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Definition of research

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of research  (Entry 2 of 2)

transitive verb

intransitive verb

• disquisition
• examination
• exploration
• inquisition
• investigation
• delve (into)
• inquire (into)
• investigate
• look (into)

Examples of research in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'research.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle French recerche , from recercher to go about seeking, from Old French recerchier , from re- + cerchier, sercher to search — more at search

1577, in the meaning defined at sense 3

1588, in the meaning defined at transitive sense 1

Phrases Containing research

• marketing research
• market research
• operations research
• oppo research

research and development

• research park
• translational research

Dictionary Entries Near research

Cite this entry.

“Research.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/research. Accessed 16 Jul. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of research.

Kids Definition of research  (Entry 2 of 2)

More from Merriam-Webster on research

Nglish: Translation of research for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of research for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about research

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

What is Research? Definition, Types, Methods, and Examples

Academic research is a methodical way of exploring new ideas or understanding things we already know. It involves gathering and studying information to answer questions or test ideas and requires careful thinking and persistence to reach meaningful conclusions. Let’s try to understand what research is.   

Table of Contents

Why is research important?    

Whether it’s doing experiments, analyzing data, or studying old documents, research helps us learn more about the world. Without it, we rely on guesswork and hearsay, often leading to mistakes and misconceptions. By using systematic methods, research helps us see things clearly, free from biases. (1)   

What is the purpose of research?  

In the real world, academic research is also a key driver of innovation. It brings many benefits, such as creating valuable opportunities and fostering partnerships between academia and industry. By turning research into products and services, science makes meaningful improvements to people’s lives and boosts the economy. (2)(3)  

What are the characteristics of research?    

The research process collects accurate information systematically. Logic is used to analyze the collected data and find insights. Checking the collected data thoroughly ensures accuracy. Research also leads to new questions using existing data.   

Accuracy is key in research, which requires precise data collection and analysis. In scientific research, laboratories ensure accuracy by carefully calibrating instruments and controlling experiments. Every step is checked to maintain integrity, from instruments to final results. Accuracy gives reliable insights, which in turn help advance knowledge.   

Types of research    

The different forms of research serve distinct purposes in expanding knowledge and understanding:    

• Exploratory research ventures into uncharted territories, exploring new questions or problem areas without aiming for conclusive answers. For instance, a study may delve into unexplored market segments to better understand consumer behaviour patterns.   
• Descriptive research delves into current issues by collecting and analyzing data to describe the behaviour of a sample population. For instance, a survey may investigate millennials’ spending habits to gain insights into their purchasing behaviours.   
• Explanatory research, also known as causal research, seeks to understand the impact of specific changes in existing procedures. An example might be a study examining how changes in drug dosage over some time improve patients’ health.   
• Correlational research examines connections between two sets of data to uncover meaningful relationships. For instance, a study may analyze the relationship between advertising spending and sales revenue.   
• Theoretical research deepens existing knowledge without attempting to solve specific problems. For example, a study may explore theoretical frameworks to understand the underlying principles of human behaviour.   
• Applied research focuses on real-world issues and aims to provide practical solutions. An example could be a study investigating the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student performance in schools.  (4)

Types of research methods

• Qualitative Method: Qualitative research gathers non-numerical data through interactions with participants. Methods include one-to-one interviews, focus groups, ethnographic studies, text analysis, and case studies. For example, a researcher interviews cancer patients to understand how different treatments impact their lives emotionally.    
• Quantitative Method: Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable data to understand relationships between variables. They use systematic methods to investigate events and aim to explain or predict outcomes. For example, Researchers study how exercise affects heart health by measuring variables like heart rate and blood pressure in a large group before and after an exercise program. (5)  

Basic steps involved in the research process    

Here are the basic steps to help you understand the research process:   

• Choose your topic: Decide the specific subject or area that you want to study and investigate. This decision is the foundation of your research journey.   
• Find information: Look for information related to your research topic. You can search in journals, books, online, or ask experts for help.   
• Assess your sources: Make sure the information you find is reliable and trustworthy. Check the author’s credentials and the publication date.   
• Take notes: Write down important information from your sources that you can use in your research.   
• Write your paper: Use your notes to write your research paper. Broadly, start with an introduction, then write the body of your paper, and finish with a conclusion.   
• Cite your sources: Give credit to the sources you used by including citations in your paper.   
• Proofread: Check your paper thoroughly for any errors in spelling, grammar, or punctuation before you submit it. (6)

How to ensure research accuracy?  

Ensuring accuracy in research is a mix of several essential steps:    

• Clarify goals: Start by defining clear objectives for your research. Identify your research question, hypothesis, and variables of interest. This clarity will help guide your data collection and analysis methods, ensuring that your research stays focused and purposeful.   
• Use reliable data: Select trustworthy sources for your information, whether they are primary data collected by you or secondary data obtained from other sources. For example, if you’re studying climate change, use data from reputable scientific organizations with transparent methodologies.   
• Validate data: Validate your data to ensure it meets the standards of your research project. Check for errors, outliers, and inconsistencies at different stages, such as during data collection, entry, cleaning, or analysis.    
• Document processes: Documenting your data collection and analysis processes is essential for transparency and reproducibility. Record details such as data collection methods, cleaning procedures, and analysis techniques used. This documentation not only helps you keep track of your research but also enables others to understand and replicate your work.   
• Review results: Finally, review and verify your research findings to confirm their accuracy and reliability. Double-check your analyses, cross-reference your data, and seek feedback from peers or supervisors. (7) 

Research is crucial for better understanding our world and for social and economic growth. By following ethical guidelines and ensuring accuracy, researchers play a critical role in driving this progress, whether through exploring new topics or deepening existing knowledge.   

References:  

• Why is Research Important – Introductory Psychology – Washington State University  
• The Role Of Scientific Research In Driving Business Innovation – Forbes  
• Innovation – Royal Society  
• Types of Research – Definition & Methods – Bachelor Print  
• What Is Qualitative vs. Quantitative Study? – National University  
• Basic Steps in the Research Process – North Hennepin Community College  
• Best Practices for Ensuring Data Accuracy in Research – LinkedIn  

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Based on 21+ years of experience in academia, Researcher.Life All Access empowers researchers to put their best research forward and move closer to success. Explore our top AI Tools pack, AI Tools + Publication Services pack, or Build Your Own Plan. Find everything a researcher needs to succeed, all in one place –  Get All Access now starting at just $17 a month !    

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The Research Whisperer

Just like the thesis whisperer – but with more money, what is research.

We all know what research is – it’s the thing we do when we want to find something out. It is what we are trained to do in a PhD program. It’s what comes before development.

The wonderful people at Wordnet define research as

Noun: systematic investigation to establish facts; a search for knowledge. Verb: attempt to find out in a systematically and scientific manner; inquire into.

An etymologist might tell us that it comes from the Old French word cerchier , to search , with re- expressing intensive force. I guess it is saying that before 1400 in France, research meant to search really hard.

If I was talking to a staff member at my university, though, I would say that searching hard was scholarship . The difference? Research has to have an element of discovering something new, of creating knowledge. While a literature search is one important part of a research project, it isn’t research in and of itself. It is scholarship.

Don’t take my word for it. In Australian universities, we define research this way:

Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes. This definition of research is consistent with a broad notion of research and experimental development (R&D) as comprising of creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications This definition of research encompasses pure and strategic basic research, applied research and experimental development. Applied research is original investigation undertaken to acquire new knowledge but directed towards a specific, practical aim or objective (including a client-driven purpose).

Drawn from the 2012 Higher Education Research Data Collection (HERDC) specifications for the collection of 2011 data .

What research sounds like

Sometimes, however, you don’t want to talk about ‘Research ‘ . If you are applying to a philanthropic foundation, for example, they may not be interested in your new knowledge so much as the impact that your work will have, your capacity to help them to solve a problem. Industry partners may also be wary of the ‘R’ word. “Don’t bank your business on someone’s PhD”, they will say (and I would wholeheartedly agree).

This creates something of a quandary, as the government gives us money based on how much research income we bring in. They audit our claims, so everything we say is research has to actually be research. So, it helps to flag it as research, even if you don’t say it explicitly.

Instead, you might talk about innovation , or about experimentation . You could describe the element of risk associated with discovery . Investigation might lead to analysis . There might be tests that you will undertake to prove your hypothesis . You could just say that this work is original and has never been done before. You could talk about what new knowledge your work will lead to.

You might describe a new method or a new data source that will lead to a breakthrough or an incremental improvement over current practice. You could make it clear that it is the precursor to development , in the sense of ‘research and development’.

It really helps if you are doing something new .

What research looks like

Sometimes, it isn’t what you say, but what you do. If your work will lead to a patent, book or book chapter, refereed journal article or conference publication, or an artwork or exhibition (in the case of creative outputs), then it almost always fulfills the definition no matter what you call it.

What research isn’t

Sometimes, you can see a thing more clearly by describing what it isn’t.

Research isn’t teaching. Don’t get me wrong – you can research teaching, just like you can research anything else. However, teaching itself is generally regarded as the synthesis and transfer of existing knowledge. Generally, the knowledge has to exist before you can teach it. Most of the time, you aren’t creating new knowledge as you teach. Some lecturers may find that their students create strange new ‘knowledge’ in their assignments, but making stuff up doesn’t count as research either.

Research isn’t scholarship. As I said at the start, a literature search is an important aspect of the research process but it isn’t research in and of itself. Scholarship (the process of being a scholar) generally describes surveying existing knowledge. You might be looking for new results that you hadn’t read before, or you might be synthesizing the information for your teaching practice. Either way, you aren’t creating new knowledge, you are reviewing what already exists.

Research isn’t encyclopaedic. Encyclopedias, by and large, seek to present a synthesis of existing knowledge. Collecting and publishing existing knowledge isn’t research, as it doesn’t create new knowledge.

Research isn’t just data-gathering. Data-gathering is a vital part of research, but it doesn’t lead to new knowledge without some analysis, some further work. Just collecting the data doesn’t count, unless you do something else with it.

Research isn’t just about methodology. Just because you are using mice, or interviewing people, or using a High Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC) doesn’t mean you are doing research. You might be, if you are using a new data set or using the method in a new way or testing a new hypothesis. However, if you are using the same method, on the same data, exploring the same question, then you will almost certainly get the same results. And that is repetition, not research.

Research isn’t repetition, except in some special circumstances. If you are doing the same thing that someone else has already done, then generally that isn’t research unless you are specifically trying to prove or disprove their work. What’s the difference? Repeating an experiment from 1400 isn’t research. You know what the result will be before your start – it has already been verified many times before. Repeating an experiment reported last year probably is research because the original result can’t be relied upon until it is verified.

Is development research? Development (as in ‘research and development’) may or may not be classified as research, depending on the type of risk involved. Sometimes, the two are inextricably linked: the research leads to the development and the development refines the research. At other times, you are creating something new, but it is a new product or process, not new knowledge. It is based on new knowledge, rather than creating new knowledge. If the risk involved is a business risk, rather than intellectual risk, then the knowledge is already known.

Help me out here – what are your favourite words that signal research?

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26 comments.

currently, im doing postgraduate education for both social science and technological science. i can’t help but to feel slightly amused by your assertion ..

“Don’t bank your business on someone’s PhD”, they will say (and I would wholeheartedly agree).

this is quite true when you’re doing phd for social science. however, if your phd is technologically inclined, the business entity who intends to commercialize it, may have to bank on your research for success.

illustrating this would not be a feat.

are you using google? well, did you know that google was actually a phd research? if they hadn’t banked on page’s and brin’s research, there wouldn’t be google today, would it? presently, it is rumoured that google and microsoft are competing for phd graduates from ivy leagues and what not.

personally, i’ve met a couple of ‘technopreneurs’ who have successfully commercialized their phd research. though they may not be as successful as google, financially speaking, their achievement should not be trivialized.

Thanks, pikir kool.

You are right, of course. I’m a big fan of businesses who provide scholarships for PhD students. It is a great way for the student to get funded, and for the business to get a bit of an edge.

‘Chercher’, the modern French word for chercier means to explore or get. Re-chercher adds the concept of re- or ‘again’ to indicate looking-again, usually on the basis of evidence or experience pointing to the object of the search being in a particular place, hence to ‘search really hard’. French-speaking individuals will ‘rechercher’ a criminal on the run, ‘rechercher’ the more probable destinations of a friend who is out shopping, and so forth. I agree Australian businesses consider PhD graduates are overpriced ‘scholars’ and ‘technicians’ trained to avoid risk, hold similar opinions, and assume as little responsibility for group/enterprise outcomes as possible. What shocks me is your suggestion graduates should misinform potential employers by suggesting they might be able to innovate, discover, and lead the business toward new markets and technologies by simply choosing hot button words. In France, universities are centres of ‘learning’ where individuals experience a rich intellectual environment that the government believes ‘develops’ curiosity, opens up new horizons, tests principles to live by, and rewards leadership. The ‘elitist’ French haut écoles are often criticised by Anglo-saxon countries, but I say the learning environment, which – by the way – focuses less on methodology, reflects human diversity (unique identity). The Australian system is based on an equal opportunity social objective and is funded to produce an intellectual resource pipeline .

Hello Gordon

Thanks for your information on ‘Chercher’.

I was not trying to suggest that anybody misinform anybody else with the use of words, hot button or otherwise, but I can understand how you read it that way.

I wrote that section, in part, as a guide to staff who are trying to satisfy two audiences – the people who are providing funding and the government auditors who are deciding what is counted as research. The easiest way to satisfy the government auditors that something is research is to call it ‘research’. However, in some funding situations, that simply isn’t appropriate. One way forward is to describe the work using words other than ‘research’ that signal to the auditors that the work satisfies the criteria for research.

I’m afraid that I’m not experienced enough with research in France to reply to your comparison of the French and Australian research training environments. I work within the Australian environment, and try to do the best job that I can.

Thank you for this post – very relevant for me right now and thought-provoking. I’m 13 months into my PhD investigating communication designers’ engagement with research and I’m astounded that there is so little consensus in academic literature (not to mention in professional practice) about what legitimate research is.

It seems that any definition or criteria for research that I find, I can also find an example of research that contradicts it. For example, in your post you note “data gathering is a vital part of research” but when I included this in my definition, a highly respected scholar in my field pointed out that research in his own field of Philosophy did not involve data gathering, yet he believed constituted research. So I’m still thinking about it : )

Your philosopher is right, of course. Some researchers are working with ideas and recombining them, reworking them, creating new ideas.

I deal with applied research, mostly, and I guess my definition reflects that.

I would love to see your definition when you are done.

Your article is rad. It shaped the whole concept of research in my mind. And I think that it exactly is a ‘re- search’, where you will be searching the facts again & again, on grass root level, following a sequence of systematic processes to reach a novel & efficient conclusion .

Thanks. Glad I could help, anonymouswailer.

Thank you for the post on ‘What is Research?’ Interesting and useful posts and comments. Since I am considering naming a blog page The Synthesist, I got off on a tangent relating to the words thesis, synthesis, etc. A couple thoughts …

I think you may be undervaluing the function of “synthesis” when it is only referred to in relation to encyclopedic summaries of existing knowledge, I think true synthesis is when 2 or more ideas combine to create a new idea. I also learned, when I served a literacy tutor, that “synthesis” is considered to be a more sophisticated learned literacy skill than “analysis,” which I thought was interesting. We live in analysis culture, creating deep silos of knowledge, with few strong horizontal threads that truly support “learning.”

Interesting comment on French value of learning as the highest human capacity. Not feeling that here in America.

Also, I was hoping to see in your answer of what research IS, a reference to the importance of questions and question formation.

Thanks– Amy

I’m prompted to comment by Amy’s:

After a long time working outside of academia I’m returning to begin a Masters in Disaster Communication and Resilience; I’m still at that early stage of being excited by ideas, and not quite ready to decide on a research topic. What I am sure of is that, in the area of disaster (post-typhoon for example) one of the biggest challenges is that the specialists don’t feel comfortable talking to each other and therefore need the generalist communicators / networkers to listen to what they are on about, develop a general understanding of what they are saying, and link them together with people in other specialist areas whose work might be strikingly different but potentially have enormous potential for synergy/ synthesis.

And I doubt that any research is being done on this.

[…] What is research? by Jonathan O’Donnell […]

This is perhaps a slightly different point of view/perspective from a reasonably long career in applied research, and I am now enrolled in a Doctorate program.

What I find really interesting is pondering where does ‘innovation’ especially in terms of various forms of professional practice or creative endeavour actually come from, if not from ‘research’ as you describe it above? (I often heard and still hear people in industry or the professional practice word using the word ‘research’ to describe an often fairly informal literature search to back up what they have already decided to do in practice – but that is probably another story.)

However, I often wonder where do the ideas for ‘innovation’ actually come from?

When they are drawn from research conclusions (or initially drove the research question) this probably makes that particular research more valuable from a funder point of view.

But it kind of begs the question as to what comes or should come first especially in terms of good applied research.

And then finally, where does creativity come in – especially when deciding what to research, and how to interpret the data and conclusions from the research?

I am off to think of some more concrete examples and to ponder the nexus between research – innovation and creativity.

BTW love this discussion so far!

The nexus between research, innovation and creativity is a great topic! If you are interested in writing it up as a blog post, let me know. We’d be happy to consider it for a guest post on the Research Whisperer.

Jonathan Let me think about it – this has provoked my thinking about the issues but not sure if I am there yet in terms of writing a post about it. I will let you know! Jane

Well, it certainly was interesting to see this comment thread come back to me after three years.

I was about to reply to this person named Amy who said she was going to start a blog called The Synthesist to tell her that I had myself started a blog called Neon Synthesist.

Then I realized it was myself. Strange mirror of time. In 2014, I discovered there was a rock band called Synthesist and named it Neon Synthesist instead, since it tends to be provocative.

There are some fun posts there like “What is an Idea?” and “Why Philosophy Isn’t Dead” and, funding researchers might like, a four-part series called “The Philanthropy Games” … but alas this page will probably go away. No subscribers that I could tell.

http://www.neonsynthesist.blogspot.com

Cheers! Amy

[…] (2012) what is research [online] available from < https://theresearchwhisperer.wordpress.com/2012/09/18/what-is-research/ > [09 march […]

[…] O’Donnell, J. (2012, September 18). What is research? [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://theresearchwhisperer.wordpress.com/2012/09/18/what-is-research/ […]

[…] For more discussion on the question “What is Research”, please see “What is Research?”, Study.com, available from https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-research-definition-purpose-typical-researchers.html . See also “What is Research?”, The Research Whisperer, available from https://researchwhisperer.org/2012/09/18/what-is-research/ . […]

I am enriched with the discussions. Thanks.

Thanks, Raton Kumar. I’m glad that you found it useful. Jonathan

[…] For wiser words on research than mine, CLICK HERE. […]

Research is creating new knowledge through systematic investigation and analysis of data. Research leads to development but not in all cases and Repetition of a research already done can be said valid only when we try to prove or disprove it. It sounds great!!!

Research is the effort done by an individual or group of people, to explore something new. It can be an effort to prove the same matter but applying new methods, it also can be done to prove a different findings.

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* Research Basics *

• Introduction

So What Do We Mean By “Formal Research?”

• Guide License
• Types of Research
• Secondary Research | Literature Review
• Developing Your Topic
• Using and Evaluating Sources
• Ethics & Responsible Conduct of Research
• More Information

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A good working definition of research might be:

Research is the deliberate, purposeful, and systematic gathering of data, information, facts, and/or opinions for the advancement of personal, societal, or overall human knowledge.

Based on this definition, we all do research all the time. Most of this research is casual research. Asking friends what they think of different restaurants, looking up reviews of various products online, learning more about celebrities; these are all research.

Formal research includes the type of research most people think of when they hear the term “research”: scientists in white coats working in a fully equipped laboratory. But formal research is a much broader category that just this. Most people will never do laboratory research after graduating from college, but almost everybody will have to do some sort of formal research at some point in their careers.

Casual research is inward facing: it’s done to satisfy our own curiosity or meet our own needs, whether that’s choosing a reliable car or figuring out what to watch on TV. Formal research is outward facing. While it may satisfy our own curiosity, it’s primarily intended to be shared in order to achieve some purpose. That purpose could be anything: finding a cure for cancer, securing funding for a new business, improving some process at your workplace, proving the latest theory in quantum physics, or even just getting a good grade in your Humanities 200 class.

What sets formal research apart from casual research is the documentation of where you gathered your information from. This is done in the form of “citations” and “bibliographies.” Citing sources is covered in the section "Citing Your Sources."

Formal research also follows certain common patterns depending on what the research is trying to show or prove. These are covered in the section “Types of Research.”

• Next: TL;DR >>
• Last Updated: Jul 11, 2024 9:55 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.iit.edu/research_basics

Research: Meaning and Purpose

• First Online: 27 October 2022

Cite this chapter

• Kazi Abusaleh 4 &
• Akib Bin Anwar 5  

2702 Accesses

The objective of the chapter is to provide the conceptual framework of the research and research process and draw the importance of research in social sciences. Various books and research papers were reviewed to write the chapter. The chapter defines ‘research’ as a deliberate and systematic scientific investigation into a phenomenon to explore, analyse, and predict about the issues or circumstances, and characterizes ‘research’ as a systematic and scientific mode of inquiry, a way to testify the existing knowledge and theories, and a well-designed process to answer questions in a reliable and unbiased way. This chapter, however, categorizes research into eight types under four headings, explains six steps to carry out a research work scientifically, and finally sketches the importance of research in social sciences.

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Smith, V. H. (1998). Measuring the benefits of social science research (Vol. 2, pp. 01–21). International Food Policy Research Institute.

Somekh, B., & Lewin, C. (2004). Research Methods in the Social Sciences . Sage Publications.

Suchman, E. (1968). Evaluative Research: Principles and Practice in Public Service and Social Action Programs . Russell Sage Foundation.

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Abusaleh, K., Anwar, A.B. (2022). Research: Meaning and Purpose. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_2

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Home Market Research

What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

The search for knowledge is closely linked to the object of study; that is, to the reconstruction of the facts that will provide an explanation to an observed event and that at first sight can be considered as a problem. It is very human to seek answers and satisfy our curiosity. Let’s talk about research.

Content Index

What is Research?

What are the characteristics of research.

• Comparative analysis chart

Qualitative methods

Quantitative methods, 8 tips for conducting accurate research.

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research , and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis .

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

• Identify potential and new customers
• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities
• Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
• The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
• Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
• There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with it.
• It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research opportunities.
• It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
• Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

• Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory data analysis process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

• Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

• Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires . You can use this data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized data repository .

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative .

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods .

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended questions . The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

• One-to-one Interview
• Focus Groups
• Ethnographic studies
• Text Analysis

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms . It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

• Survey research
• Descriptive research
• Correlational research

LEARN MORE: Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Gather insights

• Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a sentence describing each one.
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
• Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
• Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in a SWOT analysis .
• Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
• Act on your strategies
• Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
• Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret results.

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your study. Remember how the process you have completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your analysis revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and recommendations.

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Meaning of research in English

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• He has dedicated his life to scientific research.
• He emphasized that all the people taking part in the research were volunteers .
• The state of Michigan has endowed three institutes to do research for industry .
• I'd like to see the research that these recommendations are founded on.
• It took months of painstaking research to write the book .
• absorptive capacity
• dream something up
• modularization
• nanotechnology
• technologist
• the mother of something idiom
• think outside the box idiom
• think something up
• study What do you plan on studying in college?
• major US She majored in philosophy at Harvard.
• cram She's cramming for her history exam.
• revise UK I'm revising for tomorrow's test.
• review US We're going to review for the test tomorrow night.
• research Scientists are researching possible new treatments for cancer.
• The amount of time and money being spent on researching this disease is pitiful .
• We are researching the reproduction of elephants .
• She researched a wide variety of jobs before deciding on law .
• He researches heart disease .
• The internet has reduced the amount of time it takes to research these subjects .
• adjudication
• analytically
• have the measure of someone/something idiom
• interpretable
• interpretive
• reinspection
• reinterpret
• reinterpretation
• reinvestigate
• reinvestigation

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A guide to field studies

Last updated

18 April 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Field studies allow researchers to observe and collect data in real-world settings. Unlike laboratory-based or traditional research methods, field studies enable researchers to investigate complex phenomena within their environment, providing a deeper understanding of the research context.

Researchers can use field studies to investigate a wide range of subjects, from the behavior of animals to the practices of businesses or the experiences of individuals in a particular setting.

Make research less tedious

Dovetail streamlines research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What is a field study?

A field study is a research method that involves conducting observations and collecting data in a natural setting. This method includes observing, interviewing, and interacting with participants in their environment, such as a workplace, community, or natural habitat.

Field studies can take many forms, from ethnographic studies involving extended periods of observation and using an anthropological lens to shorter-term studies focusing on specific behaviors or events. Regardless of its form, a successful field study requires careful planning, preparation, and execution to ensure the data collected is valid and reliable.

• How to plan a field study

Planning a field study is a critical first step in ensuring successful research. Here are some steps to follow when preparing your field study:

1. Define your research question

When developing a good research question , you should make it clear, concise, and specific. It should also be open-ended, allowing for various possible answers rather than a simple yes or no response. Your research question should also be relevant to the broader field of study and contribute new knowledge to the existing literature.

Once you have a defined research question, identify the key variables you need to study and the data you need to collect. It might involve developing a hypothesis or research framework outlining the relationships between different variables and how you’ll measure them in your study.

2. Identify your research site

A research site is a location where you’ll conduct your study and collect data. Here are the types of research sites to consider when planning a field study:

Natural habitats: For environmental or ecological research, you may need to conduct your study in a natural habitat, such as a forest, wetland, or coral reef.

Communities : If your research relates to social or cultural factors, you may need to study a particular community, such as a neighborhood, village, or city.

Organizations : For questions relating to organizational behavior or management, your location will be in a business environment, like a nonprofit or government agency.

Events : If your research question relates to a particular event, you may need to conduct your study at that event, such as, at a protest, festival, or natural disaster.

Ensure your research site represents the population you're studying. For example, if you're exploring cultural beliefs, ensure the community represents the larger population and you have access to a diverse group of participants.

3. Determine your data collection methods

Choosing a suitable method will depend on the research question, the type of data needed, and the characteristics of the participants. Here are some commonly used data collection methods in field studies:

Interviews : You can collect data on people's experiences, perspectives, and attitudes. In some instances, you can use phone or online interviews.

Observations : This method involves watching and recording behaviors and interactions in a specific setting. 

Surveys : By using a survey , you can easily standardize and tailor the questions to provide answers for your research. Respondents can complete the survey in person, by mail, or online.

Document analysis : Organizational reports, letters, diaries, public records, policies, or social media posts can be analyzed to gain context. 

When selecting data collection methods, consider factors such as the availability of participants, the ethical considerations involved, and the resources needed to carry out each method. For example, conducting interviews may require more time and resources than administering a survey.

4. Obtain necessary permissions

Depending on the research location and the nature of the study, you may require permission from local authorities, organizations, or individuals before conducting your research. 

This process is vital when working with human or animal subjects and conducting research in sensitive or protected environments.

Here are some steps you can take to obtain the necessary permissions:

Identify the relevant authorities , including local governments, regulatory bodies, research institutions, or private organizations, to obtain permission for your research.

Reach out to the relevant authorities to explain the nature of your study. Be ready to hand out detailed information about your research. 

If you're conducting research with human participants, you must have their consent . You'll also need to ensure the participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time.

Obtain necessary permits from regulatory bodies or local authorities. For example, if you're conducting research in a protected area, you may need a research permit from the relevant government agency.

The process of obtaining permissions can be time-consuming, and failure to obtain the necessary permits can lead to legal and ethical issues.

• Examples of field research

Researchers can apply field research to a wide range of disciplines and phenomena. Here are some examples of field research in different fields:

Anthropology : Anthropologists use field research methods to study different communities' social and cultural practices. For instance, an anthropologist might conduct participant observation in a remote community to understand their customs, beliefs, and practices.

Ecology : Ecologists use field research methods to learn the behavior of organisms and their interactions with the environment. For example, an ecologist might conduct field research on the behavior of birds in their natural habitat to understand their feeding habits, nesting patterns, and migration.

Sociology : Sociologists may use field research methods to study social behavior and interactions. For instance, a sociologist might conduct participant observation in a workplace to understand organizational culture and communication dynamics.

Geography : Geographers use field research methods to study different regions’ physical and human contexts. For example, a geographer might conduct field research on the impact of climate change on a particular ecosystem, such as a forest or wetland.

Psychology : Psychologists use field research methods to study human behavior in natural settings. For instance, a psychologist might conduct field research on the effects of stress on students in a school setting.

Education : Researchers studying education may use field research methods to study teaching and learning in real-world settings. For example, you could use field research to test the effectiveness of a new teaching method in a classroom setting.

By using field research methods, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of the natural world, human behavior, and social interaction theory and how they affect each other.

• Advantages of field research

Field research has several advantages over other research methods, including:

Authenticity : Field research conducted in natural settings allows researchers to observe and study real-life phenomena as it happens. This authenticity enhances the validity and accuracy of the data collected.

Flexibility : Field research methods are flexible and adaptable to different research contexts. Researchers can adjust their strategies to meet the specific needs of their research questions and participants and uncover new insights as the research unfolds.

Rich data : Field research provides rich and detailed data, often including contextual information that’s difficult to capture through other research methods. This depth of knowledge allows for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the research topic.

Novel insights : Field research can lead to discoveries that may not be possible with other research methods. Observing and studying phenomena in natural settings can provide unique perspectives and new understandings of complex issues.

Field research methods can enhance the quality and validity of research findings and lead to new insights and discoveries that may not be possible with other research methods.

• Disadvantages of field research

While field research has several advantages, there are also some disadvantages that researchers need to consider, including:

Time-consuming : Researchers need to spend time in the field, possibly weeks or months, which can be challenging, especially if the research site is remote or requires travel.

Cost : Conducting field research can be costly, especially if the research site is remote or requires specialized equipment or materials.

Reliance on participants : It may be challenging to recruit participants, and various factors, such as personal circumstances, attitudes, and beliefs, may influence their participation.

Ethical considerations : Field research may raise ethical concerns, mainly if the research involves vulnerable populations or sensitive topics. 

Causality: Researchers may have little control over the environmental or contextual variables they are studying. This can make it difficult to establish causality and then generalize their results with previous research. 

Researchers must carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of field research and select the most appropriate research method based on their research question, participants, and context.

What is another name for field study?

Field study is also known as field research or fieldwork. These terms are often used interchangeably and refer to research methods that involve observing and collecting data in natural settings.

What is the difference between a field study and a case study?

Why is field study important.

Field study is critical because it allows researchers to study real-world phenomena in natural settings. This study can also lead to novel insights that may not be possible with other research methods.

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

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[ ri- surch , ree -surch ]

recent research in medicine.

Synonyms: study , scrutiny

• a particular instance or piece of research.

verb (used without object)

• to make researches; investigate carefully.

verb (used with object)

to research a matter thoroughly.

Synonyms: scrutinize , examine , inquire , study

/ ˈriːsɜːtʃ; rɪˈsɜːtʃ /

• systematic investigation to establish facts or principles or to collect information on a subject
• to carry out investigations into (a subject, problem, etc)

Derived Forms

• reˈsearcher , noun
• reˈsearchable , adjective

Other Words From

• re·searcha·ble adjective
• re·searcher re·searchist noun
• prore·search adjective
• under·re·search verb (used with object)

Word History and Origins

Origin of research 1

Synonym Study

Example sentences.

The duo spent the first year in research and engaging with farmers.

Dan Finn-Foley, head of energy storage at energy research firm Wood Mackenzie Power & Renewables, compared Google’s plan to ordering eggs for breakfast.

Users will give Deep Longevity the right to conduct anonymized research using their data as part of the app’s terms and conditions, Zhavoronkov said.

There’s also the Wilhelm Reich Museum, located at “Orgonon” in Rangeley, Maine, which was previously Reich’s estate—where he conducted questionable orgone research in the later years of his career.

When we started doing research on these topics, we were too focused on political institutions.

Have you tried to access the research that your tax dollars finance, almost all of which is kept behind a paywall?

Have a look at this telling research from Pew on blasphemy and apostasy laws around the world.

And Epstein continues to steer money toward universities to advance scientific research.

The research literature, too, asks these questions, and not without reason.

We also have a growing body of biological research showing that fathers, like mothers, are hard-wired to care for children.

We find by research that smoking was the most general mode of using tobacco in England when first introduced.

This class is composed frequently of persons of considerable learning, research and intelligence.

Speaking from recollection, it appears to be a work of some research; but I cannot say how far it is to be relied on.

Thomas Pope Blount died; an eminent English writer and a man of great learning and research.

That was long before invention became a research department full of engineers.

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• ( formal + old-fashioned ) We read about Sigmund Freud's researches into the human psyche.
• He did a lot of research before buying his car.

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• Medical researchers say that the drug is useless.
• She is researching [= investigating ] the relationship between stress and heart disease.
• He spent the summer researching his dissertation.
• Before going out to eat, she researched area restaurants.
• The reporter made hundreds of telephone calls while researching the story.

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Chapter 12: Field Research: A Qualitative Research Technique

12.4 Getting In and Choosing a Site

When embarking on a field research project, there are two major aspects to consider. The first is where to observe and the second is what role you will take in your field site. Your decision about each of these will be shaped by a number of factors, over some of which you will have control and others you will not. Your decision about where to observe and what role to play will also have consequences for the data you are able to gather and how you analyze and share those data with others. We will examine each of these contingencies in the following subsections.

Your research question might determine where you observe, by, but because field research often works inductively, you may not have a totally focused question before you begin your observations. In some cases, field researchers choose their final research question once they embark on data collection. Other times, they begin with a research question but remain open to the possibility that their focus may shift as they gather data. In either case, when you choose a site, there are a number of factors to consider. These questions include:

• What do you hope to accomplish with your field research?
• What is your topical/substantive interest?
• Where are you likely to observe behaviour that has something to do with that topic?
• How likely is it that you will actually have access to the locations that are of interest to you?
• How much time do you have to conduct your participant observations?
• Will your participant observations be limited to a single location, or will you observe in multiple locations?

Perhaps the best place to start, as you work to identify a site or sites for your field research, is to think about your limitations . One limitation that could shape where you conduct participant observation is time. Field researchers typically immerse themselves in their research sites for many months, sometimes even years. As demonstrated in Table 12.1 “Field Research Examples”, other field researchers have spent as much or even more time in the field. Do you have several years available to conduct research, or are you seeking a smaller-scale field research experience? How much time do you have to participate and observe per day? Per week? Identifying how available you’ll be in terms of time will help you determine where and what sort of research sites to choose. Also think about where you live and whether travel is an option for you. Some field researchers move to live with or near their population of interest. Is this something you might consider? How you answer these questions will shape how you identify your research site. Where might your field research questions take you?

In choosing a site, also consider how your social location might limit what or where you can study. The ascribed aspects of our locations are those that are involuntary, such as our age or race or mobility. For example, how might your ascribed status as an adult shape your ability to conduct complete participation in a study of children’s birthday parties? The achieved aspects of our locations, on the other hand, are those about which we have some choice. In field research, we may also have some choice about whether, or the extent to which, we reveal the achieved aspects of our identities.

Finally, in choosing a research site, consider whether your research will be a collaborative project or whether you are on your own. Collaborating with others has many benefits; you can cover more ground, and therefore collect more data, than you can on your own. Having collaborators in any research project, but especially field research, means having others with whom to share your trials and tribulations in the field. However, collaborative research comes with its own set of challenges, such as possible personality conflicts among researchers, competing commitments in terms of time and contributions to the project, and differences in methodological or theoretical perspectives (Shaffir, Marshall, & Haas, 1979). When considering something that is of interest to you, consider also whether you have possible collaborators. How might having collaborators shape the decisions you make about where to conduct participant observation?

This section began by asking you to think about limitations that might shape your field site decisions. But it makes sense to also think about the opportunities —social, geographic, and otherwise—that your location affords. Perhaps you are already a member of an organization where you would like to conduct research. Maybe you know someone who knows someone else who might be able to help you access a site. Perhaps you have a friend you could stay with, enabling you to conduct participant observations away from home. Choosing a site for participation is shaped by all these factors—your research question and area of interest, a few limitations, some opportunities, and sometimes a bit of being in the right place at the right time.

Choosing a role

As with choosing a research site, some limitations and opportunities beyond your control might shape the role you take once you begin your participant observation. You will also need to make some deliberate decisions about how you enter the field and who you will be once you are in.

In terms of entering the field, one of the earliest decisions you will need to make is whether to be overt or covert. As an overt researcher, you enter the field with your research participants having some awareness about the fact that they are the subjects of social scientific research. Covert researchers, on the other hand, enter the field as though they are full participants, opting not to reveal that they are also researchers or that the group they’ve joined is being studied. As you might imagine, there are pros and cons to both approaches. A critical point to keep in mind is that whatever decision you make about how you enter the field will affect many of your subsequent experiences in the field.

As an overt researcher, you may experience some trouble establishing rapport at first. Having an insider at the site who can vouch for you will certainly help, but the knowledge that subjects are being watched will inevitably (and understandably) make some people uncomfortable and possibly cause them to behave differently than they would, were they not aware of being research subjects. Because field research is typically a sustained activity that occurs over several months or years, it is likely that participants will become more comfortable with your presence over time. Overt researchers also avoid a variety of moral and ethical dilemmas that they might otherwise face.

As a covert researcher, “getting in” your site might be quite easy; however, once you are in, you may face other issues. Some questions to consider are:

• How long would you plan to conceal your identity?
• How might participants respond once they discover you’ve been studying them?
• How will you respond if asked to engage in activities you find unsettling or unsafe?

Researcher, Jun Li (2008) struggled with the ethical challenges of “getting in” to interview female gamblers as a covert researcher. Her research was part of a post-doctoral fellowship from the Ontario Problem Gambling Research Centre to study female gambling culture. In response to these ethical aspects, she changed her research role to overt; however, in her overt role female gamblers were reluctant to “speak their minds” to her (p. 100). As such, she once again adjusted her level of involvement in the study to one who participated in female gambling culture as an insider and observed as an outsider. You can read her interesting story at the following link: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol13/iss1/8 .

Beyond your own personal level of comfort with deceiving participants and willingness to take risks, it is possible that the decision about whether or not to enter the field covertly will be made for you. If you are conducting research while associated with any federally funded agency (and even many private entities), your institutional review board (IRB) probably will have something to say about any planned deception of research subjects. Some IRBs approve deception, but others look warily upon a field researcher engaging in covert participation. The extent to which your research site is a public location, where people may not have an expectation of privacy, might also play a role in helping you decide whether covert research is a reasonable approach.

Having an insider at your site who can vouch for you is helpful. Such insiders, with whom a researcher may have some prior connection or a closer relationship than with other site participants, are called key informants. A key informant can provide a framework for your observations, help translate what you observe, and give you important insight into a group’s culture. If possible, having more than one key informant at a site is ideal, as one informant’s perspective may vary from another’s.

Once you have made a decision about how to enter your field site, you will need to think about the role you will adopt while there. Aside from being overt or covert, how close will you be to participants? In the words of Fred Davis (1973), [12] who coined these terms in reference to researchers’ roles, “will you be a Martian, a Convert, or a bit of both”? Davis describes the Martian role as one in which a field researcher stands back a bit, not fully immersed in the lives of his subjects, in order to better problematize, categorize, and see with the eyes of a newcomer what’s being observed. From the Martian perspective, a researcher should remain disentangled from too much engagement with participants. The Convert, on the other hand, intentionally dives right into life as a participant. From this perspective, it is through total immersion that understanding is gained. Which approach do you feel best suits you?

In the preceding section we examined how ascribed and achieved statuses might shape how or which sites are chosen for field research. They also shape the role the researcher adopts in the field site. The fact that the authors of this textbook are professors, for example, is an achieved status. We can choose the extent to which we share this aspect of our identities with field study participants. In some situations, sharing that we are professors may enhance our ability to establish rapport; in other field sites it might stifle conversation and rapport-building. As you have seen from the examples provided throughout this chapter, different field researchers have taken different approaches when it comes to using their social locations to help establish rapport and dealing with ascribed statuses that differ from those of their “subjects

Whatever role a researcher chooses, many of the points made in Chapter 11 “Quantitative Interview Techniques” regarding power and relationships with participants apply to field research as well. In fact, the researcher/researched relationship is even more complex in field studies, where interactions with participants last far longer than the hour or two it might take to interview someone. Moreover, the potential for exploitation on the part of the researcher is even greater in field studies, since relationships are usually closer and lines between research and personal or off-the-record interaction may be blurred. These precautions should be seriously considered before deciding to embark upon a field research project

Field notes

The aim with field notes is to record your observations as straightforwardly and, while in the field, as quickly as possible, in a way that makes sense to you . Field notes are the first—and a necessary—step toward developing quality analysis. They are also the record that affirms what you observed. In other words, field notes are not to be taken lightly or overlooked as unimportant; however, they are not usually intended for anything other than the researcher’s own purposes as they relate to recollections of people, places and things related to the research project.

Some say that there are two different kinds of field notes: descriptive and analytic. Though the lines between what counts as description and what counts as analysis can become blurred, the distinction is nevertheless useful when thinking about how to write and how to interpret field notes. In this section, we will focus on descriptive field notes. Descriptive field notes are notes that simply describe a field researcher’s observations as straightforwardly as possible. These notes typically do not contain explanations of, or comments about, those observations. Instead, the observations are presented on their own, as clearly as possible. In the following section, we will define and examine the uses and writing of analytic field notes more closely.

Analysis of field research data

Field notes are data. But moving from having pages of data to presenting findings from a field study in a way that will make sense to others requires that those data be analyzed. Analysis of field research data is the focus in this final section of the chapter.

From description to analysis

Writing and analyzing field notes involves moving from description to analysis. In Section 12.4 “Field Notes”, we considered field notes that are mostly descriptive in nature. In this section we will consider analytic field notes. Analytic field notes are notes that include the researcher’s impressions about his observations. Analyzing field note data is a process that occurs over time, beginning at the moment a field researcher enters the field and continuing as interactions happen in the field, as the researcher writes up descriptive notes, and as the researcher considers what those interactions and descriptive notes mean.

Often field notes will develop from a more descriptive state to an analytic state when the field researcher exits a given observation period, with messy jotted notes or recordings in hand (or in some cases, literally on hand), and sits at a computer to type up those notes into a more readable format. We have already noted that carefully paying attention while in the field is important; so is what goes on immediately upon exiting the field. Field researchers typically spend several hours typing up field notes after each observation has occurred. This is often where the analysis of field research data begins. Having time outside of the field to reflect upon your thoughts about what you have seen and the meaning of those observations is crucial to developing analysis in field research studies.

Once the analytic field notes have been written or typed up, the field researcher can begin to look for patterns across the notes by coding the data. This will involve the iterative process of open and focused coding that is outlined in Chapter 10, “Qualitative Data Collection & Analysis Methods.” As mentioned in Section 12.4 “Field Notes”, it is important to note as much as you possibly can while in the field and as much as you can recall after leaving the field because you never know what might become important. Things that seem decidedly unimportant at the time may later reveal themselves to have some relevance.

As mentioned in Chapter 10, analysis of qualitative data often works inductively. The analytic process of field researchers and others who conduct inductive analysis is referred to as grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Charmaz, 2006). The goal when employing a grounded theory approach is to generate theory. Its name not only implies that discoveries are made from the ground up but also that theoretical developments are grounded in a researcher’s empirical observations and a group’s tangible experiences. Grounded theory requires that one begin with an open-ended and open-minded desire to understand a social situation or setting and involves a systematic process whereby the researcher lets the data guide her rather than guiding the data by preset hypotheses.

As exciting as it might sound to generate theory from the ground up, the experience can also be quite intimidating and anxiety-producing, since the open nature of the process can sometimes feel a little out of control. Without hypotheses to guide their analysis, researchers engaged in grounded theory work may experience some feelings of frustration or angst. The good news is that the process of developing a coherent theory that is grounded in empirical observations can be quite rewarding, not only to researchers, but also to their peers, who can contribute to the further development of new theories through additional research, and to research participants who may appreciate getting a bird’s-eye view of their every day.

Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• 3b- Selecting a Research Site

Now that you are aware of some of the things you will be looking for and reading as a researcher, you can begin to think about possible sites for your primary research. Over the years, students using this text, engaging in ethnographic research projects, have studied a wide range of sites and communities. These sites have been both physical and virtual, dealing with online and real-time communities. Sometimes students see themselves as complete insiders, and sometimes students are less able to find that connection immediately, and choose a location because of another interest, such as cultural background, personal belief, or even social interest. Examples of research sites chosen by students in first year writing classrooms:

Dog parks Ethnic restaurants Art activist projects Laundromats Family holiday parties Smoking lounges Dorm spaces Workspaces Online discussion groups focusing on any number of topics

No matter what, the most important factor when selecting your own site is choosing a place or space or group of people to whom you already feel connected in some way, either by direct membership, burgeoning interest, or cultural/political belief. That last statement is so important that it merits repetition. The most important consideration as you narrow your search for a research site is to identify some kind of a connection with the place/space, even if you might not consider yourself a complete insider, even if you believe you know very little about the culture. We recommend that students have a personal connection with their site for a few reasons:

• One semester is not enough time to conduct research and then write an enthographic essay discussing the behaviors and/or beliefs concerning a particular site/group/community about which you know, and initially care, absolutely nothing. You want to give yourself a leg up and choose your site based on a genuine interest or personal connection with a site so that you have a starting point for your observations and analysis.
• The site you select will be a place you go or a group you meet with for many, many, many hours over the next weeks. Your site will be your text. If you are not “into” your research or “into” your site, chances are that you’ll be bored and not want to conduct your research. And, then writing an essay will become more of a chore than a challenge.
• If you have an identifiable connection with the site, you will be better able to embrace and understand the role of the participant-observer in ethnographic data collection. To some degree, you will need to see yourself as part of, rather than separate, above, or beyond the community/site you’re researching. Choosing a research site based upon personal connection allows you to more easily become one of the subjects of your own research, thereby increasing your own abilities to conduct reflexive analysis of the community and yourself.

There is an important caveat if you are considering writing as an insider and selecting a group or site to which you already belong. The “insider” perspective is challenging because it can be quite difficult to see yourself and your friends with the eyes of a researcher and observer when you are not confronted with anything unfamiliar, if you are simply doing what is “normal.” You also may find that it becomes awkward to talk and write about some of the observations you make. Being able to see patterns and find the rituals and rules that members of a community take for granted is a challenge if you are a part of that community.

An example: One student decided to look at how Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was able to form such strong support networks. This was an “insider” group for him because he attended an AA meeting every day. As a writer and ethnographer, his challenge was to take that very familiar world and to see it with the new eyes of a cultural observer. While he could see and report on the very obvious rituals and “rules” of AA and AA meetings, he was not comfortable writing about some of the deeply personal issues that came up in the meetings in which he was both an active participant and an observer. He was not ready, nor was he ethically able, to share some of those things with the world outside of AA. Ultimately he was able to write a very good essay about how AA created a “safe” space for him. The struggles he faced in writing a very personal, close-to-home ethnography are not uncommon when researching as an “insider,” so you should keep these things in mind as you consider possible research sites.

The challenge in writing from more of an outsider perspective, though making sure to choose a site based upon some genuine interest that is not driven by voyeurism, is the opposite of that of the insider challenge. You will probably find many patterns and interesting things to explore, but you may have more difficulty becoming a participant in the community and finding the meaning in your observations. Deciding which behaviors are meaningful (rituals) and which are just done (habit) can be problematic. If you are able to discern between those to things, you then have to move on to presenting an interpretation of what the meaning might be. You will need to be very aware of your own filters and make sure that you find out how the members of the community see things.

And, as is the case with the dangers of the “insider” perspective, problems being clearly situated as an “outsider” in a research site have ethical implications. Some students may be tempted to choose sites based upon stated interests in issues such as homelessness, homosexuality, exotic dancing, and other ‘foreign’ communities. When a site is chosen because of a kind of voyeuristic impulse, the project itself is at risk of being unethical. If it is impossible for the individual to become a participant-observer, and not just remain an observer, the student-research risks ‘othering’ the members of the community that they’re observing.  Students must selected sites and research trajectories that allow them to participate in the community rather than simply watch it from afar. Often, the solution can be to figure out how to engage in a volunteer scenario and serve the community in some way, via homeless shelter, or community organization. If this option seems impossible, then a student would do well to read a couple memoirs written by folks in their community of interest, and choose a different site.

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• 1a- Connecting to Ethnographic Writing
• 1b- Identifying with Ethnographic Writing
• 1c- Rhetorical Strate­gies for Ethnographic Writing
• 2a- Writerly Ethos
• 2b- Under­stand­ing Pla­gia­rism
• 2c- Eth­i­cal Conun­drums in Com­munity Research
• 3a- Examining Culture as Text
• 3c- Access to Your Research Site
• 3d- Rhetorical Strategies for Research Proposals
• 4a- Rhetorical Strategies for Writing Observations
• 4b- Considering Types of Fieldnotes
• 4c- Expanding and Revising Fieldnotes and Observations
• 5a- Searching for Sources: Keywords, Databases, Catalogs, and Shelves
• 5b- Ethical Considerations when Conducting Research of Secondary Sources
• 5c- Impact of Technology on Conducting Research of Secondary Sources
• 5d- Sorting Sources and Eating Books
• 5e- Popular Culture Source Material
• 5f- Summarizing Sources
• 5g- Building an Annotated Bibliography
• 6a- Introducing your Research
• 6b- Presenting the Methodology and Focus
• 6c- Selecting Examples and Evidence
• 6d- Selecting Effective Secondary Source Evidence
• 6e- Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Documenting Source Material
• 6f- Concluding in a Meaningful Way
• 6g- Reviewing and Revising Your Essay
• Supplemental Modules
• How to Use this Textbook
• Teaching with EC
• How to Become a Contributing Author

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Writing a Research Paper

The information search process, some definitions.

• Choosing a Topic and Identifying Keywords
• Finding Library Materials: Using LibGuides
• Using HillSearch (Library Catalog) to Find Books, Ebooks, And Streaming Media
• Search Databases for Scholarly Journal Articles
• Synthesizing Sources
• Citing Your Research/Creating a Bibliography
• Where to Get Help with Research and Writing

Your Librarian

Have you been assigned a research paper or presentation and are uncertain where to begin? Librarians are here to help you at each step of the research process, from initial topic selection to preparing your bibliography. In her work, Rutgers Information Science Professor Carol Kuhthau defines the steps of  the  Information Search Process  and the feelings researchers experience during each part of it -including occasional feelings of frustration and discouragement. Recognizing that frustration can be part of the research process can help you in the long run. Grappling with initial discomfort can ultimately help you develop your thesis statement, craft arguments and find the resources that best meet your research needs..

The chart below describes The Information Search Process, the tasks related to each step of the process, and the related feelings you may experience.

We're happy to meet with you one-on-one to help you with your research and compiling your citations. Click on the "Book an Appointment" link in our profile boxes to set up a meeting. If you don't see a time that meets your needs, email us.

Your professor might require a specific type or number of sources for your assignment. The following definitions might be of help understanding the assignment. These definitions have been adapted from the Online Dictionary of Library and Information Science .

Abstract -  A brief, objective representation of the essential content of a book, article, speech, report, dissertation, patent, standard, or other work, presenting the main points in the same order as the original but having no independent literary value. A well-prepared abstract enables the reader to 1) quickly identify the basic content of the document, 2) determine its relevance to their interests, and 3) decide whether it is worth their time to read the entire document

Annotated Bibliography -  A bibliography in which a brief explanatory or evaluative note is added to each reference/citation and abstract. An annotation can be helpful to the researcher in evaluating whether the source is relevant to a given topic or line of inquiry. For more information, watch our video tutorial on creating an annotated bibliography .

Primary Source (non/science topics)  -  A  document or record containing firsthand information or original data on a topic, used in preparing a new (derivative) work. Primary sources include original manuscripts, periodical articles reporting original research or thought, diaries, memoirs, letters, journals, photographs, drawings, posters, film footage, sheet music, songs, interviews, government documents, public records, eyewitness accounts, newspaper clippings, etc.

Primary Source/Primary Study (science topics) -  Also called empirical research studies, primary research studies in the sciences report on an experiment that was performed by the author(s) of the study.  These articles are formatted similarly to a lab report, and will contain the following sections: Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References.  Primary research studies will often contain data tables, graphs, and statistical analyses.

Scholarly Journal - A journal  publishing original research and commentary on current developments in a specific discipline, subdiscipline, or field of study (example: Journal of Clinical Epidemiology ). Scholarly journals are usually published in quarterly, bimonthly, or monthly issues sold by subscription (click here to see an example). Articles in scholarly journals are usually written by the person (or persons) who conducted the research. Longer than most magazine articles, they almost always include a bibliography or list of works cited at the end. In journals in the sciences and social sciences, an abstract usually precedes the text of the article, summarizing its content. Most scholarly journals are peer-reviewed, meaning article drafts are reviewed by a panel of experts prior to publication and any needed edits are made by the author. Not all periodicals are scholarly. Some are popular magazines - such as Time or People . Other periodicals are produced for a particular discipline - such as Inc. or Education Week - but articles are written by journalists, not disciplinary experts.

• Next: Choosing a Topic and Identifying Keywords >>
• Last Updated: Jul 15, 2024 10:53 AM
• URL: https://libguides.stonehill.edu/writing_a_research_paper

Average credit score by age

Average credit score by state, average credit score by year, factors influencing the average credit score, the average credit score by age, state, and year.

Affiliate links for the products on this page are from partners that compensate us and terms apply to offers listed (see our advertiser disclosure with our list of partners for more details). However, our opinions are our own. See how we rate products and services to help you make smart decisions with your money.

• The average credit score in the US is 717, according to a report from FICO.
• High interest rates and lingering inflation contribute to more missed payments and debt levels.
• Minnesota has the highest average credit score at 742, while Mississippi has the lowest average at 680.

People with higher credit scores tend to qualify for better interest rates on borrowed money, have access to the best credit cards , and can even pay less for insurance. You'll also have an easier time applying for an apartment rental. 

With so much riding on your credit score, it can be useful to see where you stand compared to others like you, whether it be where you live or how old you are. Here is the average credit score broken down across generations, state, and years.

What is the average credit score?

The average FICO credit score in the US is 717, according to the latest FICO data . The average VantageScore is 701 as of January 2024.

Definition and explanation

Credit scores , which are like a grade for your borrowing history, fall in the range of 300 to 850. The higher your score, the better.

The FICO model of credit scoring puts credit scores into six categories:

• Very poor: 300-579
• Poor: 580-600
• Fair: 601-660
• Good: 670-739
• Very good: 740-799
• Exceptional:  800-850

Based on this scoring system, the average American has a good credit score . But, average credit scores varies by location and age.

The average credit score looks very different between age groups. As credit scores are calculated on credit and borrowing history, older people have higher credit scores on average due to a more extensive borrowing history.

Meanwhile Gen Z lags behind because they've had less time to build credit, and many members of Gen Z simply aren't old enough to have a credit score. Here's how it breaks down by age group, according to data from Experian :

Finances look very different across all 50 states, and the average credit score looks pretty different, too. While Mississippi has the lowest average credit score at 680, Minnesota has the highest credit score at 742.   Here's the average credit score in each US state and the District of Columbia as of 2022, according to data from Experian:

Americans have more consumer debt than ever before, holding an average debt of $104,215 and a total of $17.50 trillion in 2023. Despite historic levels of debt, the average credit score continues to rise. Americans actually have better credit than ever.

The average score has increased by nearly 30 points in the past decade. Here's how it's risen, according to FICO data from April of each year:

The period spanning from June 2009 until early 2020 became America's longest-running period of economic expansion, which ended due to the brief, pandemic-induced recession . This extended period of growth yielded low unemployment rates. This could have contributed to America's rising credit scores, with more people possessing the means to pay back debt on time. 

If your own score isn't rising, there is plenty of information available on the credit industry and how to raise your credit score. There is also an abundance of credit-builder products available that widen accessibility, boosting the average credit score over time. The best credit builder loans don't require a credit check or a credit score. Some credit builder products come straight from the credit bureaus themselves, such as Experian Boost , which reports regular payments like utility bills and streaming service subscription fees.

There have even been changes in how credit scores are calculated, which can further improve average credit scores. For example, paid collections under $500 have been removed from consumers' credit reports and are no longer reported. Changes to how medical debt affects your credit score have also improved consumers' credit histories. 

How are credit scores used?

Credit scores are calculated using information about your borrowing, like your credit utilization ratio , the number and types of accounts you have open, and your repayment history. All of that information is drawn from your credit report , which has a detailed borrowing history.

Everyone has credit scores based on data gathered by the three major credit bureaus : Experian, Equifax, and TransUnion. There are two main credit scoring algorithms, known as FICO and VantageScore . While each one uses a slightly different calculation, your scores should generally be within a similar range. 

Credit scores are used to determine approval for financial products like mortgages, credit cards, and personal loans. Interest rates and loan terms will be assessed based on your credit score and payment history. Credit scores are even used for apartment rentals, car insurance, and, in some cases, employment.

Keeping track of these scores is crucial if you want to build credit. You should never be paying to view your credit score. You can usually access your scores for free through your lender or financial institution. You can also access your credit score free online from sites like Credit Karma . 

It's a good idea to check your credit report regularly, too. You can get three free credit reports per week, one from each credit bureau, which you can access through AnnualCreditReport.com . You can check them all at once or ration your credit reports throughout the year. It's not uncommon for a report to contain an error affecting your score, but it's up to you to find any such error. If you do find one, you can  dispute your credit report with the agency. 

Payment history

This is the most important factor and has the biggest impact on your score. A positive payment history is best; even one late or missed payment can negatively impact your score. Be sure to make all payments on time.

Credit utilization

This is the amount of your available credit that you're using. Keeping your available credit high and your debts low can help your score.

This refers to your different loan accounts, such as credit cards, mortgages, student loans, and car loans. Being able to handle a mix of different credit accounts can positively impact your credit score. 

Length of credit history

The length of time you've had credit can also impact your score. The longer you have had positive credit history the better it is for your score. 

How to strengthen your credit score

Your credit scores play a big role in your financial freedom. It figures into everything from qualifying for a mortgage or credit card to the rate you pay on your auto insurance. Bad credit can make your life difficult. But there are always things you can do to improve your credit score , including:

• Making all your loan, credit card, and other monthly payments on time is essential
• Pay off debts and bring past due accounts current
• Pay your credit card balances in full each month
• Avoid applying for new credit unless you really need it
• Keep unused credit accounts open

If you don't have any credit history, it becomes challenging to borrow, making it hard to build a credit history. That's why some credit card issuers provide specific secured credit cards for people to use temporarily to build credit from scratch. You can also see our picks for the best starter credit cards here.

You can also use a credit-builder product, like a debit card that reports payments to the credit bureaus or a credit-builder loan, to build a credit history. The best credit builder loans don't require a credit history, so you can qualify even if you've never borrowed money before. 

You can subscribe to a credit monitoring service to help you keep track of your progress. The best credit monitoring services are even free.

Frequently asked questions about average credit scores

The largest determining factor in credit scores is your payment history. Making your payments on time every month is the single most important thing you can do.

Average credit scores are increasing over time, partially because of the amount of educational resources available. Credit-building products have also been created to make building credit more accessible. 

A late payment lowers your credit score. Just one late payment can make a big difference.

The average credit score can change annually based on economic factors and consumer behavior.

Yes, you can improve your credit quickly by paying down high balances and ensuring timely payments.

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• Main content

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins and minerals are micronutrients required by the body to carry out a range of normal functions. However, these micronutrients are not produced in our bodies and must be derived from the food we eat.

Vitamins are organic substances that are generally classified as either fat soluble or water soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins ( vitamin A , vitamin D , vitamin E , and vitamin K ) dissolve in fat and tend to accumulate in the body. Water-soluble vitamins ( vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins , such as vitamin B6 , vitamin B12 , and folate ) must dissolve in water before they can be absorbed by the body, and therefore cannot be stored. Any water-soluble vitamins unused by the body is primarily lost through urine.

Minerals are inorganic elements present in soil and water, which are absorbed by plants or consumed by animals. While you’re likely familiar with calcium , sodium , and potassium , there is a range of other minerals, including trace minerals (e.g. copper , iodine , and zinc ) needed in very small amounts.

In the U.S., the National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) develops nutrient reference values called the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for vitamins and minerals. [1] These are intended as a guide for good nutrition and as a scientific basis for the development of food guidelines in both the U.S. and Canada. The DRIs are specific to age, gender, and life stages, and cover more than 40 nutrient substances. The guidelines are based on available reports of deficiency and toxicity of each nutrient. Learn more about vitamins and minerals and their recommended intakes in the table below.

What about multivitamins?

A diet that includes plenty of fruits, vegetables , whole grains , good protein packages , and healthful fats should provide most of the nutrients needed for good health. But not everyone manages to eat a healthful diet. Multivitamins can play an important role when nutritional requirements are not met through diet alone. Learn more about vitamin supplementation .

Did you know? 

Vitamins and their precise requirements have been controversial since their discovery in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It was the combined efforts of epidemiologists, physicians, chemists, and physiologists that led to our modern day understanding of vitamins and minerals. After years of observation, experiments, and trial and error, they were able to distinguish that some diseases were not caused by infections or toxins—a common belief at the time—but by vitamin deficiencies. [2] Chemists worked to identify a vitamin’s chemical structure so it could be replicated. Soon after, researchers determined specific amounts of vitamins needed to avoid diseases of deficiency.

In 1912, biochemist Casimir Funk was the first to coin the term “vitamin” in a research publication that was accepted by the medical community, derived from “vita” meaning life, and “amine” referring to a nitrogenous substance essential for life. [3] Funk is considered the father of vitamin therapy, as he identified nutritional components that were missing in diseases of deficiency like scurvy (too little vitamin C ), beri-beri (too little vitamin B1 ), pellagra (too little vitamin B3 ), and rickets (too little vitamin D ). The discovery of all vitamins occurred by 1948.

Vitamins were obtained only from food until the 1930s when commercially made supplements of certain vitamins became available. The U.S government also began fortifying foods with specific nutrients to prevent deficiencies common at the time, such as adding iodine to salt to prevent goiter, and adding folic acid to grain products to reduce birth defects during pregnancy. In the 1950s, most vitamins and multivitamins were available for sale to the general public to prevent deficiencies, some receiving a good amount of marketing in popular magazines such as promoting cod liver oil containing vitamin D as bottled sunshine.

• Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011) . These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu .
• Semba RD. The discovery of the vitamins. Int J Vitam Nutr Res . 2012 Oct 1;82(5):310-5.
• Piro A, Tagarelli G, Lagonia P, Tagarelli A, Quattrone A. Casimir Funk: his discovery of the vitamins and their deficiency disorders. Ann Nutr Metab . 2010;57(2):85-8.

Last reviewed March 2023

Terms of Use

The contents of this website are for educational purposes and are not intended to offer personal medical advice. You should seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this website. The Nutrition Source does not recommend or endorse any products.

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World of 1898: International Perspectives on the Spanish American War

Introduction.

• Overview Essay
• Cuba in 1898
• Chronology of Cuba in the Spanish-American War
• Philippine Perspective
• The Changing of the Guard: Puerto Rico in 1898
• The Spanish-American War of 1898: a Spanish View
• American Perspective
• Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy
• Russell Alexander Alger
• Thomas McArthur Anderson
• Basilio Augustin y Dávila
• Ramón Auñón y Villalón
• Román Baldorioty de Castro
• José Celso Barbosa
• Clara Barton
• Segismundo Bermejo
• Ramón Emeterio Betances
• Ramón Blanco y Erenas
• Andrés Bonifacio
• John Rutter Brooke
• Jules-Martin Cambon
• Pascual Cervera y Topete
• Grover Cleveland
• Stephen Crane
• George W. Davis
• Federico Degetau y González
• George Dewey
• José de Diego
• Manuel V. Domenech
• Enrique Dupuy de Lôme
• Oswald Herbert Ernst
• Maximo Gómez Baez
• John Milton Hay
• Guy Vernon Henry
• Eugenio María de Hostos y Bonilla
• Tulio Larrinaga
• Fitzhugh Lee
• William Ludlow
• Antonio Maceo
• Manuel Macías
• William McKinley
• Nelson Appleton Miles
• Luis Muñoz Rivera
• Whitelaw Reid
• Lola Rodríguez de Tió
• Manuel Rojas
• Theodore Roosevelt
• Práxedes Mateo Sagasta
• William T. Sampson
• Juan Manuel Sánchez y Gutiérrez de Castro
• Theodore Schwan
• William Shafter
• Martín Travieso
• Joaquín Vara de Rey y Rubio
• James Franklin Wade
• Richard Wainwright
• Valeriano Weyler
• Walt Whitman
• Henry H. Whitney
• James Harrison Wilson
• Coamo and Aibonito
• Mayagüez, Hormigueros, and Arecibo
• Cienfuegos Bay
• Abolition of Slavery in Puerto Rico
• American Ships in the Spanish-American War
• Balzac v. Porto Rico
• Foraker Act (Organic Act of 1900)
• Grito de Balintawak
• Grito de Lares
• Hurricane San Ciriaco
• Anti-Imperialist League
• Military Government in Puerto Rico
• Olmsted Amendment
• Peace Agreement in Puerto Rico
• Reconcentration Policy
• Rough Riders
• Spanish Ships in the Spanish-American War
• Teller and Platt Amendments
• Treaty of Paris of 1898
• U.S.S. Gloucester
• Additional Resources
• Acknowledgements

Guide Editor: María Daniela Thurber, Reference Librarian, Hispanic Reading Room, Latin American, Caribbean, and European Division

Content Authors: Please visit the Acknowledgement page for information on all authors and contributors to the original The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War web project.

Note: This guide is adapted from The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War , the first online collection mounted on the web by the Hispanic Reading Room.

Created: Spring 2022

Last Updated: February 28, 2023

Caribbean, Iberian & Latin American Studies : Ask a Librarian

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The war of the United States with Spain was very brief. Its results were many, startling, and of world-wide meaning. --Henry Cabot Lodge

On April 25, 1898 the United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the Battleship Maine in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. As a result, Spain lost its control over the remains of its overseas empire -- Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines Islands, Guam, and other islands.

Beginning in 1492, Spain was the first European nation to sail westward across the Atlantic Ocean, explore, and colonize the Amerindian nations of the Western Hemisphere. At its greatest extent, the empire that resulted from this exploration extended from Virginia on the eastern coast of the United States south to Tierra del Fuego at the tip of South America excluding Brazil and westward to California and Alaska. Across the Pacific, it included the Philippines and other island groups. By 1825 much of this empire had fallen into other hands and in that year, Spain acknowledged the independence of its possessions in the present-day United States (then under Mexican control) and south to the tip of South America. The only remnants that remained in the empire in the Western Hemisphere were Cuba and Puerto Rico and across the Pacific in Philippines Islands, and the Carolina, Marshall, and Mariana Islands (including Guam) in Micronesia.

Kurz & Allison. Destruction of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana Harbor Feby 15th. Havana, Cuba, ca. 1898. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

A view of our battleship MAINE as she appears today. Havana Harbor, ca. 1900. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

Raising of battleship Maine. Havana, Cuba. 1911. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

Following its declaration of war against Spain issued on April 25, 1898, the United States added the Teller Amendment asserting that it would not attempt to exercise hegemony over Cuba. Two days later Commodore George Dewey sailed from Hong Kong with Emilio Aguinaldo on board. Fighting began in the Phillipines Islands at the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1 where Commodore George Dewey reportedly exclaimed, "You may fire when ready, Gridley," and the Spanish fleet under Rear Admiral Patricio Montojo was destroyed. However, Dewey did not have enough manpower to capture Manila so Aguinaldo's guerrillas maintained their operations until 15,000 U.S. troops arrived at the end of July. On the way, the cruiser Charleston stopped at Guam and accepted its surrender from its Spanish governor who was unaware his nation was at war. Although a peace protocol was signed by the two belligerents on August 12, Commodore Dewey and Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt, leader of the army troops, assaulted Manila the very next day, unaware that peace had been declared.

In late April, Andrew Summers Rowan made contact with Cuban General Calixto García who supplied him with maps, intelligence, and a core of rebel officers to coordinate U.S. efforts on the island. The U.S. North Atlantic Squadron left Key West for Cuba on April 22 following the frightening news that the Spanish home fleet commanded by Admiral Pascual Cervera had left Cadiz and entered Santiago, having slipped by U.S. ships commanded by William T. Sampson and Winfield Scott Schley. They arrived in Cuba in late May.

War actually began for the U.S. in Cuba in June when the Marines captured Guantánamo Bay and 17,000 troops landed at Siboney and Daiquirí, east of Santiago de Cuba, the second largest city on the island. At that time Spanish troops stationed on the island included 150,000 regulars and 40,000 irregulars and volunteers while rebels inside Cuba numbered as many as 50,000. Total U.S. army strength at the time totalled 26,000, requiring the passage of the Mobilization Act of April 22 that allowed for an army of at first 125,000 volunteers (later increased to 200,000) and a regular army of 65,000. On June 22, U.S. troops landed at Daiquiri where they were joined by Calixto García and about 5,000 revolutionaries.

U.S. troops attacked the San Juan heights on July 1, 1898. Dismounted troopers, including the African-American Ninth and Tenth cavalries and the Rough Riders commanded by Lt. Col. Theodore Roosevelt went up against Kettle Hill while the forces led by Brigadier General Jacob Kent charged up San Juan Hill and pushed Spanish troops further inland while inflicting 1,700 casualties. While U.S. commanders were deciding on a further course of action, Admiral Cervera left port only to be defeated by Schley. On July 16, the Spaniards agreed to the unconditional surrender of the 23,500 troops around the city. A few days later, Major General Nelson Miles sailed from Guantánamo to Puerto Rico. His forces landed near Ponce and marched to San Juan with virtually no opposition.

Representatives of Spain and the United States signed a peace treaty in Paris on December 10, 1898, which established the independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States, and allowed the victorious power to purchase the Philippines Islands from Spain for $20 million. The war had cost the United States $250 million and 3,000 lives, of whom 90% had perished from infectious diseases.

What's included in this guide

This presentation provides resources and documents about the Spanish-American War, the period before the war, and some of the fascinating people who participated in the fighting or commented about it. Information about Cuba, Guam, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Spain, and the United States is provided in chronologies, bibliographies, and a variety of pictorial and textual material from bilingual sources, supplemented by an overview essay about the war and the period. Among the participants and authors featured are such well-known figures as Presidents Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt, as well as Admiral George Dewey and author Mark Twain (United States), together with other important figures such as Antonio Maceo and José Martí (Cuba), Román Baldorioty de Castro and Lola Rodríguez de Tió (Puerto Rico), José Rizal and Emilio Aguinaldo (Philippines), and Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and Ramón Blanco (Spain).

Related Research Guides by the Library of Congress

Spanish-American War: A Resource Guide

The Spanish-American War (1898) was a conflict between the U.S. and Spain, ending with the loss of Spain’s overseas empire and the U.S. emerging as a world power. This guide compiles digital material, external websites, and a selected print bibliography.

Spanish American War: Topics in Chronicling America

A guide for researching the topic of the "Spanish American War," which took place from April 25 until December 10,1898, in the Chronicling America digital collection of historic newspapers.

Spain: Hispanic Reading Room Country Guide

This guide provides curated Library of Congress resources for the study of Spain, including digitized primary source materials in a wide variety of formats, books and periodicals, online databases, and tips for searching.

Cuba: Hispanic Reading Room Country Guide

This guide provides curated Library of Congress resources for researching Cuba, including digitized primary source materials in a wide variety of formats, books and periodicals, online databases, and tips for searching.

Philippine-American War: Topics in Chronicling America

After the Treaty of Paris, the Phillippine-American War occurred from February 1899 to July 1902. This guide provides access to materials related to the “Philippine-American War” in the Chronicling America digital collection of historic newspapers.

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• Last Updated: Jan 12, 2024 2:02 AM
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• Introduction
• Indications
• Types of Chest Tubes
• Complications
• Future Directions
• Conclusions
• Article Information

a Interventional pulmononologist (IP) recommends thoracic surgery evaluation for late presentation (>7 d from index symptoms) plus thick pleural rind or for very complex effusion. ED, emergency department; ICU, intensive care unit; PA, tissue plasminogen activator.

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Anderson D , Chen SA , Godoy LA , Brown LM , Cooke DT. Comprehensive Review of Chest Tube Management : A Review . JAMA Surg. 2022;157(3):269–274. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2021.7050

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Comprehensive Review of Chest Tube Management : A Review

• 1 Division of General Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of California, Davis Health, Sacramento

Importance   Thoracostomy, or chest tube placement, is used in a variety of clinical indications and can be lifesaving in certain circumstances. There have been developments and modifications to thoracostomy tubes, or chest tubes, over time, but they continue to be a staple in the thoracic surgeon’s toolbox as well as adjacent specialties in medicine. This review will provide the nonexpert clinician a comprehensive understanding of the types of chest tubes, indications for their effective use, and key management details for ideal patient outcomes.

Observations   This review describes the types of chest tubes, indications for use, techniques for placement, common anatomical landmarks that are encountered with placement and management, and an overview of complications that may arise with tube thoracostomy. In addition, the future direction of chest tubes is explored, as well as the management of chest tubes during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conclusions and Relevance   Chest tube management is subjective, but the compilation of data can inform best practices and safe application to successfully manage the pleural space and ameliorate acquired pleural space disease.

Thoracostomy tube, otherwise known as chest tube, insertion can be traced back to the fifth century bce when Hippocrates described using a hollow tin tube to drain what was likely an empyema. 1 In 1889, valved tubes with air-tight seals were first reported to prevent outside atmospheric pressure from collapsing the lung on inspiration. 2 In 1922, chest tubes were first documented in the postoperative care of patients undergoing modern thoracic surgery. 3 They were used throughout World War II to restore lung function after traumatic thoracotomies, were used during the Korean War, and later became the standard of care for drainage of the pleural space for trauma during the Vietnam War. 4 Chest tubes and their management continue to evolve and are modified to fit modern needs, including clinical conditions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic.

The potential space between the visceral pleura that envelops the lungs and the parietal pleura covering the chest wall, diaphragm, and mediastinum is the pleural cavity, which contains lubricating pleural fluid secreted by the parietal pleural capillaries. Air and abnormal fluid can accumulate in this space, causing mass effect and disruptions in the normal negative intrathoracic pressure.

When air fills the pleural cavity, it is called a pneumothorax, which is further categorized according to its etiology as primary spontaneous, secondary spontaneous, or traumatic. 5 - 7 Chest tubes are used to evacuate air in the pleural cavity and reestablish the negative intrathoracic pressure, allowing the lung to reexpand and restore physiologic ventilation and cardiac function. 6 - 9 A tension pneumothorax develops when air enters on inspiration and is unable to escape on expiration. This leads to effective mass effect on intrathoracic structures, such as the lung itself; mediastinal structures, such as the venae cavae; and cardiac chambers, resulting in hemodynamic compromise from restricted venous return and cardiac output. This is a medical emergency and should initially be managed with immediate needle thoracentesis to decompress trapped and expanding pleural air before the placement of a formal chest tube.

Chest tubes are also used to evacuate excessive fluid from the pleural cavity, which is known as a pleural effusion. When there is pus in the pleural cavity, then it is considered an empyema. There are several ways to evacuate fluid from the pleural cavity and chest tubes are only one of the many options. A Cochrane review from 2017 10 compared the surgical option of video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) with chest tube drainage of pleural empyema and found no difference in mortality or complications between the groups, but early VATS reduced the hospital length of stay. VATS has been considered the first-line treatment for retained hemothorax and empyemas with other modalities, such as intrapleural lytic therapy, reserved for poor operative candidates or as a second line treatment. 11 However, a meta-analysis by Hendriksen et al 11 found that treating retained hemothorax with lytic therapy rather than VATS allowed for an overall operative avoidance rate of 87% (95% CI, 81%-92%), with no heterogeneity in the pooled studies ( Q  = 10.2; df  = 9; P  = .33; I 2  = 15.07%). The type of intrapleural lytic treatment is also important as Hendriksen et al 11 found that using tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) as the lytic agent allowed for a favorable number of patients to avoid surgical intervention compared with other lytic agents. The combination of t-PA and dornase (DNase) was associated with a 60% reduction in pleural fluid collection as seen on imaging and with a significant reduction in pleural opacity, compared with placebo in the randomized clinical trial by Rahman et al. 12 When t-PA and DNase were used on their own as opposed to in combination, this study did not find a significant reduction in the pleural fluid collection compared with placebo. 12 The evidence supports combining t-PA and DNase for intrapleural lytic therapy. Given the effectiveness of treating early-phase empyema with a chest tube and intrapleural use of t-PA and DNase, as well as the use of VATS to reduce length of hospital stay, the authors developed a multidisciplinary protocol with general thoracic surgery and interventional pulmonary medicine for the algorithmic care of patients presenting with empyema, starting with a small-bore chest tube placement followed by intrapleural use of t-PA and DNase. If this initial step is unsuccessful, the next stage of the pathway is thoracic surgical consultation for VATS decortication ( Figure 1 ).

Chest tubes come in a variety of sizes and materials to best suit the clinical needs of the patient. In the US, they are generally measured by the internal diameter of the tube in units of French. One increment of the French scale is equal to a one-third–millimeter diameter, (eg, 24F is equal to an 8-mm caliber). By most prevalent convention, a tube of 20F or larger is considered a large-bore chest tube and a tube less than 20F tube is considered a small-bore chest tube, although there are some studies that define a large-bore chest tube as larger than 14F. 5 , 13 , 14 A common type of small-bore chest tube is a pigtail catheter, named because the tip coils at the end like a pig’s tail to prevent dislodgement. 13

Small-bore chest tubes are used as the first-line treatment for pneumothorax, transudative pleural effusions, and simple empyemas, whereas large-bore chest tubes are often necessary for more viscous disease processes, such as a hemothorax and complex exudative effusions and empyemas. 13 , 15 A meta-analysis by Chang et al 5 demonstrated that small-bore chest tubes are associated with lower complications rates and shorter drainage duration and hospital stay compared with large-bore chest tubes. A randomized clinical trial by Hussain et al 16 identified similar findings of a reduction in drainage duration and hospital stay with small-bore pigtail catheters compared with large-bore chest tubes in patients with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax. The most prominent advantage of a small-bore chest tube is its size, which allows for a smaller incision and decreased pain experienced by the patient. 16 , 17 The randomized clinical trial by Kulvatunyou et al 17 demonstrated a lower pain score in individuals with a pigtail catheter compared with a large-bore chest tube for traumatic pneumothorax. However, the small diameter of small-bore chest tubes may come at the cost of inefficient flow, as per Poiseuille’s law (Δ P  = 8μLQ/πR 4 , where Δp is change in pressure, μ is viscosity, Q is flow and R is radius) the decreasing radius of small-bore chest tubes can lend to a lower flow rate, which is the reason large-bore chest tubes are necessary in conditions that would otherwise clog a smaller tube, such as high-viscosity (μ) fluid. 5 , 13 , 15

The placement of a chest tube is important and is performed by many different specialties in various settings. The ideal point of insertion is through an external landmark space known as the triangle of safety ( Figure 2 ), which is bordered by the edge of the latissimus dorsi muscle, pectoralis major muscle, the base of the axilla, and transverse to the nipple line or inframammary fold, at or above the fifth intercostal space. 13 , 14 , 18 - 20 However, placement of chest tubes is also influenced by the indication. For an apical pneumothorax, a chest tube can be placed in the second intercostal space in the midclavicular line, although less comfortable for the patient, and adequate drainage of an unloculated pneumothorax can be performed via lateral insertion at the fifth intercostal space. 14 , 18 If the tube is placed in the triangle of safety, it is important to place it in a line anterior to the anterior superior iliac spine. Placing in the tube in a line behind this surface landmark may cause the patient to lie on the tube when in the supine position and mechanically occlude the tube. For a pleural effusion, a lower intercostal space may be used for insertion but special care must be taken to avoid penetrating the diaphragm, and subsequently the liver on the right and spleen and bowel on the left. 13

The 3 ways to insert a chest tube are dissective, Seldinger (often ultrasonography guided), and the trocar technique, again often ultrasonography guided. 13 , 14 , 19 , 20 Ultrasonography can be an invaluable tool to safely identify internal landmarks for chest tube placement. Figure 3 presents a representative sonographic image demonstrating the target abnormal collection of pleural fluid, in the right chest, for chest tube drainage, and adjacent structures of atelectatic lung, diaphragm and liver. Figure 4 A highlights an important step for chest tube placement, which is using a finder needle (often a syringe with local anesthetic) just above the target rib to avoid the intercostal neurovascular bundle and aspirating the pleural space to confirm the location of the pleural pathology. For dissective insertion, a 1- to 2-cm incision is made overlying the rib of choice (the authors do not tunnel to a rib above), a Schnidt tonsil clamp is used to bluntly dissect through the subcutaneous tissue, the 3 muscular layers of the intercostal space (ie, the external intercostal muscle, the internal intercostal muscle, and innermost intercostal muscle), transthoracic fascia, and the parietal pleural until the clamp enters the pleural cavity. When attempting to enter the fifth intercostal space, it is important to dissect not perpendicular to the chest wall, but generally posterior and apical, the direction that most tubes should be placed ( Figure 4 B). Dissecting perpendicular to the chest wall and into the fifth intercostal space can lead to the tube heading directly into the oblique fissure, and then be entrapped by the subsequent expanded lung, rendering the tube ineffective after lung expansion. After successful spreading into the pleura space, a finger is used to confirm entry into the pleural space and the presence of adhesions. Adhesions are not bluntly broken with the finger, as pleural adhesions are often vascular and blunt dissection can lead to small vessel disruption and subsequently hemothorax. 13 , 14 The Seldinger technique uses guidewires and tract dilators to assist the tube into the pleural cavity, all under ultrasonography guidance. 19 , 21 Lastly, the trocar method may be used; however, it is associated with more complications owing to the rigid tip of the trocar causing intrathoracic injuries and has subsequently fallen out of favor for chest tube insertion. 19 , 20 , 22 Regardless of the insertion technique, the chest tube needs to be advanced on the superior edge of the rib to avoid the neurovascular bundle bordering the rib above. 13 , 14 It should also be positioned posteriorly and advanced until the tip is in a posteroapical location. The tube should also be fully inserted to ensure that the most proximal (sentinel) hole is within the pleural space to allow the chest tube to function properly. 14 Lastly, it is important to secure the chest tube with a suture to prevent it from falling out. Most tubes can be removed without suture skin closure, but in children and adults with very low body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared), placement of an untied adjunctive chest tube suture at the time of insertion allows for closure of skin defects at the time of tube removal, especially large-bore tubes, to prevent entraining atmospheric air with tube removal.

Once a chest tube is placed, it is connected to a drainage device, which, like the chest tube itself, has evolved over the years. The first rendition was a 1-compartment system reported by Playfair 23 in 1875, which used a 1-way valve to allow air to egress from the pleural cavity during expiration without returning on inspiration. In 1926, Lilienthal 24 developed a 2-compartment system, which allowed the accumulation of fluid in the first collection bottle without compromising the efficiency of the system and its ability to drain, as would have been observed in the first model. Then, the 3-compartment system emerged in 1952 with Howe, which allowed collection, water sealing, and suction and manometer capabilities that are combined into a single pleural drainage unit (PDU). 19 , 25 This forms the foundation of the modern PDU devices today, some of which are digitally operated.

Once placed, chest tubes may be attached to a PDU and set to active suction or to water seal, which is simple dependent drainage. The phrase “place a chest tube on water seal” is a misnomer, as modern PDUs have a constitutive water seal chamber that serves as a 1-way valve, preventing air from returning into the pleural space; placing a chest tube on water seal simply means taking the tube off active suction. The randomized clinical trial by Cerfolio et al 26 found that water sealing the chest tube on postoperative day 2 after thoracic surgery resulted in a significant resolution of small air leak the following day, with the authors noting that large air leaks do not benefit from water sealing. Another randomized clinical trial 27 demonstrated similar results of a shorter duration of air leak with early water sealing for postthoracic surgery chest tubes, which subsequently decreased the duration the chest tube was needed. Both of these studies, albeit randomized clinical trials, are limited by their small sample sizes. Brunelli et al 28 performed a randomized clinical trial with a larger sample size, did not find an advantage with water seal over suction for postthoracic surgery patients and the authors favor a hybrid approach of moderate suction overnight and water sealing during the day to allow for mobilization of the patient. The systematic review and meta-analysis by Coughlin et al 29 determined that there was no advantage of suction over water seal after thoracic surgery, with the exception of suction being superior to water seal in preventing a radiographic identification of pneumothoraces.

For patients with a traumatic chest injury, the systemic review and meta-analysis by Feenstra et al 9 demonstrated evidence that favors low-pressure suction over water seal. This meta-analysis is limited in the number of studies, and therefore patient sample size, included. In addition, there are few patients with chest tubes in the setting of mechanical ventilation included in this study, which is an important subset of trauma patients. Patients who have an occult pneumothorax and are receiving positive pressure mechanical ventilation are at risk of developing a tension pneumothorax, therefore it may be necessary for a chest tube to be placed on suction in this subset of patients. 30 Overall, the management of a chest tube depends on the indication for insertion with evidence favoring suction over water seal for both postthoracic surgery patients and traumatic chest injury patients, until resolution of air leak.

There are many factors that come into play when determining the correct time to remove a chest tube. The quality of the fluid should be free of chyle, or blood suggestive of active bleeding, and be nonpurulent. 31 , 32 However, the quantity of fluid that is acceptable before the removal of a chest tube is without consensus, with varying recommended volume thresholds ranging from 200 mL per day to 500 mL per day. 31 - 33 Cerfolio et al 32 performed a retrospective cohort analysis that demonstrated that chest tube removal up to 450 mL per day was acceptable in patients who underwent elective pulmonary resection. They reported that 364 of 1988 patients (18%) were able to go home sooner owing to surgeons changing to the higher threshold (450 mL per day) and only 11 patients (0.55%) were readmitted as a result of a recurrent symptomatic effusion. Grodzki et al 34 tested this conclusion a year later and removed chest tubes at the higher threshold of 450 mL per day and found that 6 of 40 patients (15%) were readmitted with pleural effusions, thus leading the authors to revert to their original practice of following a threshold of 200 mL per day for chest tube removal. The limitation in the former study is the lack of reliable follow-up, which could account for the low readmission rate, and the limitation in the latter study is the small sample size. Larger randomized clinical trials would be helpful in clarifying this gap in our understanding.

Whether to remove the chest tube at the end of expiration or inspiration is another question that has been widely debated. Novoa et al 31 recommended removing the chest tube at the end of expiration during a Valsalva maneuver, which corresponds to the time when the difference between the atmospheric pressure and pleural pressure is at its lowest. 31 Other studies, such as French et al, 35 emphasized the importance of a Valsalva maneuver during chest tube removal regardless of the respiratory phase in which it is removed. The chest tube should be removed swiftly and the defect in the chest wall should be closed with either a suture that was placed at the time of chest tube placement or with a properly occlusive dressing.

The retrospective review by Platnick et al 36 found that certain risk factors, such as chest tube placement in the emergency department, placement by emergency medicine clinicians, and placement in patients with a body mass index greater than 30 were all associated with chest tube complications. However, the exact complication rate associated with chest tubes is variable and has been quoted as high as 40%. 36 - 38 The variability in the reported complication rate can be attributed to a lack of a universally accepted way to categorize the many different complications. Aho et al 20 proposed a way to standardize the reporting of complications surrounding chest tubes to allow for easier recording and collection of data. The 5 complication categories proposed were insertional, positional, removal, infectious, and malfunction. Insertional complications include injury to intrathoracic or extrathoracic organs within 24 hours of insertion, which is a complication most common with chest tubes being inserted via the trocar technique. 19 , 20 Positional complications are defined as occurring 24 hours after insertion, including erosions into adjacent organs or any tube kinking, obstruction, or being entrapped in the fissure after lung expansion. 19 , 20 Removal complications encompass failure to seal the chest defect after the chest tube is removed, resulting in entraining atmospheric air, or the retention of any foreign objects after removal. 20 Infectious complications involve any infection, either external from improper sterilizing techniques or internal with the development of an empyema. 20 Malfunction complications include problems that may arise from the health care clinician managing the chest tube or equipment issues. 20 Defining complications in these distinct categories allows clinicians to create a foundation to compare data collected in future studies and protocols to reduce the risk of complication associated with chest tubes.

Chest tube management during the COVID-19 pandemic, or any future coronavirus or H1N1 pandemic, is challenging owing to the risk of aerosolizing dangerous virions. Proper personal protective equipment, minimizing water seal, and using filters to decrease the number of aerosolized particles escaping into the air are modifications that have been implemented in many intensive care units around the world. 37 , 39 A small observational cohort study 40 found that connecting 2 closed underwater drainage systems in series with an air filter attached to the second system was associated with a decrease in the dissemination of coronavirus particles, as evidenced by a lack of COVID-19 infection reported in their health care workers during the study. However, this study was limited with its small power.

More recent studies are leaning toward conservative management in some specific pleural disease processes. The randomized clinical trial by Hallifax et al 41 demonstrated that the use of ambulatory devices for the treatment of primary spontaneous pneumothorax compared with usual care, which included aspiration or chest tube insertion, was associated with a significantly shorter hospital length of stay. These findings suggest that this subset of patients can be treated in an outpatient setting and that ambulatory devices should be considered as an effective treatment strategy for this disease process. However, there was an increase in the number of adverse events associated with the treatment with ambulatory devices, including enlarging pneumothorax and problems associated with the device, such as kinking or dislodgement, which will require more research if this approach is going to replace the current standard of care.

In a study by Brown et al, 42 conservative treatments, such as observation of moderate- to large-sized primary spontaneous pneumothorax, were found to be noninferior to the placement of a small-bore chest tube regarding resolution of the pneumothorax within 8 weeks. The study reports that 118 of 125 patients (94%) of patients undergoing conservative management did not require an invasive procedure, thus challenging the paradigm that all patients with a hemodynamic and respiratory stable primary pneumothorax should routinely undergo decompression with a chest tube as the first treatment option.

The routine placement of a chest tube after thoracic surgery is another area with emerging research. The randomized clinical trial by Zhang et al 43 showed that the placement of a novel air-extraction double-lumen catheter was noninferior to the placement of a traditional chest tube in the incidence of a pneumothorax on postoperative day 1. The use of this air-extraction catheter was also associated with a significantly lower patient-reported pain score, which supports the argument that more conservative techniques can be used to optimize patient comfort without compromising clinical outcomes.

With the advancement of technology and the push toward less invasive approaches, the treatment of pleural conditions that were once managed solely by chest tubes continues to evolve. However, chest tubes are likely to continue to be a vital part of a clinician’s repertoire as they are still considered the standard of care for certain pleural disease processes and life-saving devices in others. It is imperative that trainees have a solid foundation on the management of chest tubes, as their use is a dynamic process that will continue to change as time progresses. This review highlights the studies that have shaped the way chest tubes are managed today and allows the reader to develop and cultivate their understanding.

Accepted for Publication: October 22, 2021.

Published Online: January 26, 2022. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2021.7050

Corresponding Author: David T. Cooke, MD, University of California, Davis Health, 2335 Stockton Blvd, North Addition Office Building, Ste 6121, Sacramento, CA 95817-2214 ( [email protected] ).

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Brown reported grants from National Institutes of Health during the conduct of the study. No other disclosures were reported.

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Molecular GBM versus Histopathological GBM: Radiology-Pathology-Genetic Correlation and the New WHO 2021 Definition of Glioblastoma

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Given the recent advances in molecular pathogenesis of tumors, with better correlation with tumor behavior and prognosis, major changes were made to the new 2021 World Health Organization (WHO) classification of CNS tumors, including updated criteria for diagnosis of glioblastoma (GBM). Diagnosis of GBM now requires absence of isocitrate dehydrogenase and histone 3 mutations (IDH-wild-type and H3-wild-type) as the basic cornerstone, with elimination of the IDH-mutant category. The requirements for diagnosis were conventionally histopathological, based on the presence of pathognomonic features such as microvascular proliferation and necrosis. However, even if these histologic features are absent, many lower-grade (WHO grade 2/3) diffuse astrocytic gliomas behave clinically similar to GBM (grade 4). The 2021 WHO classification introduced new molecular criteria that can be used to upgrade the diagnosis of such histologically lower-grade, IDH-wild-type, astrocytomas to GBM. The 3 molecular criteria include: concurrent gain of whole chromosome 7 and loss of whole chromosome 10 (+7/–10); telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter mutation; and epidermal growth factor receptor amplification. Given these changes, it is now strongly recommended to have molecular analysis of WHO grade 2/3 diffuse astrocytic, IDH-wild-type, gliomas in adult patients, as identification of any of the above mutations allows for upgrading the tumor to WHO grade 4 (“molecular GBM”) with important prognostic implications. Despite an early stage, there is active ongoing research on the unique MR imaging features of molecular GBM. This paper highlights the differences between “molecular” and “histopathological” GBM, with the aim of providing a basic understanding about these changes.

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