes to better understanding of the issue and aids in developing appropriate food security policies to enhance environmental, social, and economic sustainability.
This research contributes to the body of knowledge by summarizing the main recommended policies and drivers of food security detailed in 141 research articles, following a systematic literature review methodology. We identified 34 food security drivers and outlined 17 recommended policies to improve food security and contribute to sustainable food production. Regarding the drivers, one of the foremost priorities to drive food security is reducing FLW globally, followed by food security policies, technological advancement, sustainable agricultural development, and so on (see Appendix A ). Regarding the recommended policies, most studies have detailed the contents and impacts of food security policies, food waste policies, food safety policies, trade policies, environmental policies, import policies, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), food surplus policies, and so on (see Appendix B ).
We assessed the obtained results in comparison to the latest version of the GFSI. Using the GFSI (2021) indicators as a proxy resulted in the identification of gaps and specific policy implications of the results. The idea was to identify which of the policies and drivers have been already implemented and which have not (or, at least, have not been very successfully implemented). We used the GFSI as it is a very well-established benchmarking tool used globally by 113 countries to measure the food security level. We examined the indicators mentioned under each of the four dimensions of food security, and listed associations with the identified policies and drivers found in the literature. Accordingly, we suggest the addition of two dimensions to the current index:
The first dimension relates to measuring the sustainability dimensions that each participating country adopts in its food production process. We noticed that many authors stressed the importance of the existence of clear environmental policies that drive long-term food security. However, the current GFSI lacks indicators measuring this dimension. The reviewed literature suggested environmental indicators considering optimized fertilizer use, carbon taxes, aquaculture environment, bio-energy, green and blue infrastructure, gas emissions reduction policies, policies to reduce the impacts of climate change, and heavy metal soil contamination monitoring.
The second dimension is related to consumer voice representation within the GFSI. The reviewed literature suggested implementing policy measures that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption and improve the consumer status, consciousness, and knowledge regarding the ecological impact of their purchases. Any sustainability initiative should be supported and implemented by the final consumer.
Additional gaps in the policies and drivers of food security were identified and allocated under the relevant indicators in the GFSI based on the four dimensions of food security. Under the affordability dimension, we found a lack of policies in the reviewed literature addressing the Inequality-adjusted income index. Regarding the Change in average food costs indicator, we observed that the policies that exist in the literature concern the farmer level only (e.g., policies that impact farm-level commodity pricing and policies supporting locally produced food), and not all of the citizens at the national level. Additionally, policies that promote traceability across the whole supply chain were missing. There were no policies in the reviewed literature under the food quality and safety dimension representing the following: the dietary diversity indicator; micronutrient availability (e.g., dietary availability of vitamin A, iron, and zinc); regulation of the protein quality indicator; the food safety indicator (specifically the two sub-indicators of food safety mechanisms and access to drinking water), and illustration of the national nutrition plan or strategy indicator. Therefore, future research should pay more attention to and emphasize the importance of such policies, particularly in developed countries seeking to improve their food security status and score high on the GFSI.
Moreover, the reviewed literature suggested “developing food safety training policies” to improve food safety and FS; however, no indicators or sub-indicators within the GFSI represent such training policies. The GFSI developers should pay more attention to safety training practices and include them in the index’s future development. Under the availability dimension, the reviewed literature suggested establishing a food loss policy that promotes the quantification of food loss under the food loss indicator. This indicator should be enhanced through well-articulated policies that address the problem of food loss and attempt to mitigate its impact. However, while there were various policies concerning food waste or surplus, there were no indicators within the GFSI that represented food loss. As food loss and waste was identified as the primary driver of food security in this study, we recommend expanding the GFSI to include food loss quantification and reduction policies under the availability dimension. Finally, under the political commitment to adaptation dimension, some policies were identified in the reviewed literature in two sub-indicators: early warning measures/climate-smart agriculture (e.g., proactive policy measures to handle flood crises, programmed risk identification, and early warning systems for natural disasters) and disaster risk management (e.g., food scandals, COVID-19, and risk management throughout the food supply chain). However, under the other two relevant sub-indicators—commitment to managing exposure and national agricultural adaptation policy—there were no identified policies.
The key contributions of this study to the existing literature are threefold. First, we identified the (34) main food security drivers and the (17) most-recommended policies to improve food security and enhance the future food production sustainability. Several studies have partially covered this area, but none have employed a systematic literature review of 141 papers covering such an scope in this topic. The gravity of food security worldwide is well established; hence the contribution of this work. Second, we provide a reflection of policies/drivers on the latest version of the GFSI, resulting in more tangible policy implications (see Section 5.1 ). Third, through a systematic literature review, we identified elements not listed under the GFSI that could be considered in its future revision. Examples include environmental policies/indicators such as optimized fertilizer use, carbon taxes, aquaculture environment, bio-energy, green and blue infrastructure, gas emission reduction, policies to reduce the impact of climate change, and heavy metal soil contamination monitoring; consumer representation, as the reviewed literature suggested policy measures that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption, as well as improving consumer status, consciousness, and knowledge regarding the ecological impact of their purchases; and traceability throughout the entire supply chain.
In this study, we identified the major drivers and the recommended policies to improve food security and enhance the future food production sustainability based on the reviewed literature. However, we recommend conducting a Delphi research study in consultation with policy-makers and industry experts. A Delphi study can be used to validate the findings of this systematic literature review based on a specific country’s context. This research was conducted using only 141 articles from two databases; therefore, we suggest replicating this research using different databases, which will allow for the inclusion of more related papers. Moreover, this research included only peer-reviewed articles, which may be considered, based on the guidelines of Keele [ 185 ], as a source of publication bias. Future research may consider including gray literature and conference proceedings. This research did not include the three sustainability pillars within its research string; therefore, we recommend considering the inclusion of the three pillars in future research. Future research should also investigate the use of alternative protein food technology innovation, such as plant-based protein, cultured meat, and insect-based protein, as a sustainable solution to the food security problem. Additionally, understanding the factors influencing acceptance of various technologies by the final consumer is particularly important given some regional characteristics such as harsh arid environments and the scarcity of arable land, freshwater, and natural resources.
Food loss and waste | 47/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food waste management | 29/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food waste policies | 23/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ]. |
Food loss reduction policies | 10/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , ]. |
Food surplus policies | 11/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , , ]. |
Food waste quantification | 11/47 | [ , , , , , , , , , , ] |
food loss quantification | 5/47 | [ , , , , ] |
Food security policies | 37/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Environmental policies | 13/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Public food assistance programs and policies | 24/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Risk management | 10/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food scandals policies | 2/10 | [ , ] |
Early warning systems for natural disasters | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Risk management throughout the food supply chain | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Proactive policy measures to handle the flood crises | 2/10 | [ , ] |
Providing food aids (micronutrient supplementation) during disasters | 1/10 | [ ] |
COVID-19 pandemic | 1/10 | [ ] |
The programmed risk identification | 1/10 | [ ] |
Import policies | 9/141 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Trade policies | 13/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Economic integration | 5/141 | [ , , , , ] |
Agricultural sustainable development and practices | 27/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Technology advancement | 36/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Sustainable technology advancement | 27/36 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
High-yield seed varieties | 8/36 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Investment in R&D (e.g., precision farming) | 4/36 | [ , , , ] |
Information technology and IT advancement | 3/36 | [ , , ] |
The use of mobile applications | 3/36 | [ , , ] |
The use of nanotechnology in agriculture | 2/36 | [ , ] |
The use of biotechnology in agriculture | 2/36 | [ , ] |
The use of genetically modified (GM) crop. | 2/36 | [ , ] |
Local production enhancement | 18/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Farm production diversity | 9/141 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Building farmers capacities (small scale farmers) | 18/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Employment programs for poor households’ representatives | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Public programs to influence diets in a healthy manner | 9/141 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Geopolitical and political stability | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Food safety and food safety policies | 16/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Reduction of yield volatility | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Agriculture infrastructure | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
The integrative policies (nexus) | 6/141 | [ , , , , , ] |
The proper measurement of food security dimensions | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
The country’s natural resources (cultivated agriculture area) | 9/141 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
The proper communication among all stakeholders | 11/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Management of government food reserves | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Collaboration among all supply chain stakeholders | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Promotion of the consumer’s education about sustainable consumption and healthy diet | 12/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Effective gleaning process (increasing the food bank’s processing resources) | 8/141 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Food distribution infrastructure | 6/141 | [ , , , , , ] |
Adjustment in the diet structure | 3/141 | [ , , ] |
Dietary standard policies | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Urban agriculture policies | 3/141 | [ , , ] |
The government role | 16/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Government capital investment in agriculture | 7/16 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Government and public administration’s commitment in enhancing the operational process of food distribution | 3/16 | [ , , ] |
Government regulation for food businesses and households that produce food waste | 2/16 | [ , ] |
Government support for the research that enhances the country food security level | 1/16 | [ ] |
Government vision and commitment to adopt RFID technology | 1/16 | [ ] |
Government commitment in policy development to prevent obesity | 1/16 | [ ] |
Government knowledge of the correlation between market price and sustain the food prices during crises | 1/16 | [ ] |
Customer engagement in designing the public policies | 1/141 | [ ] |
Trust in the public institutions | 1/141 | [ ] |
Food security policies | 59/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food consumption polices that offer safety net | 24/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Policies to enhance small-scale farmer performance and assets base such as loans, subsidies, access to information and knowledge sharing | 16/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Government input subsidy programs (input subsidy policy) that provide farmers with subsidies to investment in high-yielding technology (e.g., automation, fertilizers, high-yield seed) | 14/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Rural development policies to reduce yield volatility and improve the agriculture infrastructure (e.g., irrigation and water-saving technologies) | 14/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Capacity building policies (educational, training and technical support) | 14/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Policies supporting locally produced food | 12/59 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Education policies in general | 8/59 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Diversified agriculture production policies | 6/59 | [ , , , , , ] |
Policies that impact the farm-level commodity pricing | 5/59 | [ , , , , ] |
Food stock policies which help in predicting global food production information | 4/59 | [ , , , ] |
Establishing policies to increase farmer income | 4/59 | [ , , , ] |
Buffer stock policies | 1/59 | [ ] |
Resource allocation policies (income taxes) | 1/59 | [ ] |
Trade policies | 20/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Establishing infrastructure development policies that target agriculture logistic infrastructure and improve the speed and quality of shipping logistics | 8/20 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
State trading and private trade supporting policies | 7/20 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Removal of tariff and non-tariff barrier | 7/20 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Trade infrastructure development policies | 4/20 | [ , , , ] |
Reliable marine connection and transportation logistics policies | 2/20 | [ , ] |
Food waste polices | 49/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Information and education campaigns that spread awareness at households and public level | 21/49 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food waste reduction policies | 17/49 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Smart (innovative) food packaging and labelling policies | 9/50 | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Food banks, food sharing or food rescue policies | 8/49 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Positive sanctions such as financial rewards, Tax credits, federal and state funding, vouchers, fewer taxes | 8/49 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Information and knowledge sharing among supply chain stakeholders | 6/49 | [ , , , , , ] |
Comprehensive food waste legislation | 6/49 | [ , , , , , ] |
Negative sanction policies by imposing fines and taxes such as disposal taxes | 6/49 | [ , , , , , ] |
Food waste recycling polices | 5/49 | [ , , , , ] |
Technology advancement (mobile applications) | 2/49 | [ , ] |
Gleaning operations policies (provide tax incentives and governmental support) | 2/49 | [ , ] |
Nudging tool (nudge people in forming sustainable consumption behaviour) | 2/49 | [ , ] |
Policies for peak storage reduction such as incentives for stock holding | 2/49 | [ , ] |
Food waste management policy | 1/49 | [ ] |
Food upcycling with regards to market segmentation based on age | 1/49 | [ ] |
Food loss policy | 10/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Policies promoting the quantification of food loss | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Food surplus policies | 11/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Policies to regulate company’s liability of donating surplus food | 5/11 | [ , , , , ] |
Food policies that subsidize purchases of surplus food “ugly food” by controlling for prices and the attributes of surplus items | 2/11 | [ , ] |
Food safety policies | 22/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food safety standards | 7/22 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Safety throughout the food supply chain | 3/22 | [ , , ] |
Developing food safety training policies | 1/22 | [ ] |
Mandatory state registration for major types of food additives | 1/22 | [ ] |
Food quality and food hygiene compliance certifications | 5/22 | [ , , , , ] |
The integrative and coherent policies between food, water, and energy system nexus. | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Water–food (WF) nexus approach. | 1/141 | [ ] |
Food–energy–sanitation nexus approach | 1/141 | [ ] |
Water quality policies | 8/141 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Common agricultural policy (CAP) that addresses sustainable agriculture | 16/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Green and blue infrastructure (GBI) policies | 1/16 | [ ] |
Common agricultural policy (CAP) hinders the sustainable intensification | 1/141 | [ ] |
The policies that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption and improving consumer status consciousness and knowledge of their purchases ecological impact | 6/141 | [ , , , , , ] |
Environmental policies | 18/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Gas emission policies, such as greenhouse gas reduction policies | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Policies to reduce climate change impact | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
The coordination of policies between climate change, poverty and food insecurity due to their strong interlinking | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Efficiency in agriculture water use, irrigation systems | 3/141 | [ , , ] |
The investments in water-saving technologies | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Policies to minimize the impacts of anthropogenic activities on urban soils and enhance the urban agriculture practices | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Soil contamination of heavy metals (cadmium) | 1/141 | [ ] |
Optimization of the fertilizer use policy | 6/141 | [ , , , , , ] |
Carbon tax policy (promotes green economy) | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Aquaculture environmental policies | 1/141 | [ ] |
Bio-energy policies | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Management of government food reserves | 7/141 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Policies that promote traceability across the whole supply chain | 10/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Import policies | 16/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] |
Direct governmental financial assistance to local agricultural assistance | 8/16 | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Sustaining local agricultural product prices compared to the imported products | 7/16 | [ , , , , , , ] |
Providing temporary tax benefits for agriculture investment | 4/16 | [ , , , ] |
Import ban (substitution) policies | 4/16 | [ , , , ] |
Direct budget subsidies | 2/16 | [ , ] |
Subsidizing loan interest rates | 2/16 | [ , ] |
Diversification of imported food origins strategy | 1/16 | [ ] |
Risk management policies | 10/141 | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Food scandals | 2/10 | [ , ] |
COVID-19 | 1/10 | [ ] |
Programmed risk identification | 1/10 | [ ] |
Proactive policy measures to handle the flood crises | 2/10 | [ , ] |
Early warning systems for natural disasters | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Risk management throughout the food supply chain | 3/10 | [ , , ] |
Dietary standard policies | 4/141 | [ , , , ] |
Urban agriculture policies | 3/141 | [ , , ] |
Food aid policies | 2/141 | [ , ] |
Policies discussed by one author only | ||
Devising the right population policy in China | 1/141 | [ ] |
Flexible retail modernization policies | 1/141 | [ ] |
Policies that facilitate short-term migration | 1/141 | [ ] |
Policy to stimulate equitable economic growth through manufacturing and services | 1/141 | [ ] |
Sound research governance policies: to address the expected and unexpected complications of new technologies (nanotechnology) | 1/141 | [ ] |
This research was funded by the UAE Ministry of Education, Resilient Agrifood Dynamism through evidence-based policies-READY project, grant number 1733833.
Conceptualization, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; methodology, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; validation, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; formal analysis, S.W.; investigation, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; resources, I.M. and B.S.; data curation, S.W.; writing—original draft preparation, S.W.; writing—review and editing, F.A.; visualization, S.W.; supervision, F.A., B.S. and I.M.; project administration, B.S. and I.M.; funding acquisition, B.S. and I.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Despite numerous developmental successes around the world, including major strides in food production, the persistence and scale of world hunger is astonishing. According to the latest State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World report (FAO 2019 ), more than 820 million people suffer from daily hunger and this number has been slowly increasing in the past three years. And almost 2 billion people face some form of food insecurity – i.e. without access to safe, nutritious and sufficient food. Women, children and indigenous groups remain particularly vulnerable to hunger. In addition to undernutrition, the world is also facing the growing threat of overweight and obesity, which continue to rise fast in all world regions and is assuming epidemic proportions.
This special issue highlights the urgency of enacting strong policies that leverage the benefits of globalization while minimizing the risks in order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular SDG 2 related to ending hunger, improving food security and nutrition and promoting sustainable agriculture. Hunger remains a silent emergency – attracting attention mainly when large numbers die during sensational and highly visible famines. In contrast, chronic hunger continues to evade the headlines. As the world struggles to achieve better developmental outcomes in the face of climate disruption, the political, economic and social implications of this silent emergency are enormous. Hunger and food insecurity are the products of a complex set of factors, including climate related triggers (e.g. drought, flood, cyclone), which are often further exacerbated by economic hardship and conflict. Indeed, the ability of political systems to address growing food insecurity and prevent short-term and long-term food crises from escalating into famine are contingent on historical, cultural economic and political factors. Moreover, various types of inequalities – including those of income, gender, access to productive agricultural land, access to healthy and fresh food – are highly correlated with food insecurity.
With the adoption of the 2030 Agenda and its accompanying 17 SDGs by 193 heads of state in 2015 (UN 2015 ) – grouped under overarching themes of people, planet, dignity, prosperity, justice and partnership – sustainable development is back in the international limelight. The SDGs have been widely praised for a strong articulation of an environmental dimension, in addition to breaking new ground with goals on inequality, economic growth, energy, and peace. Many argue that despite being imperfect and highly ambitious, the SDGs are the result of a comprehensive participatory process, unparalleled in the history of global development (Doane 2016 ). Indeed, while its predecessor – the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) – focused exclusively on developing poor countries through foreign aid, the SDGs encompass a broader agenda, which applies to both rich and poor countries alike and is “buttressed by science and evidence” (UN 2014 ; UN 2015 ). By closely linking “sustainability” with “development” through the principles of “universality”, “integration” and “leave no one behind”, the 2030 Agenda has been much celebrated in academic, activist, business and policy circles as a means to stimulate a radical shift in world affairs (Banik and Miklian 2017 ). But the SDGs have also been criticized for their unrealistic ambitions and lack of focus. And one of the many unanswered questions relates to how low-income countries and conflict-prone fragile states will be able to plan, coordinate and finance development programs in line with the SDGs and aligned with their national interest.
There are growing concerns that many of the poorest countries will not be able to self-finance programs and that recent threats to aid from the Global North will stall efforts to advance the SDGs – thus making a stronger case for involvement of the private sector and the trillions of dollars for business opportunities that the SDGs open up (Business Commission 2017 ). However, operationalizing the SDGs requires a clearer understanding of the inter-connected, and yet distinct, role of national governments, international agencies and businesses. This is particularly urgent in low-income countries and conflict-prone fragile states, which are confronted with the dilemmas and potential pitfalls associated with coordinating the activities of numerous competing actors. Another key issue relates to state capacity and ability of local public administrations to identify, articulate, coordinate and implement development programs aligned with the national interest, while also making it sufficiently attractive for both domestic and international actors to become involved in SDG-related activities. Governments must therefore develop the capacity to identify mere profit-making initiatives that can thwart overall social and economic development.
Despite replete with references of the “we”, the 2030 Agenda does not make a clear distinction of the responsibilities of various stakeholders including national governments, international agencies and businesses (Engebretsen et al. 2017 ). Who will step in? And which part of the “we” will assume a greater responsibility for global development? Some argue that the pressure of achieving the 17 SDGs and their 169 targets can encourage governments to ignore the neediest. Still others point to unreliable and poor-quality data in large parts of the world and question the capacity of countries to reach “the furthest behind first” without knowing who they are (Jerven 2014 ; Melamed 2015 ). The emerging consensus has thus highlighted the importance of pursuing an integrated approach to economic, social and environmental aspects of development, requiring interdisciplinary research in addition to intersectoral collaboration and knowledge sharing. While the SDGs are not legally binding, governments are expected to take ownership and establish national frameworks for the achievement of these “global goals”. Recent evidence, however, indicates slow implementation, and the need for greater efforts across the goals without losing focus on poverty reduction (UN 2019 ).
The SDGs have not thus far elicited the kind of enthusiasm among political leaders that is crucial for the success of such an ambitious agenda. In many countries, there is an on-going and often polarized national debate on the extent to which leaders should prioritise the SDGs rather than goals that are more narrowly defined to apply to local situations (e.g. prioritising allocation of resources to selected regions and targeting selected groups in the population). Most politicians are under enormous pressure to resolve current problems, challenges and deprivations and often do not typically find it politically beneficial to engage in discussions of future problems that could affect a generation that is yet to be born. Similarly, many global policy recommendations often overlook issues of local justice and messy local political realities including competition between groups for control over scarce resources. Thus, the goal of promoting sustainable development today with an eye on the wellbeing of future generations appears illusory for many governments struggling to solve current problems of extreme poverty and numerous forms of deprivation within their borders.
Even when there is ample and reliable scientific evidence pointing to the urgent need for societal transformations required to address the harmful consequences of global warming, political response in large parts of the world is lukewarm. For the SDGs to make a difference on the ground, policymakers must acquire a better understanding on the global norm of goalsetting and balance how global targets link to national and local goals. And a wide range of societal actors must hold their leaders to account for actions as well as inactions. We really must move beyond the rhetoric and the celebratory speeches to actual evidence of operationalisation and impact on the ground.
There is now increased attention on the staggering societal costs of hunger and the need to radically transform our local, national and international food systems into more sustainable, nutritious and efficient systems. The five essays in this special issue discuss a wide range of issues related to food systems and the ethics and politics of global and national food policies. While there has been growing attention on food insecurity in recent years, two essays draw our attention to famine, which has received far less attention. Olivier Rubin begins by distinguishing the “whispering emergency” of famine from related terms such as malnutrition and chronic hunger. He thereafter critically revisits Peter Singer’s famous famine relief argument from the early 1970s, according to which we have good moral reasons for greater human engagement through charitable actions to prevent mass deaths from hunger. Rubin finds that Singer’s argument, although still powerful, often appears to be disconnected from the contemporary development discourse that is more skeptical to the role of charitable benevolence in famine prevention. Although he agrees that famines ought to evoke a strong moral response, Rubin concludes that the dynamics of recent famines warrant greater attention on the obligation to criminalize famine – how individuals and groups can be more effectively held to account for the failure to prevent starvation deaths.
Alexander Vadala examines the political factors that explain the continued threat of famine in Ethiopia – a particularly interesting case given that the country is not a democracy and has a long history of famines and high levels of malnutrition. But even within Ethiopia, vulnerability to famine remains substantially high among pastoralists in the Afar region. Vadala builds on the Nobel laureate Amartya Sen’s well-known claim that the right to freedom of expression and adversarial media reports in democracies are crucial for preventing famine. Following a critical review of Sen’s entitlement approach, he unpacks the close linkages between food insecurity and pastoralism in Ethiopia. Vadala finds that a set of policy decisions exacerbated pastoral vulnerability, including the closure of the Ethiopia-Eritrea border and the ban on salt trade with Djibouti. The recent initiatives undertaken by the new Ethiopian government under Abiy Ahmed offers some hope, but achieving SDG2 requires that the authorities respect the rights, needs and demands of vulnerable groups.
Jessica Fanzo focuses on why increased attention on healthy and sustainable diets is crucial for achieving SDG2. Although there has been a growing international discourse on what constitutes a “healthy diet”, improving the dietary habits of the world’s population has been extremely challenging. Most countries face some form of malnutrition, and sub-optimal diets are a major cause of various forms of hunger. Fanzo discusses the crucial role of SDG2 in achieving the wider 2030 Agenda for sustainable development and examines the uneven global progress thus far, including potential challenges ahead. She also critically discusses the impact of numerous ethical considerations and inherent trade-offs related to the achievement of sustainable and healthy diets, including the rapid population growth, economic crises, income inequality and climate change.
Although the SDGs are receiving increased international attention, Marc Cohen finds that the global agenda aimed at reducing hunger is characterized by serious policy incoherence. The international discourse is frequently characterized by fancy rhetoric and generous sounding pledges that have not resulted in greater political commitments to ending hunger. While national policies and budgets continue to neglect agriculture and irrigation, the agriculture trade and security policies of influential foreign donor countries also often undercut efforts to strengthen agricultural development in low-income country contexts. Cohen examines the growing gap between words and actions. He concludes that policy incoherence on SDG 2 results from a combination of agricultural subsidies in high-income countries and the resulting dumping of surplus products in aid-recipient countries, an excessive focus on defense spending and arms trade in many parts of the world and ineffective policies aimed at supporting smallholder farmers.
My essay with Michael Chasukwa focuses on the politics of food policy in Malawi – one of the poorest countries in the world. Many low-income countries, including those that are heavily dependent on foreign aid – are struggling to formulate and implement policies aimed at promoting the SDGs. Although Malawi has achieved some success in relation to reducing child mortality and combating HIV/AIDs, food insecurity remains high despite considerable political talk on the need to strengthen the country’s agriculture sector. We focus on a key intervention of the Malawian government in recent years – the Farm Input Subsidy program (FISP) – which is characterized by institutional rivalry, lack of coordination, inadequate financial resources, corruption and poor implementation. Agriculture policy in the country is not only haphazardly formulated and implemented, it is also excessive focused on securing availability of maize at the expense of other crops with the potential of diversifying diets and promoting greater food security.
The five essays in this special issue collectively identify and discuss barriers and challenges to achieving the SDGs in general and SDG 2 in particular. The overall conclusion in recent reports on hunger and food insecurity is that the world is continuing to move further away from achieving SDG 2. And the UN Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights (Human Rights Council 2019 ) has recently argued that if the current trend of global warming continues, several hundred million people risk food insecurity with a decline in food production due to crop yield losses. These groups also risk water insecurity and greater risks of malaria, diarrhea and heat stress. An increase in the frequency of droughts and floods and the resulting displacement will have a disproportionate impact on the daily lives of those living in poverty. The enormous scale of world hunger requires us to update our approaches (making them bolder and involving multisectoral collaboration across different policy domains) and ensure that our interventions are better targeted both socially and geographically, taking into account inequality, conflict, gender, climate and economic slowdowns.
Banik, D. and Miklian, J. (2017) “New Business: The Private Sector as a New Global Development Player”, Global Policy, https://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/blog/24/11/2017/new-business-private-sector-new-global-development-player
Business Commission (2017) Better Business Better World, http://report.businesscommission.org/uploads/BetterBiz-BetterWorld_170215_012417.pdf
Doane, D. (2016) “We Won’t Conquer the Mountains of the SDGs Without Humility”, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2016/jul/07/sdgs-progress-stay-humble . Accessed 20 Nov 2019
Engebretsen, E., Heggen, K., Banik, D. & Ottersen, O. P. (2017) “The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Power of Ambiguities”, https://www.whatworks.uio.no/blog/2018/sdg_responsibility.html
FAO (2019) State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World, http://www.fao.org/3/ca5162en/ca5162en.pdf . Accessed 20 Nov 2019
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Banik, D. Achieving Food Security in a Sustainable Development Era. Food ethics 4 , 117–121 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41055-019-00057-1
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Based on the 1996 World Food Summit , food security is defined when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
The four main dimensions of food security:
For food security objectives to be realized, all four dimensions must be fulfilled simultaneously.
The World Bank Group works with partners to build food systems that can feed everyone, everywhere, every day by improving food security, promoting ‘nutrition-sensitive agriculture’ and improving food safety. The Bank is a leading financier of food systems. In fiscal year 2022, there was US$9.6 billion in new IBRD/IDA commitments to agriculture and related sectors
Activities include:
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Related sdgs, end hunger, achieve food security and improve ....
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As the world population continues to grow, much more effort and innovation will be urgently needed in order to sustainably increase agricultural production, improve the global supply chain, decrease food losses and waste, and ensure that all who are suffering from hunger and malnutrition have access to nutritious food. Many in the international community believe that it is possible to eradicate hunger within the next generation, and are working together to achieve this goal.
World leaders at the 2012 Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) reaffirmed the right of everyone to have access to safe and nutritious food, consistent with the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger. The UN Secretary-General’s Zero Hunger Challenge launched at Rio+20 called on governments, civil society, faith communities, the private sector, and research institutions to unite to end hunger and eliminate the worst forms of malnutrition.
The Zero Hunger Challenge has since garnered widespread support from many member States and other entities. It calls for:
The Sustainable Development Goal to “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture” (SDG2) recognizes the inter linkages among supporting sustainable agriculture, empowering small farmers, promoting gender equality, ending rural poverty, ensuring healthy lifestyles, tackling climate change, and other issues addressed within the set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals in the Post-2015 Development Agenda.
Beyond adequate calories intake, proper nutrition has other dimensions that deserve attention, including micronutrient availability and healthy diets. Inadequate micronutrient intake of mothers and infants can have long-term developmental impacts. Unhealthy diets and lifestyles are closely linked to the growing incidence of non-communicable diseases in both developed and developing countries.
Adequate nutrition during the critical 1,000 days from beginning of pregnancy through a child’s second birthday merits a particular focus. The Scaling-Up Nutrition (SUN) Movement has made great progress since its creation five years ago in incorporating strategies that link nutrition to agriculture, clean water, sanitation, education, employment, social protection, health care and support for resilience.
Extreme poverty and hunger are predominantly rural, with smallholder farmers and their families making up a very significant proportion of the poor and hungry. Thus, eradicating poverty and hunger are integrally linked to boosting food production, agricultural productivity and rural incomes.
Agriculture systems worldwide must become more productive and less wasteful. Sustainable agricultural practices and food systems, including both production and consumption, must be pursued from a holistic and integrated perspective.
Land, healthy soils, water and plant genetic resources are key inputs into food production, and their growing scarcity in many parts of the world makes it imperative to use and manage them sustainably. Boosting yields on existing agricultural lands, including restoration of degraded lands, through sustainable agricultural practices would also relieve pressure to clear forests for agricultural production. Wise management of scarce water through improved irrigation and storage technologies, combined with development of new drought-resistant crop varieties, can contribute to sustaining drylands productivity.
Halting and reversing land degradation will also be critical to meeting future food needs. The Rio+20 outcome document calls for achieving a land-degradation-neutral world in the context of sustainable development. Given the current extent of land degradation globally, the potential benefits from land restoration for food security and for mitigating climate change are enormous. However, there is also recognition that scientific understanding of the drivers of desertification, land degradation and drought is still evolving.
There are many elements of traditional farmer knowledge that, enriched by the latest scientific knowledge, can support productive food systems through sound and sustainable soil, land, water, nutrient and pest management, and the more extensive use of organic fertilizers.
An increase in integrated decision-making processes at national and regional levels are needed to achieve synergies and adequately address trade-offs among agriculture, water, energy, land and climate change.
Given expected changes in temperatures, precipitation and pests associated with climate change, the global community is called upon to increase investment in research, development and demonstration of technologies to improve the sustainability of food systems everywhere. Building resilience of local food systems will be critical to averting large-scale future shortages and to ensuring food security and good nutrition for all.
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On 12 July 2023 from 10 AM to 12 PM (EDT), FAO and its co-publishing partners will be launching, for the fifth time, the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) report at a Special Event in the margins of the ECOSOC High-Level Political Forum (HLPF). The 2023 edition
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Ministerial meeting on food security and climate adaptation in small island developing states.
The proposed meeting will offer SIDS Ministers and Ambassadors the opportunity to explore the implications of the SAMOA Pathway as it relates to food security and nutrition and climate change adaptation. The ultimate objective is to enhance food security, health and wellbeing in SIDS. Ministers an
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Holger kray, shobha shetty, pierre-olivier colleye.
Eastern and Southern Africa— home to over 656 million people, many of whom are poor and face significant challenges accessing adequate, safe, and nutritious food every day— has some of the most vulnerable food systems in the world.
The recently approved Food Systems Resilience Program for Eastern and Southern Africa will help tackle the underlying structural challenges of food insecurity and address the vulnerability to unpredictable shocks.
Madagascar, where 7.8 million people are facing food insecurity, and Ethiopia, where up to 22.7 million people are food insecure, will benefit from the first phase of the project. Both countries are experiencing historically severe droughts, exacerbated by climate change.
The program directly responds to three food security challenges facing the region and taps into three opportunities to improve the resilience of food systems for stronger, healthier communities.
Three Challenges Facing Food Security
Opportunities for Action
Despite challenging circumstances, enhancing the resilience of food systems in the Eastern and Southern Africa offers real opportunities to not only tackle food insecurity and ensure that everyone has enough to eat, but to also generate more jobs, promote trade, and enhance resilience.
World Bank Action
With these challenges and opportunities in mind, the Food Systems Resilience Program for Eastern and Southern Africa will provide a range of support, from restoring agricultural production capacity, to improving the management of natural resources, getting food to the consumers, and streamlining resilience in national and regional policymaking.
What other challenges or opportunities do you see? Let us know in the comments!
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Practice Manager for Agriculture and Food Security
Global Director, Agriculture and Food, World Bank
Senior Agriculture Specialist
As the food and nutrition security situation deteriorates in many parts of the world, it is more important than ever to provide evidence and tools to assess and address the challenges. Through the Food Crisis Prevention Network (RPCA), SWAC/OECD provides a critical space for policy dialogue and co-ordination for the Sahel and West Africa region. At the same time, food systems are changing rapidly. West Africa’s population is projected to grow from 400 million in 2020 to 540 million in 2030, with two-thirds of the increase taking place in urban areas, where incomes are relatively higher. We analyse and engage with policy makers on how these structural forces are transforming food production, purchasing and consumption patterns.
Key messages, empowering west africa with evidence-based knowledge on food security.
For four decades, the SWAC/OECD Secretariat, in partnership with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) and the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS), has facilitated the Food Crisis Prevention Network (RPCA). The RPCA is a platform for policy dialogue and co-ordination. The network provides data and evidence-based analysis on food and nutrition security for 17 countries in the Sahel and West Africa, as well as for ECOWAS, UEMOA, CILSS, technical and financial partners, and regional and international civil society stakeholders. Network members meet twice a year to discuss policy issues related to food crises.
SWAC is a vehicle for the OECD to invest in food security tools, evidence generation and policy dialogue to address these challenges. New factors are exacerbating these crises, including rampant inflation, security crises in some Sahel countries, and the adverse effects of climate change in the region. The RPCA has established a platform dialogue based on a comprehensive framework for analysing food security and nutrition in the Sahel and West Africa, including a cycle of analysis, a code of conduct (Charter) and tools for prevention, management and governance. Countries in West Africa and the Sahel, together with partners, are stepping up their efforts to address the increasingly complex challenges of food security and nutrition. This shift aims to improve countries' preparedness to effectively prevent and manage food crises, while building the resilience of communities to such challenges.
West Africa's population is growing rapidly, especially in urban areas, and is getting most of its food from markets. Consumers have more money and less time to cook and prepare food. This is driving rapid changes in food systems as West Africans demand more diverse and higher-value foods: processed, animal-based, fruits and vegetables. These changes represent a challenge to access adequate and healthy diets, but also an opportunity for the two-thirds of West Africans who work in the food economy. SWAC/OECD explores these changing patterns through a series of notes and reports on urbanisation, healthy diets and the changing food environment.
Intra-regional food trade is a key driver of agricultural development, food security and regional integration in West Africa. It moves food from areas of production to centres of demand, builds food and nutrition resilience, and stimulates investment and job creation in all segments of the food economy. Yet it is largely absent from regional and national policy debates and remains hampered by constraining policies such as non-tariff barriers and underinvestment in transport and marketing infrastructure. This is partly due to a lack of data on its true size and composition. Much of the region's food trade is unaccounted for, either because it is not recorded by customs officials or because it takes place through informal crossings. A better understanding of intra-regional food trade is also becoming increasingly important as countries in the region begin to implement the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). To address this, SWAC/OECD is providing evidence on intra-regional food trade and informing trade facilitation policies in the ECOWAS region.
Meanwhile, global and local shocks such as COVID, Russia's war of aggression against Ukraine , insecurity and exchange rate devaluations have exacerbated food price inflation, but also its variation and volatility across time, space and food groups. Food prices in the region are already structurally high - 30% to 40% above their level in comparable economies - and households allocate a very large share of their budget to food, in the range of 40% to 50%. This makes it crucial to have good evidence on the drivers and dynamics of food prices across the region, but also across different markets and products, in order to anticipate impacts on food and nutrition security and to inform food and agricultural policies. SWAC/OECD is a member of the CILSS-led Observatory on Regional Markets and is leading the analysis of spatial variation in food prices across markets in the region.
The number of people facing food insecurity is estimated at 35.3 million in April 2024, up from 30.3 million in April 2019. Moreover, without appropriate action, 126.5 million people currently under pressure could fall into food crisis during the lean season in 2024, particularly in Nigeria (82.6 million), Niger (7.3 million) and Burkina Faso (5.2 million). Acute malnutrition also persists, affecting some 16.7 million children under five in the region.
Between April 2019 and April 2024, the number of people affected by the food crisis multiplied by seven, soaring from 5 to 35.3 million. Insecurity and inflation exacerbate the crisis. The adverse effects of climate change continue to negatively impact the region's food systems, in particular through significant disruptions in rainfall patterns, reduced productivity of certain crops and reduced fertility of certain livestock species.
Between 1950 and 2015, West Africa’s population grew from 73 million to 367 million inhabitants. Over the same period, the urban population increased from 5 million to 169 million. While cities and towns drive the demand for food, they do not produce their own food and rely heavily on markets: urban centres account for 67% of total food demand in the region and more than 90% of food in cities is purchased from markets. Urban areas therefore act as a magnet for regional production, while at the same time acting as hubs for the spatial organisation of food trade and markets.
Twenty-two percent of food workers are involved in off-farm activities such as retailing, marketing and processing. Driven by population growth, urbanisation and rising incomes, the regional food market is expanding. In response, an increasing number of West Africans are involved in food processing and marketing, both nationally and regionally. Regional food trade has historically been undervalued - both in official statistics and policy frameworks - but it represents an opportunity to harness the potential of the food economy and generate employment and income for millions of West Africans.
The cost of food in West Africa is strongly influenced by the local context: agro-climatic and economic conditions, infrastructure, distance and isolation. For example, animal foods account for 50% of the healthy diet on average in countries in the region, but the middle 50% of values range from 19% to 34%. The variation within countries is likely to be as great, if not greater, than between countries. Food prices are also highly seasonal. The variety of spatial drivers of food prices underlines the importance of location- and product-specific information on food markets in the region.
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Justin M Nolan
francis njuguna
About this online discussion This document summarizes the online discussion Using information technology in the agriculture of APEC economies and beyond – The potential of Wisdom Agriculture for poverty reduction and improved food security which was held on the FAO Global Forum on Food Security and Nutrition (FSN Forum) from 9 to 30 November 2016. The discussion was organized in the context of the APEC Wisdom Agriculture Workshop, which took place in Yinchuan, China from 24 to 25 November, and was facilitated by Guomin Zhou from the Agriculture Information Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
Josh Brem-Wilson
Sustainability
Ala khosravani
Food security is one of the most challenging topics globally; however, the concept of food security has taken on additional dimensions that are general and are less detailed. This study aims to identify the intellectual structure of food security research and the changes in this structure. This paper analyzed 3169 documents from the Web of Science database through a bibliometric review. A review of the published documents shows an increasing trend over the past 46 years. In accordance with co-occurrence analysis, 125 keywords were grouped into five clusters: food security and sustainable development; food security and socioeconomic factors; food security policy and governance; coping strategies for poverty, inequality, and hunger; and modern food security management. This study identifies four streams within food security research: sustainability and environmental, socioeconomic, cultural, and political factors. The paper concludes that even though food security might investigate ma...
There are significant threats to sustainable food security and nutrition in the long-run, including demographic and environmental pressures and changing business practices in agriculture with the emergence of global values chains. The global nature and public good aspects of the challenges require coordinated responses and urgent improvement of the global governance of food security. This paper argues for the strengthening of the Committee on World Food Security to ensure greater coherence in the global approach to food security and the multilateral trade, financial and environmental regimes.
International Journal of Sustainable Engineering
Hana Trollman
Ellen Lammers
September 2018 FAO (2018) Global Forum on Food Security and Nutrition FSN Forum Report of activity
Olutosin A Otekunrin
FAO (2018). Eradicating extreme poverty: What is the role of agriculture? This document summarizes the online discussion Eradicating extreme poverty: What is the role of agriculture? Which was held on FAO Global Forum on Food Security and Nutrition (FSN Forum) from 3 to 24 April 2018. The discussion was facilitated by Ana Paula de la O Campos and Maya Takagi of FAO. This online discussion was part of a broader reflection on the part of FAO towards refining and improving its approach to the eradication of extreme poverty, by using its experience in supporting the development of agriculture and the livelihoods of rural dwellers towards the realization of SDG1. Over the weeks of discussion, participants from 42 countries, shared 110 contributions. The topic of introduction and the questions proposed, as well as the contributions received , are available on the discussion page: www.fao.org/fsnforum/activities/discussions/extreme poverty agriculture
Matthieu Brun
Un article consacré à la réforme du Comité de la sécurité alimentaire mondiale (CSA). Parmi les principaux résultats de cette réforme figurent une participation inédite de la société civile et la création d'une interface science-politique, deux processus permettant une meilleure définition et structuration des débats menés par le CSA sur les questions de sécurité alimentaire.
Claude Fischler
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22. Kapelari, S., Alexopoulos, G. & Sagmeister, K., 2019. Partner evaluation reports on science café implementation. BigPicnic Deliverable D.4.1. London: BGCI. Available on: https://www.bigpicnic.net/resources/public-views-and-recommendations-rri-food-security/
Georgios Alexopoulos
Rudy Rabbinge
Food Security
Serge Savary
Palgrave Handbook of Inter-Organizational Relations in World Politics
Matias E Margulis
Jimaima Lako
Marianne Van Dorp , jan verhagen , Jan van der Lee , Cora van Oosten , Michiel van Dijk , Jolanda van den Berg , Drs. Thom Achterbosch
LINDSAY FALVEY
David Elphinstone
Alternate Horizons
Mariam Saeed Ahmed Hussein
Wouter Hijweege
The Challenge of Food Security
Choice Reviews Online
Jennifer Clapp
Debarati Chakraborty
Global Environmental Politics
Simon Nicholson
Mahama Al-Rauf
Mahama Al- RAUF
The Geographical Journal
Journal of Developments in Sustainable Agriculture
Deola Naibakelao
Omo Ohiokpehai
Codrin Paveliuc-Olariu
MARCO ANTONIO LARA DE LA CALLEJA , MARIA CATALINA OVANDO CHICO
ISSN 2348 – 0319 International Journal of Innovative and Applied Research (2017); Volume 5, Issue 4
Beatrice Barasa
Erik de Bakker
Ingrid Evensmo
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Introduction, section i. background, section ii. technologies that can reduce hunger and improve food security, section iii. specific factors in chosen developing country.
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The decision is expected to prompt a rush of litigation challenging regulations across the entire federal government, from food safety to the environment.
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The challenges and strategies of food security under global change.
2. wars and conflicts as enhancers of food insecurity risks, 3. prospects and future challenges, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.
The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
Guiné, R.P.F. The Challenges and Strategies of Food Security under Global Change. Foods 2024 , 13 , 2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13132083
Guiné RPF. The Challenges and Strategies of Food Security under Global Change. Foods . 2024; 13(13):2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13132083
Guiné, Raquel P. F. 2024. "The Challenges and Strategies of Food Security under Global Change" Foods 13, no. 13: 2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13132083
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IMAGES
COMMENTS
1. Introduction. Food security (FS) is "a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" [] p.3.It is a significant priority for international policy [], and has been perceived as being among the key challenges worldwide ...
The challenge of food security requires an ability to deal with increasing food shortages for an ever expanding world population. With a predicted increase of 1.7 billion in world population between now and 2050, mankind is placing more and more pressure on the shrinking finite resources used to produce our food. The current model of an ever ...
Essay 1. Food security in Africa: Current efforts and challenges ... Given these worrying food security trends, Africa's food systems must become more resilient and guarantee access to healthy ...
42 ESSAY Africa's food systems are at a crossroad. Several challenges and exogenous shocks— including extreme weather events and climate change, recurrent outbreaks of pests
Five big challenges will necessitate shifting innovation strategy to place greater emphasis on sustainable increases in diet quality, on total factor productivity - not just crop yield - growth, on social protection programs, on Africa, on post-farmgate agri-food value chains, on risk management, and on reducing the land and water footprint of ...
The outbreak of COVID-19 has posed formidable challenges to the food industry, exacerbating threats to food security worldwide. In response to this crisis, this comprehensive review systematically maps the existing literature concerning sustainability and resilience within the realm of food security. A meticulous categorization of the identified papers is performed, focusing on elucidating the ...
The number of people suffering acute food insecurity increased from 135 million in 2019 to 345 million in 82 countries by June 2022, as the war in Ukraine, supply chain disruptions, and the continued economic fallout of the COVID-19 pandemic pushed food prices to all-time highs. Global food insecurity had already been rising, due in large part ...
Achieving SDG 2. There is now increased attention on the staggering societal costs of hunger and the need to radically transform our local, national and international food systems into more sustainable, nutritious and efficient systems. The five essays in this special issue discuss a wide range of issues related to food systems and the ethics ...
Applied Economics & Management, Cornell University. A version of this essay was delivered as the Fellows Address at the 2020 Agricultural and Applied Economics Association annual meetings on August 11, 2020. I thank, ... daunting food security challenges by marshaling both scientific advances and social protection
Predictions of food security outcomes have been a part of the policy landscape since Malthus' An Essay on the Principle of Population of 1798 . ... New challenges to food security are posed by climate change and the morbidity and mortality of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS).
The purpose of this Special Issue of Foods is to examine global food security challenges. Individual papers will identify and analyze the primary food security challenge or challenges for a given country, cohort or group, strategies for mitigation of food insecurity, sources of resilience, and prospects for success.
Food crises represent a challenge to global food security because of their recurrence and severity. The world is experiencing its third food crisis in the past 15 years. The 2021-2022 crisis affects more people than the previous two crises in 2007-2008 and 2011-2012.
Food security (FS) is "a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" [] p.3.It is a significant priority for international policy [], and has been perceived as being among the key challenges worldwide [] as it ...
Download the latest brief on rising food insecurity and World Bank responses. Since the last update on May 30, 2024, the agricultural, cereal, and export price indices closed 8%, 10%, and 9% lower, respectively. A fall in cocoa (16%) and cotton (11%) prices drove the decrease in the export price index. Maize and wheat prices closed 8% and 23% ...
The global food security challenge is straightforward: by 2050, the world must feed two billion more people, an increase of a quarter from today's global population. The demand for food will be 56% greater than it was in 2010. The United Nations has set ending hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable ...
Based on the 1996 World Food Summit, food security is defined when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.. The four main dimensions of food security: Physical availability of food: Food availability addresses the "supply side" of food security and ...
PDF | On Aug 30, 2023, Hayati YUSOF and others published Global Food Security Strategies, Issues and Challenges | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) 2023 Launch. On 12 July 2023 from 10 AM to 12 PM (EDT), FAO and its co-publishing partners will be launching, for the fifth time, the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) report at a Special Event in the margins of the ECOSOC High-Level Political Forum (HLPF).
Exploration of Food Security Challenges towards More Sustainable Food Production: A Systematic Literature Review of the Major Drivers and Policies November 2022 Foods 11(23):3804
Three Challenges Facing Food Security. Climate Shocks to Food Systems: Since 2019, extreme weather, conflict, and the COVID-19 pandemic have pushed nearly 50 million additional people into acute food insecurity across Sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, while climate-induced shocks to the food system used to occur one in every 12 years on average ...
This report examines the different channels through which trade openness (and reforms to achieve it) can affect a country's food security. The overall conclusion is that trade openness has a positive net impact on food security, although specific constituencies, including some poor households, could see their immediate food security threatened by the withdrawal of trade protection.
In the light of linkages in various scales and targets, the complex and nuanced design of the sustainable development goals (SDG) raises more challenges in their implementation on the ground. This paper reviewed 25 food security indicators, proposed improvements to facilitate operationalization, and illustrated practical implementation. The research focused on three essential blind spots that ...
As the food and nutrition security situation deteriorates in many parts of the world, it is more important than ever to provide evidence and tools to assess and address the challenges. Through the Food Crisis Prevention Network (RPCA), SWAC/OECD provides a critical space for policy dialogue and co-ordination for the Sahel and West Africa region. At the same time, food systems are changing ...
Integration of knowledge across the supply chain is key, with poorly characterised 20 Professor Sayed Azam-Ali 21 fFood Security: Challenges and Solutions Proceedings of the Global Food Security Forum, Shanghai, China, 6 November 2012 Session 2: Production and Productivity Production and Productivity: discussion Q.
The first section of this essay focuses on the meaning of food security and how population growth plays a role with it. Section two talks about the types of technologies that combat hunger across the globe and improve food security. ... The Philippines faces many challenges when it comes to food security. According to Senator Kiko Pangilinan ...
The decision is expected to prompt a rush of litigation challenging regulations across the entire federal government, from food safety to the environment. By Coral Davenport, Christina Jewett ...
Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers. ... Scientists and politicians have to come together to examine global food security challenges and find the correct strategies to mitigate the risks. Resilient systems must be built to ...