which research question best fits this claim and reason

4.2 Understanding and Composing Researched Arguments

[1] features of academic argument.

A clear and arguable position: You must present a reasonable argument for which both evidence and opposing or alternate views (counterarguments) exist. If few would disagree with you or you cannot find any evidence of a credible opposing view, you should consider rethinking and revising your position. A common error occurs when students try to present a statement of fact as an argumentative position. See the example below to learn how an idea or statement of fact can be developed and revised to become an effective thesis statement.

Example:  Can a statement of fact evolve into a strong argumentative thesis statement?

When presenting your stance in an argumentative thesis statement, make sure you have stated an argument and not a simple statement of fact or an expository thesis statement like you would write for a report.

Statement of Fact: Some social media users develop unhealthy attitudes about their body image because of the constant portrayal of “ideal” body types they encounter online.

Expository Thesis Statement: Excessive social media use can cause unhealthy physical and mental conditions, particularly for girls and young women.

Overarching Point Argumentative Thesis Statement: Social media users should restrict themselves from exposure to unrealistic photos and from the portrayal of the “ideal” body type in order to prevent the development of significant health issues.

Argument Thesis Statement with Broadcasting of Discussion Points (Reasons/Minor Premises): Social media users should restrict themselves from the exposure to unrealistic photos and from the portrayal of the “ideal” body type in order to prevent harmful physical and mental health conditions linked with excessive social media use.

Proposal Solution Argument Thesis Statement: To help users moderate their exposure to unrealistic photos and “ideal” body types associated with harmful physical and mental health conditions,  social media companies should provide users with informative public service announcements focused on healthy body image, display advertising promoting healthy body images and attitudes, and develop filters and messaging preferences to help end-users control their media stream content.

THESIS TIPS: When you compare the statements above, it is clear that a solid expository or argumentative thesis statement can contain factual information, but it must be a more complex idea that requires more development and evidence. The simple statement of fact above does not pass the “so what?” or “why?” test. When a thesis makes a claim about what a person or organization should do, think, or say , you are in the realm of argument.  A useful strategy for developing a strong argumentative thesis statement is to answer this question: Who should do what and why ?

Necessary background information: You must present the issues, history, or larger contexts that provide the foundation for understanding your argument so that your readers (and you) can comprehend and see the urgency in the specific argument you are making. That is, you must acknowledge the current rhetorical context and provide a sense of the argument’s importance or exigence.

Viable reasons for your position: Your argument offers valid reasons for your position for which you provide relevant evidence. These reasons usually become the key points expressed in the topic sentences of your body paragraphs.

Convincing evidence: You present convincing, credible, relevant researched evidence including facts, statistics, surveys, expert testimony, anecdotes, and textual (i.e. such as history, reports, analyses) evidence. Think about the appeals you learned about in Composition 1: logos, ethos, pathos, Kairos, and Stasis when selecting your evidence. Varying evidence types will help you vary the rhetorical appeals and create a more balanced argument and greater audience appeal.

Appeals to readers’ values: Effective arguments appeal to readers’ emotions, values, wants, and needs. You might appeal to your readers’ sense of compassion or justice through a compelling narrative/anecdote. However, you will want to make sure that you have a balance between appeals to your reader’s values and presenting sound evidence to support those appeals and keep your argument from being driven solely by appeals to pathos.

A trustworthy tone: Through a confident tone, clear focus, knowledgeable voice, and well-researched, credible evidence, you can develop readers’ confidence in your credibility conveying to them that you possess internal ethos. This means that vague or shallow evidence and writing that is unedited and/or too informal in tone will reduce your audience’s trust in your argument resulting in a smaller chance that your readers will seriously consider the ideas you are presenting as valid.

Careful consideration of counterarguments: You present your awareness of opposing views about your argument to address the audience’s needs or expectations and to reinforce your internal ethos. If you do not address the “yeah, but” or “what about” in your readers’ or listeners’ minds,  your argument may not be taken seriously and, even worse, your audience will think you have not researched your topic well enough or that you underestimate their existing knowledge. You should concede some points the opposition makes and refute others through evidence when you can.

Appropriate use of patterns of development to present your argument: Your argument reflects the application of the most effective patterns of development or rhetorical modes which you learned about in Composition 1 (i.e. exemplification, explanation, analysis, classification, comparison/contrast, definition, description, narration), with which to develop the content supporting your reasons.

Activating an Inquiry-based Mindset for Creating Arguments

Using a questioning heuristic [3] can help you generate an academic argument. Just as you pre-research a possible argument topic to see what others are saying about it or just bubble map or list to generate some ideas or list some research questions, you also need to “interrogate” the argument you are forming before you go too far with your research. In fact, working through these questions about the argument will help you identify holes in the argument you can address with specific research questions for your next round of rhetorical research.

QUESTIONING HEURISTIC FOR INVENTING AN ARGUMENT [4]

Questions are at the core of arguments. What matters is not just that you believe that what you have to say is true, but that you give others viable reasons to believe it as well—and also show them that you have considered the issue from multiple angles. To do that, build your argument out of the answers to the five questions a rational reader will expect answers to.  In academic and professional writing, we tend to build arguments from the answers to these main questions:

• What do you want me to do or think?
• Why should I do or think that?
• How do I know that what you say is true?
• Why should I accept the reasons that support your claim?
• What about this other idea, fact, or consideration?
• How should you present your argument?

When you ask people to do or think something they otherwise would not, they quite naturally want to know why they should do so. In fact, people tend to ask the same questions. As you make a reasonable argument, you anticipate and respond to readers’ questions with a particular part of the argument:

• The answer to What do you want me to do or think?  is your  conclusion : “I conclude that you should do or think X.”
• The answer to Why should I do or think that? states your  premise : “You should do or think X because . . .”
• The answer to How do I know that what you say is true?  presents your  support : “You can believe my reasons because they are supported by a thorough review of the available information and this carefully selected, credible evidence . . .”
• The answer to Why should I accept that your reasons support your claim? states your general principle of reasoning, called a  warrant : which is/are assumptions and/or values the author holds and possibly the audience holds as well: “My specific reason supports my specific claim because whenever this general condition is true, we can generally draw a conclusion like mine.” OR “I know people in my audience value the importance of X, just as I do.”
• The answer to What about this other idea, fact, or conclusion? acknowledges  that your readers might see things differently and then  responds  to their  counterarguments .
• The answer to How should you present your argument?  leads to the  point of view ,  organization , and  tone  that you should use when making your arguments.

As you have noticed, the answers to these questions involve knowing the particular vocabulary argumentation because these terms refer to specific parts of an argument. The remainder of this section will cover the terms referred to in the questions listed above as well as others that will help you better understand the building blocks of the argument.

Types of Arguments

Aristotelian argument.

Most likely sometime during your time in high school or your first semester of composition, you composed a simplified Aristotelian argument essay in which you researched a controversial issue and formed an argumentative position on the issue. You wrote an introduction leading into your thesis statement (major premise), provided two to three reasons as discussion points (minor premises) which became the focus of the essay’s body paragraphs. You also provided a counterargument presenting an opposing view and offered both a concession and refutation of that view.

Rogerian Argument

The Rogerian approach to argument is based on the work of Carl Rogers, one of the founders of Humanistic Psychology. Humanists are “concerned with the fullest growth of the individual in the areas of love, fulfillment, self-worth, and autonomy” [5] . In the field of learning and rhetoric, the “Rogerian” approach is focused on personal growth, developing a sense of personal fulfillment, and  finding common ground with others. This concept of finding common ground with others who hold opposing views or perspectives is a contrast to the traditional Aristotelian argument as discussed above or the Toulmin argument which we will look at later.

A Rogerian argument presents the opposing view without bias or negative tone and finds subclaims or points within the opposition’s argument that have merit or align with your own position on the issue. If you understand the issue well enough and can authentically present two or more stances on the issue, you are demonstrating that you have brought an open mind to the issue and are trustworthy in presenting your own argument and the opposing view. That is, you will have validated your internal ethos to your audience. As you present the opposing argument and consider the supporting evidence, your goal is to work your way toward a common ground; that is, the reasons and/or evidence both sides can agree upon, at least to some degree. Even if you do not actually write or present a formal Rogerian Argument, working through an outline of the opposition’s case with an open mind for the purpose of finding common ground and determining where your arguments diverge will help you more effectively develop your own argument and present a counterargument that accurately represents the opposition’s views.

The Rogerian argument analysis expands your knowledge and understanding of an issue far beyond a simple pro/con understanding of the issue and can help you develop a more sophisticated, complex argument. Processing your argument through the filter of a Rogerian perspective could also help you avoid some argumentative pitfalls. For example, fully understanding and trying to find common ground with opposing views may help you prevent:

• Taking too hostile a position against an opposing argument, thus alienating your audience.
• Not acknowledging the values, wants, or needs the opposing argument fulfills for the members of your audience will result in you never addressing them yourself.
• Writing a weak, uniformed counterargument to your own argument leading to audience mistrust of your internal ethos.

Toulmin Argument

The Toulmin Argument, which you studied in Composition 1, was developed by philosopher, Stephen Toulmin. Toulmin is best known for his work on argumentation which moved argument out of classical logical reasoning based on syllogisms to what he termed “practical arguments” based on justification rather than abstract proofs.  Key elements of the Toulmin Model are claims, grounds or evidence, rebuttals, warrants, backing, and qualifiers. Below is a recap of the main components of the Toulmin Model.

TOULMIN MODEL [6]

THE CLAIM: The claim or thesis must be very clear and concise because it sets up the entire paper. Questions that a good claim might answer are:

THE EVIDENCE: The next part of our argument and the most in-depth is the evidence that supports our claim. We are basically saying in our argument that the reader should agree with us because of XYZ where XYZ is the evidence. It is often said that the heart of any argument is the evidence. The key is to use evidence that is accurate, current, fair, or unbiased which makes it credible to support the claim.  Also, the evidence has to be presented accurately because the reader is simply not going to believe you unless you are some form of subject matter expert, which you probably are not, so we need to have the experts speak for you.

THE REBUTTAL: This section usually contains two parts: (1) addresses the main opposing point of view to the writer’s position. This demonstrates that you understand what that position is and helps develop your own credibility as the writer. (2) After you discuss the opposing view, next you provide evidence that casts doubt on that view suggesting that the other position might not be correct. The evidence does not have to prove that the other side is completely wrong; it only needs to suggest that there may be some doubt with the point of view based upon the evidence you are offering.

THE WARRANT: This is the basic/common or underlying principle that links your claim, reason, and evidence. For example, let’s say that your claim was about the dangers of social media use by young adults; however, everyone may not care about social media use. Therefore, you want to connect the reason “why” to the claim by expressing a common or underlying principle that will help your audience understand how the reason and claim link. So, while some people may not care about social media use, most people would care about keeping young adults  safe and away from danger because that is a natural instinct embedded in the human psyche . Warrants can come from principles that are shared at the societal level or within the field itself. 

THE QUALIFIERS: This term refers to language and its use in making your claim. They are words used to acknowledge the limits of your position and keep you from creating a claim that overreaches. Including words that accomplish a sufficiently narrow claim suggests that you know that there are other possibilities or contingencies. One of the best ways to get your readers to walk away from your argument is blind arrogance. 

The diagram below reflects the elements of Toulmin’s practical argument. The diagram illustrates how warrants and the back of warrants provide the connection between evidence and a conclusion. Warrants help contextualize a fact or link a fact to a conclusion. Creating a diagram such as this will help you create a solid basis on which to justify your argument. Probably the most important elements of the Toulmin model are the warrant and the backing. If you are not sure what warrant/s (shared audience knowledge, values, or assumption/s) link your evidence (grounds for the argument) to the conclusion, you may not be supporting your conclusion with the most effective evidence.

Other Types of Academic Arguments

Sometimes writing instructors assign specific types of arguments. These genre arguments have different purposes and will require different writing strategies. These purposes and strategies require writers to assume different roles. If assigned one of these arguments, you may find yourself investigating a cause, defining a term, evaluating a product, or solving a problem. You’ll still be arguing and using rhetorical principles to make these arguments, but you’ll need to consider your role as you compose your argument.

Causal Arguments

In a causal argument, a writer must argue about a problem or controversy’s cause. Causal arguments are difficult because most controversial issues have complicated causes. Many people also tend to believe in causes that correspond to their political beliefs. Consider the various explanations for school shootings. Some will insist the problem is the easy availability of firearms while others will insist that shooters are inspired by violent video games and entertainment. When making a causal argument, a writer should consider their biases and rely on evidence to support their claims.

In a causal argument, writers may be tempted by logical fallacies. For example, it’s important to remember that correlation is not equal to causation . If two events happen at the same time, that doesn’t necessarily mean that one event caused the other.

Definition Arguments

This type of argument may seem puzzling. How do we argue about a word’s definition? Isn’t that what dictionaries are for? For most definition arguments, the real argument isn’t the precise meaning of the word. Instead, the argument is about the implications of that definition and how the definition may be applied to specific situations. Consider the word “obscene.” One dictionary defines “obscene” as “offensive or disgusting by accepted standards of morality and decency.” A writer may want to argue that  Playboy is obscene. Or that a recent controversial film is obscene. By making this kind of argument, the writer would suggest some course of action: the obscene material should be age-limited, should be condemned, or should be banned. In this kind of paper, the author would make claims about “accepted standards” and “offensive or disgusting” as they apply to the potentially obscene item.

Many popular arguments rely on definitions. Determining whether something is obscene or offensive is just one popular item. As part of the War on Terror, we’ve argued about the meaning of “torture” and its justification. Many death penalty arguments rely upon the terms “cruel and unusual punishment.” The Iraq war inspired many arguments about “just” and “unjust” wars, as did the Vietnam war did decades earlier.

Evaluation Arguments

You may be more familiar with evaluation arguments than you realize. If you’ve ever read a movie, restaurant, or other product review, you’ve read an evaluation argument. As online shopping and social media have expanded, you may have even written your own evaluation argument on Amazon, Google, or Yelp.  A good evaluation argument will rely upon clear criteria. “Criteria” (singular “criterion”) are the conditions by which you make your evaluation; these conditions could be used to evaluate any thing that is in the same category. A restaurant review may be based upon the food quality, price, service, and ambiance of the restaurant. An evaluation should also consider the specific category of what’s being evaluated: one shouldn’t evaluate a local pub with the same criteria as a fine dining establishment. By establishing a narrow category, the writer can write a more accurate evaluation. While reviews are the most popular form of evaluation arguments, that is not the only place they are used. Evaluation arguments are useful for supporting or opposing public policies or proposed laws. A community may propose several solutions to deal with a school district’s budget woes. A teacher from that district may write a guest editorial arguing for the best policy, or write an article criticizing a poor choice.

Proposal Argument (Problem/Solution)

Proposal arguments require the writer to perform two tasks: argue that there is a problem, and then propose a solution to that problem. Usually, the problem will be a local problem. It is good to focus on a smaller community because national or global problems or much more complex; therefore, making them harder to successfully argue in the limited space of a college essay.

Proposals have two separate arguments. The first is the problem: it’s not enough to label an issue a problem; a writer must prove that the problem is severe to an audience. Take, for instance, the opioid crisis. A writer may need to convince community members who aren’t addicts why the crisis is a problem for their community; therefore, it is not enough to discuss how addiction hurts addicts. Showing how the community is harmed by the crime associated with addiction would be a better way to motivate a community to solve the problem.

The second argument is the solution. Explain what the solution is and how it solves the problem. A writer should establish that their solution is the best solution. The best solution is the cheapest solution that best addresses the problem. “Cheapest” here refers to more than monetary costs. While monetary costs are oftentimes a considerable factor, there are other costs like labor and change that may affect people physically, mentally, or emotionally. “Addressing the problem” is an acknowledgment that most proposals won’t completely solve a problem. The goal is a reasonable solution that eliminates most of the harm, or the most serious harm, caused by the problem. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of proposals is considering the unintended consequences of a solution. These can be positive or negative. Writers should ask “What happens next?” of their solutions.

[8] Structuring Argument in Your Paper

Now that we have looked at the different terms and styles of arguments, we need to start thinking about how these things come together in a paper because writing academic research papers is (more than likely) going to be a lot messier than this chapter, or any textbook, makes it seem.

In a traditional argument-based paper, the claim is generally stated in the thesis (often at the end of the introduction), with the reasons appearing as the topic sentences of body paragraphs. The content of the body paragraphs is then focused on providing the evidence that supports the topic sentences, ultimately supporting the claim. Such organization helps to ensure that the argument is always at the forefront of the writing, since it provides guideposts in key places to direct the reader’s attention to what the author wants to persuade him/her of. There may be occasions, though, when it is preferable to delay stating the claim until later.

In addition, regardless of what the reasons are that you plan to use to support your claim, they will not be equal in their strength/ability to do so. Realistically, the reasons will fall along a spectrum from strongest to weakest (note that “weakest” does not carry the traditional connotation of the word “weak”), so, when writing an argument-based paper, you will need to determine the best order in which to place your reasons. The most common suggestion for ordering is to place your weakest reasons in the middle of the paper, with your strongest appearing at the beginning and end. This approach makes sense in terms of wanting to show the reader early in the writing that your claim is backed by sound reasoning and to leave him/her with a final impression that your argument is solid. You also should consider the complexity of the reasons; if some of your ideas are more complicated to understand than others, you will need to strike a balance between strength and complexity in the structure to ensure that your reader is not only persuaded throughout the paper but also that he/she can fully understand the logical progression from one point to the next.

organizing reasons effectively

Imagine that you are assigned an argument paper that must focus on an education-related issue, with the audience consisting of your peers. You select as your claim the idea that all undergraduate writing courses that fulfill a general education requirement should include a tutor, who would attend all class meetings and assist students as needed. As you plan your paper, you decide to use the following reasons to support your claim:

• Students may be more comfortable seeking individualized help with their writing from a peer (advanced undergraduate student or graduate student) than their instructor.
• The tutor could provide valuable feedback to the instructor to assist him/her with teaching that students may be uncomfortable  sharing or otherwise unable to do so.
• Student grades and retention would improve.

To support the first reason, your evidence consists of anecdotes from fellow students. To support the second and third reasons, your evidence consists of published research that suggests these benefits. In what order would you place the reasons in your paper, and why?

Media Attributions

• “Toulmin argumentation can be diagrammed as a conclusion established, more or less, on the basis of a fact supported by a warrant (with backing), and a possible rebuttal.”  Image by Chaswick Chap, CC-BY-SA 3.0 © Chap Chiswick is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
• 4.2 (except where otherwise noted) is borrowed with minor edits and additions from Claim Your Voice in First Year Composition, Vol. 2 by Cynthia Kiefer and Serene Rock which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License ↵
• Hillocks, G.,Jr. (2010). Teaching argument for critical thinking and writing: An introduction.  English Journal,  99 (6), 24-32. https://www.proquest.com/docview/577286527/fulltextPDF/8F9B51E2B09B440EPQ/1?accountid=30550 ↵
• Definition : of or constituting an educational method in which learning takes place through discoveries that result from investigations made by the student ↵
• Borrowed with minor edits and additions from "Argument" by Kirsten DeVries which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License and published as part of Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition, SP22 edition ↵
• The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Humanistic psychology. In Encyclopaedia Britannica . https://www.britannica.com/science/humanistic-psychology ↵
• Borrowed with minor edits and additions from Writing and Rhetoric by Heather Hopkins Bowers, Anthony Ruggiero, and Jason Saphara which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ↵
• Borrowed with minor edits and additions from "Argument Genres" by Heather Hopkins Bowers, Anthony Ruggiero, and Jason Saphara which was published in Writing and Rhetoric, Colorado State University, Pueblo and is licensed under CC-BY 4.0. ↵
• The following section (except where otherwise noted) was borrowed with minor edits and additions from "Structure of Argument" by Karla Lyles and Jeanine Rauch provided by the University of Mississippi which is licensed under a CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike ↵

Composition 2: Research and Writing Copyright © by Brittany Seay is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Argumentation and Persuasion

Claims, reasons, and evidence.

Argument in its most basic form consists of three parts:

• Reasons to support the claim
• Evidence to support the reasons

In some cases, including only these three components will be sufficient to demonstrate the merits of your ideas and persuade the reader, but in others you will need to go beyond these, incorporating counterarguments and/or warrants. For now, though, let’s focus our attention on what claims, reasons, and evidence are, as well as ways that you can evaluate the quality of each.

Defining and Evaluating Claims

What is a claim? Simply stated, a claim is a position or stance that the person communicating takes on an issue. Claims exist on a spectrum of complexity; for example, the claim that fruit-flavored candy is better than chocolate is rather minor in comparison to a claim that there is not enough affordable housing in the area, with the former’s focus resting (largely) on dietary preference and the latter’s reach instead extending across financial, political, and educational lines. As you can probably tell then, a claim reflects a position or stance that is the product of a range of influential factors (e.g., biological, psychological, economic, etc.), and as a position or stance it should articulate an idea that is debatable. However, the ability to challenge the claim is not the only criterion that must be met, and the questions below can help guide you in what to look for when evaluating another person’s claim as well as when stating your own.

To evaluate the quality of a claim, consider the following:

• Is the claim clearly and specifically stated? Clarity and specificity are key to ensuring that the claim’s intent and scope will be understood, so beware vague and/or broadly stated claims.
• Does the claim state an idea that someone not only could debate but also would want to debate? If someone would be uninterested in debating the idea, then it matters little that he/she could do so.
• Does the claim state an idea that can effectively be supported? If (sufficient) evidence is unavailable to support a claim, then it may be worthwhile to reconsider the claim’s phrasing and/or scope so that it can be revised to state an idea that can be supported more fully.

evaluating a claim in practice

Bias in the media has long been a topic of discussion, both popular and scholarly, and recently has even led to the creation of charts to show where news outlets fall on a spectrum from “conservative” to “liberal” ideology. Some people even claim that no media outlet can be relied on to report the truth.

Based on what you have learned in this module, is the claim, “Media cannot be trusted,” effective? Why or why not?

• Claims, Reasons, and Evidence. Authored by : Karla Lyles and Jeanine Rauch. Provided by : University of Mississippi. Project : WRIT 250 Committee OER Project. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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Research Question 101 📖

Everything you need to know to write a high-quality research question

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | October 2023

If you’ve landed on this page, you’re probably asking yourself, “ What is a research question? ”. Well, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll explain what a research question is , how it’s differen t from a research aim, and how to craft a high-quality research question that sets you up for success.

Research Question 101

What is a research question.

• Research questions vs research aims
• The 4 types of research questions
• How to write a research question
• Frequently asked questions
• Examples of research questions

As the name suggests, the research question is the core question (or set of questions) that your study will (attempt to) answer .

In many ways, a research question is akin to a target in archery . Without a clear target, you won’t know where to concentrate your efforts and focus. Essentially, your research question acts as the guiding light throughout your project and informs every choice you make along the way.

Let’s look at some examples:

What impact does social media usage have on the mental health of teenagers in New York?

How does the introduction of a minimum wage affect employment levels in small businesses in outer London?

How does the portrayal of women in 19th-century American literature reflect the societal attitudes of the time?

What are the long-term effects of intermittent fasting on heart health in adults?

As you can see in these examples, research questions are clear, specific questions that can be feasibly answered within a study. These are important attributes and we’ll discuss each of them in more detail a little later . If you’d like to see more examples of research questions, you can find our RQ mega-list here .

Research Questions vs Research Aims

At this point, you might be asking yourself, “ How is a research question different from a research aim? ”. Within any given study, the research aim and research question (or questions) are tightly intertwined , but they are separate things . Let’s unpack that a little.

A research aim is typically broader in nature and outlines what you hope to achieve with your research. It doesn’t ask a specific question but rather gives a summary of what you intend to explore.

The research question, on the other hand, is much more focused . It’s the specific query you’re setting out to answer. It narrows down the research aim into a detailed, researchable question that will guide your study’s methods and analysis.

Let’s look at an example:

Research Aim: To explore the effects of climate change on marine life in Southern Africa.

Research Question: How does ocean acidification caused by climate change affect the reproduction rates of coral reefs?

As you can see, the research aim gives you a general focus , while the research question details exactly what you want to find out.

Need a helping hand?

Types of research questions

Now that we’ve defined what a research question is, let’s look at the different types of research questions that you might come across. Broadly speaking, there are (at least) four different types of research questions – descriptive , comparative , relational , and explanatory . 

Descriptive questions ask what is happening. In other words, they seek to describe a phenomena or situation . An example of a descriptive research question could be something like “What types of exercise do high-performing UK executives engage in?”. This would likely be a bit too basic to form an interesting study, but as you can see, the research question is just focused on the what – in other words, it just describes the situation.

Comparative research questions , on the other hand, look to understand the way in which two or more things differ , or how they’re similar. An example of a comparative research question might be something like “How do exercise preferences vary between middle-aged men across three American cities?”. As you can see, this question seeks to compare the differences (or similarities) in behaviour between different groups.

Next up, we’ve got exploratory research questions , which ask why or how is something happening. While the other types of questions we looked at focused on the what, exploratory research questions are interested in the why and how . As an example, an exploratory research question might ask something like “Why have bee populations declined in Germany over the last 5 years?”. As you can, this question is aimed squarely at the why, rather than the what.

Last but not least, we have relational research questions . As the name suggests, these types of research questions seek to explore the relationships between variables . Here, an example could be something like “What is the relationship between X and Y” or “Does A have an impact on B”. As you can see, these types of research questions are interested in understanding how constructs or variables are connected , and perhaps, whether one thing causes another.

Of course, depending on how fine-grained you want to get, you can argue that there are many more types of research questions , but these four categories give you a broad idea of the different flavours that exist out there. It’s also worth pointing out that a research question doesn’t need to fit perfectly into one category – in many cases, a research question might overlap into more than just one category and that’s okay.

The key takeaway here is that research questions can take many different forms , and it’s useful to understand the nature of your research question so that you can align your research methodology accordingly.

How To Write A Research Question

As we alluded earlier, a well-crafted research question needs to possess very specific attributes, including focus , clarity and feasibility . But that’s not all – a rock-solid research question also needs to be rooted and aligned . Let’s look at each of these.

A strong research question typically has a single focus. So, don’t try to cram multiple questions into one research question; rather split them up into separate questions (or even subquestions), each with their own specific focus. As a rule of thumb, narrow beats broad when it comes to research questions.

Clear and specific

A good research question is clear and specific, not vague and broad. State clearly exactly what you want to find out so that any reader can quickly understand what you’re looking to achieve with your study. Along the same vein, try to avoid using bulky language and jargon – aim for clarity.

Unfortunately, even a super tantalising and thought-provoking research question has little value if you cannot feasibly answer it. So, think about the methodological implications of your research question while you’re crafting it. Most importantly, make sure that you know exactly what data you’ll need (primary or secondary) and how you’ll analyse that data.

A good research question (and a research topic, more broadly) should be rooted in a clear research gap and research problem . Without a well-defined research gap, you risk wasting your effort pursuing a question that’s already been adequately answered (and agreed upon) by the research community. A well-argued research gap lays at the heart of a valuable study, so make sure you have your gap clearly articulated and that your research question directly links to it.

As we mentioned earlier, your research aim and research question are (or at least, should be) tightly linked. So, make sure that your research question (or set of questions) aligns with your research aim . If not, you’ll need to revise one of the two to achieve this.

FAQ: Research Questions

Research question faqs, how many research questions should i have, what should i avoid when writing a research question, can a research question be a statement.

Typically, a research question is phrased as a question, not a statement. A question clearly indicates what you’re setting out to discover.

Can a research question be too broad or too narrow?

Yes. A question that’s too broad makes your research unfocused, while a question that’s too narrow limits the scope of your study.

Here’s an example of a research question that’s too broad:

“Why is mental health important?”

Conversely, here’s an example of a research question that’s likely too narrow:

“What is the impact of sleep deprivation on the exam scores of 19-year-old males in London studying maths at The Open University?”

Can I change my research question during the research process?

How do i know if my research question is good.

A good research question is focused, specific, practical, rooted in a research gap, and aligned with the research aim. If your question meets these criteria, it’s likely a strong question.

Is a research question similar to a hypothesis?

Not quite. A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts an outcome, while a research question is a query that you’re trying to answer through your study. Naturally, there can be linkages between a study’s research questions and hypothesis, but they serve different functions.

How are research questions and research objectives related?

The research question is a focused and specific query that your study aims to answer. It’s the central issue you’re investigating. The research objective, on the other hand, outlines the steps you’ll take to answer your research question. Research objectives are often more action-oriented and can be broken down into smaller tasks that guide your research process. In a sense, they’re something of a roadmap that helps you answer your research question.

Need some inspiration?

If you’d like to see more examples of research questions, check out our research question mega list here .  Alternatively, if you’d like 1-on-1 help developing a high-quality research question, consider our private coaching service .

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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1.1: The Purpose of Research Questions

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• Cheryl Lowry
• The Ohio State University via Ohio State University Libraries

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The Purpose of Research Questions

Research questions are very important.

Both professional researchers and successful student researchers develop research questions. That’s because research questions are more than handy tools; they are essential to the research process.

By defining exactly what the researcher is trying to find out, these questions influence most of the rest of the steps taken to conduct the research. That’s true even if the research is not for academic purposes but for other areas of our lives.

For instance, if you’re seeking information about a health problem in order to learn whether you have anything to worry about, research questions will make it possible for you to more effectively decide whether to seek medical help–and how quickly.

Or, if you’re researching a potential employer, having developed and used research questions will mean you’re able to more confidently decide whether to apply for an internship or job there.

The confidence you’ll have when making such decisions will come from knowing that the information they’re based on was gathered by conscious thought rather than serendipity and whim.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

1-Research Questions

6. Developing Your Research Question

Because of all their influence, you might worry that research questions are very difficult to develop. Sometimes it can seem that way. But we’ll help you get the hang of it and, luckily, none of us has to come up with perfect ones right off. It’s more like doing a rough draft and then improving it. That’s why we talk about developing research questions instead of just writing them.

Steps for Developing a Research Question

The steps for developing a research question, listed below, can help you organize your thoughts.

Step 1: Pick a topic (or consider the one assigned to you).

Step 2: Write a narrower/smaller topic that is related to the first.

Step 3: List some potential questions that could logically be asked in relation to the narrow topic.

Step 4: Pick the question that you are most interested in.

Step 5: Change the question you’re interested in so that it is more focused and specific.

MOVIE: Developing Research Questions

As you view this short video on how to develop research questions, think about the steps. Which step do you think is easiest? Which do you think is the hardest?

Once you know the steps and their order, only three skills are involved in developing a research question:

• Imagining narrower topics about a larger one,
• Thinking of questions that stem from a narrow topic, and
• Focusing questions to eliminate their vagueness.

Every time you use these skills, it’s important to evaluate what you have produced—that’s just part of the process of turning rough drafts into more finished products.

Maybe you have a topic in mind but aren’t sure how to form a research question around it. The trick is to think of a question related to your topic but not answerable with a quick search. Also, try to be specific so that your research question can be fully answered in the final product for your research assignment.

ACTIVITY: Thinking of Questions

For each of the narrow topics below, think of a research question that is logically related to that topic. (Remember that good research questions often, but not always, start with “Why” or “How” because questions that begin that way usually require more analysis.)

• U.S. investors’ attitudes about sustainability
• College students’ use of Snapchat
• The character Scout in To Kill a Mockingbird
• Nature-inspired nanotechnologies
• Marital therapy

After you think of each research question, evaluate it by asking whether it is:

• Logically related to the topic
• In question form
• Not answerable with a quick Google search
• Specific, not vague

Sometimes the first draft of a research question is still too broad, which can make your search for sources more challenging. Refining your question to remove vagueness or to target a specific aspect of the topic can help.

ACTIVITY: Focusing Questions

The first draft research questions below are not focused enough. Read them and identify at least one area of vagueness in each. Check your vagueness with what we identified. It’s great if you found more than we did because that can lead to research questions of greater specificity. See the bottom of the page for our answers.

First Drafts of Research Questions:

• Why have most electric car company start-ups failed?
• How do crabapple trees develop buds?
• How has NASA helped America?
• Why do many first-time elections soon after a country overthrows a dictator result in very conservative elected leaders?
• How is music composed and performed mostly by African-Americans connected to African-American history?

ACTIVITY:  Developing a Research Question

Answer to activity: focusing questions.

Some answers to the “Focusing Questions” Activity above are:

Question 1: Why have most electric car company start-ups failed? Vagueness: Which companies are we talking about? Worldwide or in a particular country?

Question 2: How do crabapple trees develop buds? Vagueness: There are several kinds of crabapples. Should we talk only about one kind? Does it matter where the crabapple tree lives?

Question 3: How has NASA helped America? Vagueness: NASA has had many projects. Should we should focus on one project they completed? Or projects during a particular time period?

Question 4: Why do many first-time elections soon after a country overthrows a dictator result in very conservative elected leaders? Vagueness: What time period are we talking about? Many dictators have been overthrown and many countries have been involved. Perhaps we should focus on one country or one dictator or one time period.

Question 5: How is music composed and performed mostly by African-Americans connected to African-American history? Vagueness: What kinds of music? Any particular performers and composers? When?

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research Copyright © 2015 by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing Explanation Part 1: Claims, Evidence and Reasoning

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Claims , evidence and reasoning are the building blocks of a well-written explanation. When writing about a science topic or concept, writers are often faced with a challenging question or problem that they must address. The claim(s) in a text answers the question or makes a statement that addresses the problem. It is the writer’s responsibility to support a claim with evidence and reasoning so that the reader has a deeper understanding of the topic.

Explore the slideshow below to learn about how claims, evidence and reasoning are used in developing an explanation.

Claims, Evidence and Reasoning

A written explanation is often made up of a claim, evidence and reasoning. Together, these three components help readers to better understand what you write.

A claim is a conclusion that answers a question about scientific phenomena or a solution to a problem.

For example, in this claim from the Newsela article about water scarcity, the writer states that desalination, a process for removing salt from ocean water, is expensive and uses a lot of energy.

To explain and support this idea, the writer must provide sufficient evidence.

Writers include evidence to support claims. Evidence can be presented with facts, data, examples, research findings and quotes from experts. Evidence must be sufficient and relevant to your claim.

Examine the evidence that the writer uses to support this claim. The writer uses an example to show the high cost of desalination and a conclusion from research about how much energy might be required.

However, evidence alone may not be enough to help the reader understand or accept your claim as a writer. A good explanation will include the reason why the evidence supports the claim. Reasoning should be logical and valid.

Examine the reasoning that connects the evidence to the claim in this example. The writer explains that the amount of energy needed drives up the cost of the water.

As you write explanations on scientific topics, be sure to support your claims with sufficient evidence and logical reasoning that explains why your evidence supports your claim.

Now go the next page to practice identifying claims, evidence and reasoning in a text.

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A conclusion that answers a question about scientific phenomena or offers a solution to a problem.

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Information that supports a claim.

Explanation of why evidence supports a claim.

Chapter 4 Understanding and Composing Researched Arguments

Cynthia Kiefer and Serene Rock

4.0 Introduction

In Chapter 4 brings together and further develops your academic composing, metaliteracy, and rhetorical knowledge and skills. The content in the chapter assumes some previous experience with college research and writing, so after a brief introduction to argument, the chapter will focus on two major projects: the synthesis project and the solution proposal project. In the first project, you will analyze and synthesize two different perspectives on the same issue through a synthesis paper or project to sharpen your critical thinking and analytic skills. In addition, the arguments analyzed and compared in the project’s source material serves as a model of the different ways writers develop and support their arguments with rhetorical appeals, evidence, rhetorical language choices, and explanatory commentary.  The second project asks you to develop a proposal solution in an argument in which you immerse yourself in researching a current narrowed issue or problem, provide background to the problem, explain why it is a problem and must be addressed now, and provide feasible solutions to the problem. The second project also includes several suggestions for creating related digital projects to share your knowledge and solutions with your peers and others.

Learning Objectives

In this chapter, you will :

• identify features and types of argument.
• apply your rhetorical knowledge and skill  when analyzing varying perspectives on the same topic.
• compose a formal academic written synthesis paper or project comparing two different texts with opposing perspectives on the same issue.
• create a research question related to an issue or problem in a state, national, or global context/s.
• conduct a thorough research process and select the most relevant, credible key sources.
• select and narrow sources to detail in a formal,  written Annotated Bibliography.
• create an “explainer” video on your argument’s topic  (what is happening and background to the problem).
• create and narrow an argumentative stance (position) on a researched topic.
• plan, organize, and draft a formal proposal argument paper or project.
• apply feedback from peers, tutors, and instructors on written and digital compositions
• create an infographic containing a call to action, focused your argument’s proposal.

Aligned English 102 Course Competencies:

• Write for specific rhetorical contexts, including circumstance, purpose, topic, audience and writer, as well as the writing`s ethical, political, and cultural implications. (MCCCD #1)
• Organize writing to support a central idea through unity, coherence and logical development appropriate to a specific writing context. (MCCCD #2)
• Use appropriate conventions in writing, including consistent voice, tone, diction, grammar, and mechanics. (MCCCD #3)
• Find, evaluate, select, and synthesize both online and print sources that examine a topic from multiple perspectives. (MCCCD #4)
• Integrate sources through summarizing, paraphrasing, and quotation from sources to develop and support one`s own ideas. (MCCCD #5)
• Identify, select and use an appropriate documentation style to maintain academic integrity. (MCCCD #6)
• Use feedback obtained through peer review, instructor comments, and/or other sources to revise writing. (MCCCD #7)
• Assess one`s own writing strengths and identify strategies for improvement through instructor conference, portfolio review, written evaluation, and/or other methods. (MCCCD #8)
• Generate, format, and edit writing using appropriate technologies. (MCCCD #9)

4.1 Understanding Features and Types of Arguments

This section assumes you have some knowledge and experience with argument, but just to make sure we share a common understanding, the content in this section will provide sufficient background to refresh and expand your knowledge of argument and academic argument vocabulary terms.

4.1.1 Features of ACADEMIC Argument

A clear and arguable position: You must present a reasonable argument for which both evidence and opposing or alternate views (counterarguments) exist.  If few would disagree with you or you cannot find any evidence of a credible opposing view, you should consider rethinking and revising your position.  A common error occurs when students try to present a statement of fact as an argumentative position.  See the examples at the end of this section to learn how an idea or statement of fact can be developed and revised to become an effective thesis statement.

An obvious organizational structure: A solid argument takes planning. If your argument is disorganized or the thesis and/or the key reasons are unclear or placed in a confusing order, your argument and supporting content may not be taken seriously. Taking the time to plan the essay with a rough phrase-form outline including your citations will save you hours of time when you start writing.

Necessary background information: You must present the issues, history, or larger contexts that provide the foundation for understanding your argument so that your readers (and you) can comprehend and see the urgency in the specific argument you are making. That is, you must acknowledge the current rhetorical context and provide a sense of the argument’s importance or exigence .

Viable reasons for your position: Your argument offers valid reasons for your position for which you provide relevant evidence. These reasons usually become the key points expressed in your topic sentences.

Convincing evidence: You present convincing, credible, relevant researched evidence including facts, statistics, surveys, expert testimony, anecdotes, and textual (i.e. such as history, reports, analyses) evidence. You may also include personal testimony if you have direct experience you can provide as evidence, but primarily, you are providing researched evidence. (Think logos, ethos, pathos, Kairos when selecting your evidence. Varying evidence types will help you vary the rhetorical appeals and create a more balanced argument and greater audience appeal.)

Appeals to readers’ values: Effective arguments appeal to readers’ emotions, values, wants, and needs. You might appeal to your readers’ sense of compassion or justice through a compelling narrative/anecdote, for example. (Think pathos and ethos when appealing or acknowledging your audience’s concerns or possible thoughts.)

A trustworthy tone: Through a confident tone, clear focus, knowledgeable voice, and well-researched, credible evidence, you can develop readers’ confidence in your credibility. (Convey to your audience that you possess internal ethos!) Also, vague or shallow evidence and writing that is unedited and/or too informal in tone will reduce your audience’s trust in your argument.

Careful consideration of counterarguments: You present your awareness of opposing views about your argument to address the audience’s needs or expectations and to reinforce your internal ethos with their trust. If you do not address the “yeah, but” or “what about” in your readers’ or listeners’ minds,  your argument may not be taken seriously and, even worse, your audience will think you have not researched your topic well enough or that you underestimate their existing knowledge.   You should concede some points the opposition makes and refute others through evidence when you can.

Appropriate use of patterns of development to present your argument: Your argument reflects application of the most effective patterns of development (i.e. exemplification, explanation, analysis, classification, comparison/contrast, definition, description, narration), with which to develop the content supporting your reasons (typically your reasons are the discussion points or topic sentences for your body paragraphs).

Example:  Can a statement of fact evolve into a strong argumentative thesis statement?

When presenting your stance in an argumentative thesis statement, make sure you have stated an argument and not a simple statement of fact or an expository thesis statement like you would write for a report.

Statement of Fact: Some social media users develop unhealthy attitudes about their body image because of the constant portrayal of “ideal” body types they encounter online.

Expository Thesis Statement: Excessive social media use can cause unhealthy physical and mental conditions, particularly for girls and young women.

Overarching Point Argumentative Thesis Statement: Social media users should restrict themselves from the exposure to unrealistic photos and from the portrayal of the “ideal” body type in order to prevent the development of significant health issues.

Argument Thesis Statement with Broadcasting of Discussion Points (Reasons/Minor Premises): Social media users should restrict themselves from the exposure to unrealistic photos and from the portrayal of the “ideal” body type in order to prevent harmful physical and mental health conditions linked with excessive social media use.

Proposal Solution Argument Thesis Statement: To help users moderate their exposure to unrealistic photos and “ideal” body types associated with harmful physical and mental health conditions,  social media companies should provide users with informative public service announcements focused on healthy body image,  display advertising promoting healthy body images and attitudes, and develop filters and messaging preferences to help end users control their media stream content.

THESIS TIPS: When you compare the statements above, it is clear that a solid expository or argumentative thesis statement can contain factual information, but it must be a more complex idea that requires more development and evidence.  The simple statement of fact above does not pass the “so what?” or “why?” test. When a thesis makes a claim about what a person or organization should do, think, or say , you are in the realm of argument.  A useful strategy  for developing a strong argumentative thesis statement is to answer this question: Who should do what and why ?

4.1.2 aCTIVATING AN INQUIRY-BASED MINDSET FOR CREATING ARGUMENTS

Using a questioning heuristic can help you generate (“invent”) an academic argument. Just as you pre-research a possible argument topic to see what others are saying about it (“the current conversation” in public discourse) or just bubble map or list to generate some ideas or list some research questions, you also need to “interrogate” the argument you are forming before you go too far with your research. In fact, working through these questions about the argument will help you identify holes in the argument you can address with specific research questions for your next round of rhetorical research.

QUESTIONING HEURISTIC FOR INVENTING AN ARGUMENT

Questions are at the core of arguments. What matters is not just that you believe that what you have to say is true, but that you give others viable reasons to believe it as well—and also show them that you have considered the issue from multiple angles. To do that, build your argument out of the answers to the five questions a rational reader will expect answers to.  In academic and professional writing, we tend to build arguments from the answers to these main questions:

• What do you want me to do or think?
• Why should I do or think that?
• How do I know that what you say is true?
• Why should I accept the reasons that support your claim?
• What about this other idea, fact, or consideration?
• How should you present your argument?

When you ask people to do or think something they otherwise would not, they quite naturally want to know why they should do so. In fact, people tend to ask the same questions. As you make a reasonable argument, you anticipate and respond to readers’ questions with a particular part of argument:

1. The answer to  What do you want me to do or think?  is your  conclusion : “I conclude that you should do or think X.”

2. The answer to  Why should I do or think that?  states your  premise : “You should do or think X because . . .”

3. The answer to  How do I know that what you say is true?  presents your  support : “You can believe my reasons because they are supported by a thorough review of the available information and this carefully selected, credible evidence . . .”

4. The answer to  Why should I accept that your reasons support your claim?  states your general principle of reasoning, called a  warrant : which is/are assumptions and/or values the author holds and possibly the audience holds as well).  “My specific reason supports my specific claim because whenever this general condition is true, we can generally draw a conclusion like mine.” “I know people in my audience value the importance of X, just as I do.”

5. The answer to  What about this other idea, fact, or conclusion? acknowledges  that your readers might see things differently and then  responds  to their  counterarguments .

6. The answer to  How should you present your argument?  leads to the  point of view ,  organization , and  tone  that you should use when making your arguments.

As you have noticed, the answers to these questions involve knowing the particular vocabulary about argument because these terms refer to specific parts of an argument.  The remainder of this section will cover the terms referred to in the questions listed above as well as others that will help you better understand the building blocks of argument.

Source of this argument questioning heuristic:  Devries, Kirsten. “Chapter 3 Argument.” Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition, Howard Community College (MD),  pressbooks.howardcc.edu/criticalreadingcriticalwriting/chapter/chapter-3-argument/. License CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0.

4.1.3 Types of Arguments

Aristotelian argument.

Most likely in your first semester of college English, you composed a simplified Aristotelian argument essay in which you researched a controversial issue and formed an argumentative position on the issue.  You wrote an introduction leading into your thesis statement (major premise), provided two to three reasons as discussion points (minor premises) which became the focus of the essay’s body paragraphs. You also provided a counterargument presenting an opposing view and offered both a concession   and a refutation of that view.  The basic argument process is reviewed for you in this brief description below:

PROMPTS AND PROCESSES TO GUIDE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF A BASIC ARGUMENT ESSAY 

Claim: What do you want the reader to believe?

The thesis in an argument paper is often called a claim. This is a statement of position, a thesis in which you take a stand on a controversial issue. A strong claim is one that has a valid counter-claim — an opposite or alternative that is as sensible as the position that you take in your claim.

Background: What background information about the topic does the reader need?

Before you get into defending your claim, you may need to offer some context to your argument. Some of this context may be offered in your intro paragraph, but often there are other definitions, history about your topic or the controversy that surrounds it, or other elements of the argument’s contextual that need additional space in your paper. This background can go after you state your claim.

Reasons: Why should a reader accept your claim?

To support your claim, you need a series of “sub-claims” or reasons. Like your claim, this is your thinking – your mini-argumentative points that support the core argumentative claim. This is NOT evidence. This is not data or statistics or quotes. A reason should be your idea that you use to support claim. We often say that three reasons – each distinct points – make for a well rounded argument structure.

Evidence: What makes your reasoning valid? To validate the thinking that you use in your reasons, you need to demonstrate that your reasons are not only based on your personal opinion. Evidence can come from research studies or scholarship, expert opinions, personal examples, observations made by yourself or others, or specific instances that make your reason seem sound and believable. Evidence only “works” if it directly supports your reason — and sometimes you must explain how the evidence supports your reason (do not assume that a reader can see the connection between evidence and reason that you see).

Counterargument: But what about other perspectives?

In a strong argument, you will not be afraid to consider perspectives that either challenge or completely oppose your own claim. In a counterargument, you may do any of the following (or some combination of them):

• summarize opposing views
• topic sentence makes it clear that you are making the shift to the counterview: “Opponents of X (your argument) believe/think/feel . . .
• explain how and where you actually agree with some opposing views
• acknowledge weaknesses or holes in your own argument

You have to be careful and clear that you are not conveying to a reader that you are rejecting your own claim; it is important to indicate that you are merely open to considering alternative viewpoints. Being open in this way shows that you are an ethical arguer – you are considering many viewpoints.

Response to Counterargument:

Just as it is important to include counterargument to show that you are fair-minded and balanced, you must respond to the counterargument that you include so that a reader clearly sees that you are not agreeing with the counterargument. Failure to include the response to counterargument can confuse the reader.

**It is certainly possible to begin the argument section (meaning, after the Background section) with your counterargument response instead of placing it at the end. Some people prefer to have their counterargument first; some prefer to have the counterargument response right before the conclusion.

Excerpted with minor edits from Emilie Zickel’s  Pressbook, English 102: Reading, Research and Writing. 

Rogerian Argument

The Rogerian approach to argument is based in the work of Carl Rogers , one of the founders of Humanistic Psychology .  Humanists are ” concerned with the fullest growth of the individual in the areas of love, fulfillment, self-worth, and autonomy” (“Humanist Psychology”).  In the field of learning and rhetoric, the “Rogerian” approach is focused on personal growth, developing a sense of personal fulfillment, and  finding common ground with others. This concept of finding common ground with others who hold opposing views or perspectives is a contrast to the traditional Aristotelian argument as discussed in the previous subsection or the Toulmin argument, discussed in the next subsection.

A Rogerian argument presents the opposing view without bias or negative tone and finds subclaims or points within the opposition argument that have merit or align with your own position on the issue.  If you understand the issue well enough you could authentically present two or more stances on the issue, you are demonstrating that you have brought an open mind to the issues and are probably trustworthy in presenting your own argument and the opposing view. That is, you will have validated your internal ethos to your audience.  As you present the opposing argument and consider the supporting evidence, your goal is to work your way toward common ground; that is, the reasons and/or evidence both sides can agree upon, at least to some degree.  Even if you do not actually write or present a formal Rogerian Argument, working through an outline of the opposition’s case with an open mind for the purpose of finding common ground and determining where your arguments diverge will help you more effectively develop your own argument and present a counterargument authentic to the oppositions’ views.

The Rogerian argument analysis expands your knowledge and understanding of an issue far beyond a simple pro/con understanding of the issue and may lead you to developing a more sophisticated, complex qualified argument. Processing your argument through the filter of a Rogerian perspective could also help you avoid some argumentative pitfalls. For example, more fully understanding and finding common ground with the the opposing views may help you prevent these argumentative pitfalls:

•  taking too hostile a position against an opposing argument, thus alienating your audience.
• not acknowledging the values, wants, or needs the opposing argument fulfills for your intended audience, thus you never address them yourself.
• writing a weak, uniformed counterargument to your own argument leading to audience mistrust of your internal ethos.

To give a Rogerian argument argument a try, follow these guidelines:

• summarize the opposing viewpoints
• determine if the opposing view’s argument is reasonable
• present their arguments and supporting points or premises accurately
• assess the evidence that provides backing for the value or ideal driving the argument
• determine if the author’s assumptions are valid
• keep your tone respectful while acknowledging the “holes” or missing evidence in the oppositions argument
• acknowledge your shared concerns (the “common ground”)
• follow up with support for your own argument
• concede the opposition’s valid supporting points with which you found common ground
• refute the weaknesses in the opposing view’s argument

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the combative or direct argumentative approach may be rejected by some audiences as too one-sided or may even culturally alienate an audience completely. Even if you do not use a pure Rogerian approach when structuring your own argument, applying the Rogerian mindset to the opposing side’s argument as a productive exercise just might help you find the common ground on which to base a stronger argument of your own.

Ready to learn more about Rogerian argument? This brief video below provides more explanation of the Rogerian argument  and  includes a specific outline for writing a Rogerian argument or analysis.

Caption and Credit: Valerie Bronstein Connors, Professor at American River College.  “How to write a Rogerian structured essay with a delayed thesis and common ground.”  YouTube. 25 Nov, 2019, youtu.be/a6kt8A10Mc4

Toulmin Argument

Toulmin Argument was developed by philosopher, Stephen Toulmin . Toulmin is best known for his work on argumentation which moved argument out of classical logical reasoning based on syllogisms to what he termed “practical arguments”  based on justification rather than abstract proofs.  Key elements of the Toulmin Model are the claim, the grounds or evidence, the rebuttal, the conclusion, the warrant, the backing, and qualifiers.

TOULMIN MODEL

from Writing and Rhetoric by Heather Hopkins Bowers, Anthony Ruggiero, and Jason Saphara. This content  is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

• What issue/topic are you writing about?
• Why are you writing about it? What has happened or needs to happen?
• How will you write about the issue? What will the major points of your paper be?
• Why should we care about this argument? How will you get the attention of the average person? This is often referred to as the greater purpose or warrant in that in takes the argument and broadens its appeal to readers by generalizing it.
• Other points that might be included:
• Who  i s being addressed if relevant?
• When or time period if relevant to issue?
• Where if the location is relevant to issue?

So now that we know what the parts are we can practice building a thesis. Here is a way to get started:

• What issue: Social Media
• Why write about it: Dangers to Young Adults
• How will I write about it:  Provide evidence that shows the dangers of social media by examining the time young adults spend on social media, cyber bullying and teen suicide.
• Why should we care about this argument: it is the responsibility of adults to ensure that young adults are kept safe and out of harms way.

So the basic starting thesis would look something like this:

THE EVIDENCE

THE REBUTTAL

THE CONCLUSION

THE WARRANT

THE BACKING

THE QUALIFIERS

The diagram below reflects the elements of Toulmin’s practical argument. The diagram illustrates how warrants and the back of warrants provide the connection between evidence and a conclusion. Warrants help contextualize a fact or link a fact to a conclusion. Creating a diagram such as this will help you create a solid basis on which to justify your argument.  Probably the most important elements of the Toulmin model  are the warrant and the backing. If you are not sure what warrant/s (shared audience knowledge, values, or assumption/s) link your evidence (grounds for the argument) to the conclusion, you may not be supporting your conclusion with the most effective evidence.

The Toulmin Argument for Analyzing Arguments

The Toulmin argument elements can be used to structure or test your argument or to better analyze the quality of another writer or speaker’s argument.  This list will give you Toulmin terminology and a sense of how the elements work to use the model to analyze another person’s argument.

• Claim: The author wants me to believe/accept their conclusion that  . . .
• Support/subclaims: The reasons I should believe this are  . . .
• Evidence or Grounds: What evidence does the author provide and does the warrant sufficiently link this to the author’s claim (conclusion)?
• Warrants: Why is this claim important to the author? (assumptions and/or values the author holds):
• Backing for Warrants: What evidence does the author give to remind me of warrants and make me want to accept them?
• Rebuttal: Are other positions shown? Are they refuted or discussed?
• Qualifier: Is there anything which suggests the claim might be limited (sometimes, probably, possibly, if)?

Finally, if you want to view or listen to an entertaining discussion of the Toulmin Model of Argument, this video will both inform and entertain you.

Credit:  “The Toulmin Method of Argumentation | THUNK.” YouTube, 29 Nov. 2016, youtu.be/1vArfwlX04I.

4.1.4 Other Types of Academic Arguments 

ARGUMENT GENRES

by Heather Hopkins Bowers, Anthony Ruggiero, and Jason Saphara, in Writing and Rhetoric, Colorado State University, Pueblo. Licensed CC-BY 4.0.  https://csupueblo.pressbooks.pub/rhetoric/chapter/argument-genres/

Sometimes writing instructors assign specific types of arguments. These  genre  arguments have different purposes and will require different writing strategies. These purposes and strategies require writers to assume different roles. If assigned one of these arguments, you may find yourself investigating a cause, defining a term, evaluating a product, or solving a problem. You’ll still be arguing and using rhetorical principles to make these arguments, but you’ll need to consider your role as you compose your argument.

Causal Arguments

In a causal argument, a writer must argue about a problem’s or controversy’s cause. Causal arguments are difficult because most controversial issues have complicated causes. Many people will also tend to believe causes that correspond to their political beliefs when considering causes. Consider the various explanations for school shootings. Some will insist the problem is the easy availability of firearms while others will insist that shooters are inspired by violent video games and entertainment. When making a causal argument, a writer should consider their biases and rely on evidence to support their claims.

In a causal argument, writers may be tempted by logical fallacies. For example, it’s important to remember the correlation is not equal to causation. If two events happen at the same time, that doesn’t necessarily mean that one event caused the other. We only have to consider an extreme example to see this. Imagine someone saying, “John wrecked his car last night when the moon was full, and Jim did the same. The full moon must have affected their driving.” While most people wouldn’t believe this, we can investigate other possible causes. Were there poor road conditions? Were Jim and/or John drunk? Driving unsafely? People will make similar errors when one event follows another. To avoid making these mistakes, writers should consider alternative causes when making a causal argument; these are opposing views that should be considered. If you find an alternative explanation stronger than your initial version, then you should make that your paper’s conclusion.

Definition Arguments

This type of argument may seem puzzling. How do we argue about a word’s definition? Isn’t that what dictionaries are for? For most definition arguments, the real argument isn’t the precise meaning of the word. Instead, the argument is about the implications of that definition and how the definition may be applied to specific situations. Consider the word “obscene.” One dictionary defines “obscene” as “offensive or disgusting by accepted standards of morality and decency.” A writer may want to argue that  Playboy  is obscene. Or that a recent controversial film is obscene. By making this kind of argument, the writer would suggest some course of action: the obscene material should be age-limited, should be condemned, or should be banned. In this kind of paper the author would make claims about “accepted standards” and “offensive or disgusting” as they apply to the potentially obscene item.

Many popular arguments rely of definitions. Determining whether something is obscene or offensive is just one popular item. As part of the War on Terror, we’ve argued about the meaning of “torture” and its justification. Many death penalty arguments rely upon the terms “cruel and unusual punishment.” The Iraq war inspired many arguments about “just” and “unjust” wars, as did the Vietnam war did decades earlier.

Evaluation Arguments

You may be more familiar with evaluation arguments than you realize. If you’ve ever read a movie, restaurant, or other product review, you’ve read an evaluation argument. As online shopping and social media have expanded, you may have even written your own evaluation argument on Amazon, Google, or Yelp.  A good evaluation argument will rely upon clear criteria. “Criteria” (singular “criterion”) are the conditions by which you make your evaluation; these conditions could be used to evaluate any thing that’s in the same category. A restaurant review may be based upon the food quality, price, service, and ambiance of the restaurant. An evaluation should also consider the specific category of what’s being evaluated: one shouldn’t evaluate a local pub with the same criteria as a fine dining establishment. By establishing a narrow category, the writer can write a more accurate evaluation.

A writer should strive to be fair when writing a review. You’ve probably seen a one-star Amazon review that says something like “The product arrived three days late.” This probably isn’t a fair review of the product, as its makers may have had no role in the product’s untimely delivery. When directing praise or blame in an evaluation consider how much to weigh each criteria and even the criteria against each other. Audience is important for a review. For example, a writer reviewing a horror movie for a horror fan website would probably offer a different review than a writer for  The New York Times. 

Evaluation arguments aren’t only used with products or services. Evaluation arguments are useful for supporting or opposing public policies or proposed laws. A community may propose several solutions to deal with a school district’s budget woes. A teacher from that district may write a guest editorial arguing for the best policy, or write an article criticizing a poor choice.

Proposal Argument (Problem/Solution)

Proposal arguments require the writer to perform two tasks: argue that there is a problem, and then propose a solution to that problem. Usually, the problem will be a local problem: Pueblo, Colorado has a high teen pregnancy rate. It’s good to focus on a smaller community because national or global problems or much more complex. In the United States, many states have varying laws and approaches to problems, so arguing about a problem is difficult. Additionally, Portland, Oregon may suffer from different problems than Portland, Maine. Writing an argument that addresses those complexities is often beyond the capability of most first year students and beyond the scope of the short papers assigned in a composition class.

Proposals have two separate arguments. The first is the problem: it’s not enough to label an issue a problem; a writer must prove that the problem is severe to an audience. Take, for instance, the opioid crisis. A writer may need to convince community members who aren’t addicts why the crisis is a problem for their community, so it’s not enough to discuss how addiction hurts addicts. Showing how the community is harmed by the crime associated with addiction might motivate a community to solve the problem. The key to establishing a problem is showing that the problem is severe to the audience because a proposal is asking readers to fix the problem.

The second argument is the solution. Explain what the solution is and how it solves the problem. A writer should establish that their solution is the best solution. The best solution is the cheapest solution that best addresses the problem. “Cheapest” here refers not just to monetary costs. While monetary costs are important, there are other costs. What are the labor costs of the solution? How will people’s lives be changed? How might people be angered by the solution or its implementation? “Addressing the problem” is an acknowledgment that most proposals won’t completely solve a problem. The goal is a reasonable solution that eliminates most of the harm, or the most serious harm, caused by the problem. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of proposals is considering the unintended consequences of a solution. These can be positive or negative. Writers should ask “What happens next?” of their solutions. Will a solution that lowers teen pregnancies also improve the dropout rate in the school district? Will it also require more resources be moved from other school programs?

Key Takeaway: What are Key Features of Argument?

With this brief introduction, you can see what rhetorical or academic argument  is not :

• An argument need not be controversial or about a controversy. (It could, for example, promote a solution that most would agree is needed.)
• An argument is not a mere fight supported with beliefs and emotional reasoning.
• An argument does not have a single winner or loser.
• An argument is not a mere opinion.
• An argument is not a statement of fact.

Furthermore, you can see what rhetorical argument  is :

• An argument is a claim asserted as true. (That is, you state your argument as fact. You avoid “I think” or “it seems to me” which would weaken your stance. That’s one reason most academic arguments are written in third person, formal point-of-view.)
• An argument is arguable.
• An argument must be reasonable.
• An argument must be supported with reasons and supporting evidence.
• An argument in a formal essay is called a thesis .  Supporting arguments (minor premises) can be called topic sentences .
• An argument can be explicit or implicit. (Directly stated or inferred)
• An argument must be adapted to its rhetorical situation.

Source of this Key Takeaway:   Devries, Kirsten. “Chapter 3 Argument.” Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition , Howard Community College (MD),  pressbooks.howardcc.edu/criticalreadingcriticalwriting/chapter/chapter-3-argument/. License CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0.

4.2 How Logical Reasoning, Rhetorical Appeals, and evidence Work to support an Argument

Now that you understand the basic features, and types of argument more fully, you are ready to dig a more deeply into understanding how effective arguments are developed. This requires critically analyzing the viewpoints of others–and yourself–using logical reasoning to test the ideas and assumptions on which an argument is founded. The first subsection below will give you the thinking tools to do that. In addition, examining how you and other rhetors use a balance of rhetorical appeals and types of relevant, effective, and ethically presented evidence to support their arguments will help you develop stronger argument by applying your rhetorical awareness, skills,  and knowledge to the greatest effect in delivering the argument.

Key Vocabulary

• Conclusion —a claim that is asserted as true.  One part of an argument.
• Premise —a reason behind a conclusion.  The other part of an argument.  Most conclusions have more than one premise.
• Statement —a declarative sentence that can be evaluated as true or false.  The parts of an argument, premises and the conclusion, should be statements.
• Standard Argument Form —a numbered breakdown of the parts of an argument (conclusion and all premises).
• Premise Indicators —terms that signal that a premise, or reason, is coming.
• Conclusion Indicator —terms that signal that a conclusion, or claim, is coming.
• Support —anything used as proof or reasoning for an argument.  This includes evidence, experience, and logic.
• Warrant —the connection made between the support and the reasons of an argument.
• Counterargument —an opposing argument to the one you make.  An argument can have multiple counterarguments.
• Complex Arguments –these are formed by more than individual premises that point to a conclusion.  Complex arguments may have layers to them, including an intermediate argument that may act as both a conclusion (with its own premises) and a premise (for the main conclusion).

Source: Devries, Kirsten. “Chapter 3 Argument.” Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition , Howard Community College (MD),  pressbooks.howardcc.edu/criticalreadingcriticalwriting/chapter/chapter-3-argument/

4.2.1 LOgicAL Reasoning: What is a syllogism?*

The term syllogism is applied to the distinctive form of argument that is the application of deductive reasoning. A syllogism includes two premises that are compared against each other in order to infer a conclusion.

The following is an example of a syllogism:

• Major Premise: No insect is warm-blooded.
• Minor Premise: The wasp is an insect.
• Conclusion: No wasp is warm-blooded. In this syllogism members of a category do not possess a certain characteristic (major premise). An individual is in that category (minor premise). Therefore, that individual cannot possess the characteristic (conclusion).

WHAT IS A CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM?

The example syllogism in the previous section is a categorical syllogism. In a categorical syllogism, the major premise will state something that will be taken as an absolute (categorical) starting point, and the minor premise will be examined against this absolute starting point in order to infer the conclusion.

Examples of categorical statements:

• All raccoons are omnivores.
• No insect is warm-blooded.
• Some mammals are omnivores.
• Some mammals are not omnivores.

WHEN IS A CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM A FALLACY?

A categorical syllogism can be fallacious either because a premise is untrue or because the relationship between the major and minor premise does not support the conclusion.

Untrue premise leading to a fallacious conclusion:

• Major premise: All swimming vertebrates are fish.
• Minor premise: The whale is a swimming vertebrate.
• Conclusion: The whale is a fish.

In fact, not all swimming vertebrates are fish so the conclusion that the whale is a fish is unsound.

Relationship between major and minor premise does not support conclusion:

• Major premise: Some instructors lack a sense of humor.
• Minor premise: Kim is an instructor.
• Conclusion: Kim lacks a sense of humor.

Certainly somewhere in the world an instructor must lack a sense of humor, so let us agree that the major premise is true. Let us also agree that the Kim in the minor premise is an instructor. Still, t he conclusion is unsound because it is impossible to determine whether Kim belongs to the group that lacks a sense of humor. A major premise that

states that only some members of a group have a characteristic can never set the stage for concluding that any particular member of the group has that characteristic.

4.2.2 WHAT IS AN IF/THEN SYLLOGISM?

An alternative name for the if/then syllogism is the hypothetical syllogism , but you may find it handy to use the if/then label because the characteristic sign of such a syllogism is the ‘if/then’ in the major premise. Here are the two common forms:

When is an if/then syllogism a fallacy?

Remember that a syllogism may be fallacious if a premise is false. In the case of the either/or fallacy, the major premise must accurately capture a logical relationship—that is, the ‘if’ must actually be a condition for the ‘then’. An if/then syllogism also may be fallacious if the major premise oversimplifies matters by identifying only one condition when in fact several are necessary.

Example of a fallacious if/then syllogism:

• Major premise: If her overall GPA is 2.0 then she will graduate.
• Minor premise: Her overall GPA is 2.0.
• Conclusion: Therefore, she will graduate.

What if the student’s major has a GPA requirement as well? For example, a department may require a 2.5 GPA for all courses taken for the major.

 from “Chapter 4: Making Mistakes in Reasoning.”  Introduction to Ethics,   Lumen Learning, n.d., courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-epcc-introethics-1/chapter/syllogisms/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

4.2.3 Rhetorical Appeals in Argument

RHETORICAL STRATEGIES: BUILDING COMPELLING ARGUMENTS

This content is provided by Emilie Zickel in English 102: Reading, Research, and Writing. This text is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. In this selection, we have added additional content to the section on the ethical appeal.

Logos: Appeal to Logic

Rhetoric pertains to how authors use and manipulate language in order to persuade an audience.

To be rhetorically effective (and thus persuasive), an author must engage the audience in a variety of compelling rhetorical appeals. We can classify these as Logos, Pathos, and Ethos.

Logic. Reason. Rationality. Logos is brainy and intellectual, cool, calm, collected, objective.

Logically sound writing often includes many examples to support a point – and those examples come from citation of credible data and statistics, reference to sound theories, reference valid research conducted by credible organizations.

Logical appeals rest on  rational modes of thinking,  such as

• claims of policy (we must do something!),
• claims of value (this is good! or this is bad!),
• claims of definition (this is what it is)
• claims of cause/effect (X has caused Y or X will cause Y)
• Inductive reasoning : you use several specific examples or cases and use them to make a larger generalization
• Exemplification : use of many examples to support a single point

Pathos: Appeal to Emotions

Pathos is deeply human – an author using pathetic appeals wants the audience to  feel  something: anger or pride or joy or rage or happiness. Pathetic appeals  rest on emotion-based modes of communication  . To engage the audience on an emotional level, the author may

• add  expressive descriptions  of people, places or events that helps the reader to feel or experience those events
• include  vivid imagery  of people, places or events that helps the reader to feel like he or she is seeing  those events
• share  personal stories  that help the reader feel connected to the person being described
• use  vocabulary  or sentence structure that revolves around a  particular emotion : sadness, happiness, fear, joy, anger, disgust, horror.
• try to include any information that will  evoke an emotional response   from the audience . This could involve making the audience feel empathy or disgust for the person/group/event being discussed,  or perhaps connection to or rejection of the person/group/event being discussed.

Pathos-based strategies are any strategies that  get the audience to “open up” to the topic or to the author. Emotions can make us vulnerable, and rhetors can use this vulnerability to get the audience on his or her side.

Ethos: Appeal to Values/Trust/Authority or Expertise

Ethical appeals have two facets.

External ethos is supported when a rhetor cites an expert or moral authority. For example, if you quote a scholarly researcher with expertise in a field, you are creating ethos. Sometimes that expert also conveys information within the quote from an expert, so this support serves two function. One the one hand, an ethical appeal also taps into the values   that the audience holds,  for example, patriotism, tradition, justice, equality, dignity for all humankind, self preservation, or other specific social, religious or philosophical values (Christian values, socialism, capitalism, feminism, etc). These values can sometimes feel very close to emotions, but they are felt on  a social level  rather than only on a personal level. If an author can evoke the values that the audience cares about in his or her argument, then he or she has a chance of persuading that audience because the audience will feel that the author is making an argument that is “right” (in the sense of moral “right”-ness).

This sense of referencing what is “right” in an ethical appeal connects to the   moral character of the speaker/author – the author’s internal ethos.  The author may draw attention to who he or she is as a way to engage the audience (i.e., “Because  I  support this –  and you all you trust me because we share the same values!  – you should, too”). If an author can present his or her moral character, one that the audience trusts because they (author and audience) share values,  then he or she has a chance of persuading that audience. In this sense, the audience will feel that the author is the  right person to make this argument and should therefore be believed. Another way to build your audience’s sense of your internal ethos is to use rhetoric and evidence responsibly. Your argument should reflect sound reasoning and sufficient and highly credible ethos. That is, how you use external ethos, logos, and the emotional appeals in presenting your argument reflects your internal ethos or trustworthiness.

In building ethical appeals, we see authors

• referring either directly or indirectly to the values that matter to the intended audience
• using reasoning or logic that relies on these values
• using language, phrasing, imagery or other writing style common to people who hold those values – tapping into the discourse community of people with those values
• doing anything else that shows the audience that the author understands and shares their values

4.2.4 Evidence in Argument

This section is from A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing by Emilie Zickel is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

A claim is a type of argumentative thesis - we usually call it a claim when it is being used in a persuasive essay. Claims need to be defended by you with logical, persuasive reasoning. Claims can also be challenged.

The most common types of claims are

Here are some things to think about avoiding when attempting to develop a strong source-based essay. Just as understanding what logical fallacies are so you can avoid them in your own writing, understand what weak evidence is can help you to avoid falling into the trap of using it in your own work.

Failures in evidence occur when a reader says, “I do not accept your evidence” . Here is why that might happen:

• The evidence that you have provided is  inaccurate : You’ve misread information or misquoted; you are not interpreting the quoted material in an accurate manner
• The evidence that you have provided is  insufficient : You are using just a small piece of evidence to support your reasoning. You need more. You probably have a “generalization” fallacy.
• The evidence that you have provided is  unrelated to the reason : Your evidence does not clearly or directly relate to the point that you are trying to make.
• The evidence that you have provided is  incomplete or too narrowly chosen : You have “cherry picked” certain examples or pieces of information to the exclusion of others, so while you do have evidence to support your point, you are also neglecting a lot of other information
• The evidence that you have provided is  old : The information that you are citing is not relevant anymore. It is outdated!
• The evidence that you have provided does not come from an  authoritative source : The source of your evidence is not credible; the person being cited is not an authority on the  Often paragraphs focus on sub-topics, or more specific examples of the topic. For instance, the focus of an essay might be higher education, one topic discussed within it is marketing higher education, and a supportive sub-topic might be the use of social media to attract students.">topic

One of the bigger issues with evidence is not so much with the evidence itself, but with the way that you integrate it into the paper. A reader needs to understand clearly how and why the evidence you chose relates to the point that you are making. As noted in  Section 4.4.  evidence must always be explained. Whenever you integrate evidence into your papers, it is important to answer the question “How does this evidence support the point that I am making?”.  Never assume that the reader sees what you see in evidence. Always make it as clear as possible how the evidence supports the reason. It may be useful to you to draft your papers with Section 4.4 ready for reference so that you can avoid the pitfall of evidence with no explanation.

4.3 composing the Synthesis Paper or Project

4.3.1 What is synthesis?

When you write a paper based on research, you typically blend a variety of evidence from multiple sources. That is, you synthesize your research and integrate it into your argument or report to support your claims and subclaims. most of you have had experience synthesizing information this way. We use synthesis across many genres and for different purposes.  In another type of synthesis, you may have used synthesis in analysis or critique papers, comparing how two different authors critique a performance, film, or literary piece or two different poems about the same concept.

In composition and rhetoric courses, a common form of synthesis paper instructors assign to students is the argument analysis of two different viewpoints on the same issue. The arguments students analyze are typically written as newspaper editorials, commentary pieces, and viewpoint essays. Instructors may assign the argumentative pieces, or you may select your own on a topic you find most interesting.

4.3.2 Identifying Opposing Viewpoints on Key Topics

Some instructors will assign text sets for a synthesis essay project while others will ask you to research and select your own source material for a synthesis assignment. If you are asked to select your own viewpoint texts for a synthesis essay, take time to carefully consider the sources and the authors’ biases and motivations  for their arguments.

From debates about which sports team are the best to whether self-driving cars are the transportation of the future, there are as many viewpoints as there are ice cream flavors exist.

On the topic of ice cream flavors, my opinion is that cookies and cream is the tastiest. Why do I think it is the best?  First, it is made with Oreo cookies, my favorite chocolate cookie. However when it comes to ice cream, I prefer a vanilla to a chocolate base, and cookies and cream’s base flavor is a creamy vanilla.  On the surface, these are pretty solid argumentative points for a low stakes ice cream debate based on my flavor preferences, and my explanation would probably satisfy your curiosity without a need for further evidence or explanation.

However, let’s complicate the frozen dessert conversation. What if you were to learn that I was employed by Nabisco as the Oreo product sales manager for the western region? Do you think this information is important? How might this fact influence my preference for cookies and cream ice cream? Would you wonder if it is my favorite because I really do love Oreos, or because if I pump it up enough to people I talk to, it will help my job as an Oreo sales manager? [1]   Regardless, knowing what my job is could help YOU determine if you think my opinion is an honest representation of my flavor preferences or based on a bias or agenda I might have (like selling more Oreos and Oreo products!).

Of course, this is a simplified example of the way personal connections to a topic bias our perspectives and bias our opinions, but you can see how even a harmless topic like ice cream can quickly get muddled when we introduce the element of bias and/or a motivated agenda. Understanding the basis of  a given opinion or viewpoint can help you determine the Remember, most people are sales managers of their opinions, whether their opinions were logically derived and based on credible evidence or whether they are based on their emotional beliefs or personal benefit. validity of the argument. Remember, most people are sales managers of their opinions whether those opinions were logically derived and based on credible evidence or whether they are based on their emotional beliefs or personal benefit. One might be selling Oreo cookies or one might be “selling” one’s opinions about voting rights legislation.

Using the Opposing Viewpoints Database to Locate Contrasting Viewpoints on Key Issues and Controversies

The Opposing Viewpoints library database, is a great resource where you can find articles with differing viewpoints and opinions on various topics. Watch the video to learn how to find these articles.

4.3.3 How to analyze the two positions

Annotate both arguments first.

• Note the argumentative claim/thesis.
• Note the supporting reasons
• Note the types of evidence used
• Write questions in the margin
• Write brief critical remarks down as they occur to you
• Note any unclear passages
• Note effective or ineffective rhetorical language choices
• Write a summary of the author’s argument in fewer than six sentences.

Perform an Informal Rhetorical Analysis of Your Source Material in a Second Round of Annotation

• Note the use of ethos, pathos, logos, Kairos.  Does the evidence seem to support the appeal the author is trying to make?
• Note whether or not the argument is balanced
• Note any fallacies or inconsistencies with a question mark
• Note evidence you would expect, but is not included.  (That is, noting what is not there.)
• Note what the author does that makes you think the author is responsible and trustworthy

Use the Toulmin Model Diagram from Section 4.1.3

• Diagram the elements of the argument 
• Does the warrant and the backing provide a convincing link from the evidence (the “grounds”)?

Analyze the Logical Soundness of the Arguments Presented Using Syllogisms

More complex and controversial topics such as healthcare and climate change are breeding grounds for opinions filled with underlying agendas, biases, and emotional reasoning. As a rhetorical researcher and critical thinker, you must understand how to critically read, listen to, and analyze  a range of viewpoints with an impartial eye. Some of these viewpoints will be based on valid premises and credible evidence while others will be based on personal, political, religious, or economic biases or agendas that distort the foundational premises you would expect of a valid  argument. When assessing and comparing several two viewpoints on the same issue, a critical thinker and rhetorically aware person will not “buy” arguments based on  illogical or unsound premises, “In the rhetorical paradigm, what constitutes information cannot be divorced from the community/audience. the purpose, and the structure of a disciplinary threshold concept.”  —  Joshua Hill in Teaching​ Information Literacy and Writing Studies : Volume 1 (40)  emotional reasoning, and/or provably incorrect, insufficient, and/or unethical evidence.

For example, if a person presents an argument that all voters must vote in person with ID or not have their vote counted, they are working from a warrant or assumption that  a vote made in person is less likely than a mail-in vote to be fraudulent.  This leads them to the major premise that the only valid vote is one made when a person is physically present. Does that premise stand up to critical analysis? Is it true that votes made in person with an ID are the only valid votes?  Since mail in voting has been successful and stood up to voting audits embedded in each state’s counting processes every year in many states for over ten years, the warrant is flawed and the major premise is not true. The argument falls apart because the argument’s basic assumptions and premise do not hold up to logic based on available and credible evidence.

The following two syllogisms illustrate the faulty premise at play in these examples.

• Major premise: All people who vote in person cast a valid vote.
• Minor premise: Jenny cast her vote in person.
• Conclusion: Jenny’s vote is valid.

This categorical syllogism presents a fallacy in logic because the major premise suggests that all people who vote in person are who they say they are. That may not be true. Jenny may not, in fact be Jenny, but her sister.

We can test an IF/THEN syllogism as well.

• Premise:  If a voter votes in person and presents an ID, then their vote is a valid vote.
• Minor Premise: Jenny voted in person and presented an ID.
• Conclusion: Therefore, Jenny’s vote is valid.

This IF/THEN or hypothetical syllogism presents a fallacy in logic because the major premise suggests that all people who vote in person with an ID are who they say they are. That may not be true. As explained above, Jenny may not, in fact be Jenny, but her sister or other voter of close resemblance, ethnicity, and age.

Here’s another syllogism with a different premise:

• Premise:  If a voter votes by a mail-in ballot, then their vote is not a valid vote.
• Minor Premise: According to the Arizona Republic , the “overwhelming majority of voters in the state cast their ballots by mail, with nearly 90 percent doing so last year amid the coronavirus pandemic  . . .”
• Conclusion: Therefore, almost 90 percent of the votes in Arizona were not valid.

Is it true that 90% of voters are not who they say they are (that’s assumption behind the premise) and their votes should not count? The syllogism’s major premise does not hold up as “true.”  Testing your major premise and the assumptions underlying it can help you see the flaw in your logical reasoning. Once you understand how to determine if you are operating from a valid premise, your audience will accept, you can ensure your argument is based on a sound premise.

It is important to learn about and contrast alternative viewpoints and opinions because

• It will help you to more fully understand all of the nuances associated with the topic. Most issues are not simply right versus wrong.
• It will help you develop your own opinion on the topic since you’ll likely read about a new aspect you haven’t thought about before.
• You will be able to defend your opinion because you will be well-aware of what the counter arguments are.

4.4 Using Recursive metaliteracy Processes to Compose a SOLUTION Proposal Argument

Because the overarching purpose of Claim Your Voice is to help you develop the agency to use your academic literacies to address real-world issues and achieve your academic, career, and personal goals, the key argument assignment for this chapter is centered on proposing a solution or set of solutions to solve or reduce the negative effects of a current  problem or issue.  Writing a solution proposal argument, as discussed in Section 4.1 in “Argument Genres” generally has two key arguments. First, you establish that there is a significant problem and argue that this problem necessitates action. You use deep research to provide evidence that there is a problem and current solutions are not adequate to address it.  Then, the second part of the argument is focused on your proposed a solutions or set of solutions during which you make a clear call to action. This is a in depth project designed to engage you in a variety of activities that will take your writing, reading, research, and metaliteracy knowledge and skills to a new level.  In this set of assignments, you will have the opportunity to develop your proposal and seek multiple points of feedback through a series of assignments, both written and digital.

4.4.1 Begin with a Research Question AND A REVIEW OF THE toPICS’ MEDIA ECOLOGY 

Write a research question.

Writing your a research question should begin with a current issue you have identified and some invention exercises.

Once you have worked through some pre-researching and writing, generate a list of questions. What do you know, for sure, that you do not know?  At this point, conduct some informal pre-researching online and in the library databases to learn what the public discourse is saying about that issue.  Once you have a little more information and have ascertained that sufficient information and resources are available to research the issue in depth, proceed with developing your research questions. As you learned in Chapter 3, a good research question should begin with a “How,” “In what way?,”or “Why?” question.

At this point, please return to Chapter 3  to 3.3.3 and 3.3.4 and follow the process for developing your research question and keyword research strings.

As you being researching, another useful process for understanding your topic as it is discussed in public discourse and research material is to perform a media ecology assessment. What kind of source material is available? Is the topic getting a lot of attention right now? What is going on?  The assignment below will help you see a full range of the media ecosystem in which your topic is discussed (or not!).

THE MEDIA ECOLOGY SURROUNDING YOUR TOPIC

Assignment for Discussion Board Post or Small Group Sharing

• To understand the realm of information surrounding your topic.
• To broaden your scope of how information systems from various mediums

Quote to Chew On

“Media ecology is distinct from communication studies proper in its focus on the integration, interdependence, and dynamism of media and technology in human affairs. It assumes that the symbol systems and technologies people use to think with, communicate, and represent our experiences play an integral role in how we create and understand reality.” (Milberry, “Media Ecology,” Oxford Bibliographies , 2016).

Post Description

Consider what you know about the media ecology surrounding your topic. (Read   the complete introduction defining and describing the term “ media ecology”  (Links to an external site.)  on  Oxford Bibliographies.)  In order to get an idea of the realm information around your topic, this post assignment asks you to post your research question, then state the kinds of information from different types of media sources across a wide assortment of disciplines.

Assignment Structure

• RESEARCH QUESTION: Write out your current research question.
• Go to Google News and search your issue. List three articles that offer current information relevant to your topic (author, article title, article venue, date) with a brief description.
• List the  title  of two academic journals in which recent articles on your topic are likely to be found. (Use Academic Search Premier db and/or  Google Scholar  (Links to an external site.)  to identify the title of the journal. You can always search the title on Wikipedia which will tell you more about that journal.)
• List the title of two books written in the last five years with the authors’ names/credibility that address your topic (you can use e-book databases, the library catalog, etc.).
• Search the Credo Database and the Gale Reference database and list two specific reference articles (use the Works Cited bib) about your topic. Also state what disciplines are represented in/associated with the article.
• List two Twitter accounts (@so and so with the account title) in which this topic is dominant. Next to each Twitter account, explain who the account holder is (establish ethos) and what you think their perspective is.
• List two Podcasts (title and name of key podcaster) in which this topic is dominant. Next to each Podcast title, explain who the account holder is (establish ethos).
• List two blogs with their titles and authors where an informed discussion on your topic is taking place. (You can also go to other channels such as Reddit, but keep in mind that we are looking for expertise in the contributors that you can defend.)
• List the title and the URL of two resource pages from a government source (.gov) where a researcher might find more information related to your topic.
• List the title and description of at least two films, documentaries, pieces of music, art, or other creative venue in which your issue is a topic.

WRITE A REFLECTION PARAGRAPH: After you have completed this pre-research assignment, write a paragraph or two reflection on this exercise. What did you learn? What did you notice about the media ecology around your issue? Does the issue have public resonance? Does the issue cross several disciplinary areas? Do you believe a further investigation of this issue is warranted? Why? How might you narrow your issue or change your research question/s?

4.4.2 Create a Working Thesis

If you have created a strong series of research questions, your answers to those questions should help generate your thesis. Because a project like this is complex, you probably have two major research questions: one to build the argument supported by reasons and evidence that some action, plan or policy must be implemented. The second research question is probably more focused on finding solutions. Typically, the question “Who/what organization should do what and why?” will help you generate a solid proposal argument thesis statement.

Example: Proposal Argument Thesis Statements

Practical Argument: Social media companies should develop artificial intelligence filters and personalized messaging to help endusers restrict themselves from the exposure to unrealistic images and marketing portraying “ideal” body types in order to prevent the development of significant mental and physical health disorders.

Policy: In order to prevent the weaponization of space, governments across the world must develop and agree on a policy in line with the principles of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (OST) and the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space Treaty, The Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Space Objects (PPWT).

4.4.3 Plan and Propose Your Solution proposal Argument

Identify and select a current major issue, define or frame the problem, and present feasible solutions, policies, or approaches to solve and/or at least reduce the impact of the problem in a well-developed academic essay. Follow MLA guidelines for the essay format, citations and Work Cited.

Where to begin: Research a current societal, scientific, legal, medical, political, environmental, cultural, or other significant issue. The issues can be local, national, or global in scope, but should be narrowed to a specific issue within the larger issue once you have thoroughly researched it. Learn about the background history of how the issue evolved over time and identify the issue’s relevant causes and effects. As you review the relevant research on the narrowed topic, begin to explore current solutions. What actions have stakeholders taken to address the problem? Why hasn’t the problem been solved by the stakeholders? You will discover your original solutions or approaches to the problem by critiquing the current solutions and approaches. Look for gaps – what is NOT being done that could be done. Consider solutions from other fields that have helped address similar problems. “Think out of the box,” as the cliché goes.

General Writing Criteria:

• Use MLA format; Include in-text citations and Works Cited page (both REQUIRED for credit).
• Write in a formal, academic tone using “academic register” (write in third person using formal diction, specific word choice (diction), no clichés, and no slang).
• Carefully revise and edit – Writing Center is open through the last day of classes. After that, contact me for Monday and Tuesday appointments.
• Follow the outline organizational structure provided.
• Write clear, grammatically correct thesis and section topic sentences.
• Support your claims with 8-12 credible, relevant, carefully evaluated sources (database articles, well-chosen web articles, credible media sources).
• Cite from a minimum of three (3) library database sources.
• Make sure each body section / discussion point features a topic sentence and relevant cited evidence from 2-4 sources, blended coherently.
• Use transitional words and phrases to guide the reader as you develop and support your argument.
• Is it doable? What would it take to implement the solution?
• Is it worth doing? What does a cost/benefit analysis reveal about the feasibility of the solution?
• Would it work? How do you know?

Revising Your Written Argument

Seek feedback and revise at several points along the way..

• Peer feedback
• Writing Center tutors
• Instructor Coaching
• How to seek feedback

4.4.5 Compose Digital Projects to Develop and Share Your Argument

Digital literacy and real world applications.

By conducting one or more digital projects during the proposal solution process, you can engage with your topic more deeply while educating and seeking feedback from your peers. Two digital projects to consider during the proposal solution paper process are the Explainer Video and the Infographic.  These two forms of  digital communication are very popular in the business world and in organizations as a means of efficiently and effectively connecting with their clients and end consumers or to general public awareness.

Explainer Video Project

Prompts: Create an explainer video in which you communicate the seriousness of a problem so that your viewer will recognize its exigence. OR, create an explainer video in which you “sell” your solution as being the best approach to solving the problem. If you make the video at the beginning of the problem after you do your initial research, then making a video to create a sense of exigence and a call to action could help you connect to the topic and gather feedback from your audience. If you are creating the video while you write the paper or afterwards, then creating a pitch explainer video is a better choice.

An “explainer video” is a short video of less than two minutes that quickly communicate and pitch a service or product.

Here are two popular explainer videos to give you the idea. One features humans and the other animation. Obviously, you might do something like create a video starring yourself or your peers, integrate Google slides, home made memes, and/or basic animations. Every though you are not selling a product or service, what you are doing is providing background information on your solution proposal topic that generates exigence, that communicates that something must be done. Or, you are explaining and “selling” your solution to the problem. Doing either in two minutes will be a challenge, but a fun one!

Unroll.me. “Email Does Not Have to Suck.” Youtube, 5 Nov. 2015, youtu.be/QL26FS5daGY.

Video Citation: “What is Airbnb? Travel Tips.” Youtube , Airbnb, 24 Nov. 2014, youtu.be/dA2F0qScxrI

Vyond offers examples and gives tips on creating explainer videos that will help you develop your explainer video.  This project does not have to be complicated or sophisticated, but it does have to display rhetoric at work.

Infographic Project

Prompt: Use a tool such as Piktochart to create an infographic that provides compelling information leading to call to action that your problem must be solved or that your solutions must be implemented. An infographic has to be highly visual and easy to ready at a distance.  Piktochart’s website offers videos and helpful documentation.

4.5 Chapter Conclusion

Key Takeaways

• Analyzing arguments using comparison and synthesis is an effective way to learn about and more deeply understand arguments.
• Arguments come in many genres including the Aristotelian argument, the Rogerian Argument, the Toulmin Argument, and Proposal Argument to name a few.
• Evidence and rhetoric work together to achieve effective rhetorical appeals.
• Evidence must connect with the audience’s wants, needs, values, and/or expectations through a warrant (or set of assumptions) the audience can understand and relate to your claim.
• Working with your topic, research and arguments in different digital modalities provide a platform for publicly sharing your ideas and eliciting feedback.

Works Cited or Integrated

Bowers, Heather Hopkins, Ruggiero, Anthony, and Jason Saphara. “Argument Genres.” in Writing and Rhetoric , Colorado State University, Pueblo.  csupueblo.pressbooks.pub/rhetoric/chapter/argument-genres/. Licensed CC-BY 4.0.

“Carl Rogers.” Wikipedia. n.d., en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers.

“Chapter 4: Making Mistakes in Reasoning.”  Introduction to Ethics,   Lumen Learning, n.d., courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-epcc-introethics-1/chapter/syllogisms/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Connors, Valerie Bronstein. “How to write a Rogerian structured essay with a delayed thesis and common ground.”  YouTube, 25 Nov, 2019, youtu.be/a6kt8A10Mc4.

Devries, Kirsten. “Chapter 3 Argument.” Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition , Howard Community College (MD),  pressbooks.howardcc.edu/criticalreadingcriticalwriting/chapter/chapter-3-argument/. License CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0.

Gomez, Manuela A. “Chapter 4: Making Mistakes in Reasoning.”  Introduction to Ethics,   Lumen Learning, n.d., courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-epcc-introethics-1/chapter/syllogisms/.

Hillocks, George. “Teaching Argument.” English Journal,   p. 26.

“Humanist Psychology.” Encyclopedia Britannica , 27 May. 2020, www.britannica.com/science/humanistic-psychology.

Medina, Jennifer. “Arizona G.O.P. Passes Law to Limit Distribution of Mail Ballots.” Arizona Republic ,  11 May 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/05/11/us/politics/arizona-voting-bill.html.

Veach, Grace. Teaching​ Information Literacy and Writing Studies : Volume 1,   First Year Composition Courses . Purdue University Press, 2019. Print.

Veach, Grace. Teaching​ Information Literacy and Writing Studies : Volume 2, Upper-Level and Graduate Courses. Purdue University Press, 2019. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e000xna&AN=2032934&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Zickel, Emilie. “Basic Argument Components.” English 102: Reading, Research and Writing , 2017,  pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/eng-102/chapter/basic-argument-components/. This book is licensed under a Creative Commons as CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0. by Emilie Zickel. It is an adaptation of About Writing: A Guide by Robin Jeffrey , which is licensed as CC-BY 4.0.

Unroll.me. “Email Does Not Have to Suck.” Youtube , 5 Nov. 2015, youtu.be/QL26FS5daGY.

Vyond Team. “What Is An Explainer Video? (Plus 5 Great Examples).” Vyond, www.vyond.com/resources/what-is-an-explainer-video/.

“What is Airbnb? Travel Tips.” Youtube , Airbnb, 24 Nov. 2014, youtu.be/dA2F0qScxrI

Media Attributions

• Thinking by LAFS from the Noun Projectnoun_Thinking_1842690 © LAFS
• noun_Writing_1337026_fahmionline
• Toulmin_Argumentation_Example_byChiswick Chap_Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0 © Chap Chiswick is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
• noun_Thinking_2300291_srinivasAgra
• noun_negotiate_3003892
• solution by SBTS from the Noun Projectnoun_solution_3427336

(noun) the quality of urgency, timeliness, and importance of a given situation that necessitates action

(verb) To acknowledge, often reluctantly, as being true, just, or proper; admit (AH)

(verb) 1. To prove to be false or erroneous; overthrow by argument or proof: (e.g. "refute testimony") 2. To deny the accuracy or truth of: (e.g. "refuted the results of the poll") (AH)

(noun) Of or constituting an educational method in which learning takes place through discoveries that result from investigations made by the student. (AH)

(noun) A proposition upon which an argument is based or from which a conclusion is drawn. 2. Logic a. One of the propositions in a deductive argument. b. Either the major or the minor proposition of a syllogism, from which the conclusion is drawn.

(noun) "justification for an action or a belief; grounds." (AH) A warrant is the connection between your claim and your evidence. Evidence is always evidence FOR or AGAINST something, and you have to make that link clear through your explanatory commentary that you provide along with your evidence.

(noun) A act in which a speakers or writers give credit to an idea or argument; that is, they "acknowledge, often reluctantly, [the opposing view] as being true, just, or proper." That is, they admit the opposing view has some merit.

(noun) an act in which one denies or rejects the accuracy or truth of of another person's argument or point-of-view.

(noun) A syllogism is "1. Logic A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion; for example, All humans are mortal, the major premise, I am a human, the minor premise, therefore, I am mortal, the conclusion. 2. Reasoning from the general to the specific; deduction. 3. A subtle or specious piece of reasoning." (AH)

Another term for the if/then syllogism. This is a premise based on the word "hypothesis" (n) which means "1. A tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation," and "2. Something taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation; an assumption."

(verb) To combine so as to form a new, complex product (H)

(noun) Bias is a "preference or an inclination, especially one that inhibits impartial judgment." It also might describe "an unfair act or policy stemming from prejudice." (AH)

(noun) An agenda is often a "list of things to be discussed in a meeting" or a "program of things to be done or considered." The term also has an informal and more negative connotative use to describe an "unstated underlying motive." (AH)

(adverb form of the adjective "valid") An argument is valid when the foundations or premises of the argument can be logically be derived and . . . (c)orrectly inferred or deduced from a premise."

(noun) personal empowerment to act or, in this case, express your views with sense you can effect change.

Chapter 4 Understanding and Composing Researched Arguments Copyright © by Cynthia Kiefer and Serene Rock is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Methodology

• Types of Research Designs Compared | Guide & Examples

Types of Research Designs Compared | Guide & Examples

Published on June 20, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

When you start planning a research project, developing research questions and creating a  research design , you will have to make various decisions about the type of research you want to do.

There are many ways to categorize different types of research. The words you use to describe your research depend on your discipline and field. In general, though, the form your research design takes will be shaped by:

• The type of knowledge you aim to produce
• The type of data you will collect and analyze
• The sampling methods , timescale and location of the research

This article takes a look at some common distinctions made between different types of research and outlines the key differences between them.

Table of contents

Types of research aims, types of research data, types of sampling, timescale, and location, other interesting articles.

The first thing to consider is what kind of knowledge your research aims to contribute.

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The next thing to consider is what type of data you will collect. Each kind of data is associated with a range of specific research methods and procedures.

Finally, you have to consider three closely related questions: how will you select the subjects or participants of the research? When and how often will you collect data from your subjects? And where will the research take place?

Keep in mind that the methods that you choose bring with them different risk factors and types of research bias . Biases aren’t completely avoidable, but can heavily impact the validity and reliability of your findings if left unchecked.

Choosing between all these different research types is part of the process of creating your research design , which determines exactly how your research will be conducted. But the type of research is only the first step: next, you have to make more concrete decisions about your research methods and the details of the study.

Read more about creating a research design

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Does Your Evidence Fit Your Claims?

Robin Jeffrey

Ensuring your evidence fits your claims

The most common evidence you will offer to support your claims will be quotations from the texts you read and references to passages in them. Without such evidence, your claims are merely statements of opinion.You are entitled to your opinions but you’re not entitled to having your readers agree with them. In fact, your readers generally will not highly value your opinions unless you provide some evidence to support them. When you provide evidence, you turn your opinions into arguments.

But before readers can value your claim as supported with evidence, they must first understand how your evidence counts as evidence for that claim. No flaw more afflicts the papers of less experienced writers than to make some sort of claim, or to offer a quotation from the text, and assume that the reader understands how the quotations speaks to the claim. Here is an example:

Lincoln believed that the Founders would have supported the North, because as he said, this country was “dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”

The writer may be correct that Lincoln believed that the Founders would have supported the North, but what in that quotation would cause a reader to agree? In other words, how does the quotation count as evidence of the claim? The evidence says something about the views of the founders in 1776. How does that support a claim about what the founders would think about 1863? When pressed, the writer explained: “Since the Founders dedicated the country to the proposition that all men are created equal and Lincoln freed the slaves because he thought they were created equal, then he must have thought that he and the Founders agreed, so they would have supported the North. It’s obvious.”

Well, it’s not. After it has been explained, it may or may not be persuasive (after all, the author of “all men are created equal” was himself a slave owner). But it isn’t obvious. Quotations rarely speak for themselves; most have to be “unpacked.” If you offer only quotes without interpreting those quotes, your reader will likely have trouble understanding how the quote, as evidence, supports your claim. Your paper will seem to be a pastiche of strung-together quotations, suggesting that your data never passed through the critical analysis of a working mind.

Whenever you support a claim with numbers, charts, pictures, and especially quotations — whatever looks like primary data — do not assume that what you see is what your readers will get. Spell out for them how it is that the data counts as evidence for your claim. For a quotation, a good principle is to use a few of its key words just before or after it. Something like this:

Lincoln believed that the Founders would have supported the North because they would have supported his attempt to move the slaves to a more equal position. He echoes the Founder’s own language when he says that the country was “dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”

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Formulation of Research Question – Stepwise Approach

Simmi k. ratan.

Department of Pediatric Surgery, Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, India

1 Department of Community Medicine, North Delhi Municipal Corporation Medical College, New Delhi, India

2 Department of Pediatric Surgery, Batra Hospital and Research Centre, New Delhi, India

Formulation of research question (RQ) is an essentiality before starting any research. It aims to explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to a need for deliberate investigation. It is, therefore, pertinent to formulate a good RQ. The present paper aims to discuss the process of formulation of RQ with stepwise approach. The characteristics of good RQ are expressed by acronym “FINERMAPS” expanded as feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, relevant, manageable, appropriate, potential value, publishability, and systematic. A RQ can address different formats depending on the aspect to be evaluated. Based on this, there can be different types of RQ such as based on the existence of the phenomenon, description and classification, composition, relationship, comparative, and causality. To develop a RQ, one needs to begin by identifying the subject of interest and then do preliminary research on that subject. The researcher then defines what still needs to be known in that particular subject and assesses the implied questions. After narrowing the focus and scope of the research subject, researcher frames a RQ and then evaluates it. Thus, conception to formulation of RQ is very systematic process and has to be performed meticulously as research guided by such question can have wider impact in the field of social and health research by leading to formulation of policies for the benefit of larger population.

I NTRODUCTION

A good research question (RQ) forms backbone of a good research, which in turn is vital in unraveling mysteries of nature and giving insight into a problem.[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ] RQ identifies the problem to be studied and guides to the methodology. It leads to building up of an appropriate hypothesis (Hs). Hence, RQ aims to explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to a need for deliberate investigation. A good RQ helps support a focused arguable thesis and construction of a logical argument. Hence, formulation of a good RQ is undoubtedly one of the first critical steps in the research process, especially in the field of social and health research, where the systematic generation of knowledge that can be used to promote, restore, maintain, and/or protect health of individuals and populations.[ 1 , 3 , 4 ] Basically, the research can be classified as action, applied, basic, clinical, empirical, administrative, theoretical, or qualitative or quantitative research, depending on its purpose.[ 2 ]

Research plays an important role in developing clinical practices and instituting new health policies. Hence, there is a need for a logical scientific approach as research has an important goal of generating new claims.[ 1 ]

C HARACTERISTICS OF G OOD R ESEARCH Q UESTION

“The most successful research topics are narrowly focused and carefully defined but are important parts of a broad-ranging, complex problem.”

A good RQ is an asset as it:

• Details the problem statement
• Further describes and refines the issue under study
• Adds focus to the problem statement
• Guides data collection and analysis
• Sets context of research.

Hence, while writing RQ, it is important to see if it is relevant to the existing time frame and conditions. For example, the impact of “odd-even” vehicle formula in decreasing the level of air particulate pollution in various districts of Delhi.

A good research is represented by acronym FINERMAPS[ 5 ]

Interesting.

• Appropriate
• Potential value and publishability
• Systematic.

Feasibility means that it is within the ability of the investigator to carry out. It should be backed by an appropriate number of subjects and methodology as well as time and funds to reach the conclusions. One needs to be realistic about the scope and scale of the project. One has to have access to the people, gadgets, documents, statistics, etc. One should be able to relate the concepts of the RQ to the observations, phenomena, indicators, or variables that one can access. One should be clear that the collection of data and the proceedings of project can be completed within the limited time and resources available to the investigator. Sometimes, a RQ appears feasible, but when fieldwork or study gets started, it proves otherwise. In this situation, it is important to write up the problems honestly and to reflect on what has been learned. One should try to discuss with more experienced colleagues or the supervisor so as to develop a contingency plan to anticipate possible problems while working on a RQ and find possible solutions in such situations.

This is essential that one has a real grounded interest in one's RQ and one can explore this and back it up with academic and intellectual debate. This interest will motivate one to keep going with RQ.

The question should not simply copy questions investigated by other workers but should have scope to be investigated. It may aim at confirming or refuting the already established findings, establish new facts, or find new aspects of the established facts. It should show imagination of the researcher. Above all, the question has to be simple and clear. The complexity of a question can frequently hide unclear thoughts and lead to a confused research process. A very elaborate RQ, or a question which is not differentiated into different parts, may hide concepts that are contradictory or not relevant. This needs to be clear and thought-through. Having one key question with several subcomponents will guide your research.

This is the foremost requirement of any RQ and is mandatory to get clearance from appropriate authorities before stating research on the question. Further, the RQ should be such that it minimizes the risk of harm to the participants in the research, protect the privacy and maintain their confidentiality, and provide the participants right to withdraw from research. It should also guide in avoiding deceptive practices in research.

The question should of academic and intellectual interest to people in the field you have chosen to study. The question preferably should arise from issues raised in the current situation, literature, or in practice. It should establish a clear purpose for the research in relation to the chosen field. For example, filling a gap in knowledge, analyzing academic assumptions or professional practice, monitoring a development in practice, comparing different approaches, or testing theories within a specific population are some of the relevant RQs.

Manageable (M): It has the similar essence as of feasibility but mainly means that the following research can be managed by the researcher.

Appropriate (A): RQ should be appropriate logically and scientifically for the community and institution.

Potential value and publishability (P): The study can make significant health impact in clinical and community practices. Therefore, research should aim for significant economic impact to reduce unnecessary or excessive costs. Furthermore, the proposed study should exist within a clinical, consumer, or policy-making context that is amenable to evidence-based change. Above all, a good RQ must address a topic that has clear implications for resolving important dilemmas in health and health-care decisions made by one or more stakeholder groups.

Systematic (S): Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules though it does not rule out creative thinking.

Example of RQ: Would the topical skin application of oil as a skin barrier reduces hypothermia in preterm infants? This question fulfills the criteria of a good RQ, that is, feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant.

Types of research question

A RQ can address different formats depending on the aspect to be evaluated.[ 6 ] For example:

• Existence: This is designed to uphold the existence of a particular phenomenon or to rule out rival explanation, for example, can neonates perceive pain?
• Description and classification: This type of question encompasses statement of uniqueness, for example, what are characteristics and types of neuropathic bladders?
• Composition: It calls for breakdown of whole into components, for example, what are stages of reflux nephropathy?
• Relationship: Evaluate relation between variables, for example, association between tumor rupture and recurrence rates in Wilm's tumor
• Descriptive—comparative: Expected that researcher will ensure that all is same between groups except issue in question, for example, Are germ cell tumors occurring in gonads more aggressive than those occurring in extragonadal sites?
• Causality: Does deletion of p53 leads to worse outcome in patients with neuroblastoma?
• Causality—comparative: Such questions frequently aim to see effect of two rival treatments, for example, does adding surgical resection improves survival rate outcome in children with neuroblastoma than with chemotherapy alone?
• Causality–Comparative interactions: Does immunotherapy leads to better survival outcome in neuroblastoma Stage IV S than with chemotherapy in the setting of adverse genetic profile than without it? (Does X cause more changes in Y than those caused by Z under certain condition and not under other conditions).

How to develop a research question

• Begin by identifying a broader subject of interest that lends itself to investigate, for example, hormone levels among hypospadias
• Do preliminary research on the general topic to find out what research has already been done and what literature already exists.[ 7 ] Therefore, one should begin with “information gaps” (What do you already know about the problem? For example, studies with results on testosterone levels among hypospadias
• What do you still need to know? (e.g., levels of other reproductive hormones among hypospadias)
• What are the implied questions: The need to know about a problem will lead to few implied questions. Each general question should lead to more specific questions (e.g., how hormone levels differ among isolated hypospadias with respect to that in normal population)
• Narrow the scope and focus of research (e.g., assessment of reproductive hormone levels among isolated hypospadias and hypospadias those with associated anomalies)
• Is RQ clear? With so much research available on any given topic, RQs must be as clear as possible in order to be effective in helping the writer direct his or her research
• Is the RQ focused? RQs must be specific enough to be well covered in the space available
• Is the RQ complex? RQs should not be answerable with a simple “yes” or “no” or by easily found facts. They should, instead, require both research and analysis on the part of the writer
• Is the RQ one that is of interest to the researcher and potentially useful to others? Is it a new issue or problem that needs to be solved or is it attempting to shed light on previously researched topic
• Is the RQ researchable? Consider the available time frame and the required resources. Is the methodology to conduct the research feasible?
• Is the RQ measurable and will the process produce data that can be supported or contradicted?
• Is the RQ too broad or too narrow?
• Create Hs: After formulating RQ, think where research is likely to be progressing? What kind of argument is likely to be made/supported? What would it mean if the research disputed the planned argument? At this step, one can well be on the way to have a focus for the research and construction of a thesis. Hs consists of more specific predictions about the nature and direction of the relationship between two variables. It is a predictive statement about the outcome of the research, dictate the method, and design of the research[ 1 ]
• Understand implications of your research: This is important for application: whether one achieves to fill gap in knowledge and how the results of the research have practical implications, for example, to develop health policies or improve educational policies.[ 1 , 8 ]

Brainstorm/Concept map for formulating research question

• First, identify what types of studies have been done in the past?
• Is there a unique area that is yet to be investigated or is there a particular question that may be worth replicating?
• Begin to narrow the topic by asking open-ended “how” and “why” questions
• Evaluate the question
• Develop a Hypothesis (Hs)
• Write down the RQ.

Writing down the research question

• State the question in your own words
• Write down the RQ as completely as possible.

For example, Evaluation of reproductive hormonal profile in children presenting with isolated hypospadias)

• Divide your question into concepts. Narrow to two or three concepts (reproductive hormonal profile, isolated hypospadias, compare with normal/not isolated hypospadias–implied)
• Specify the population to be studied (children with isolated hypospadias)
• Refer to the exposure or intervention to be investigated, if any
• Reflect the outcome of interest (hormonal profile).

Another example of a research question

Would the topical skin application of oil as a skin barrier reduces hypothermia in preterm infants? Apart from fulfilling the criteria of a good RQ, that is, feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant, it also details about the intervention done (topical skin application of oil), rationale of intervention (as a skin barrier), population to be studied (preterm infants), and outcome (reduces hypothermia).

Other important points to be heeded to while framing research question

• Make reference to a population when a relationship is expected among a certain type of subjects
• RQs and Hs should be made as specific as possible
• Avoid words or terms that do not add to the meaning of RQs and Hs
• Stick to what will be studied, not implications
• Name the variables in the order in which they occur/will be measured
• Avoid the words significant/”prove”
• Avoid using two different terms to refer to the same variable.

Some of the other problems and their possible solutions have been discussed in Table 1 .

Potential problems and solutions while making research question

G OING B EYOND F ORMULATION OF R ESEARCH Q UESTION–THE P ATH A HEAD

Once RQ is formulated, a Hs can be developed. Hs means transformation of a RQ into an operational analog.[ 1 ] It means a statement as to what prediction one makes about the phenomenon to be examined.[ 4 ] More often, for case–control trial, null Hs is generated which is later accepted or refuted.

A strong Hs should have following characteristics:

• Give insight into a RQ
• Are testable and measurable by the proposed experiments
• Have logical basis
• Follows the most likely outcome, not the exceptional outcome.

E XAMPLES OF R ESEARCH Q UESTION AND H YPOTHESIS

Research question-1.

• Does reduced gap between the two segments of the esophagus in patients of esophageal atresia reduces the mortality and morbidity of such patients?

Hypothesis-1

• Reduced gap between the two segments of the esophagus in patients of esophageal atresia reduces the mortality and morbidity of such patients
• In pediatric patients with esophageal atresia, gap of <2 cm between two segments of the esophagus and proper mobilization of proximal pouch reduces the morbidity and mortality among such patients.

Research question-2

• Does application of mitomycin C improves the outcome in patient of corrosive esophageal strictures?

Hypothesis-2

In patients aged 2–9 years with corrosive esophageal strictures, 34 applications of mitomycin C in dosage of 0.4 mg/ml for 5 min over a period of 6 months improve the outcome in terms of symptomatic and radiological relief. Some other examples of good and bad RQs have been shown in Table 2 .

Examples of few bad (left-hand side column) and few good (right-hand side) research questions

R ESEARCH Q UESTION AND S TUDY D ESIGN

RQ determines study design, for example, the question aimed to find the incidence of a disease in population will lead to conducting a survey; to find risk factors for a disease will need case–control study or a cohort study. RQ may also culminate into clinical trial.[ 9 , 10 ] For example, effect of administration of folic acid tablet in the perinatal period in decreasing incidence of neural tube defect. Accordingly, Hs is framed.

Appropriate statistical calculations are instituted to generate sample size. The subject inclusion, exclusion criteria and time frame of research are carefully defined. The detailed subject information sheet and pro forma are carefully defined. Moreover, research is set off few examples of research methodology guided by RQ:

• Incidence of anorectal malformations among adolescent females (hospital-based survey)
• Risk factors for the development of spontaneous pneumoperitoneum in pediatric patients (case–control design and cohort study)
• Effect of technique of extramucosal ureteric reimplantation without the creation of submucosal tunnel for the preservation of upper tract in bladder exstrophy (clinical trial).

The results of the research are then be available for wider applications for health and social life

C ONCLUSION

A good RQ needs thorough literature search and deep insight into the specific area/problem to be investigated. A RQ has to be focused yet simple. Research guided by such question can have wider impact in the field of social and health research by leading to formulation of policies for the benefit of larger population.

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Conflicts of interest.

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Read this claim and reason: Claim: Not getting enough sleep damages a person's health. Reason: A person becomes less alert and aware when he or she is overly tired. Which research question best fits this claim and reason? A. What happens when someone is not alert and aware? B. What effects does not getting enough sleep have on alertness? C. What causes someone to not sleep well? D. How does the lack of sleep hurt someone's health

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The reasearch question that best fits the claim and reason is

D. How does the lack of sleep hurt someone's health?

Both the claim and the reason have to do with the damage not sleeping enough can have on a person's health. Therefore, the research question needs to be related to that same topic. Even though the reason is that the person is less alert, focusing on this isn't related to the claim. Also, while it may be helpful to research what causes someone not to sleep well, it doesn't support the claim that not sleeping enought is bad for a person's health.

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