essay on home composting

How to Compost at Home

Types of Composting, Basic Steps, and Easy Tips

• Columbia University
• Syracuse University

Treehugger / Sanja Kostic

• Composting Shouldn't Be Difficult or Smelly

Outdoor Composting

Hot composting, cold composting, indoor options, worm composting.

• Frequently Asked Questions

Composting is a simple, reliable, and affordable way to use the organic material that comes out of our homes, from veggie scraps to lawn cuttings, shredded paper, and more. This material gets broken down quickly by bacteria and microorganisms and becomes a soil enricher — it's valuable stuff that's easy to make.

If you don't have compost pickup in your community, or if you would rather keep your household's compost for your own needs, read on to understand the basics and the various options you have for at-home composting.

Composting Shouldn't Be Difficult or Smelly

There are some myths and misconceptions about composting: that it's smelly or messy, that it's only for people with big backyards, that it's time-consuming, or that you need expensive, special equipment. These things just aren't true: most everyone can compost in a wide variety of home types and situations — including apartments — and it can be done for minimal cost.

What to Compost

• Fruits and veggies, cooked or raw
• Coffee grounds and looseleaf tea
• Cooked grains without meat, like pasta, rice, quinoa, or oats
• Beans, lentils, hummus, bean dips
• Nuts and seeds
• 100% cotton or 100% wool material (any amount of polyester or nylon won't compost and will be left over)
• Hair and fur
• Fireplace ashes
• Shredded paper, cardboard, and newspaper
• Leaf clippings and dead houseplants
• Yard waste of all kinds including branches, bark, leaves, flowers, grass clippings, and sawdust

Composting has benefits beyond the environmental payoffs. Once you start composting you'll be much more conscious of food waste, and it will also connect you to the food you eat and drive home how everything we eat is part of a natural cycle. In this way, it raises awareness and can be a valuable education tool, especially for kids, as they learn about how the world works.

Types of Composting

There are a few different ways you can compost. Which one will suit your home depends on your indoor vs. outdoor space, how much compost you produce, and how fast you want that "black gold" (a gardener's name for the humus, or rich soil that's produced by composting).

If you have the space, composting in a shady part of your backyard or garden is very easy. As long as you don't compost things that shouldn't be (see list below) and provide even the most basic proper conditions for your compost, you won't have to worry about insects or rodents, and it won't smell bad.

You can compost using a bin designed for that purpose (with room for oxygen to enter and water to exit) but it's not required. You can also just make a pile in your compost spot. A tarp over it will keep it moist without having to add water as often and can camouflage the pile.

Once you've selected a good spot for your compost, your next decision is whether to go with hot or cold composting. Heat speeds up the breakdown of organic matter, but a cool compost will work, too, it will just take longer.

Regardless of your preferred method and location, you will need three main ingredients for your compost. These ingredients, along with some moisture, will feed the microorganisms that break down your compost:

• Green stuff (like coffee grounds and veggie peels, etc.)
• Brown stuff (dry leaves or shredded newspaper)

Did You Know?

Food scraps and yard waste comprise more than 30% of what we currently toss. This material takes up space in landfills and creates methane, a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change. By composting, you are not only cutting down on waste and reducing methane, you are also creating rich material that can benefit your garden, lawn, or houseplants.

To begin your compost pile, you'll want some soil and plenty of brown material. Follow these steps to create your first layer:

• Start with some bare ground.
• Layer some leaves and sticks on top to a depth of at least 6 inches .
• Spread your green waste around (concentrate it in the middle) to a depth of 4 inches to 6 inches.
• Add another 6 inches of brown materials on top of that.

You can continue layering with a ratio of about 2/3 brown to 1/3 green (you can just eye it out, it doesn't have to be perfect) in your overall mix.

Some of the misconceptions about composting in general apply to the type of compost that generates heat. That's because it can be a bit tricky to balance nitrogen, carbon, air, and water. You want a ratio of about half-and-half brown (provides carbon) to green (provides nitrogen). You'll also want to keep the compost damp but not wet — a consistency similar to a damp sponge.

You'll need to aerate your compost to ensure enough oxygen is getting into the layers, so it will be necessary to turn those layers often — about once a week is a good guide, but frequency may vary depending on the air temperature and local conditions. You turn it by simply scooping the compost with a shovel or rake and mixing in the newer compost with the older material below until it's well-combined. If the compost looks wet and has an odor, it's not getting enough oxygen and you should turn it and add some brown material. If it looks dry, add green stuff and maybe a little water. This is a bit of a trial and error process and is highly dependent on your local conditions.

If you are doing the extra work that a hot compost takes, one way to monitor if you are getting to the hot compost stage is to use a thermometer to keep track (a cooking thermometer on a cord works best, though there are companies that specifically sell compost thermometers). The optimum temperature is between 135 F and 160 F. Over 160 degrees means that your beneficial organisms will die, so you want to keep it below that level. Or you can just stick your hand inside — hot composting is happening when the interior of the compost is obviously warmer than the outside. You'll get usable compost in one to three months, depending on local weather conditions.

You'll know your compost is ready to use when all the materials in it are broken down, and you are left with a nice, dark brown material that looks like soil, but is denser or thicker feeling. It should be dry, brown, and crumbly. You can apply several inches directly on top of your garden soil or sprinkle it over your lawn. You can also work it into your potting soil for houseplants.

Cold composting is the "lazy" version of hot composting. You can just throw your scraps into the pile, toss some garden clippings in it, and walk away. You don't have to worry about watering it, or keeping a precise balance between brown and green stuff (although if you are composting green stuff, you will need some brown stuff to cover it after you toss your scraps in, as exposed food will attract flies).

You don't really have to do anything at all — though you can turn and aerate your compost every week or so to ensure it's well-mixed. After you have filled your compost container and aerated it, just let it sit. Your black gold should be ready in about six months (longer if it's winter). You'll know it's ready when it looks like dark brown soil — very different to the food scraps and leaves you started with.

The most common way to compost indoors or in an apartment is vermicomposting (see details below), but there are other options.

The first composting approach is to simply save your compostable material in a bucket (many people keep it in the freezer to avoid smells), and bring it to a local farmers market or community garden that accepts it. This usually requires you going to the location to drop your compost off, but if you go to the market to buy produce anyway, it's a pretty easy habit to get into.

Materials That Can't Be Composted

• Pet waste (due to possible bacterial contamination)
• Dairy products
• Oils and fats
• Diseased plants or plants treated with pesticides or herbicides
• Meat or fish (or bones)
• Black walnut leaves, twigs, or walnut fruits
• Coal or charcoal

Another option for small spaces or apartments is a bokashi system . Bokashi is Japanese for "fermented organic matter." As the name suggests, this is a fermentation process, not a traditional type of compost, but the results are similar. You can put all the conventional compost materials into your bucket as well as fat, bones, meat, and dairy products.

Buckets specifically designed for bokashi raise the food scraps above the liquid, which ends up at the bottom of the composter and is emptied through a spigot. This liquid is called "bokashi tea," and is basically liquid fertilizer and great for some houseplants. You can purchase a bokashi bucket or you can make your own. Then, you will need to add an inoculant to push the fermentation process along. It's smart to buy your inoculant (bokashi bran) until you are familiar with the process.

One of the main advantages of the bokashi system is that it works quickly — in about 10 days. The main disadvantage is that the resulting material is a fermented matter, not compost, and must then be added to a traditional compost pile to fully finish degrading or be buried to slowly incorporate into the soil.

Finally, there are a couple of countertop composters and recyclers that promise humus-rich soil amendment in a matter of hours. One example is the FoodCycler , a somewhat pricy 1-cubic-foot-sized machine made by Vitamix that needs to be plugged in, but promises to use minimal energy. You can add all kinds of food to the box-sized container, including meat and bones. The system breaks food down to a tenth of its original volume and creates a fertilizer you can use for plants or a garden. It also has a carbon filtration system to eliminate odors.

Treehugger / Christian Yonkers

Also called vermicomposting, this compost system relies on worms — they eat your food scraps and release nitrogen-rich castings that make great fertilizer. You will need a special set up for this type of composting, but kits abound online. You can also make one pretty easily with a couple plastic containers, some screening and newspaper, and some starter soil.

The type of worm you use is important. You can use earthworms, but you'll most likely have to order redworms — aka red wigglers — to do this work. The good news is that they're pretty inexpensive and available both online and at local garden stores. They need to be kept in proper conditions — the same as we like, 55 to 85 degrees and a little moist. These worms will produce both compost and more worms (about every two months they'll double in number), so you will only have to buy them once.

Vermicomposting is a great alternative for people living in apartments, since you can keep a relatively small system going under your sink or in a cupboard — worms like darkness anyway. When ready, vermicompost should be added to soil or potting soil at about 10% vermicompost to 90% soil.

Basic tools needed for composting include: bin or container to hold the compost, rake or shovel, tarp, and watering can. A thermometer will be needed for hot composting, and redworms are required for vermicomposting.

Local temperature, moisture, and method will all affect the length of time needed to decompose materials. Based on average conditions, hot composting will take one to three months, cold composting will take approximately six months, and vermicomposting will take between three and six months. For countertop composters, the process duration will depend on the individual product.

Composting should not smell bad; foul odors are typically indicative of an imbalance within the pile. A common cause of smelly compost is excess moisture, so your pile may need more brown material and better aeration.

Tong, Bingxin, et al. " Transformation of Nitrogen and Carbon During Composting of Manure Litter with Different Methods ." Biosource Technology , vol. 293, 2019, pp. 122046, doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122046

" Compost Fundamentals: Compost Needs ." Washington State University .

" Vermicomposting for Beginners ." Rodale Institute .

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• The 4 Best Compost Machines, Tested and Reviewed
• Which Type of Composting Is Right for You?
• What Is Compost?
• Vermicomposting: Step-by-Step Guide
• Why Does My Compost Have Mold?
• How to Make Compost Tea? Easy Step-by-Step Instructions
• 14 Benefits of Composting
• What Is Manure? Why Is It Such an Environmentally Valuable Material?
• Vermicompost Right in Your Garden - Make a Worm Bucket
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Composting can help fight climate change. Get started in 5 easy steps

Julia Simon

Life Kit shares tips on how to turn your food scraps into rich soil through composting. Julia Simon for NPR hide caption

Life Kit shares tips on how to turn your food scraps into rich soil through composting.

About 8% of greenhouse gas emissions come from wasted food , and roughly half of all food waste occurs during "the consumption stage," meaning waste from food service and households.

But as much as you're meal planning and reducing your food waste , there are certain things you're just not going to eat — like banana peels, or, if you're me, a frightening amount of pineapple tops.

Keeping food out of landfills can help fight climate change . And, luckily, there's an easy solution for your home food waste: Composting!

It doesn't matter if you're in a suburban home or a tiny apartment. This guide will help you turn your food waste into beautiful earthy compost in five simple steps.

1. Select your food scraps

Start with fruits and veggies — the skin of a sweet potato, the top of your strawberry. Also tea bags, coffee grounds, eggshells, old flowers — even human hair!

Meat and dairy products, though, are asking for trouble. Leonard Diggs is the director of operations at the Pie Ranch Farm in Pescadero, California. He says you gotta ask yourself, "Do you attract rodents? Do you attract animals to your pile? Meat products are likely to do that."

Other things that may attract pests? Cooked food, oily things, buttery things and bones.

Also important to note that some products say "compostable" on them — like "compostable bags" and "compostable wipes." Those are compostable in industrial facilities, but they don't really work for home composting.

2. Store those food scraps

How To Reduce Food Waste

When you're composting, your kitchen scraps should be part of a deliberate layering process to speed up decomposition. There's a method for adding them to the pile ( see step 4! ), so you'll need to store them in a container so you can add them bit by bit.

"It doesn't have to be, you know, all the things that you find online that are really cute little ceramic containers," says Diggs. He says it "can just be an old milk carton. When you make the first chop of the butt of that asparagus, boom, it could go right in there."

Also, you can store the food scraps in a bag in your freezer or the back of the fridge. That's an easy way to avoid odors and insects in your kitchen.

3. Choose a place to make your compost

Worms make great pets, and other reasons to compost at home.

For this step, you gotta think about the space you're currently living in. (I'm sure none of us have thought about this recently ... Kidding!)

If you don't have a backyard and still want a traditional composting experience you can take your food scraps to a compost pile that you share with neighbors or at a community garden.

(Of course, in the age of the coronavirus, make sure your community garden is open, and practice social distancing.)

If you want to break down your food scraps in your own apartment, there are still options. Jeffrey Neal , the head of the Loop Closing composting business in Washington, D.C., is a big fan of worms . He says you don't need a big container for " vermicomposting " — a 5 gallon box will do. Or you can go bigger.

"There are times when I made [my worm box] an ottoman so I could relax with my feet up on them! You can use it like a piece of furniture."

Another small space idea, Neal says, is fermenting your food scraps with a Japanese method called Bokashi . "All you need is a container you can seal and Bokashi mix, a colony of bacteria on grain." (Here's some more info on how to use worms and Bokashi.)

Of course, it's totally fine if you want to give your food scraps to someone else to make compost. Some municipalities will pick up your food scraps from your home. You can also ask your local grocery stores, restaurants or farmers markets to see if they have programs to take food scraps.

If you do have some outdoor space, your compost bin doesn't have to be complicated. "I think keeping it simple," Diggs says. An old trash bin, an old wooden chest — just work with what you have available.

You can also buy a bin online or Digg says, "You could just create the pile naked!" Basically you can just have a heap of compost — but don't put it up against a wall as it could stain it.

4. Make the compost mix

This Is A Good Time To Start A Garden. Here's How

In the world of composting you're inevitably gonna hear about "the greens and browns" — the two main ingredients for your mix.

"Greens" are typically food scraps, like fruit and vegetable peelings, coffee grounds, or, if you have a yard, grass clippings. These add nitrogen — a crucial element for microbial growth. Microorganisms are the true heroes of this process, they do the heavy lifting of decomposition.

"Browns" are more carbon rich — think egg cartons, newspapers, dried leaves, and pine needles. It helps to shred up the paper products before putting them in your pile.

A good thing to remember is that green materials are typically wet, and brown materials are typically dry. When you're layering, you want the dry browns on the bottom with the wet greens on the top.

Diggs says the browns are key because they allow water to flow, and air to flow, something called aeration. That will make sure microorganisms can do their job. "If one hundred percent of it is water, then nothing is going on. The microorganisms can't work. You got this soggy, smelly pile," Diggs says, "So drainage makes a difference."

A helpful analogy is to think of tending to your compost like tending a fire. Just as in a fire you need to structure the wood to get the air going, in compost you have to do a similar thing, adding spaces to give oxygen to those heroic microbes.

And it really is layering — browns then greens, browns then greens. The number of layers depends on your space and your amount of food scraps, but try to keep the layers to an inch or two. You can also put a little bit of browns on the very top to keep away flies and odors.

As for the ratio of "browns" to "greens," you often hear three or four parts of browns to one part greens. Sometimes two to one. Ultimately you always want more browns than greens — again, gotta have the dry to sop up the wet.

5. Wait and Aerate

How To Talk To Kids About Climate Change

How long do you have to wait for decomposition? "If it's hot, you could get there in two months pretty easy, " Diggs says, "If it's cold made, you could be there in six months. And for every component to break down, it might be a year."

To keep things moving, you'll want to turn or rotate the pile, perhaps with a stick or spade. Remember the fire analogy — you gotta make sure the air is flowing, that it's wet but not too soggy.

As for how much you turn it, you'll probably turn it less if you have the right ratio of greens to browns. Diggs says when you start out you might be turning the compost once every seven to 10 days.

Typically the more compost you have, the faster it will go.

Neal says in the end "the nose knows" when your compost is ready. "Bad compost smells, well, bad," he says, "It's like what a smelly trash can or dumpster smells like ... Basically, it smells like a landfill."

If it smells bad, it probably means it's not decomposing — maybe your pile might be too wet or you might need to readjust your ratios of greens and browns.

Diggs says he loves smelling finished compost,"You know, it just smells so ... Oh, gosh. Woody, earthy, but also a sweet smell. Or sometimes a sour smell. And the feel! How fluffy it is!"

When you've got that fluffy, earthy compost, put it in your garden, or in a plant on your windowsill. Or you can donate to your local community garden — just be sure to text ahead!

Of course composting takes patience — you might run into unexpected things. We don't want you to give up so here are some more resources below.

The Texas A&M AgriLife Extension has an excellent " compost trouble-shooting guide ." For example, it has suggestions of what to do if the pile has insects or is too wet.

• Jeffrey Neal from Loop Closing has compiled resources for those looking to try worm composting or Bokashi .
• Oregon State has a comprehensive guide for composting and "vermicomposting" — using a worm composter to break down organic materials. 
• Cornell University's Waste Management Institute has a more detailed guide to composting and "greens" and "browns," plus a lot more resources on their website.

We'd love to hear from you. If you have a good life hack, leave us a voicemail at 202-216-9823 or email us at [email protected]. Your tip could appear in an upcoming episode.

Want more Life Kit? Subscribe to our newsletter .

The audio portion of this story was produced by Audrey Nguyen.

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Trash to Treasure: The Incredible Benefits of Composting

Pahriya Ashrap and Amber Cathey

Phd students in environmental health sciences.

September 19, 2019

[Student Org Pursuit Takeover]

Students Creating the Conversation Check out other articles by student org leaders on The Pursuit.

As a field at the forefront of environmental health, public health can take the lead in teaching and encouraging sustainable practices around our daily behaviors, including what we do with our waste products.

Especially for those overwhelmed by the idea of global climate change often seems futile, it is important to remember that small lifestyle changes can have large impacts. One place to start is with composting.

What is composting?

Composting is a natural process by which any organic material, such as food waste or lawn trimmings, is broken down by naturally occurring bacteria and fungus in the soil to form compost. 1 The resulting materials—compost—is a nutrient-rich soil amendment that looks a lot like soil itself.

Composting can be successful in almost any setting, from indoor bins in condos or apartments, to outdoor piles in backyards, to office spaces where compostable material is collected and taken to an external composting facility.

How do I know what to compost?

The simplest answer is fruit and vegetable scraps, whether fresh, cooked, frozen, or completely moldy. Keep these treasures out of garbage disposals and landfills and compost them. Other good things to compost include tea (with the bag unless the bag is plastic), coffee grounds (including paper filters), plant prunings, leaves, and grass cuttings. Make sure to break yard waste into small pieces before throwing into a composting heap and avoid diseased leaves and plants as they may infect your compost.

A common misconception is that biodegradable and compostable mean the same thing.

Natural paper products are compostable, but glossy papers should be avoided as they can overwhelm your soil with chemicals that take longer to break down. Animal products like meat and dairy are compostable but often create foul odors and attract pests like rodents and insects. It is also best to leave these items out of your compost:

• animal waste—especially dog and cat feces (attracts unwanted pests and smells and may contain parasites)
• yard trimmings treated with chemical pesticides (may kill beneficial composting organisms)
• coal ashes (contain sulfur and iron in amounts high enough to damage plants)
• glass, plastics, and metals (recycle these!).

How do I compost?

Place items you want to compost together in a bin or pile with plenty of air flow. Keep your compost moist and, if it smells, add more leaves, brown paper, or grass clippings (the “browns”) to balance out the “greens”—the fruit and veggie scraps that are causing the stink as they break down. Keep adding browns and greens and, when the volume becomes difficult to manage, begin a new pile and let the old pile finish off (break down so that it is completely black and does not have large pieces of recognizable food waste) before adding it to soil.

Can things labeled biodegradable go into my compost?

A common misconception is that biodegradable and compostable mean the same thing. This is incorrect ! Biodegradable means that a product will naturally break down over time, meaning any period of time. A certified compostable product contains a required amount of material that will break down within 180 days into pieces 2mm or less in size, and this process of breaking down cannot release harmful substances, such as heavy metals, into the soil. 2

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), food scraps and yard waste make up about 30% of materials sent to landfills. 3 Biodegradable products are less sustainable when they go in the trash. At a landfill, biodegradable materials decompose anaerobically—with little or no oxygen present—and release methane gas into the atmosphere. Methane is one of the more potent greenhouse gasses, so its presence in the atmosphere accelerates the process of global warming. 4 Many landfills are designed to capture and use the methane for energy before it releases into the atmosphere, but it is much more efficient to keep biodegradable materials in compost piles or send them to composting facilities.

A little waste goes a long way.

Composting provides a host of benefits:

• Composting significantly cuts down on the amount of trash in a landfill and reduces the costs and carbon emissions it takes to haul and process those materials. Meanwhile, the valuable nutrients in your compostable materials make composting a favorable alternative to shipping your organic waste to a landfill.
• Composting enriches the soil with nutrients, which reduces the need for fertilizers and pesticides. Fertilizers and pesticides require fossil fuels for their production and shipping, and some of them are potentially harmful to our health.
• Compost increases soil’s ability to retain moisture, thus helping to prevent erosion by reducing runoff. And compost prevents and suppresses plant diseases and pests. 3 Moister, healthier soil improves the workability of the soil and reduces fossil fuel emissions that would otherwise be needed to produce and ship soil-maintenance products. Composting can help sequester carbon, meaning that composting can help remove carbon from the atmosphere.

Studies have shown that plants grow more rapidly in soil supplemented with compost, meaning they can pull more carbon dioxide out of the air. According to the EPA, the amount of carbon sequestered in soil and plants after wet compost is applied could significantly reduce greenhouse gasses if applied on a large scale. 5

So start composting today. The best way to learn is to start doing it. Your soil and your planet will be so happy!

 References

• “ Compost FAQs ,” Office of Campus Sustainability, University of Michigan.
• “ What’s the Difference? Biodegradable and Compostable ,” Nature’s Path (June 2018).
• “ Benefits of Composting ,” Composting at Home , EPA.
• “ The Myths of Biodegradation ,” Biodegradable Products Institute; Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , Solomon et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2007).
• Lou, X.F., J. Nair, “ The Impact of Landfilling and Composting on Greenhouse Gas Emissions: A Review ,” Bioresource Technology 100/16 (August 2009): 3792–98.
• Read more articles by Michigan Public Health students .
• Learn more about student advocacy work at Michigan Public Health .
• Support students at Michigan Public Health .

About the Authors

The Public Health Sustainability Initiative ( PHSI ) is a student-run organization committed to promoting sustainable practices at the School of Public Health. Our ongoing efforts include supplying small-scale zero-waste events with compostable materials, running a cap and gown reuse rental program, and hosting an annual Earth Day event where people can learn about composting and recycling and can bring unwanted clothing for a stuff-swap. Projects on the horizon include acquiring solar-powered work stations for the school, placing more compost bins throughout both buildings, and creating recycling stations for items such as batteries, electronics, and pens that are easily accessible to the community.

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Why Should We Compost? (Hint: It Will Help Solve Our Trash Crisis)

The future of organic waste is in the garden.

March 16, 2021  |  Olivia Synoracki

Food scraps and yard clippings are anything but trash. Photo Credit: Shutterstock

While considered organic waste , food scraps and yard clippings are anything but trash. When properly recycled, they become rich, nutritious compost that can fertilize and replenish soil.

For decades, the idea of recycling organic waste (otherwise known as composting) was radical – unless you lived on a farm. But recent years have seen a shift in our understanding of these materials and why it’s so important to keep them out of landfills. Now, we have composting programs all across the country. Some consist of donation-style bins where you can drop off your organics, while others offer a curbside pick-up subscription.

As food and yard waste are big contributors to our waste stream, the uptick in composting is a huge step forward in combatting our trash crisis. But you and I can’t do the hard work on our own. We need cities, towns, and even states to invest in infrastructure that will make it easy and affordable for everyone to compost.

Why Composting?

For far too long, we have mishandled food waste – throwing it out to be buried or burned with our household trash. In fact, food scraps and yard waste, combined, make up more than 30% of our nation’s waste stream . If that weren’t bad enough, landfilling these resources has dire consequences for the environment and our climate.

You see, landfills are the third-largest source of climate-damaging  methane emissions in the United States. Here’s why: In a landfill, organic waste gets buried under mounds of toxic trash, so it can’t break down like it would in a compost pile. Instead, it rots and emits methane. In the end, all of that organic waste – which should benefit our environment – now threatens it.

But it doesn’t have to be that way. The mishandling of organic waste is a problem that we can easily solve. By keeping organic waste out of landfills, and instead investing in composting programs, we can give these resources new life.

Residential Composting Is Sprouting Across the Country

The past several years have seen a surge in residential composting services in the U.S. In fact, they grew by 87% between 2014 and 2017 alone. And the demand for these services isn’t slowing down anytime soon.

Today, the U.S. is buzzing with industrial compost businesses – many of which offer residents weekly or bi-weekly curbside collection subscriptions. While these services keep large amounts of food and yard waste out of landfills, their success often relies on people like you and me coming around to the idea of composting on our own.

But cities and towns across the country are changing that. Take San Francisco. In 1996, city leaders established the nation’s first large-scale food composting program, and with overwhelming success. In fact, by 2000 50% of the city’s food waste was being composted . Needless to say, San Fran knew it could up its game – and it did.

By 2009, the city had implemented a mandatory recycling and composting policy, requiring everyone – from residents to businesses to tourists – to separate their trash into recycling, landfill, and compost bins. The policy pushed San Francisco’s goal to keep 75% of food waste from being landfilled over the edge, reaching 78% in 2011.

New England Cities and Towns Embrace Curbside Organic Recycling

Other cities and towns across the country have since followed in San Francisco’s footsteps, like Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington. But large urban areas aren’t the only ones hopping on the composting train. Smaller cities and towns are also doing their part to keep organic materials out of the landfill. A few here in New England include:

• Cambridge, Massachusetts – one of the state’s first cities to implement a government-run service. While the program is flawed , its participation is a success – with 25,000 households (about half the city) involved, as of 2018.
• Brookline, Massachusetts – recently entered a partnership with Black Earth Compost . As of November 2020, more than 1,000 residents were enrolled in the program – up from 500 in July.
• Kennebunk, Maine – offers privately billed curbside subscription services to residents through a partnership with “We Compost It!”
• Chittenden County, Vermont – provides residents with several  licensed haulers that collect food scraps throughout the county, including Burlington, the state’s largest city.

Organic Waste Bans Jumpstart Composting Efforts – But Is It Enough?

While there are no statewide, government-run composting programs anywhere in the country, many states are taking action through organic waste bans – prohibiting food scraps and yard clippings from being thrown out with the trash. These bans primarily target businesses generating large amounts of food waste, as in Connecticut , Massachusetts , and Rhode Island . Vermont is the only state in the region – and nation – to have a statewide Universal Recycling Law targeting both businesses and residents , and that bans food waste, yard clippings, and recyclables from the trash.

While these statewide bans are a step in the right direction, they don’t provide everyone with the means to compost. Curbside services are only available in certain cities and towns (and don’t typically include multi-unit buildings), drop-off programs aren’t always cheap or easily accessible, and not everyone has the means to compost at home.

So, what’s the solution? Well, Hamilton, Massachusetts, has a model for what could be the future of residential composting: pairing an organic waste ban with a government-run composting service.

The Town provides every household with a green compost bin and requires residents to put the bin out for collection on the same day as trash pick-up. The waste hauler then collects both trash and organic waste – separating the materials in a truck with two compartments. The trash goes to a landfill or incinerator and the organic waste gets taken to Brick Ends Farm .

This innovative pairing of an organics ban with a composting service sets the tone for how to strengthen wide-scale composting infrastructure in New England and even nationwide.

Nowhere to Go but Up

Curbside composting works and can give our organic waste new life. But as independent curbside services continue to rise, we must remember that our organic waste problem is not up to individuals to solve alone. Cities and towns must play a role – by partnering with industrial composters and building infrastructure that makes composting affordable and accessible for all residents.

By now, I’m sure you’re itching to compost. First, check with your city or town to see if they offer local organic collection opportunities. If not, call on your city or town officials to adopt composting infrastructure!

Don’t feel like waiting for your local officials to invest in curbside composting? Check out this list to see how you can compost in your state .

And keep an eye on your inbox. We’ll let you know when you can take action to push for food waste bans and better composting options near you.

Before you go... CLF is working every day to create real, systemic change for New England’s environment. And we can’t solve these big problems without people like you. Will you be a part of this movement by considering a contribution today? If everyone reading our blog gave just $10, we’d have enough money to fund our legal teams for the next year.

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Composting 101

Recycling food and other organic waste into compost provides a range of environmental benefits, including improving soil health, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, recycling nutrients, and mitigating the impact of droughts.

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What is composting?

Benefits of composting, types of home composting, how to compost, what can you compost, what not to compost, more tips for composting at home, community composting.

Composting is the natural process of recycling organic matter, such as leaves and food scraps, into a valuable fertilizer that can enrich soil and plants. Anything that grows decomposes eventually; composting simply speeds up the process by providing an ideal environment for bacteria, fungi, and other decomposing organisms (such as worms, sowbugs, and nematodes) to do their work. The resulting decomposed matter, which often ends up looking like fertile garden soil, is called compost. Fondly referred to by farmers as “black gold,” compost is rich in nutrients and can be used for gardening, horticulture, and agriculture.

Organic discards can be processed in industrial-scale composting facilities, in smaller-scale community composting systems, and in anaerobic digesters, among other options. This guide focuses primarily on home composting, which is a great way to keep your organic discards out of the waste stream and produce a valuable soil amendment for your own use.

Reduces the waste stream

Composting is a great way to recycle the organic waste we generate at home. Food scraps and garden waste combined make up more than 28 percent of what we throw away, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Not only is food waste a significant burden on the environment , but processing it is costly. The average cost to landfill municipal solid waste in the United States was around $55 per ton in 2019. With the United States generating more than 267 million tons of municipal waste in 2017 and sending two-thirds of that to landfills and incinerators, we spent billions of dollars on waste management. Composting at home allows us to divert some of that waste from landfills and turn it into something practical for our yards.

Cuts methane emissions from landfills

Typically when organic matter decomposes, it undergoes aerobic decomposition, meaning that it’s broken down by microorganisms that require oxygen. When compostable waste goes to a landfill, it gets buried under massive amounts of other trash, cutting off a regular supply of oxygen for the decomposers. The waste then ends up undergoing anaerobic decomposition, being broken down by organisms that can live without free-flowing oxygen. During anaerobic decomposition, biogas is created as a by-product. This biogas is roughly 50 percent methane and 50 percent carbon dioxide , both of which are potent greenhouse gases, with methane being 28 to 36 times more effective than CO 2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere over a century. Although most modern landfills have methane capture systems, these do not capture all of the gas; according to the EPA, landfills are the third-largest source of human-generated methane emissions in the United States.

Because our solid waste infrastructure was designed around landfilling, only about 6 percent of food waste gets composted. However, states, cities, and individual businesses and vendors can spearhead zero-waste strategies to increase composting and recycling rates within their jurisdictions and to keep waste from being generated in the first place. There have been many composting success stories around the country, one notable example being San Francisco. In 1996, San Francisco established a large-scale composting program, and by 2000 it was able to divert 50 percent of its waste from landfills. By increasing its goals over the years, San Francisco has been diverting more than 80 percent of waste from landfills since 2012. That means more than 90,000 metric tons of carbon emissions are avoided each year—equivalent to the annual greenhouse gas emissions from 20,000 passenger vehicles .

Improves soil health and lessens erosion

Compost is an essential tool for improving large-scale agricultural systems. Compost contains three primary nutrients needed by garden crops: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. It also includes traces of other essential elements like calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc. Instead of relying on synthetic fertilizers that contain harmful chemicals, composting offers an organic alternative. Research has shown the capability of compost to increase soil’s water retention capacity, productivity, and resiliency.

Conserves water

Agriculture is a major consumer of water in the United States, accounting for approximately 80 percent of the nation’s water use, according to the EPA. Irrigation systems are effective but are expensive and time-consuming for farmers to manage. Additionally, water is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain across the country.

How can compost help? Research has shown the water-retaining capacities of soil increase with the addition of organic matter. In fact, each 1 percent increase in soil organic matter helps soil hold 20,000 gallons more water per acre. By using compost to foster healthy soil, farmers do not have to use as much water and can still have higher yields compared with farming with degraded soil.

Reduces personal food waste

Consumers are responsible for a staggering amount of wasted food. An average American family of four throws out about $150 worth of food per month , a 50 percent increase since the 1970s. NRDC research in three U.S. cities indicated that the category of edible food most wasted by households was fruits and vegetables. According to a 2016 report in The Guardian , U.S. retailers and consumers throw away about 60 million tons (or $160 billion) worth of produce annually. The best way to reduce impacts from food waste is to prevent waste from occurring in the first place, so NRDC works through its Save the Food campaign and other tools to educate consumers on how to shop for, prepare, and store food to minimize waste. However, even if we do everything possible to decrease food waste, there will still be food scraps that cannot be consumed (e.g., a banana peel). Composting is a great way to recycle those discards instead of tossing them in the trash.

Piotr Malczyk/iStock

Composting can be done both indoors and outdoors and can be as complicated or as simple as you would like. The best way for you to compost at home depends on several factors:

• Where you live/availability of space
• How much organic waste you produce
• What kind of organic waste you produce (kitchen and/or yard waste)
• Amount of time you can spend on the composting process

There are two main types of backyard composting: cold (also known as passive composting) and hot (also called active composting). Cold composting breaks down organic matter slowly, but it also takes the least amount of effort and maintenance. Anything organic decomposes eventually; cold composting is just letting Mother Nature do her job with minimal intervention on your part. You do not need to worry about the ratio of compost ingredients, aerate regularly, or monitor moisture levels. Cold composting is the best process if you have little organic waste to compost and not much time to tend to the process, and if you are not in a hurry for finished compost. However, depending on what kind of cold method you use, it can take one to two years before you get usable compost. Additionally, a cold composting process will most likely not reach a high enough temperature during decomposition to kill off pathogens, so depending on what you’ve put in the pile, there may be some lingering harmful pathogenic bacteria, fungi, protozoa, worms, and other parasites as well as weed seeds in your finished product. A cold composting process is primarily anaerobic, meaning that your discards are broken down by microorganisms that thrive in an oxygen-deprived environment. In addition to being slower to break down, cold piles may be smellier or wetter than hot piles.

Hot composting is a faster, but more managed, compost process. This method requires attention to keep carbon and nitrogen in the optimum ratio to decompose organic waste. It also requires the right balance of air and water to attract the organisms that thrive in an oxygen-rich environment. Under ideal conditions, you could have the final compost product in four weeks to 12 months. If managed correctly, the high temperature of the pile will destroy most weeds, plant diseases, pesticides, and herbicides, plus any bug larvae or eggs.

Compost ingredients

Organisms that decompose organic waste need four key elements to thrive: nitrogen, carbon, air, and water. Since all compostable materials contain carbon, with varying amounts of nitrogen, composting successfully is just a matter of using the right combination of materials to achieve the best ratio of carbon to nitrogen and maintaining the right amounts of air and water to yield the best results. The ideal carbon-to-nitrogen ratio for a compost pile is 25 to 30 parts carbon for every 1 part nitrogen. If your pile has too much carbon-rich material, it will be drier and take longer to break down. Too much nitrogen-rich material can end up creating a slimy, wet, and smelly compost pile. Fortunately, these problems are easily remedied by adding carbon-rich or nitrogen-rich material as needed.

“Greens” for Nitrogen   Nitrogen is one of the basic building blocks of life, and it is an essential element for growth and reproduction in both plants and animals. A higher nitrogen-to-carbon ratio is most commonly found in fresh organic material (often referred to as greens). Having plenty of greens in your compost pile makes sure the decomposers can grow and reproduce quickly. Some household greens you can add to your home compost pile are fresh grass clippings, food scraps, and coffee grounds.

“Browns” for Carbon   Another essential compound for all life forms is carbon, higher proportions of which can be found in brown plant material. Carbon acts as a food source for decomposers, helping to keep them alive while they break down waste. Typical browns you can add to a compost pile include dead leaves, branches, twigs, and paper.

To achieve the best carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in your home compost, a rule of thumb is to put in two to four parts brown materials for every one part green materials.

Oxygen and Water   Finally, like any other living organism, decomposers need oxygen and water to survive. To ensure a faster home composting process, you will need to make sure your compost system has the right amount of air and water. As mentioned above, if you are not in a rush for finished compost, you do not have to maintain your waste; the decomposition will still take place, just at a much slower pace. Optimal air flow can be achieved by layering materials, making sure your materials are in small pieces (ideally no thicker than a finger), and turning piles regularly (or adding another type of aeration system). As for water, the ideally moist household compost pile will be about as wet as a wrung-out sponge. If you are including food waste in your pile, it’s likely it will be wet enough, but if not, just add water.

Temperature

Hot composting is achieved when the balance of greens, browns, air, and water creates ideal conditions for aerobic organisms to thrive. The optimal peak temperature for aerobic composting is 130 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit, which occurs when aerobic macro- and microorganisms are breaking down waste and reproducing at a fast rate. This high temperature also kills any lingering bacteria or weed seeds.

Consistent aeration

Aeration encourages an aerobic environment, which helps to speed up the composting process and reduce odors. It is recommended you turn your pile (or rotate your tumbler) around once a week during summer and at minimum once every three to four weeks during winter . You can also add piping or large sticks to help increase natural airflow.

Maintaining moisture

Moisture is essential for composting—your pile should always feel like a wrung-out sponge. Too dry a pile may cause the composting process to slow down. Too wet a pile may create an anaerobic environment, which can cause bad odors and also slow down decomposition. Water your pile (or add more wet materials) if it becomes too dry, and add carbon-heavy browns if it becomes too wet.

A 3-foot cube is the ideal size for a compost bin or pile. You need a large volume of waste to be able to produce a high enough temperature for aerobic organisms to thrive. However, piles larger than 5 cubic feet are not likely to allow enough air to reach the decomposers at the center; they may also be harder to turn. Chop up larger pieces of food or yard scraps before adding to your bin or pile. The smaller the pieces, the quicker the decomposition process will be. A good rule is not to include anything thicker than a finger.

The ideal compost location is a dry and shady spot. If you live in a rainy climate, avoid placing your pile or bin under eaves or places with poor drainage, or else the compost may get too soggy. If you live in a sunny environment, find a shady spot so it doesn’t dry up too quickly and you don’t have to keep adding water.

To start your pile, add alternating thin layers of greens and browns, ending with a layer of browns. (You can keep adding materials over time until you reach the optimal height of 3 feet.) Wet the compost pile if needed as you layer. Then leave the pile alone for four days to allow initial decomposition to begin, after which you can regularly aerate your pile or bin by turning with a pitchfork or garden fork and regularly monitor the moisture level.

Joe / Alamy Stock Photo

Compost bin

Using a bin is the simplest and cheapest method for small-scale, at-home composting.

Closed Bin A closed compost bin is an enclosed structure that keeps your composting materials together and helps to retain heat and moisture. Typically, closed bins have an open bottom and you place the bin directly on a patch of soil. The open bottom allows the nutrients in the developing compost to travel directly into the soil. You can either buy a compost bin or build one yourself, making sure to include a removable top so you can add more compostable materials as you accumulate them. Depending on the material you build your bin out of, you may have to drill or punch holes along the sides to allow airflow (or turn it manually for a hotter process). You should ensure that any holes or openings in the bin are small enough to prevent entry by rodents or any other animals of concern. You can build your bin to fit the amount of organics you expect to produce over time—size can range from 3 by 3 by 3 feet to a larger, three-bin system

You may already have some materials around the house to use for a DIY bin. Possibilities include:

• Wine crates
• Plastic storage bins
• Old wooden dresser drawers
• Garbage can
• Wood pallets

Open Bin Open-topped bins (or open compost systems) typically require less maintenance and are better suited to composting yard waste (food waste may attract animals, and open bins are not animal proof). An open bin can be as simple as a loop of chicken wire that allows you to dump materials in. You can even just pile materials on the ground without an enclosure. With an open bin, you have easier access to the composting material. The primary disadvantage is that materials are loosely confined and may be easily accessed by animals or insects, or they may spill out over the boundaries of the bin or pile.

Open bins can be purchased, or you can make one yourself by driving metal stakes or wooden posts into the soil, ideally in a 3-by-3-foot square, and then wrapping the posts with wire mesh fencing. If you have the materials handy, you can also make an open bin from wooden pallets. You can use this method for either hot or cold composting, depending how much you’d like to monitor the balance of materials, turn the pile for aeration, and ensure the right moisture level.

Tumbler Bin A tumbler is a sealed container that is mounted on an axle or base and can be rotated with a handle. By turning the container, you are aerating and mixing the waste inside, which will help foster aerobic conditions to break down the materials and speed up the composting process. A sealed drum tumbler retains moisture and heat (note that you may need to monitor moisture more carefully to ensure it doesn’t get too wet). An aerated tumbler with built-in air vents, on the other hand, speeds up the composting process. With ideal conditions, tumblers can convert waste to finished compost in as little as three weeks, though a month or two is much more common. Compost tumblers can be purchased online or in most gardening stores.

Trench composting

Another form of home composting involves burying your organic waste directly in the soil. Trench composting can help nearby plants develop water-conserving root systems. Moreover, it is odorless and invisible since all the waste is buried underground. Trench composting can be easier than maintaining a compost pile: All you have to do is dig a hole, fill it with organic waste, and cover it up with soil. Earthworms and other organisms in the soil do the rest of the work. You can trench compost any time of year as long as the soil in your yard remains pliable and manageable. However, this method is best suited to a single application of materials and is generally not practical if you want to compost materials on an ongoing basis, unless you have a lot of space and are willing to dig up your yard regularly.

One of the benefits of trenching is that it allows you to compost small amounts of cooked food waste, including meat, grains, and dairy, because animals and insects are less likely to be attracted to the material if it is buried deep underground. If you do decide to compost animal products, be sure to cover them with 12 to 18 inches of soil.

To start a simple compost pit, use a shovel to dig an elongated hole 12 to 24 inches deep. Fill in the pit with your organic waste, making sure the items are quite moist, and then fill the hole back up with soil. One of the downsides to this method, as with all cold composting methods, is that it takes longer for the waste to decompose. Trenching can produce finished compost in about 12 months, sometimes sooner if the conditions are ideal. Note that you will not be able to harvest the finished compost, so it is best to dig your trench wherever you’d like the nutrients to end up.

If you do not have much organic waste or enough space in your yard for a trench, you can also use the “dig and drop” method, which involves digging out small, 12- to 18-inch holes in the ground and burying the waste in them. You can dig and bury as you accumulate your waste and place small markers on top of the holes as you go so you don’t dig in the same spot twice.

Tips for Trench Composting

• Don’t dig near existing root systems so as not to harm or introduce bacteria to those plants.
• Don’t plant anything directly on top of your trench as the soil will sink during the composting process.
• If you live in an arid area, water the soil on top of the trench to maintain moisture.

Matt Nager for NRDC

Vermicomposting

Vermicomposting, or worm composting, is a great indoor option if your outdoor space is limited (it can be done outdoors as well). You can do it year-round in a basement or garage or even under your sink. Vermicomposting produces natural, odorless castings, which are a nutrient-rich fertilizer, in about three to six months. There is very little maintenance required; the most significant time commitment is harvesting the vermicompost every few months.

You can purchase a cheap worm composter in stores or make one yourself. At its simplest, a vermicompost system can be a wooden or plastic bin with holes in the sides and bottom for ventilation and drainage (similar to a regular enclosed compost bin). A worm composter needs to be raised off the ground to allow excess liquids to flow out. A simple setup for worm composting is to place a taller plastic bin inside a shorter one. Then you have to add worm bedding and some soil. Bedding should be made out of carbon-heavy material to help hold the right amount of air and moisture for the worms. Some common materials for bedding are:

• Shredded paper
• Shredded cardboard

Feed the worms once a week by burying your food waste under their bedding. Ideal food for the worms includes fruit and vegetable scraps, bread and grains, coffee grounds and used tea leaves. Don’t feed them any animal products or fats and oils, or anything too thick (like a watermelon rind or corncob). The moisture level of the bedding should be similar to that of a damp sponge, so make sure you check on that regularly as well.

The best types of worms to use for vermicomposting are red wigglers, a species that is very easy to maintain and actually prefers the compost environment over regular soil. Red wigglers can eat half their body weight in a day. A typical home system needs about a pound of worms. Check out this video to see how much one pound of worms looks like so you can ensure that you buy the right quantity for your bin.

Tips for Vermicomposting

• Avoid using a metal bin as this can cause the inside to be uncomfortably hot or cold for the worms. Worms tend to thrive in temperatures ranging from 55 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit.
• Keeping your worm bin indoors is ideal for many locations; you do not want your worms to freeze in the winter or get too warm in the summer.
• Give the worms a day or two to adjust to their new environment and ease into the feeding to figure out the best amount of waste to give them. If you add too many food scraps, the worms may not be able to consume it all before the food rots and attracts insects.
• Your worms should be fed about once per week. If you are going to be away from home for longer than that, remember to get a worm sitter so your worms don’t die.

Anything that comes from the ground can be composted at home . While animal products can often be composted in municipal composting systems, at-home composting should avoid those items as they can attract animals and insects and leave pathogens in the final product.

From "Waste-Free Kitchen Handbook" by Dana Gunders

Pet waste contains parasites and bacteria that can be harmful to humans and other animals if ingested. These pathogens can find their way into your body if you use compost that contains pet waste as fertilizer on edible crops. Compost must reach and remain at a minimum of 131 degrees Fahrenheit for three consecutive days to kill pathogens found in pet waste, and it is hard to regulate and monitor that if you are composting at home. It may be possible to compost dog waste in a home system, but you must follow USDA guidance carefully to ensure the proper conditions, and you should not include cat or any other pet waste. The USDA has resources that provide step-by-step instructions on how to compost dog waste, along with some recommendations to decrease health risks, including:

• Confining the compost pile to a specific area in your yard
• Not feeding dogs raw meat or fish and not including waste from unknown dogs
• Not applying dog waste compost to crops you intend to ingest
• Keeping children away from the compost pile

Inorganic materials, such as plastic

Colored or glossy paper.

Specialized color or glossy paper may contain toxic materials from the printing inks and additives that may be harmful to humans, animals, and plant life.

Diseased plants

If your pile doesn’t reach a high enough temperature, plant diseases might survive and be spread to other plants when you use the compost.

Dairy and other animal products

While animal products (meat, fish, eggs, bones, dairy, grease, fat) are organic, they can create odor problems and attract flies, rodents, and other pests to your pile or bin. These products can also carry pathogens that may survive the home composting process. You can trench compost small amounts of animal products.

These materials should be kept away from at-home compost collections. However, if you have a large amount of these materials, see if your municipality accepts food waste for composting, or reach out to a nearby composting program that may accept these items. Large-scale composting facilities can often take in these materials and compost them without the risks faced by a home composter.

Preventing or getting rid of fruit flies in your compost bin

It is important to note that while fruit flies are annoying, they are harmless to humans and to compost. However, they reproduce quickly and can infest your yard or kitchen if not addressed. Here are some things you can do:

• Increase the carbon-rich browns in your compost pile to help the organic waste dry out. Fruit flies are primarily attracted to greens and will be less likely to linger if you dig a hole in your compost pile and bury greens under a layer of browns.
• Buy or make a fruit fly trap. (Note: Use these traps indoors only, as other critters can easily get trapped if you use them outside.)
• Boil your food waste before adding it to your pile to make it less enticing to fruit flies.
• Don’t add new materials to your pile for a few days to force the fruit flies to go elsewhere for food.
• Purchase a compost keeper to collect food scraps in your kitchen, and add to your pile when it’s full (or once a week or so). There are compost keepers that come with a charcoal filter to help absorb odors.

Safety precautions

Take standard safety precautions when handling the waste (e.g., washing your hands afterward, avoiding touching your face). If you have a condition that predisposes you to an allergic reaction or infection, wear a dust mask while tending to your pile, especially in dry weather.

How to use compost

Compost needs to entirely stabilize and mature before it can be used. Not only can immature compost damage your plants, but it can also attract rodents and other pests to your yard. You will need to stop adding material in order for your pile to mature (although in no-turn systems, the bottom of the pile may provide finished compost even if the top of the pile is still active). You can identify finished compost by looking for these characteristics:

• Texture: Crumbly and smooth, without recognizable scraps.
• Smell: Like a forest on a rainy day, or rich earth. Traces of ammonia or sour odors means the compost needs more time to mature.
• Color: Dark and rich
• Size: One-third the original size of your pile
• Temperature: Within 10 degrees Fahrenheit of the temperature outside (especially in the middle of the pile)

Once you have confirmed that your compost is mature, here are some ways you can put it to use:

• Use it as mulch
• Add it to potting soil
• Work it into crop beds
• Distribute it on lawns
• Mix it into garden beds
• Feed it to potted plants
• Add it to soil around fruit trees

Compost cannot go bad, but it can get too wet, too dry, or too old. You can still use compost that is old; it just might not have as many nutrients in it as fresh compost.

Jim West / Alamy

Don’t want to DIY? Outsource your composting

If you don’t want to compost yourself or can’t compost in your home, you can still collect organic waste and get it to a composter. Some cities have programs that provide curbside collection of organic waste along with regular trash on select days. Check your local municipal website or call 311 to see if your city has such a program. Or find a nearby community or municipal composting site where you can subscribe to a pickup service or drop off your organic waste. If your city doesn’t have a composting program, help jump-start interest by lobbying city council members, or start a community composting project yourself. If you outsource your composting, use a compost keeper to store food scraps between pickups or drop-offs. During summertime, you can also freeze your food scraps before taking them to your compost site to reduce the chance of foul odors or maggots.

Composting is not an exact science. It takes time and experience to figure out the best way for you to compost in your environment. Because it is a biological process, results may vary each time you try it, even if you don’t change your method at all. Don’t be afraid to tinker around with your bins, your ratio of browns to greens, or how often you aerate or water your pile. Remember—rot happens! Your compost pile will break down eventually no matter what. The more time you spend with it, the more you will learn.

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How to compost at home—a guide for beginners

It’s a lot easier than you might think. Here’s our step-by-step guide to help you get started.

The most natural way to nourish your garden lies within the contents of your trash can. Run-of-the-mill waste like dog hair, orange peels, and fallen leaves are all perfect fodder for composting—the process of recycling organic material into nutrient-rich fertilizer by breaking it down with microorganisms.

Besides being a great way to improve plant growth, greenhouse manager   Sarah Warner says composting can also reduce landfill waste, improve water retention and soil health, and save you money on bottled fertilizers. Making high-quality humus—the dark, fertile layer of organic matter that forms when plants and animals decay—in your own backyard is as convenient for your garden as it is good for the environment. And it’s a lot easier than you might think to learn how to start a garden with compost.  

( Learn more about the science behind composting—and why it’s good for the environment .)  

How to compost at home for beginners — Step by step

General composting requires only a few simple steps, which we'll discuss in more detail below.

Step 1: Select your composting site.

Step 2: Get the right composting equipment.

Step 3: Determine how you'll collect materials.

Step 4: Start saving materials.

Step 5: Create your first layer.

Step 6: Maintain and monitor your heap.

Step 1: Select your composting site

The first major step is determining where and how you'll set up your composting site. We'll cover more specific types of composting below (like using tumblers, bins, and indoor setups), but if your site is outside, Warner advises against choosing a location next to a house or fence.

"Having a pile against a house can attract pests to nest in your home since a food source is close by," she says. "It can also stain or negatively affect the siding on a house. Since composting is decomposition, having it against a fence may promote decomposition of the fence."

Step 2: Get the right composting equipment

Like any horticulture hobby, composting has its own set of specific tools—some you need, and some that are just nice to have:  

A composter: Depending on your composting method, you’ll need a bin, tumbler, or electric composter.

Gardening gloves:   You probably don’t want to turn your old kitchen scraps with your bare hands. Grabbing a set of gardening gloves (like this thorn-proof pair from GLOSAV ) will prevent your hands from getting too dirty.  

Buy it now on   Amazon

Compost starter: If you’re composting with a tumbler, you’ll want to grab some compost starter to give your pile the dose of microorganisms it needs. It’s not required for bin composting (as those microorganisms are already there), but it can help speed up the decomposition process. Jobe's Organics Fast Acting Granular Fertilizer Compost Starter is an affordable option.  

A bucket:   If you’re transporting yard waste and debris, you’ll want a bucket like this one from United Solutions for easy transport.  

A rake: Another must-have for composting yard waste is a rake. We like this adjustable option from TABOR TOOLS .  

A wheelbarrow:   Whether you’re composting a lot of branches and twigs from your backyard or transferring finished compost to your garden, this wheelbarrow from Best Choice Products will come in handy.  

Compost thermometer:   Checking the temperature of your compost is a crucial part of maintenance. This Reotemp thermometer makes it easy to gauge if your pile is generating enough (or too much) heat.  

Step 3: Determine how you'll collect materials

Composting is a habit, and like any habit, it's crucial to establish a consistent routine. Whether you toss your food scraps into your outside bin every day or transfer them from a kitchen container to an outside bin weekly, Warner suggests picking the method you're most likely to keep up with.

"It helps to identify when the compost pile will be added to and how often you will manage it," she says. "As the saying goes, 'out of sight, out of mind.' " So choose a way to collect material that will keep it top-of-mind.

Step 4: Start saving materials

Once you have your collection system, it's time to start filling it. Warner says you need a mix of two different kinds of materials.

Brown materials: carbon-rich organic matter like branches, twigs, cardboard, and wood chips that circulate air and absorb moisture.

Green materials: nitrogen-rich organic matter like food scraps, coffee grounds, and untreated grass clippings that provide moisture and nutrients.

Step 5: Create your first layer

Once you've saved enough nitrogen- and carbon-rich materials to make a 5- to 6-inch base layer, it's time to start building. Water your compost base until everything is fully saturated.

Warner says to "layer your compost pile like lasagna" and alternate between brown and green materials. This mix of materials not only helps you keep track of what you are adding but also ensures that you're creating the right balance of brown to limit any future problems.

Step 6: Maintain and monitor your heap

Composting is an ongoing process, and it's essential to keep a close eye on how your heap is doing and make adjustments as needed. According to Warner, regular maintenance includes:

Checking the temperature and making sure it stays between 140 and 160 degrees Fahrenheit. If it's too hot, add more brown materials and turn the pile. If it's too cool, add in green materials and turn the pile.

Watering it if it feels too dry.

Adding more brown materials to circulate the air if it's too wet and starts giving off a bad odor.

How to compost at home with a tumbler

Unlike composting in a traditional yard bin, Warner says that tumbler composting dehydrates food scraps by using a sealed man-made container system that you spin to rotate the materials. While tumblers are faster than bins and better at reducing odor and pests, Warner warns that there is very little microbial activity to help assist the decomposition process—which can result in low-quality compost.

"The only microbial activity present in tumblers is in the scraps you put in," she says. The less microbial diversity in your finished compost, the fewer nutrients it provides to your plants and landscape."

Step 1: Get the right composting equipment

The most important item you need if you’re taking this composting route is a tumbler. You should choose the model based on your available space, but we like this one from FCMP Outdoor Store . It comes in two size options—22 and 37 gallon—and has built-in interior fins to help break up big clumps of compost.  

Step 2: Create a base of compost starter or finished compost

Warner says that since most tumblers don't create enough microbial activity on their own, you'll need to start the decomposing process yourself. You can use finished compost or composting starter, a pre-made mix of fungi and bacteria, to create a base layer. Compost starters and the tumblers will state how much of a base to add.

Step 3: Add your materials

Like a compost bin, a mix of brown-rich materials (like sawdust and untreated wood chips) and green-rich materials (like food scraps and untreated grass clippings) is vital to making good tumbler compost. Once you have that mixture loaded in, Warner says to make sure all materials are watered thoroughly. Then, turn the tumbler to create airflow and activate the microbial activity.

Step 4: Maintain and monitor your heap

Warner recommends the following maintenance checks for tumblers:

Adding new materials every one to two days, alternating between green and brown materials.

Turning the compost tumbler every time new materials are added.

Checking moisture levels and adding water if necessary.

Keeping the compost at the temperature recommended by its manufacturer.

How to start a compost bin

Compost bins are outdoor standalone containers with an open top, much like rain barrels. Warner believes this method is cleaner and great for adding larger materials like branches. However, she recommends buying or building a lid out of untreated plywood to prevent animals from getting inside.

If you’re going this route, you’ll need a durable outdoor bin that can withstand weather and potential pests. This one from F2C is affordable, can hold up to 80 gallons of material, and maintains the necessary heat and moisture for decomposition. It also has a composting bin must-have if you live around wildlife: a lid to prevent pests.  

Since most people who use a compost bin are composting larger materials, it might help to grab a sifter like this one from Achla Designs . When collecting finished compost, you can use it to strain out larger materials that haven’t decomposed yet and add them back into the main pile. A smaller, counter-sized compost bin (like this one from EPICA ) is also great to keep in the kitchen to collect food scraps before taking them outside.  

Step 2: Select the best site

Where you set up your compost bin is crucial. The bin should be located close enough to your garden that it's not a pain to transfer the completed compost but close enough to your home so you're not walking too far when it's time to add new materials.

Warner also says to place it away from any fencing or home to avoid pests and potential damage.

Step 3: Collect your materials

Warner recommends creating a 2- to 3-inch base out of brown-rich materials to improve air circulation. Yard waste like branches, twigs, and untreated wood chips are great options. Then, add a layer of green-rich materials on top to balance the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio.

Like all other composting methods, regular maintenance is necessary for a healthy compost bin. In addition to checking the temperature and moisture levels, Warner says that you should also turn the pile every week to promote air circulation and decomposition. Keep an eye out for any pests or unwanted critters that may be attracted to the pile.

How to compost in an apartment

No yard? No problem. Warner says there are plenty of small composting options that would take up minimal space on a balcony, patio, or kitchen countertop.

If you do have the luxury of some outdoor space, Warner says to grab a small tumbler rather than a small composting bin. Because tumblers sit up on legs, you won't risk staining any concrete like you might with a bin, and it won't give off as much of an odor.

But if composting outside is not an option, she suggests opting for an electric composter or food scrap processor. While these small machines (like the FoodCycler by Vitamix ) won't result in finished compost like a tumbler will, they will break down food scraps into a nutrient-rich soil amendment that you can add to any soil to increase its fertility over time. And they won't stink up your place.

Step 2: Dehydrate your food

If you're using a tumbler, you can follow the same steps listed above. But if you've gone the electric composter route, Warner warns that no two devices are the same. She says to follow the manufacturer's instructions on what to put in and what to leave out.  

Step 2: Mix your scraps into your soil

Again, an electric composter won't give you finished compost. But that doesn't mean you can't reap the benefits of your food scraps. Once they are broken down, Warner says to mix them 1 to 1 1/2 inches below the soil surface. Over time, the food will break down on its own and add nutrients to your soil.

What to compost

Warner says you can compost a mix of brown, carbon-rich materials and green, nitrogen-rich materials. Just make sure that any yard or plant debris you use is untreated, as lingering pesticides or chemicals can contaminate plants, humans, and animals.

Newspaper or junk mail without shiny coating

Cardboard without stickers or tape

Pizza boxes

Yard waste like branches, twigs, wood chips, or leaves

Grass clippings

Plant debris

Vegetable scraps

Fruit scraps (though citrus peels should be used in moderation)

Coffee grounds

Paper filters

Paper towels

Paper tea bags without staples

Pet and human hair

Toilet paper and paper towel rolls

100% bamboo, cotton, or wool clothing

BPI-certified compostable plastics

What not to compost

Composting might seem like a free-for-all way of getting rid of waste, but Warner says there are a few things that don’t belong in your compost bin. Some items contain toxic parasites and bacteria that can be harmful to your soil and others attract unwanted pets to your bin.

Pet droppings

Human feces

Baked goods

Fatty foods

Benefits of composting

Turning your trash into nutrient-rich treasure for your plants has a number of benefits.

Reduce waste: By saving your compostable materials from ending up in landfills, you can reduce the amount of waste produced by your household.   A 2022 study estimated that if the U.S. increased its compost-to-waste ratio by 18 percent it would reduce carbon emissions by 30 million tons per year and save $16 billion in municipal waste management costs.

I mprove plant growth: According to Warner, compost improves soil structure, fertility, and water retention—all factors that considerably affect plant growth. More research is needed to back these claims, but   a 2023 study did find that food waste compost specifically increased the height, leaf area, and fresh yield of Swiss chard plants.

Save money:   Warner says that composting eliminates the need for store-bought fertilizers, which can be expensive and contain synthetic chemicals that can harm plants, water sources, and animals.

What is compost used for?

The most obvious use for compost is to turn your everyday waste into nutrient-rich soil for your garden. But you can also mix it with potting soil to improve the health of your houseplants, spread it on top of your yard soil to add nutrients and improve drainage, or use it like a mulch for weed suppression.

Warner adds that having nutrient-rich soil and fertilizer at your fingertips means you can also share it with friends and family who are also looking to create a sustainable garden.

Your composting questions answered  

What’s the laziest way to compost.

According to Warner, simply adding to a compost bin without regularly watering or turning the heap is the laziest way to compost. "This may cause unpleasant odors, but eventually everything will break down," she says.

What is compost starter?

Compost starter is a product that contains beneficial fungi and bacteria to help speed up the decomposition process. Warner says it's not necessary to use a compost starter, but it can be especially helpful when using a tumbler or a bin since those necessary microorganisms are not as readily available.

How long does it take to make compost?

Composting doesn't happen overnight. Warner says to prepare to wait six months to a full year for finished compost if you're using a bin system. A tumbler is a lot faster, taking around two to three weeks.

How much space do I need to compost?

The space you need will depend entirely on the composting system you use. But generally, Warner says a 3-foot-by-3-foot-by 3-foot system is the most effective for helping microbial life decompose organic matter.

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How to Compost: A Guide to Composting at Home

Learn How to Make Compost from Kitchen Scraps and Yard Waste!

Become a better gardener! Discover our new Almanac Garden Planner features for 2024. It’s easy, fun, and free to try !

Learn how to compost—which is decomposed, well-rotted organic material from yard debris and kitchen vegetable scraps. This crumbly, nutrient-rich organic matter improves soil in a number of ways. We’ll show you how to make “cold” and “hot” compost and avoid any compost problems.

What Is Compost?

Compost is a nutrient-rich, soil-like material comprised of decomposing organic matter—most often fallen leaves, grass clippings, plant debris, vegetable scraps, and yard waste. The key idea behind composting is that the materials and waste that you might normally throw away can actually be recycled to help plants grow, delivering better harvests and flower blooms.

Also, compost fixes soil problems. If the key to a successful garden is good soil (and it is), compost is the gardener’s secret weapon. It has been lovingly called the gardener’s great equalizer because of its ability to amend soil. Is your soil too sandy? Compost will hold sand particles together so they can absorb water like a sponge. Troubled by hard clay soil? Compost attaches to particles of clay, creating spaces for water and nutrients to flow to plant roots. Even in perfectly loamy soil, compost brings something: a ton of nutrients.

Read Next

8 ways to use fall leaves in the garden, no-dig gardening | no-till gardening, how to mulch your garden | types of mulch, where to compost.

In community gardens, you may see a series of several bins filled with organic matter in different states of decomposition, but don’t let a professional system like that intimidate you! It’s a common misconception that you need to have a large outdoor space in order to practice composting. You can make your own compost in a space as small as a patio or balcony.

Are Compost Bins Necessary?

At its most basic, a composting system doesn’t need to consist of anything more than a pile in the corner of your yard. As long as the pile ends up being about 4 feet high, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet deep, it should successfully decompose everything you throw at it.

Most compost piles, however, have a dedicated structure that keeps it all contained—something like a cube made of wood pallets or even a purpose-built plastic compost bin.  Here’s how to make your own compost bin ! Fancy bins with multiple layers and sifters are nice but not necessary.

It’s also possible to compost right in your garden bed.  Learn more about composting “in situ.”  

What Can Be Composted?

Most organic materials can be composted. As mentioned above, this includes things like fallen leaves, grass clippings, shredded newspaper, wood chips, vegetable scraps, and so on.

In addition to the ingredients mentioned above, any of these items may be added to a compost pile:

• Coffee grounds and loose tea or compostable tea bags (note that most tea bags are not fully compostable, so tear or shred them before adding to compost)
• Dry goods (crackers, flour, spices)
• Pasta (cooked or uncooked)
• Shredded paper/newspaper
• Cardboard (non-glossy)
• Bedding from chicken coops or from small mammal pets (guinea pigs, rabbits, hamsters, etc.)

What CAN’T Be Composted?

Materials that you should NOT put in your compost pile include inorganic materials (rock, glass, metal, plastic, etc.) and animal products, like bones, seafood, meat scraps, dairy products, and grease. (Eggshells are an exception since they break down easily and are a good source of calcium!) Additionally, don’t add dog or cat waste (nor kitty litter) to your compost pile, as these may contain parasites or other nasty things that may not get completely decomposed.

Also, if you’re collecting grass clippings from the neighbors, make sure they don’t use weed killers on their lawns. Those chemicals take forever to break down and will negatively impact any plants on which you use your finished compost.

4 Essential Ingredients of a Healthy Compost Pile

A productive compost pile needs four things:

• Brown matter (“browns”):  This is carbon-rich material such as straw, wood chippings, shredded brown cardboard, or fallen leaves.
• Green matter (“greens”):  These are nitrogen-rich materials like grass clippings, weeds, manure, or kitchen scraps. Greens should have a carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of about 30:1.
• Water:  The pile should be kept consistently moist, which is especially important if you add lots of dry leaves or hay. Usually, rainfall is enough to keep it damp, but in a dry summer, you might have to spray it with water.
• Air: Oxygen is necessary for aerobic microorganisms to survive. They are the ones doing all the work of turning your garden waste into black gold.

Keep in mind that color isn’t always a reliable indicator of what is green or brown. For example, fresh grass clippings—even when spread out and left to dry—are still considered a “green” ingredient even though they’ve turned a brownish color because really all they’ve lost is water. On the other hand, straw is always considered “brown” because before the main stems died, much of the plant’s nitrogen had gone into the seeds as protein before it was harvested. 

Compost decomposes much faster if you chop the ingredients up, so shredding woody materials and tearing up cardboard speeds up the process because there is then more surface area exposed to the microbes that decompose the organic matter.

Air is vital to the composting process, so it’s important to mix the ingredients together and never squash them down. Many people turn their compost piles several times over the summer. Turning your compost helps speed up the process of decomposition, but it is not necessary as long as the pile isn’t completely compacted. It will all rot eventually!

Composting Methods: Hot vs. Cold Composting

1. hot (or “active”) composting.

The most effective way to produce rich garden compost is to create a hot, or active, compost pile. It’s called “hot” because it can reach an internal temperature of up to 160°F (71°C) and “active” because it destroys—essentially by cooking—weed seeds and disease-causing organisms. A temperature of about 140°F (60°C) is what you should aim for in a hot, active compost pile. (The size of the pile, the ingredients, and their arrangements in layers are key to reaching that desired outcome.)

Use the Right Ratio

When making a hot compost pile, you want to have 2 to 3 times more brown materials than greens, at least initially, although some more greens can be added as the compost cooks.  

For most gardeners, the biggest challenge is, therefore, collecting enough brown materials and not just piling in loads of greens, which will result in a soggy, smelly mess. For example, never add lots of grass clippings in one go, as they will just form a slimy, matted layer.

On the other hand, avoid adding too much brown matter at once, too. Dumping your fall leaves into the compost heap all at once can really slow things down! Add them in modest qualities along with fresh green ingredients. Or, compost them separately over one or two years as leaf mold. See how to make leaf mold here .

Alternate layers of brown and green matter when building your hot compost pile, and add a few shovels full of garden soil to contribute to those essential soil microbes. The more green matter, the hotter the pile will get, and the faster it will decompose. Heat also helps to kill off disease spores and weed seeds.

How Big Should the Compost Pile Be?

A hot compost pile should be at least 3 feet in diameter, though slightly larger (4 feet) is ideal. The pile will shrink as the ingredients decompose. Consider keeping the contents in place with chicken netting; wooden sides would be even better to keep the pile contained. 

Making a Hot Compost Pile

Cutting up or shredding materials helps speed up the process. 

• Pile the ingredients like a layer cake, with carbon-rich materials (browns) on the bottom. Placing twigs and woody stems here will help air circulate into the pile.
• Next, cover the layer with soil.
• Add nitrogen-rich materials (greens), followed by soil. Repeat the alternating layers of greens and browns until the pile reaches 2 to 3 feet high.
• Soak the pile at its start and water periodically; its consistency should be that of a damp (not wet) sponge.

Punch holes in the sides of the pile or push 1—to 2-foot lengths of hollow pipe into them to add air to the interior.

Your compost pile should start cooking within a week or so. Check the temperature of the pile with a compost thermometer or an old kitchen thermometer. A temperature of 110°F to 140°F (43°C to 60°C) is desirable. If you have no heat or insufficient heat, add nitrogen in the form of soft green ingredients or organic fertilizer.

Once a week, or as soon as the center starts to cool down, turn the pile. Move materials from the center of the pile to the outside. (For usable compost in 1 to 3 months, turn it every other week; for finished compost within a month, turn it every couple of days.)

See our new video on making super-fast compost!

2. cold (or “passive”) composting.

Cold, or passive, composting requires less effort than hot composting. You essentially let a pile of organic matter build and decompose, using the same types of ingredients as you would in a hot compost pile. The difference is that you don’t spend time turning the pile or carefully managing the ratio of greens to browns. 

Cold composting requires less effort from the gardener, but the decomposition takes substantially longer—a year or more!

Making a Cold Compost Pile

To cold compost, simply create a pile of organic materials that you add to as you find or accumulate them. If possible, alternate layers of browns and greens, mixing in a few shovelfuls of garden soil, too. Since they’ll take longer to break down, bury kitchen scraps in the pile’s center to deter curious insect and animal pests.

NOTE : Avoid adding weeds or diseased plant materials to a cold compost pile, as the pile will not reach the high temperatures capable of killing weed seeds and diseases. (In fact, weeds may germinate in a cold pile.)

3. Vermicomposting (Composting with Worms)

Yet another composting method is something called “vermicomposting,” which employs worms to do the hard work of breaking down your organic waste and scraps. Vermicomposting is probably the most space-saving composting method since it can be done in something as small as a 10-gallon plastic tub. Getting a vermicomposting system started is the hardest part since you’ll need to buy materials and get yourself a sufficient number of worms to begin with (and not all worms are suitable!), but after that, all it takes to maintain a vermicomposting system is feeding it regularly with kitchen scraps.

If you don’t have a lot of space and mainly want to compost kitchen scraps, vermicomposting could be the composting method for you.  Learn more about vermicomposting here !

Composting Problems and Solutions

Composting doesn’t have to be messy, stinky, or complicated, but sometimes problems do arise. Usually, it’s easy to get your compost pile back on track. 

What Should I Do If My Compost Is Too Wet?

Too much green matter can result in slimy, wet compost piles. Avoid soggy piles by alternating wetter ingredients (such as fresh grass clippings) with drier and more fibrous ingredients (such as dry leaves, cardboard, and woodier crop residue). The resulting mix should be damp but not sodden. You can also sprinkle wood ash onto your heap but, importantly, it must be wood ash and not coal ash.

Why Does My Compost Smell Bad?

If a foul odor emanates from your compost bin or pile, flip the compost to introduce more air. Mixing the compost not only gives it plenty of air but results in a finer end product that is easier to spread. A good compost heap has a slightly sweet compost-y smell. If it smells sour or rotten, it either has too many greens or is too wet.

How Do I Keep Pests Away From My Compost Pile?

Avoid cooked food waste and animal products like meat and dairy, which attract rats and other pests. Try burying veggie scraps or other food waste in the center of your pile so that it’s not as accessible to pests. If rodents are a problem, ease off adding potato peelings, which are a favorite snack.

Can I Compost Weeds?

Composting weeds is fine as long as the weeds haven’t yet set seed. A hot compost pile should be able to cook the seeds to make them inert, but it’s still a risk. In any case, avoid invasive perennial weeds such as bindweed and black swallow-wort—these are better off disposed of in the trash! 

See the video on how to fix composting problems.

Take the plunge and get composting! You’ll feel great doing it. Or, if you’re already composting, share your tips for supercharging your compost! 

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I had pretty good success with a large plastic tumbler for two years; I learned to cover it when it rained substantially, or the mix would get too wet and rot. I keep shredded plain brown wrapping paper in a container to add if the mix becomes too wet (neither my prodigious magnolia or umbrella tree leaves break down enough to use in the compost). However, for the last two summers I wind up with an invasion of light brownish maggots about a half-inch long that completely take over, and render the compost very odorous, disgusting and wet, as well as reducing the whole thing in volume into a small wet mess. I just let it dry out, and put it out for the birds to peck at when it's manageable. Any hints at preventing these maggots? No idea where they come from. I used to use dried fig leaves, but stopped in case that was the problem. Thanks for any ideas.

Hi, Tony,

Maggots can sometimes appear in compost piles and actually can be beneficial in certain cases (and certain species are sometimes added to piles), as they break down organic material quickly. However, when they become numerous, it can be alarming. Often large populations can indicate that the pile is too wet or has too much kitchen waste.

There are several species of flies whose larvae may live in compost. A few of the more common is the black soldier fly (whose gray-white to dark brown, segmented larvae are about an inch long) and the common housefly (whose creamy white larvae are about 1/2 inch long). Houseflies are attracted to meat and dairy, and manure. Avoid adding fats or too much manure or grass clippings to the pile. Turn the pile frequently. When you add any food scraps to the pile, be sure to turn the pile immediately, as those materials should be buried in the pile, not on the surface. It sounds like you have been doing the right thing in mixing in more browns (shredded brown paper) to the pile when it becomes too wet, but perhaps try adding a little more to see if that might help. If there are air holes in the tumbler, cover the openings with fine mesh, so that the adult flies can not lay their eggs inside. Flies are attracted to warmer temperatures—is your compost tumbler in full sun? If you have a compost bucket for food scraps before they are added to the pile, keep it in a cool, dry place and add some browns to make the environment less inviting for flies. 

Hope this helps!

I have recently read that you should not put acidic matter such as tomato or citrus products into your compost.

Is this correct?

Where do you suggest to get worms from for vermicomposting?

I am what is called a lazy composter. We have 2 plastic compost bins from a local county class we took. I just pile it in, more or less in the correct ratio, and let it go. Once in a while I'll add water, turn it or if it smells ( my wife doesn't cut food waste into small pieces ) I will turn it and cover it with shredded paper or soil. It still comes out OK and I can harvest a small batch every couple of months. We also have a compost tumbler, not happy with it, never have been able to get the mixture quite right. But I use it sometimes for prepping materials for the bins, especially when harvesting is over and we have all the plant materials.

Can one add compost on top of the soil (once the vegetable plants have been removed) in a 5-gallon container and close the container for the winter?

Hi Thomas, You can certainly add finished compost to the top of the soil in your 5-gallon container. We would not recommend adding composting material to your bucket, e.g. food scraps, because it would not have time to break down over the winter. The material you want to add is the end result of the composting process. Depending on your location, cracking of your container could be a concern in low temperatures, so don’t leave it exposed to the elements. Whatever you plan to plant in your container next spring will benefit from the addition of compost to the soil this fall.

Thank you. Here in Québec City, I am leaving the containers without water for a couple of months to prevent splitting. The compost I will be adding is from a tumbler that I started composting last fall, so it should be finished composting.

HELP! How can I use all the cardboard from boxes from Amazon and others?

Cardboard can be composted as parts of your “browns,” since it’s a paper product and contains carbon. For the best results, cut or tear boxes into small pieces, as they will break down a lot faster than large sheets. Also be sure to remove all tape, staples, or other non-biodegradeable materials from the boxes before tossing them in the compost pile. 

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Compost Magazine

Composting tips, advice and science.

Home Composting – A Step by Step Guide to Getting Started

My first compost pile wasn’t great. A corner of my garden behind my garage had three walls around it, and I simply dumped my garden waste there.

I didn’t pay much attention to the intricacies of composting, but when I dug down after two years I got compost.

You see while you can dig deep into the intricacies of composting, if you’re patient it’s pretty hard not to get compost – eventually. But at the same time, by getting some of the basics right, you can get better compost, faster, and in a way that is more optimal for the environment. You certainly shouldn’t have to wait the two years that I did!

In this guide, we’re going to cover the bare minimum of what you need to do, without getting too deep into the intricacies, and avoiding jargon where possible.

Table of Contents

Why compost at home?

Around 40% of organic waste is currently sent to landfill , where an inefficient breakdown process leads to harmful greenhouse emissions.

Yet in just a few minutes a day, you can turn this waste into “black gold,” a valuable resource for plants and gardens, boost the health of your soil and save money at the same time.

Composting has huge benefits for your soil, the environment – and can even combat depression ! It’s easy, fun – and building a compost pile can help motivate you to weed your garden, too.

Compost bin or compost pile?

First, you need to decide if you want to use a compost bin or a compost pile .

A compost pile is free and requires no initial setting up other than dumping your compost in one place. Piles are ideal for composting large amounts of material.

However, the structure of the compost is harder to maintain. When it gets to a certain size it leans over, and as you don’t have a structure to keep the compost pile together, the composting process can be less efficient.

Compost bins require either some (easy) DIY or an investment in a bin. Compost bins also have the advantage of maintaining the structure, and some bins are insulated, which can help keep the compost warm, speeding up the composting process.

If you have a large amount of waste to compost and want to keep costs down, you can always create your own compost bin using pallets for little more than the cost of a few screws.

How big should your compost pile be?

Some guides will tell you that your compost pile should be at least 3’ x 3’ x 3’. That’s because this size really helps speed up the composting process, generating heat in the process and killing pathogens and weed seeds.

It’s true that a larger size will help you get compost more quickly, but it’s not essential. In fact, I’ve found that it’s possible to create compost in a very small bin.

It does take longer, and it’s best to avoid adding perennial weed seeds as these will not be killed by the heat. Alternatively, you could use an insulated compost bin , which can produce heat despite the smaller volume used.

You should avoid adding cooked food and dairy products to a cold compost, as these will not be quickly consumed by the compost bacteria and are likely to attract mice and rats. Fortunately, the worms that will be attracted to your compost pile will do a good job of destroying any harmful bacteria .

Siting your compost

If you have a large garden, it’s a good idea to place your bin (or pile) in the center of the garden.

That means that whatever part of the garden you are working in, it’s easy to reach the bin with your garden waste. It’s also easy to transfer your compost to any part of the garden when it’s time to use it.

Alternatively, if you are planning on composting mostly kitchen waste, it’s a good idea to place your compost near the kitchen. (A fact that occurs to me regularly as I trudge down to the bottom of my garden on a dark winter’s night!)

If you live in a hot climate, it’s a good idea to site your compost bin in shade or partial shade. Compost benefits from a constant temperature and too high a temperature in your bin can kill helpful bacteria.

If you have a large garden, it’s also worth thinking about future expansion. For example, you might start off with a single compost bin, but later on expand to a two or three-bin system, allowing for regular turning. So if you have room, try to site your bin so that there is space for additional bins in the future.

Finally, it’s great if you can place your compost heap/bin on level ground. If you don’t have level ground, it’s well worth spending a little bit of time with a spade to create a flat bit of space. That will avoid water gathering in pools at the bottom of the compost pile.

Learn more:

What to put in your compost

Most organic materials , from weeds to food scraps and paper, can go in your compost bin. However, bear in mind that cooked food and dairy products should not go in a cold compost heap, and that woodier materials will take much longer to break down.

In an ideal world, you’ll get a roughly even mixture of brown and green material in your compost pile, or a little more green than brown.

Brown here refers to materials high in carbon, such as cardboard, paper and leaves. Greens refer to items high in nitrogen, such as grass and weeds. It’s important to remember that not all greens are green – coffee, for example, is also high in nitrogen, and so is called a green despite being brown in color.

We’ve written in-depth about the carbon:nitrogen (C: N) ratio here , but you don’t want to worry too much about it.

Everything has a different C: N ratio, so unless you want to use our reference tables and a weighing machine every time you add compost, it’s just not worth spending too much time thinking about it.

Breaking it up

Composting will also take place more quickly if you use smaller materials. By breaking up the material, you are providing a greater surface area for the bacteria to work on.

I don’t always bother doing this with large compost heaps. They seem to heat up anyway, and life’s too short to chop up every piece of material! However, it can be very helpful in speeding up the process with smaller bins.

Ideas for breaking up your compost can include mowing it with your lawnmower (very effective in terms of getting smaller compost pieces, but it can be a bit messy) or putting it in a bucket and roughly chopping it up with a pair of large shears.

Learn more about the different tools you can use to break up compost.

The bacteria in compost need water to turn waste into compost.

But if you add too much water, the composting process will take longer, it’s not as good for the environment and you could get a (slightly) unpleasant smell. If you squeeze the material in your compost it should feel like a squeezed-out sponge.

To avoid getting water in your compost, it’s a good idea to cover it over at times of rain. Plastic sheeting will stop rain from getting in, while an insulated material can help keep warmth in. If you put some sticks under the cover, you will help ensure the compost remains oxygenated.

If it does get too wet, adding shredded paper or torn-up cardboard will help absorb the water.

If your compost gets too dry, you can add water. This is important if you are turning the compost, as very dry compost can lead to bacteria that are harmful when breathed in.

Learn more about moisture levels, including how to measure them and adjust them.

Aerating the compost

Bacteria also need air. Many compost guides advise turning your compost every couple of days in order to get oxygen into the pile.

There’s a good reason for this. When oxygen levels in the pile fall below 5%, the composting process can slow down by as much as 90%.

However, while it’s true that turning is a great way to speed up composting, and also ensures that the composting process applies evenly to all the material in the pile, it’s too much work for most people.

In fact, I only turn my compost heap twice, and some people turn it once, or not at all.

There are other ways to get air into your compost. Creating a base of branches and twigs at the bottom of your compost heap helps create air pockets. You can also raise the base of the compost bin in order to ensure airflow around the bottom of the heap.

You can add bulking materials such as scrunched-up cardboard, sawdust or wood chips (semi-decomposed is ideal, as fully fresh wood chips take a long time to break down) as you build the pile in order to create free air space in the compost.

Finally, you can use a metal pole to stick into the compost to create additional airflow as the months go on.

Letting it mature

Even if your compost heats up and is ready in a few weeks, it still needs leaving to mature.

Fresh compost is raw, coarse, acidic and contains pathogens . This is when the worms start to work their magic , breaking the compost down further, improving the quality with their castings and removing harmful bacteria such as e-coli.

Ideally, you’ll leave your compost for a few months before finally using it. The longer you leave it, the better it is likely to be, although, of course, you have to balance perfection against the needs of your garden!

When it looks and smells like rich earth, and bears little resemblance to the original material (except for the odd bit of wood), it’s ready to be added to your soil.

Some people sieve it at this point, but it’s not strictly necessary unless you plan to be planting seeds in it.

When you’ve finished your compost, simply add it to the top of the soil for a no-dig approach to gardening (hugely beneficial for the soil) or dig it in for a more traditional approach.

Read more: 5 Reasons to Let Your Compost Mature For Longer

How to Use a Compost Bin: The Only Guide You’ll Ever Need 5 Reasons to Let Your Compost Mature for Longer 13 Composting Methods – And How To Choose The Best One How often should you turn your compost? How to use compost Tools for Better, Faster, Compost

External Links

The Eden Project has some great tips and a video for the new compost maker .

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On this page:

EPA's Wasted Food Scale

Impacts of sending food and other organic materials to landfills, composting definitions, composting basics and approaches.

• Benefits of Composting

Benefits of Compost Use

• Composting-Related Policies and Regulations

Additional Resources

Sources of statistics.

Composting is nature’s way of recycling and is one of the most powerful actions we can take to reduce trash in landfills, address climate change, and build healthy soil. Composting is in the fourth tier of EPA's Wasted Food Scale .

In 2019, 66.2 million tons of wasted food were generated in the food retail, food service and residential sectors in the United States. Only 5% of that wasted food was composted. 1

In the U.S., food is the single most common material sent to landfills, comprising 24.1 percent of municipal solid waste. When yard trimmings, wood and paper/paperboard are added to food, these organic materials comprise 51.4 percent of municipal solid waste in landfills. 2

When food and other organic materials decompose in a landfill where anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions are present, bacteria break down the materials and generate methane, a powerful greenhouse gas. Municipal solid waste landfills are the third largest source of human-related methane emissions in the U.S, accounting for approximately 14% of methane emissions in 2021. 3 Wasted food is responsible for 58% of landfill methane emissions. 4

When we send food and other organic materials to landfills or combustion facilities, we throw away the valuable nutrients and carbon contained in those materials. By composting our food scraps and yard trimmings instead and using the compost produced, we can return those nutrients and carbon to the soil to improve soil quality, support plant growth and build resilience in our local ecosystems and communities.

Composting is a fundamentally local process. Organic materials are typically collected and processed into compost near where they are generated, often in the same county, city or even neighborhood. In this way, composting also supports local jobs and economies.

Composting  is the controlled, aerobic (oxygen-required) biological decomposition of organic materials by microorganisms. Organic (carbon-based) materials include grass clippings, leaves, yard and tree trimmings, food scraps, crop residues, animal manure and biosolids.

Compost is a dark, crumbly, earthy-smelling, biologically-stable soil amendment produced by the aerobic decomposition of organic materials.  

Regardless of size or scale, the basic principles of composting are generally the same. The composting process requires a proper ratio of carbon-rich materials (such as dry leaves or wood chips) to nitrogen-rich materials (such as food scraps or grass clippings). Maintaining adequate moisture level, oxygen flow, particle size, and temperature ensures microorganisms effectively break down organic materials into quality compost. 

The method of composting used, as well as the equipment, is often determined by the scale or size of the site and the volume and type of materials, or feedstocks, being composted. The feedstocks accepted vary by composting facility and should always be free of contaminants such as herbicides, non-compostable packaging, and produce stickers.

Composting can take place at many scales/sizes – backyard, community, on-farm, municipal and regional – and at a range of locations in urban to rural areas. A small-scale system can be as simple as a backyard compost pile or vermicomposting (worm composting) bin, whereas a large-scale system may be a centralized, commercial composting facility processing organic materials from around the region. 

Learn more about the composting process as well as composting at home  and community composting.

Benefits of Composting 

• Protects the climate by reducing methane emissions from landfills.
• Reduces waste.
• Recycles organic materials into a valuable soil amendment – compost.
• Recovers organic materials and keeps them local.
• Creates green jobs. 
• Extends municipal landfill life by diverting organic materials and saving space in landfills.
• Reduces solid waste management costs because food scraps are one of the largest and heaviest portions of the waste stream, making their recovery increasingly cost-effective compared to disposal. 

Compost Use for Stormwater Management

Check out these EPA fact sheets on stormwater and erosion control with compost:

• Compost Blankets (pdf) (887 KB).
• Compost Filter Berms (pdf) (1.2 MB) .
• Compost Filter Socks (pdf) (825 KB) .

In the United States, our soils suffer from topsoil loss and erosion, which can lead to water quality issues and reduce the productivity of agricultural land. Compost adds much-needed organic matter to soil to enhance soil health. Compost has other uses as well in green infrastructure and stormwater management. Additionally, the use of compost sustains green jobs throughout the organics recovery cycle.

Markets and applications for compost include agricultural and horticultural, landscape and nursery, vegetable and flower gardens, sod production and roadside projects, wetlands creation, green infrastructure, soil remediation and land reclamation, sports fields and golf courses, sediment and erosion control, and stormwater management.

Compost Enriches and Builds Healthy Soil

• Adds organic matter to the soil and increases the nutrient content and biodiversity of microbes in soil.
• Conserves water and reduces water use by helping soils retain moisture. 
• Helps prevent soil erosion by reducing soil compaction and runoff.
• Reduces reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
• Improves plant growth and promotes higher yields of agricultural crops.
• Improves water quality by filtering stormwater and reducing nutrient and sediment runoff.
• Helps regenerate poor soil and remediate (clean up) soils that have been depleted by overuse or contain contaminants.

Compost Aids Climate Adaptation and Resilience

• Improves a community’s ability to adapt to adverse climate impacts by helping soil absorb water and prevent runoff of pollutants during floods. It also helps soil hold more water for longer, mitigating the effects of drought.
• Sequesters carbon in the soil, helping reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• Strengthens sustainable, local food production by using locally generated food scraps and other organic materials to create a valuable soil amendment that supports plant growth.

How Compost Can Be Used

Learn about the different uses for compost through  fact sheets from the Compost Research and Education Foundation (pdf) (2.6 MB) .

Composting Policies and Regulations

Composting policies and regulations are set at the state and local government level.

Some states ban or restrict landfill disposal of organic materials such as yard and tree trimmings and wasted food. Some bans only affect large generators of organic materials, whereas others affect all generators of wasted food, down to the household level. 

Below are some composting and compost use policy resources:

• The Environmental Law Institute developed a Toolkit for Incorporating Food Waste in Municipal Climate Action Plans (Environmental Law Institute).
• The Institute for Local Self-Reliance developed a guide for Healthy Soils and Compost Policy (pdf) (1.1 MB)  and also maintains a list of different types of compost-related rules by state.
• The National Resources Defense Council and Environmental Law Institute showcase  a model policy for compost procurement (pdf) (111KB).
• ReFED offers the  U.S. Food Waste Policy Finder,  a searchable tool of wasted food and organics recycling policies.
• The Sustainable Economies Law Center, in collaboration with the Institute for Local Self-Reliance, developed a website on compost law and policy.  The website focuses on community and small-scale composting.
• The U.S. Composting Council compiles  information on state compost regulations , developed a  Model Compost Rules Template for States  to use in updating their composting permitting regulations, and maintains a  map of states’ organics bans.
• The Zero Food Waste Coalition provides a  toolkit and template legislation on how to start the process of enacting an organics ban in your community.

Visit the other EPA composting webpages for more information and resources:

• Approaches to Composting.
• Composting at Home.
• Community Composting.

Mention of or referral to commercial products or services or links to non-EPA sites does not imply official EPA endorsement of or responsibility for the opinions, ideas, data, or products presented at those locations or guarantee the validity of the information provided. Mention of commercial products/services on non-EPA websites is provided solely as a pointer to information on topics related to environmental protection that may be useful to EPA staff and the public.

Visit the webpages below for more composting information:

• EPA/USDA Composting Fact Sheet (pdf) (620 KB)  | Composting Fact Sheet en Español (pdf) (882 KB)  | Composting Fact Sheet (horizontal)(jpg) (489 KB)
• EPA Excess Food Opportunities Map
• EPA Managing and Transforming Waste Streams Tool
• EPA Recycling Infrastructure and Market Opportunities Map
• EPA Compost Use Workshop for Specifications
• EPA’s searchable Success Stories table
• EPA Composting Food Scraps in Your Community: A Social Marketing Toolkit.  
• BioCycle, an industry resource on composting
• Compost Research and Education Foundation
• Institute for Local Self-Reliance
• Target Organics – A Compost Program Resources Hub
• U.S. Composting Council
• U.S. EPA, 2019 Wasted Food Report (pdf) (1.39 MB)
• U.S. EPA, Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: 2018 Fact Sheet (pdf) (4.9 MB)
• U.S. EPA, Landfill Methane Outreach Program
• U.S. EPA, Quantifying Methane Emissions from Landfilled Food Waste
• Sustainable Management of Food Home
• Wasted Food Scale
• Prevention through Source Reduction
• Donating Food
• Approaches to Composting
• Composting at Home
• Community Composting
• Anaerobic Digestion
• Preventing Wasted Food at Home
• Tools for Preventing and Diverting Wasted Food
• Funding Opportunities and EPA Programs Related to the Food System
• Local and Regional Resources
• Data on Wasted Food in the U.S.

Sustainably Forward

The Importance of Composting in Waste Reduction

Discover the importance of composting in waste reduction. Join us as we explore how this simple act can make a big impact on our environment.

Ever wondered how you could play a part in saving our planet? Well, let’s talk about the importance of composting in waste reduction.

It’s a simple, yet powerful way to reduce waste and give back to the Earth right from your backyard.

Not only does it help you manage household waste, but it also enriches the soil in your garden.

So, let’s dive in and explore how this eco-friendly practice can make a world of difference!

Table of Contents

Welcome to our deep dive into the world of composting! In this post, we’re going to explore the importance of composting in waste reduction.

We’ll cover everything from the composting process, and its numerous benefits, to real-life success stories of composting in action.

We’ll even touch on the legal basics of composting and answer some frequently asked questions.

So, whether you’re a seasoned composter or just starting out, this guide is packed with insights that will help you understand how this simple practice can significantly reduce waste and contribute to a healthier planet. Let’s get started!

Definition of Composting

Let’s start with the basics, shall we? Composting, in its simplest form, is a natural process that turns organic material, think kitchen scraps or yard waste into a nutrient-rich soil conditioner.

It’s like Mother Nature’s own recycling program! You take your banana peels, coffee grounds, and grass clippings, mix them together in a compost bin or pile, and over time, with a little help from microorganisms, heat, and moisture, these materials break down.

The end result? A dark, crumbly substance that gardeners fondly refer to as black gold.

It’s a fantastic way to enrich the soil in your garden and help your plants thrive.

Brief Overview of the Importance of Composting in Waste Reduction

Now, you might be wondering, That’s great, but why is composting so important?

Well, aside from giving your plants a nutritional boost, composting plays a crucial role in waste reduction.

Consider this: a significant portion of what ends up in our landfills is organic waste and stuff that could have been composted.

By composting, we can divert these materials from landfills, reducing the volume of waste and the associated environmental impacts.

But that’s not all. Composting also helps reduce the release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas that’s produced when organic waste decomposes in landfills.

So, by composting, you’re not just reducing waste, you’re also helping combat climate change. How amazing is that?

Organic waste in landfills generates, methane, a potent greenhouse gas. By composting wasted food and other organics, methane emissions are significantly reduced. Compost reduces and in some cases eliminates the need for chemical fertilizers. Compost promotes higher yields of agricultural crops. From EPA

The Composting Process

Ready to roll up your sleeves and dive into the nitty-gritty of composting? 

In this section, we’re going to demystify the composting process.

We’ll walk you through how compost is created and discuss the types of waste that are suitable for composting.

Whether you’re a green thumb or a composting newbie, understanding this process is the first step towards turning your kitchen scraps and yard waste into a garden’s best friend.

So, let’s get started on this exciting journey!

Explanation of How Compost is Created

So, how does a banana peel or a handful of grass clippings transform into nutrient-rich compost?

It’s all thanks to a process that’s as old as life itself: decomposition.

When you combine organic wastes in the right conditions, microorganisms like bacteria and fungi start breaking down the material into simpler substances.

This process generates heat, which in turn speeds up the decomposition and kills off any potential plant diseases or pests.

Over time, usually a few months the original organic materials are unrecognizable, having been transformed into a dark, crumbly, earthy-smelling substance we call compost.

It’s a fascinating process, and the best part is, it’s completely natural!

Types of Waste Suitable for Composting

Now, you might be wondering, What can I compost? Well, a wide variety of organic waste can go into your compost bin.

Kitchen scraps like fruit and vegetable peels, coffee grounds, and eggshells are perfect for composting.

Yard waste such as grass clippings, leaves, and small branches can also be composted.

Even certain types of paper, like non-glossy newspaper or cardboard, can be composted.

However, it’s important to avoid composting meat, dairy, and diseased plants, as these can attract pests or create unpleasant odors.

Remember, a good compost pile is a balanced mix of ‘greens’ (nitrogen-rich materials like vegetable scraps) and ‘browns’ (carbon-rich materials like dried leaves).

The Benefits of Composting

Now that we’ve covered the basics of composting, let’s delve into the heart of the matter: the benefits of composting.

This is where things get really exciting! Composting isn’t just about reducing waste or creating nutrient-rich soil.

It’s about making a positive impact on our environment in multiple ways.

From reducing greenhouse gases to improving soil health, the benefits of composting are far-reaching.

So, let’s dive in and explore these benefits in detail. You might be surprised at just how powerful this simple act of recycling can be!

Reduction of Methane Emissions

Let’s start with one of the biggest environmental benefits: the reduction of methane emissions.

When organic waste ends up in a landfill, it decomposes without oxygen, producing methane a greenhouse gas that’s much more potent than carbon dioxide.

By composting, we allow organic waste to decompose in an oxygen-rich environment, which significantly reduces the production of methane.

It’s a small step with a big impact on our fight against climate change.

Decrease in the Need for Chemical Fertilizers

Next up, composting can help us decrease our reliance on chemical fertilizers.

Compost is rich in nutrients that plants need to grow, making it a fantastic natural alternative to synthetic fertilizers.

Plus, unlike some fertilizers, compost improves soil structure and won’t contribute to nutrient runoff, which can harm aquatic ecosystems.

Promotion of Higher Agricultural Yields

Speaking of growing plants, did you know that compost can boost agricultural yields?

By improving soil health and providing a slow-release source of nutrients, compost helps crops grow stronger and more productive.

It’s a win-win for farmers and the environment!

Aid in Reforestation and Habitat Revitalization

Compost isn’t just for gardens and farms. It can also aid in reforestation and habitat revitalization.

By improving soil health, compost can help establish plants in areas that have been degraded or disturbed.

It’s a powerful tool for ecological restoration.

Cost-Effective Soil Remediation

Compost can also be a cost-effective solution for soil remediation.

It can help clean up contaminated soils by binding and degrading pollutants.

This makes it a valuable tool for managing contaminated sites in a sustainable way.

Enhancement of Water Retention in Soils

One of the lesser-known benefits of compost is its ability to enhance water retention in soils.

Compost can help the soil hold onto water, reducing the need for irrigation and helping plants withstand drought.

This can be especially beneficial in dry climates or during hot summer months.

Carbon Sequestration

Last but not least, composting can contribute to carbon sequestration.

The process of composting captures carbon and stores it in the soil, helping to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

It’s yet another way that composting can help us combat climate change.

Composting in Practice: Success Stories

We’ve talked about the theory and benefits of composting, but what does it look like in practice?

Well, you’re in for a treat! In this section, we’re going to share some inspiring success stories of composting in action.

From markets to colleges to sports venues, these stories showcase the power of composting on a larger scale.

They’re proof that composting isn’t just for individual households and it’s a practice that businesses and institutions can adopt to make a significant impact on waste reduction and environmental health.

So, let’s dive in and get inspired by these composting champions!

New Seasons Markets

Starting off our success stories is New Seasons Markets , a chain of grocery stores in the Pacific Northwest.

They’ve made a significant commitment to sustainability, and composting is a big part of that.

Since 2006, New Seasons Market has increased its diversion of organic materials, including food waste, to compost by an impressive 109 percent.

This has not only reduced their environmental impact but also saved them over $25,000 in waste expenses. Talk about a win-win!

Next up is Petco Park , the home of the San Diego Padres.

They implemented a food composting program in 2005, which has helped them save money on trash disposal bills.

By 2011, Petco Park had diverted 164 tons of waste from landfill, saving $75,000 since the program’s inception.

It’s a fantastic example of how composting can be successfully implemented in a large venue.

Middlebury College

Over in Vermont, Middlebury College has been running a food waste composting program since 1993.

They compost 90 percent of the food waste generated on campus, which amounted to 370 tons in 2011 alone.

This initiative has saved the college over $100,000 in landfill fees, showing that composting can be both environmentally and economically beneficial.

Sprouts Farmers Markets

Sprouts Farmers Markets is another business that’s committed to zero food waste.

In 2015, all Sprouts stores donated more than 14 million pounds of fresh food to local hunger relief agencies through their Food Rescue Program.

They also diverted another 5.5 million pounds of food to composting facilities and local farms to feed animals.

Their efforts show how businesses can play a significant role in reducing food waste and supporting their local communities.

Pearl City High School

Last but not least, let’s look at Pearl City High School in Hawaii.

During the 2014-2015 school year, Special Education students at the school staffed wasted food collection stations in the cafeteria.

Unconsumed food was separated from non-food waste and composted on-site.

This initiative resulted in 34,635 pounds of cafeteria scraps being composted over the school year, achieving a 97.5 percent wasted food diversion rate.

It’s a wonderful example of how composting can be integrated into educational settings, teaching students about sustainability while reducing waste.

Legal Basics for Composting

Navigating the world of composting isn’t just about understanding the process and its benefits.

It’s also about knowing the legal basics. In this section, we’re going to shed some light on the legal aspects of composting.

From landfill bans on organics to regulations around biosolids composting, we’ll help you understand the rules that guide this important practice.

Whether you’re a business owner, a community leader, or an individual composter, having a grasp of these legal basics can help you compost confidently and responsibly.

So, let’s dive in and demystify the legal side of composting!

Landfill Bans on Organics

First up, let’s talk about landfill bans on organics.

Some states have implemented bans on landfill disposal of organic materials like food waste.

These bans are designed to encourage composting and reduce the amount of organic waste that ends up in landfills, where it can produce harmful methane gas.

The U.S. Composting Council compiles information on state compost regulations, so you can check to see if your state has such a ban in place.

These bans are a significant legal push towards more sustainable waste management practices.

Biosolids Composting and Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge

Next, we have the topic of biosolids composting and the use or disposal of sewage sludge.

Biosolids are nutrient-rich organic materials produced from sewage sludge.

They can be recycled and applied as fertilizer to improve and maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth.

However, the use or disposal of biosolids is regulated under the Clean Water Act.

The EPA has published federal standards for the use or disposal of sewage sludge, which can be found in Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in part 503.

These standards may also apply to municipal solid waste compost.

It’s important to be aware of these regulations if you’re considering composting on a larger scale or using compost made from biosolids.

Composting in Waste Reduction FAQs

We’ve covered a lot of ground on our composting journey so far, but we know you might still have some questions.

That’s why we’ve dedicated this section to answering some of the most frequently asked questions about composting.

From what can be composted to how composting benefits the environment and how you can start composting at home, we’ve got you covered.

So, if you’ve been wondering about any aspect of composting, stick around! We’re about to dive into the answers to these common queries.

Q: What can be composted?

A: A wide variety of organic materials can be composted.

This includes kitchen scraps like fruit and vegetable peels, coffee grounds, and eggshells.

Yard waste such as grass clippings, leaves, and small branches is also great for composting.

However, it’s best to avoid composting meat, dairy, and diseased plants, as these can attract pests or create unpleasant odors.

Q: How does composting reduce waste?

A: Composting reduces waste by diverting organic materials that would otherwise end up in a landfill.

When these materials are composted, they break down into a nutrient-rich soil conditioner that can be used in gardens and landscapes.

This not only reduces the volume of waste going to landfills but also recycles nutrients back into the soil.

Q: How does composting benefit the environment?

A: Composting has several environmental benefits.

It reduces the amount of waste going to landfills, which in turn reduces the production of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

Composting also enriches the soil, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and promoting healthier plant growth.

Additionally, compost can help remediate contaminated soils and aid in reforestation efforts.

Q: How can I start composting at home?

A: Starting to compost at home is easier than you might think!

All you need is a compost bin or a designated area in your yard, a mix of ‘green’ materials (like vegetable scraps) and ‘brown’ materials (like dried leaves), and a bit of patience.

Start by adding your organic materials to your compost bin, making sure to maintain a balance of greens and browns.

Turn your compost pile every few weeks to help it decompose evenly, and in a few months, you should have a batch of finished compost ready to use in your garden.

Importance of Composting in Waste Reduction Conclusion

As we wrap up our deep dive into composting, it’s time to reflect on what we’ve learned and look ahead to the impact we can make.

In this conclusion, we’ll recap the importance of composting in waste reduction and revisit the many benefits it brings to our environment and communities.

We’ll also encourage you to take what you’ve learned and apply it, whether that means starting your own compost pile at home or advocating for composting programs in your community.

Remember, every bit of composting makes a difference. So, let’s finish off strong and get ready to make that difference!

Recap of the Importance of Composting in Waste Reduction

Looking back on our journey through the world of composting, it’s clear to see just how vital this practice is in reducing waste.

By composting our organic waste, we’re not only decreasing the amount of material that ends up in landfills but also reducing the production of harmful greenhouse gases like methane.

Plus, we’re creating a valuable resource, nutrient-rich compost that can enrich our soils and support healthier plant growth.

It’s a beautiful cycle of transformation, turning what was once considered ‘waste’ into a valuable resource.

That’s the power and importance of composting in waste reduction.

Encouragement for More People to Start Composting

Now, as we conclude, we want to encourage each and every one of you to consider starting your own composting journey.

Whether you have a large backyard or a small apartment, there are composting methods that can work for you.

And remember, composting isn’t just about reducing waste or creating nutrient-rich soil.

It’s about making a positive impact on our environment. Every compost pile contributes to a healthier, more sustainable world.

So, why not give it a try? You might be surprised at how rewarding composting can be.

Let’s all do our part in making our planet a better place, one compost pile at a time !

Related Posts:

Introduction to Composting

The composting process is a complex interaction between the waste and the microorganisms within the waste. The microorganisms that carry out this process fall into three groups: bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes . Actinomycetes are a form of fungi-like bacteria that break down organic matter.

The first stage of the biological activity is the consumption of easily available sugars by bacteria, which causes a fast rise in temperature. The second stage involves bacteria and actinomycetes that cause cellulose breakdown. The last stage is concerned with the breakdown of the tougher lignins by fungi.

Central solutions are exemplified by low-cost composting, as discussed here by  GardenDIY , without forced aeration, and technologically more advanced systems with forced aeration and temperature feedback. Central composting plants are capable of handling more than 100,000 tons of biodegradable waste per year, but typically the plant size is about 10,000 to 30,000 tons per year.

Biodegradable wastes must be separated prior to composting : Only pure food waste, garden waste, wood chips , and to some extent paper are suitable for producing good-quality compost.

The methodology of composting can be categorized into three major segments—anaerobic composting, aerobic composting, and vermicomposting. In anaerobic composting , the organic matter is decomposed in the absence of air. Organic matter may be collected in pits and covered with a thick layer of soil and left undisturbed six to eight months. The compost so formed may not be completely converted and may include aggregated masses.

Aerobic composting is the process by which organic wastes are converted into compost or manure in presence of air and can be of different types. The most common is the Heap Method, where organic matter needs to be divided into three different types and to be placed in a heap one over the other, covered by a thin layer of soil or dry leaves. This heap needs to be mixed every week, and it takes about three weeks for conversion to take place. The process is same in the Pit Method, but carried out specially constructed pits. Mixing has to be done every 15 days, and there is no fixed time in which the compost may be ready.

Berkley Method uses a labor-intensive technique and has precise requirements of the material to be composted. Easily biodegradable materials, such as grass, vegetable matter, etc., are mixed with animal matter in the ratio of 2:1. Compost is usually ready in 15 days.

Vermicomposting involves use of earthworms as natural and versatile bioreactors for the process of conversion. It is carried out in specially designed pits where earthworm culture also needs to be done. Vermicomposting is a precision-based option and requires overseeing of work by an expert. It is also a more expensive option (O&M costs especially are high).

However, unlike the above two options, it is a completely odorless process making it a preferred solution in residential areas. It also has an extremely high rate of conversion, so quality of the end product is very high with rich macro and micronutrients. The end product also has the advantage that it can be dried and stored safely for a longer period of time.

The composting plants consist of some or all of the following technical units: bag openers, magnetic and/or ballistic separators, screeners (sieves), shredders, mixing and homogenization equipment, turning equipment, irrigation systems , aeration systems, draining systems, bio-filters, scrubbers, control systems, and steering systems.

The composting process occurs when biodegradable waste is piled together with a structure allowing for oxygen diffusion and with a dry matter content suiting microbial growth. The temperature of the biomass increases due to the microbial activity and the insulation properties of the piled material. The temperature often reaches 65 degrees C to 75 degrees C within a few days and then declines slowly. This high temperature hastens the elimination of pathogens and weed seeds.

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About Salman Zafar

7 responses to introduction to composting.

Waste management and modern recycling technologies needs to be engineered to suit the type of climate in arid and semi-arid regions. This because production and use of freshwater in different as compared to temperate regions, e.g. those existing in Europe. It is not difficult to re-shape the technology in Europe to solve the problems in the MENA region. http://sustain-earth.com

Please give information about Biocomposting for 11th STD EVS project

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The Benefits of Composting for Individuals and Communities Research Paper

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

The ecological benefits of composting cannot be undoubted, with composting systems having great potential to make an impact on the strategies of waste management, thus contributing to both small- and large-scale sustainability efforts. On a local scale, composting can promote better environmental conditions in the area, encourage community-wide collaboration on sustainability efforts, and increase awareness about waste reduction and recycling. Thus, if individuals understand the basic principles of composting and engage in it as a part of their recycling and waste optimization practices, the wider community will experience improved sustainability outcomes. An essential part of proving the hypothesis is implementing a lab experiment involving composting to educate oneself and others on the best practices of the process.

Research has shown that there are multiple reasons why individuals should compost. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (2018), food scraps and yard trimmings represent a third of the materials that are being landfilled and incinerated, with paper, wool, and other textiles, some of which are compostable, representing another third. Therefore, when people eliminate organic materials from the waste stream, they will reduce the need to dispose of them, thus protecting the environment and cutting communities’ costs (Szczucinski et al., 2020). Besides, as suggested by the findings of composting experiment, adding organic matter to soil will be beneficial to its fertility, decreased erosion, better retention of water, and improved carbon storage.

Compost can help create a sustainable agricultural system, which is possible to facilitate on a local scale. In any community, there will be individuals who grow some plants and vegetables in their gardens, and providing them with compost can be a great way of building community collaboration on improving its sustainability efforts. Composts help prevent topsoil erosion by allowing the soil to absorb and retain more water, which is conducive to robust plant growth. The study by Risse and Faucette (2015) found that the use of compost in the soil can help reduce water loss by 86%. The efforts in which communities engage when they are dedicated to sustainability and waste reduction are expected to have a beneficial outcome on local agricultural practices.

The composting experiment to be carried out will involve starting a small batch of compost and tracing the process from collecting compostable materials to adding the end-product fertilizer to the soil to improve its quality and allow for better plants to grow. The compost will include grass clippings, non-acidic fruit and vegetable scraps, egg shells, paper straws, compostable bags, napkins, cups, coffee grounds, and many other additions. The temperature test will be performed to determine the optimum temperature to yield the best quality compost, with further adjustments made to produce compost. When the final product is complete, it will be added to the soil, the quality test of which will also be carried out to compare the soil with and without compost. It is expected that the plants growing from the soil with the added compost will be of greater quality compared to the compost-free one. Overall, the potential for research on the benefits of composting for individuals and communities and vast. The more people are educated about how easy but effective composting can be, the more likely they are to try it end to build a community around it, which, consequently, is better for the environment on a larger scale.

Risse, M., & Faucette, B. (2015). Compost utilization for erosion control . UGA. Web.

Szczucinski, D., Gelino, B. W., Cintron, C. J., Becirevic, A., & Reed, D. D. (2019). Increasing appropriate composting in high-traffic university settings. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 13(1), 22–28. Web.

US Environmental Protection Agency. (2018). Advancing sustainable materials management: 2015 Fact sheet. Web.

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Unlocking the benefits of composting: tips for a greener garden

• Story by Ericka Bethel
• June 3, 2024

F or centuries, gardeners have provided nutrients to plants through composting, but Karen Mitchell, consumer horticulture extension specialist, says composting benefits go far beyond that.

"Waste reduction is as good as any reason to compost. While the benefits of composting are numerous to our gardens, now more than ever, we need to look for ways to reduce our carbon footprint. Instead of filling up our landfills, where waste's benefits are not realized, we can compost, which can have a dramatic effect on the environment by aiding in the carbon disharmony we have," said Mitchell.

To put some life back in your gardens this summer, Mitchell shares why composting is important, how to get started, and tips to create the perfect blend. 

Why should I compost?

"Composting is a win-win; we are reducing our waste and feeding our gardens. You are helping to keep the carbon in the soil, and in turn, you are giving life back to your soil."

Composting is a process during which naturally occurring fungi, insects and other microorganisms break down organic materials, such as certain kitchen scraps, grass clippings, and leaves, into a soil-like product called compost. It is a form of recycling, a natural way of returning nutrients to the soil.

Mitchell shares options on how to make composting simple. “Not only does compost help to bring life back to the soil, but it also builds the structure of the soil. Like those in the Midwest who have heavy clay soils. Composting is encouraging earthworms and other life that help to build the structure into a more usable, crumbly black soil that people like to use when gardening. Composting can produce healthier plants and in turn more and higher quality fruit.” she said.

How do I get started?

"When first getting started with composting, think about your main goal. Are you just trying to reduce waste in the landfill? Or is your goal to create a large amount of nutrient-rich compost for your garden? These questions will help you know how to approach composting. A lot of times, people are hesitant to compost because of the perceived labor required. There is a composting that is right for you."

Vermicomposting

For those looking to begin their composting journey on a small scale with little to no outdoor space, Mitchell recommends starting with vermicomposting. This method layers food scraps with dry materials like scrap paper and cardboard and worms

"Vermicomposting is great because you don't have the smells or bugs when managed properly. The worms will multiply exponentially. The vermicomposting bins are cheap and easy to make and do not take up a lot of room," Mitchell says.

For those looking to engage the whole family, vermicomposting is a good option to consider. "It's a fun way to teach kids not only about the importance of worms but how they turn trash into something usable," she said. Download this tutorial from Mitchell on making your own vermicomposting kit for your home.

Active & Passive Composting

Those with a larger outdoor space or looking to produce large amounts of compost might consider outdoor active or passive composting. Active composting is a more involved process that requires regular turning of the compost pile. However, this method tends to yield the fastest results. Passive composting involves placing the materials into a compost bin or on a space of land and letting nature take its course.

The decision to do active versus passive composting depends on how much time and energy you would like to invest into composting and how quickly you want to produce compost.

For those looking for a simple outdoor solution, Mitchell recommends passive, static pile composting. "The static pile is the easiest way. Add all of your waste to a pile the first year, and the next year, you turn the old pile to the next bin and add new waste materials to the first bin."

Mitchell notes that composting bins are available for purchase, and there are also online tutorials for building your own. She recommends starting small and testing before making large investments into your composting project.

Tips for creating the perfect compost blend

"Many people worry about getting the perfect blend to their compost pile. It is important to remember that composting has four main ingredients: carbon, nitrogen, air, and water. This perfect blend will help keep your microorganisms alive and keep your pile from having a smell that attracts animals.  We are mixing as we go to create the perfect blend."

• Get the proper mixture: Ideally, a compost pile would have a carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio of approximately 25:1 or 30:1 to balance the “green” waste (nitrogen, plant and kitchen waste) with the “browns” (carbon, straw and leaves). Mitchell notes that typically if there's a problem with a smell or flies, most likely the C:N ratio is not balanced right.
• Remember to water: Watering is an important step to create compost that is alive with microorganisms. The only way decomposition works is with microbes, so having consistent moisture where it's not soggy and wet is best. The best compost is a rich, crumbly mixture.
• Beware of the heat: Place your compost in a shady spot. If the compost gets too hot, it can kill the microorganisms.

Start small and have fun with it. This can be a fun way to engage the whole family in reducing waste and bringing life back into our soil for our plants. If we all composted even a small portion of our waste, the returns to our earth would be monumental. - Karen Mitchell, consumer horticulture extension specialist

Karen Mitchell

Consumer horticulture extension specialist

Materials to compost

• Food waste from kitchen (vegetable peels, fruits that have gone bad, etc.)
• Chicken manure
• Grass clippings without herbicide treatment
• Small sticks/mulch
• Newspaper/paper scraps

Materials not to compost

• Meat or animal products (no meat, bones or manure that comes from meat eating animals like dogs or cats.) This will help keep disease and rodents out of your compost piles.
• Weeds that have gone to seed
• Diseased plants from garden
• Grass clippings that have had herbicide treatments

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The Promises of the Home “Composting” Machine

By Helen Rosner

In the course of a week, my kitchen produces a shocking quantity of what we might think of as edible trash: apple peels, garlic nubs, a bit of gristle from a steak, Dorito dust, tea bags, the iron-hard heel of a loaf of bread that’s been sitting out overnight. The meat scraps I feed to my dog. The bones and vegetable scraps I store in the freezer in gallon-size ziplock bags and periodically bung into a pot and simmer into stock. But even then, once the stock is made, and the chicken bones or onion ends are leached of all their flavor, I’m left again with edible trash—only now it’s soggy. And then there are the times when the strawberries aren’t sealed right and become fuzzy with mold, or the delivery sandwich turns out to be gross, or the refrigerator’s compressor breaks and somehow we don’t notice, or I’m just exhausted and overwhelmed and want everything gone .

I hate putting food into the trash, because food that goes into the trash is bound for a landfill, and landfills—dense, lightless, airless mountains of waste—are the worst possible place that food can go. In that nightmarish, anaerobic environment, organic matter produces the greenhouse gas methane with terrifying efficiency. Globally, landfills are the third-greatest human source of methane emissions, just behind the fossil-fuel industry and factory livestock farming. How much food we waste, and what we do with it, is both an urgent issue and—like so many facets of the climate crisis—one that feels entirely remote in the day-to-day. A large portion of organic matter in landfills (forty per cent by one E.P.A. estimate) comes from households, so on this front, at least, our individual choices do matter—even when it feels overwhelmingly as if they don’t. Obviously, we should buy less, and we should eat more of what we buy; the weekly package of baby spinach that turns to goo in the crisper drawer benefits neither self nor planet. Cookbooks dedicated to minimizing food waste are a good place to find tidy strategies for salvage and reuse: puree the spinach glop into a green soup, for example, or take root-vegetable peelings, toss them in a bit of oil and salt, and roast at four hundred for twenty minutes to make superbly crispy little snacks. (“ The Everlasting Meal Cookbook ,” by Tamar Adler , is chock-full of smart ideas like these.) Pulverizing eggshells into powder for a homemade calcium supplement? Brilliant, babe. Go with God.

But, lately, I’ve been thinking about what food-waste people call diversion, which encompasses all the places we can send scraps besides the large intestine and the landfill. It’s a mistake to think that anything not eaten is necessarily wasted, that consumption is the only valid form of use. Take composting , for example: you really don’t need to torture yourself by making and eating and claiming to enjoy a bitter carrot-top pesto if the carrot tops can simply be flung into a thoughtfully maintained organic-matter pile and, with time, be converted into fuel for further carrots, whose bitter tops you yet again will not feel obligated to eat. Admittedly, it’s work: there’s a lot more to converting unwanted vegetable matter into nutrient-rich fertilizer than just making a big heap and walking away. (This is, more or less, exactly how to make a landfill.) It makes sense that compost is the provenance of the gardener: in a way, it is its own category of cultivation, requiring care and consideration, a proper balance of dry and wet matter, regular aeration, attentive temperature control, and season-spanning patience.

For those who lack the space, the time, or the diligence to do such things, solutions must be found elsewhere—for instance, in a slew of new (and newish) consumer appliances that promise to help reduce food waste and its impact. One such appliance is the FoodCycler ($399.95), which is distributed in the U.S. by Vitamix, the same folks who make extremely expensive and effective blenders. It is hulkingly large, like a night-black bread machine. The Lomi ($449, or $359 plus a twenty-dollar-per-month accessory subscription), manufactured by a company that also produces bioplastics, is satin white and curvy, with the countertop footprint of an upright stand mixer. Both the FoodCycler and the Lomi are very heavy. (The two machines were recently provided to me as samples, without cost.) The function of each is mostly the same: a user fills a provided bucket with food scraps, inserts it into the machine, sets a lid in place, and presses a Power button. Then the machine spends several hours using heat and abrasion to grind down and dehydrate the food scraps. The end result will vary in color and texture based on the raw materials you started with, but it always comes out looking pretty much like dirt.

The first day that I had the Lomi, I happened to come into possession of a somewhat ridiculous quantity of leeks. In the interest of science, I cut off their fibrous, dark-green tops (which I’d normally save for stock) and stuffed the machine’s bin up to the fill line. The Lomi has three modes, one of them meant for conserving microbes for eventual composting (it runs for a long time, at low heat), and another for breaking down bioplastics (it runs for a medium-long time, at high heat). I processed the leeks on the third mode, “eco-express,” to which the machine is preset; it runs fast and hot. Five hours later, what had started out as a football-size clump of dense vegetable matter had turned into about a half cup of dark-brown, crumbly dust that smelled faintly—though unmistakably—of burned onions. It was thrilling . I had made—well, not compost, exactly, but something that was much smaller and easier to dispose of than what it had originally been.

During the next few weeks, I continued to process food waste in the Lomi, and later on I switched to the FoodCycler. I’d often run the machines overnight, and then giddily peek in the next morning. Twisting off their lids felt like taking a nickel to a scratch-off ticket: Would the new crop of dehydrated muck be pale tan? Chestnut brown? Wispy? Chunky? Dirt-like? Mossy? For a period, I found myself cooking with more vegetables than usual, just to have material to feed the machine: potato eyes, wilty, green carrot tops (my nemesis), perhaps a larger chunk of the root end of a shallot than my fussy dicing habits might otherwise have allowed to remain. I put in shrivelled tortellini that had stuck to the sides of the pot and—goodbye, five-second rule—crackers that had fallen onto the floor. Leftovers were no longer just for eating or throwing out. A container of week-old pho need not elicit guilt when you find it languishing in the back of the fridge; simply feed your FoodCycler a snack of soup-logged sprouts, onions, noodles, and herbs. Sure, you could probably get the same net effect with a blender and a low-temperature oven, but it would smell worse. At one point, I left town for two weeks without emptying the Lomi, and returned to a kitchen smelling like absolutely nothing: these machines have activated-charcoal filters that trap seemingly every single molecule of odor.

Using the machines was fun; they made disposal feel like creation, not waste. But is that a good thing? Many proponents of traditional composting find products such as the Lomi and the FoodCycler galling, because, despite what a person might infer from how they’re marketed, they do not actually create compost. They have blades or shears, to grind, and heating elements, to dehydrate. What emerges, at the end of a process cycle, is not the nutritious black gold that results from a proper compost system but, rather, an organic fluff of nicely cooked, thoroughly dried-out stuff . (The FoodCycler’s manual dubs the end product “RFC”: Recycled Food Compound; the Lomi just calls it dirt.) “It’s like the exact opposite of composting,” one Reddit user wrote, in response to someone’s query about the Lomi, but that’s not exactly true, either. Even throwing your dehydrated food scraps straight into the trash is, if not a net good, then at least a net better: a round in one of these machines leaves would-be trash both lighter and smaller, lessening its landfill impact. Even better, the end product can be disposed of through community composting—it provides a useful fibre layer—or added to the soil in gardens or houseplants, where it still contributes trace nutrients. You can also buy add-on probiotic tablets that reintroduce all the microbes that the dehydration process has burned off, but this, to me, seems almost farcical: if you’re equipped for the compost process that follows the reintroduction of beneficial bacteria, why are you buying one of these machines in the first place?

Mill, a startup that promises an “entirely new system to prevent waste,” is not just a device but a service. Mechanically, Mill’s “kitchen bin” functions almost identically to the Lomi and the FoodCycler—dry it out, grind it down, catch the smells—but it is several times larger and is designed to sit on the floor. For thirty-three dollars per month, customers lease the machine and are provided pre-labelled boxes so that they can mail the end product back to the company. (I was loaned a sample machine for a few weeks, before the device was made available to the public. It’s now popular enough that there’s a waiting list.)

Unlike its competitors, the Mill machine runs its cycle nightly, on its own governance. Each evening, at 10 P.M. exactly (the precise timing can be adjusted in the accompanying app), mine would sense that there was food to digest and begin to emit a purr so gentle that it disappeared into the ambient noise of the rest of my life. The experience seems designed to encourage you to think of the machine as a living creature. During setup, the app prompts you to give it a name. (I went with Ammit, the ancient Egyptian devourer of souls.) A lighted Lock button on the lid brightens and fades with a breath-like cadence. Step on the pedal and it opens hungrily, like the mouth of a humpback whale. I never thought I’d refer to a trash receptacle with personal pronouns, but I found myself saying things like “I think she’s about to lock for her processing cycle” and “I gave her that stale bagel that’s been on the counter for three days” and “Do you think we’re allowed to give her chicken?”

The chicken question is an important one, because the gimmick, with Mill, is that once you’ve mailed the company your end product (which it calls Food Grounds™), it turns around and processes those scraps to be used in chicken feed, which it sells to poultry farms. Can chickens eat chicken? The answer, at least in the United States, and also according to Mill’s in-app list of what is and isn’t O.K. to put into the bin, turns out to be yes. The company thus cleverly resolves the problem of what we should actually do with the matter our machines produce. All my desiccated food scraps were cleared away, from both my kitchen and my conscience.

Do these devices actually Make a Difference, in the scheme of things? A useful metric is the “break-even point”: How many times do you have to use this machine (or this cotton tote bag, or this reusable coffee cup, et cetera) before it earns back the energy and carbon costs of its own existence? Mill and Lomi both publish detailed impact reports, taking into account manufacturing, shipping, the (fairly marginal) energy usage of the machines, and, in Mill’s case, the impact of their chicken-feed operation. The process of tipping over into net climate beneficial depends on how much a person uses the machine, and what kind of energy grid her home runs on. According to Lomi’s analysis, if you send the machine’s output to the landfill instead of adding it to soil or compost, you will break even approximately never.

One evening, during my weeks using the Mill machine, I was struck by an eerie sensation as I closed down my home before bed. My kitchen bin hummed away happily on the floor, chewing up pizza crusts and fennel fronds into eventual chicken feed, while on the counter directly above it sat another device that, years before, I had purchased in an attempt to feel less alienated from the natural world: an all-in-one hydroponic AeroGarden, whose purple-pink grow light would shine all night over a thicket of Thai basil and flat-leaf parsley. My sanitized, fuss-free, apartment-friendly garden plot and my sanitized, fuss-free, apartment-friendly compost heap: not a farm, just a simulacrum of a farm. Both machines plugged into the same outlet, neither meaningfully contributing to the other, no shared cycle save inescapable samsara.

And yet there was something nice about it all, about this pleasant little illusion in which I, a twenty-first-century city dweller, could participate in a virtuous cycle of responsible consumption, if only I bought the right machines. It feels good to grow my little tangle of herbs (and sometimes tomatoes!) on a countertop, especially during the long, dark nights of winter, especially with the automated assist of a machine that lets me know that I need to add more plant food, or top up the water reservoir. It feels good to dispose of my food scraps in a way that bypasses the oblivion of the trash can or the landfill, without having to worry about fiddling with pH levels or insuring that I’m raking and stirring for proper aeration. A countertop hydroponic garden and a food-waste minimizing machine appeal to a part of me that has a primal urge to grow my own food—to experience the natural processes of growth and decay, to revel in the fecundity of both life and death—while also appealing to the part of me that is impatient, antisocial, and lazy. With the hydroponic herb garden, at least, those rewards are tangible enough to garnish a salad with. What a person gets from using the Mill machine, the Lomi, the FoodCycler, and their cohort is, in contrast, just a feeling: the pleasurable, bourgeois satisfaction of having done the right thing without working too terribly hard at it. Food-waste processors neatly produce lighter-weight, lighter-footprint waste, but that’s not their primary purpose: they are machines for the efficient alleviation of guilt.

Before my experiment in at-home devices, I had been in the habit of bringing packages of food scraps to the “smart compost bins” that the New York City Department of Sanitation (D.S.N.Y.) have been installing throughout the city since 2021. Before that, I would bring bags of ends and peelings to my local farmers’ market. There, GrowNYC, the nonprofit that manages the city’s greenmarkets, maintains one of their forty-five compost-collection sites. (The organization reports that these booths cumulatively diverted more than thirteen hundred tons of food scraps from the landfill last year.) This is my very favorite thing to do with food waste: give it to someone else to deal with it for me. Community composting, whether handled municipally or through neighborhood organizations, is to my mind the most unadulterated good thing in our whole horrible food cycle. Mayor Eric Adams promises that curbside compost pickup will roll out citywide before the end of 2024. In the meantime, D.S.N.Y.’s bright-orange receptacles are bolted to sidewalks like hi-viz mailboxes. The phone app that manages access to the bins is glitchy and frustrating; I’ve arrived at my local one only to find it locked, and presumably full, and the ground around it strewn with food scraps. The bins themselves—as objects, and as a program—almost certainly have an astronomical break-even point. But, scaled to the size of a city, a program like this could have a truly awesome impact: thousands and thousands of pounds of organic material collected each night, distributed among various large-scale compost processors, and eventually put to work nourishing parks and gardens that, in turn, nourish us. ♦

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Essay on Composting | Waste Disposal | Waste Management

Here is an essays on ‘Composting’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Composting’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Composting

Essay # 1. meaning of composting:.

Composting is the purposeful biodegradation of organic matter, such as yard and food waste. The decomposition is performed by microorganisms, mostly bacteria, but also yeasts and fungi. In low temperature phases a number of macro-organisms, such as springtails, ants, nematodes, isopods and earthworms also contribute to the process, as well as soldier fly, fruit flies and fungus gnats. There are a wide range of organisms in the decomposer community.

i. A biodegradable material is capable of being completely broken down under the action of microorganisms into carbon dioxide, water and biomass. It may take a very long time for some material to biodegrade depending on its environment (e.g., wood in an arid area versus paper in water), but it ultimately breaks down completely. Many contaminating materials not dealt with in common composting are in fact “biodegradable”, and may be dealt with via bioremediation, or other special composting approaches.

ii. A compostable material biodegrades substantially under specific composting conditions. It is metabolized by the microorganisms, being incorporated into the organisms or converted into humus. The size of the material is a factor in determining compostability, and mechani­cal particle size reduction can speed the process. Large pieces of hardwood may not be compostable under a specific set of composting conditions, whereas sawdust of the same type of wood may be. Some biodegradable materials are only compostable under very specific conditions, usually with an industrial process.

Essay # 2. Importance of Composting:

Composting upcycles organic kitchen and yard waste and manures into an extremely useful humus like, soil end product, permitting the return of vital organic matter, nutrients, and particularly bacteria, that are vital to plant nutrition to the soil. Managed aerobic composting arranges environmental conditions so they are optimal for the natural processes to take place.

There is a popular expression:

“Compost happens”, but it is helpful to engineer the best possible circumstances for large amounts of organic waste to decompose quickly and efficiently, with the greatest conservation of useful nutrients and mass. Uncontrolled composting is when compost “happens”, and although that may be functional in some circumstances, as with forest floor detritus, a neglected heap of kitchen and yard wastes will more likely result in “smells happen”, or “rodents happen” long before useful compost does.

Long used in subsistence farming and home gardening for creating garden ready soil, composting is becoming increasingly important and better understood as a tool for reducing municipal solid waste, and reducing the amount of green waste going into landfills. The decomposition of organic material sent to landfills is a principal cause of methane, an important greenhouse gas, making reduction of organic waste being landfilled a key element in the fight against climate change.

In suburban and rural areas, much of the organic waste could be removed from the waste stream by promoting home composting, where consumers compost their yard waste and kitchen scraps on their own land, regardless of whether the material is ever actively re-used as “soil”. In urban areas with dwellings predominantly lacking individual yard space, there are indoor small scale composting alternatives, such as vermicomposting and bokashi composting.

Composting organisms require four equally important things to work effectively:

i. Carbon (“C” or carbohydrates), for energy – the microbial oxidation of carbon produces the heat.

— High carbon materials tend to be brown and dry.

ii. Nitrogen (“N” or protein), to grow and reproduce more organisms to oxidize the carbon.

— High nitrogen materials tend to be green (or colorful, like fruits and vegetables) and wet.

iii. Oxygen, for oxidizing the carbon, the decomposition process.

iv. Water, in the right amounts to maintain activity without causing anaerobic conditions.

Certain ratios of these elements will provide beneficial bacteria with the nutrients to work at a rate that will heat up the pile. In that process much water will be released as vapor (“steam”), and the oxygen will be quickly depleted, explaining the need to actively manage the pile. The hotter the pile gets, the more often added air and water is necessary; the air/water balance is critical to maintaining high temperatures until the materials are broken down. At the same time, too much air or water also slows the process, as does too much C (or too little N).

The most efficient composting occurs with a C:N mix of about 30 to 1. All organics have both carbon and nitrogen, but amounts vary widely, with characteristics noted above (dry/wet, brown/’ green). Fresh grass clippings have an average ratio of about 15 to 1 and dry autumn leaves about 50 to 1 depending on species.

Mixing equal parts by volume approximates the ideal C:N range. Few individual situations will provide the ideal mix of materials at any point in time in this respect, home composting is like horseshoes, perfect is great, but close still works. Observation of amounts, and consideration of different materials as a pile is built over time, can quickly achieve a workable technique for the individual situation.

Ingredients that are primarily carbon include:

(i) Dry, straw type material, such as cereal straws and corn stalks

(ii) Dry leaves (best shredded, as with a rotary mower, to prevent matting)

(iii) Wood, as coarse or fine (may compact) sawdust, or ground wood waste.

Paper and card board, both unprinted and printed are not recommended as both the inks and paper contain materials such as pigments, clays, binders, etc., that are not biodegradable. While these insoluble ingredients are not toxic, they will not readily break down as other biodegradable materials. In addition, paper will decompose very slowly interfering with the composting process.

Ingredients with relatively high nitrogen content include:

(i) Green plant material, like crop residues, new shoots, hay (especially alfalfa), grass clippings and weeds.

(ii) Manure from poultry, humans, pets, and herbivorous animals such as horses, cows and llamas.

(iii) Kitchen waste, fruit and vegetable cooked waste and trimmings, juicing-pulp residue, tea and coffee grounds, meat, bones, eggs.

For “back yard” composting, mixing the materials as they are added increases the rate of decomposition, as does reduced particle size (i.e., chopped, shredded), or materials can be added in alternating layers, about 15 centimetres (6 in) thick. Keeping a carbon “cache” handy to the pile for covering and mixing with fresh wet additions (lawn clippings, kitchen scraps) is simplest.

Special additions or activators are not necessary, although some sprinklings of good garden loam as a first pile is built will aid more rapid working by inoculating it with beneficial soil bacteria, and some of the material from the first finished batch can be used in the subsequent mixes.

Adding soil also provides grit to help earthworms digest, as well as providing particles for finished compost to aggregate with to create humus. Agricultural lime is not necessary the bacteria prefer a slightly acidic pH, and their processing invariably results in a near neutral product. Seaweed meal, rock dust or rock flour, and other trace element amendments are best added to the finished compost, or directly to the garden.

Essay # 3. Approaches to Composting:

1. active (aerobic):.

An active compost heap, steaming on a cool morning. The heap is kept warm by the exothermic action of the bacteria as they decompose the organic matter.

Hot thermophilic composting is essential with some materials, such as meat and other animal products, dairy products, eggs, grease, cooking oil, manure of non-herbivores, and residuals from the treatment of wastewater, in order to kill pathogens; but these materials are not generally recommended in home composting because of the likelihood of creating odors and attracting rodents.

Human waste can be composted by industrial methods as well as composting toilets. When high temperatures are reached, the resulting compost can be safely used for agricultural or horticultural purposes, providing local health regulations are met. Humanure fertilizer (as opposed to night soil) is used throughout the developing world and is becoming more accepted as a garden amendment in the developed world.

Hot, aerobic composting is conducted at close to the ideal conditions noted above, allowing thermophilic bacteria to thrive. These aerobic bacteria break down material faster, producing less odor, fewer pathogens, and less greenhouse gas than cool, uncontrolled, or accidental anaerobic methods.

Commercial scale composting operations actively control the composting conditions (C:N ratio, moisture level and air), usually in a closed environment (in-vessel composting, tunnel composting or aerated static pile composting), where air is fan forced through the mass, and moisture added with sprayers, or conserved via the enclosure, with computer monitored probes detecting conditions.

In Thailand an aerated static pile system is in use by farmer groups at over 400 sites. The process needs only 30 days to finish without manual turning, with 10 metric tons of compost produced per month. A 38 centimetres (15 in) squirrelcage blower with 2.2 kilowatts (3.0 hp) motor is used to force air through 10 covered static piles of compost twice a day. The raw materials consist of agricultural wastes and animal manure in the ratio of 3:1 by volume.

High temperatures destroy insects, larvae, and weed seeds, but no compost will be totally sterilized by high temperatures alone. In a hot compost where the temperature exceeds 55 °C (131 °F) for several days, the ability of most organisms to survive is compromised, and there are temperature standards set by various regulating authorities for commercial products Nevertheless, many organisms in nature can survive extreme temperatures, including extremophiles such as Thermus thermophilus which play an important role in thermogenic composting, as well as pathogens such as Clostridium.

The necessary second stage of hot composting is maturation, a period allowing the dissipation of any phyto-toxins remaining from the process or contaminating ingredients (e.g., chemical residues), and achieving a state of nutrient stability (low C:N ratio) that will not have an impact on Nitrogen availability in the receiving soil.

For backyard composters, carbon and nitrogen ratios in various ingredients and the calculations required to get the ideal mixture can be intimidating, so rules of thumb exist for approximating it by ingredient types and condition. If the pile is built in a short period, and has a good mix of materials (C:N) and a coarse structure, with about 50% moisture (“like a squeezed out sponge”), the temperature should rise within days to as high as 60 °C (140 °F).

When the temperature begins to fall, more air is needed, usually added by turning the pile or using an agitating tool, and moisture may be needed at the same time. Turning or other aeration is usually needed about every 6-10 days to maintain the highest heat levels until the material is fairly uniformly broken down to unrecognizability, and temperatures no longer rebound. A pile that has been maintained at peak temperatures may be ready for maturing in as little as 30 days. Another 30-60 days maturing should suffice to allow passing the “germination test”.

To achieve thermophilic decomposition, a compost bin is best about 1 cubic metre (1.3 cu yd), or 1 metre (3 ft) wide, 1 metre (3 ft) tall, and as long as desired for windrow composting. This provides enough insulating mass to build up heat but also allows oxygen infiltration.

The center of the pile heats up the most, so regular turning/mixing is needed for insuring all material spends some time in the hottest area. When turning the pile results in no further temperature rise, the active aerobic phase is complete, and the mass may be turned out to a maturing pile. When the matured material has a dark brown crumbly appearance and the smell of rich damp earth, it is ready to use.

The natural sequence of the decomposition community involved will be:

(i) 0-15 °C (32-59 °F): Psychrophiles predominate, beginning the heating process as they multiply.

(ii) 15-40 °C (60-104 °F): Mesophiles take over, psychrophiles die off or are relegated to the borders.

(iii) 40-70 °C (105-160 °F): Thermophiles work at their peak, including consuming many other bacteria.

At the lower temperatures and around the borders, there will also be various fungal activity, as well as larger organisms, getting their share — a very dry, cooler pile may be attractive to ants, and gastropods may visit very wet piles. As the temperature returns to ambient at the end of the process, the sequence reverses, including new organisms that prefer the more degraded materials.

Added heat and pile insulation may be useful in the coldest weather, but is not ordinarily necessary, and is not desirable if it interferes with aeration or natural convective evaporation. Keeping the top dry and burying fresh additions in the center of a pile will be effective during winter conditions until heating resumes in spring.

2. Passive (Anaerobic):

Cool or ambient temperature composting, when the level of physical intervention is minimal, usually results in temperatures never reaching above 30 °C (86 °F). It is slower but effective, and is the more common type of composting in domestic gardening. Such composting systems may be in open or closed containers of wood or plastic, or in open exposed piles. Kitchen scraps are put in the garden compost bin and left untended.

This scrap bin can have a very high water content which reduces aeration, and may become odorous. To improve drainage and airflow, and reduce odor, carbon-rich materials, or ‘browns’, such as wood chips, shredded bark, leaves, or twigs may be added to mix and cover each wet addition, or holes made occasionally in the pile. The amount of attention may vary from none through occasional to “regular”.

Industrial Systems of Composting:

Industrial composting systems are increasingly being installed as a waste management alternative to landfills, along with other advanced waste processing systems. Mechanical sorting of mixed waste streams combined with anaerobic digestion or in-vessel composting, is called mechanical biological treatment, increasingly used in developed countries due to regulations controlling the amount of organic matter allowed in landfills. Treating biodegradable waste before it enters a landfill reduces global warming from fugitive methane; untreated waste breaks down anaerobically in a landfill, producing landfill gas that contains methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

Large scale composting systems are used by many urban centers around the world. Co-composting is a technique which combines solid waste with de-watered biosolids, although difficulties controlling inert and plastic contamination from Municipal solid waste makes this approach less attractive.

The world’s largest MSW co-composter is the Edmonton Composting Facility in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, which turns 220,000 tonnes of residential solid waste and 22,500 dry tonnes of biosolids per year into 80,000 tonnes of compost. The facility is 38,690 meters 2 (416,500 ft 2 ), equivalent to 4 1/2 Canadian football fields, and the operating structure is the largest stainless steel building in North America, the size of 14 NHL rinks.

A home garden can be primarily fertilized with compost.  

Past practices of biodegradable waste disposal not only remove valuable nutrients from the local biocycle, but when buried in a landfill, the anaerobic decomposition that results contributes to ground water contamination and uncontrolled methane generation, increasing the occurrence of greenhouse gas emissions.

Organic waste contains valuable nutrients that can contribute to the soil health in the immediate area of their production if recycled. Brown waste such as paper, cardboard, and dry plant material like leaves, are “captured carbon”, and green waste such as fresh plant residues and fruit and vegetable scrap contain much of the nitrogen used to generate their growth, as well as other essential macro and micronutrients, such as boron, copper, or iodine, lacking in some locales, so otherwise replaced with purchased commercial amendments. It also factors for minimum ammonium losses during composting of the residues of trimming.

From the compost at home, it can help improve your soil, prevent plant disease, and reduce greenhouse gases. The compost can also help soften plant material, increase the water holding capacity of the plant, and convert the ammonia in the plant into protein.

Agriculture:

Compost is an important source of nutrients commonly used in modern agriculture. Through steaming, compost can be sanitized and prepared for further use.

Home composting is the small scale domestic application of the principles of sustainable, biodegradable waste management, i.e. composting. The general principles involved in composting apply to any scale, from “backyard” to industrial, but the techniques will vary for each with the size of the waste stream, the cost, amount of effort, and the organization required.

Industrial scale systems are invariably capital and/or labor intensive, but on the home or small farm scale, composting can be managed to require varying outlay of capital and labor. For the small urban household, an indoor Bokashi or worm bin may suffice, for a suburban property with a larger yard and a food garden, a bin system would be preferable, while in small farm settings, a seasonal window system might be called for.

Container composting is a common style of small scale composting, using any of a wide variety of plastic, wood, masonry, or wire screen containers. Vented or closed sided compost bins each have proponents for the effect on air circulation and heat loss or retention in the compost. The Indore method developed by Sir Albert Howard, as well as the Shewell Cooper method favour spaced slats, while the New Zealand Box method advocates the use of closed sides. Combinations of the two are also used.

A compost bin is the container used to make compost. Commercially these bins may be made of hard plastic, and is commonly cylindrical in shape, although a variety of shapes and sizes are available. The manufactured bins are commonly found in urban and suburban areas, and in some districts of North America and the U.K., local authorities subsidise the cost to encourage public waste stream reduction.

They also may be user made out of wood, or whatever salvaged, recycled materials are at hand, particularly in rural areas or where larger amounts of yard and garden waste are generated. In some areas, community bin sites are provided. Compost bins can be as simple as a square slatted wood enclosure or as sophisticated as a tumbler, which allows for the “pile” to be turned for aeration purposes.

Sheet composting is the process of placing the organic matter for the compost directly onto the soil as a mulch and letting it decay there, rather than in a heap or container. One or more layers of organic material are spread over the growing area, watered thoroughly, and left to decompose until planting time. The next season’s garden is usually planted without tilling the compost into the soil.

More layers of organic material are placed as the bottom layers decompose thoroughly. This method is occasionally called “lasagna gardening” because of the layered structure.

Proponents of this system argue that sheet composting causes fewer nutrients to be lost through leaching than heap methods, also that fresh organic matter rather than decayed, provides a slower release of minerals when applied. It is also said that, in the long term, sheet composting leads to higher nitrogen levels in the soil, as some may be lost by leaching or vaporisation in a traditional heap.

Field composting is a large-scale composting method used in no till farming. Commonly, this is achieved by growing a ‘green manure’ cover crop such as mustard, alfalfa, or buckwheat, which is cut, preferably before seed setting, and left on the field to decompose. The next crop is sown without tilling the previous crop into the field. To avoid temporary nitrogen depletion, leguminous green manure crops such as lupin, winter tares, field beans, or clover, which are able to fix their own nitrogen supply in root nodules may be used. The nitrogen is released as the plants decay.

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Home + Garden | Gardening: Building a compost pile, planting…

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Home + garden, home + garden | gardening: building a compost pile, planting roses and fertilizing ferns, what to do in the garden this week..

1. Build a compost pile as you would craft a lasagna. Construct the pile by alternating 2-inch layers of brown (dead leaves, wood chips, straw) and green (leafy trimmings, grass clippings, fruit and vegetable peels) material, moistening each layer before adding the next. When the pile is 3 feet tall, cover it with a thin layer of soil. Soil contains the aerobic bacteria that will accelerate the decomposition process. Soil will also help the pile hold moisture, keep down odors and slow decomposition of the vegetation, making the pile easier to manage. Keep the pile moist and turned over every now and then to supply the water and oxygen for the proliferation of the aerobic bacteria that transform the pile into that soft, crumbly, sweet-smelling substance known as compost. Before starting, loosen the earth where the pile will stand to a 1-foot depth. The base of the pile should be a square 3-5 feet per side. 

2. Cut a sweet potato in half and place the two pieces in a pot of moist soil, cut side down, leaving the pointed ends uncovered. Keep soil moist and you will soon see slips (shoots) reach six inches in length, a good size for planting. When detached from the tuber, some slips may have roots and some not. Those with roots attached may be planted in the garden while those without roots can be rooted in a glass with two inches of water at the bottom prior to planting. Plant slips 12-18 inches apart in full sun and you will have large tubers in the ground sometime in the fall. There are two types of sweet potatoes: firm when cooked (white to yellow flesh) and soft when cooked (orange flesh), the latter often mistakenly referred to as yams. You may want to purchase organic sweet potatoes for this process since others may be sprayed with a chemical that inhibits sprouting.

3. If you are thinking about planting roses, consider two cultivars hybridized by the late Jack Christensen , who authored the 5 things to do in the garden this week feature for 25 years. Among the more than 80 hybrids to his credit is ‘Voodoo,’ whose six-inch blooms sport 35 petals. Flowers emerge orange and pink, transitioning to scarlet and foliage is a rich, glossy green. Voodoo has an outstanding fragrance, is disease-resistant, and is long-lasting in vase arrangements. ‘Gold Medal,’ a grandiflora rose of Christensen’s creation, has golden yellow petals with tawny edges. As if their color wasn’t enough, flower are notably fragrant, too. Find nurseries in your area that stock these roses at starrosesandplants.com . When you get there, click “Where to Buy” at the top of the home page.

4. You can ensure a robust yield of blooms on your azaleas and camellias next year by cutting branches back now. This will ensure more side branches and a greater abundance of flower buds next winter and spring . Also make sure to remove all withered flowers, whether they are still on the plant or have fallen to the ground, as these can harbor fungus diseases. As for fertilization, camellias should receive their first dose now, another dose in six weeks, and another dose six weeks after that for maximum bloom next year. Azaleas should be fertilized now and in later September. Any fertilizer recommended for acid-loving plants will do. Never cultivate around camellias or azaleas due to their shallow roots. Instead, keep a layer of mulch around them at all times.

5. Fertilize ferns once a month with mild products such as fish emulsion or cottonseed meal. You can also use a more concentrated liquid fertilizer as long as the percentages of available nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are equal. Make sure the soil is well soaked before fertilizer application since ferns are more susceptible to fertilizer burn than most plants and a wet soil weakens the strength of the applied minerals.

Your questions, comments, gardening problems and tips are always welcome.  Email [email protected]. 

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Asheville-area Airbnb owners sued for allegedly dumping renter 'raw sewage' in woods

ASHEVILLE - The "Secret Garden of Eden" trio of Airbnbs in Weaverville have over 407 reviews, near five-star ratings and mainly use composting toilets —an alternate form of waste disposal.

Yet, despite the glowing reviews, after the visit is over, the Airbnb owners, Sara Burrows and Brad Jordan, dump all of the renters' human waste into the woods on their property.

The seemingly unsanitary practice has led to environmental concerns, multiple notices of violation and a Feb. 20 Buncombe County lawsuit against the property owners for a lack of proper permits for the Airbnbs and improper wastewater management.

Burrows confirmed to the Citizen Times that they have been dumping renters' human waste from the composting toilets on their 20-acre property.

She said that she would take a 5-gallon bucket with renter waste and dump it in the woods nearby and then "cover it with leaves."

"I invite inspectors: Go try to find where I dump my poop," Burrows told the Citizen Times, noting that most of it is "already composted."

Burrows said that they separated solids and liquids from the tank, and dumped each separately, where the waste was treated with "enzymes" and "covered with woodchips."

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines a composting toilet as a "a well-ventilated container that provides the optimum environment for unsaturated, but moist, human excrement for biological and physical decomposition under sanitary, controlled aerobic conditions."

A 2015 memorandum of agreement between the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services and state plumbing and health specialists notes that composting toilets can be installed when approved by a local health department.

The MOA also states that the owners of the compost toilet systems shall comply with "septage management requirements of the N.C. Division of Waste Management for the removal and disposal of the solid and liquid waste generated by the composting toilets."

A Facebook post from Burrows included in the county suit reads:

"Yes, we dump the raw sewage in the woods ... just like the bears and people of the Amazon rainforest do. The trees thank us every time for fertilizing them."

Environmental complaint kicked off investigation

The suit states the Buncombe County's Environmental Health Department received a complaint in November that the hosts were "dumping human waste on the property," kicking off an investigation.

Using aerial photographs, the county confirmed the additional dwelling units were on the property and issued notices of violation for erecting structures without a zoning permit.

The county executed an administrative search warrant Dec. 6, where an inspection revealed none of the units used as STRs had been permitted and that electrical work to the units did "not comply with the 2017 NC Electrical Code."

Since November, emails and documents in the lawsuit show that multiple notices of violation were issued by the county against property owners, alongside outreach efforts in the months since to bring them into compliance.

After receiving instructions on how to fall into compliance Dec. 18, Jordan responded to county staff that he "rejected" the offer and that further communication with the county "will be considered harassment" and threatened to sue the county.

When asked by the Citizen Times, Burrows remained adamant that she didn't need to ask permission to make modifications to her property, despite laws requiring permits for such activities.

"We don't ask permission from the government with what to do with our private property. We don't have time for that. We don't have time to jump through their 20 permitting hoops," Burrows said.

Rentals have been active for years

The whole property, dubbed "The Secret Garden of Eden," featured a shed converted into an additional dwelling unit alongside a recently built tiny home and a recreational vehicle they named the "Glamper."

As of the lawsuit filing date, the three locations collectively had 407 reviews with each receiving nearly five-star ratings. Reviews indicate rental activity began in 2022.

Two listings are still currently posted on Airbnb with the Glamper having a daily rate of $88 a night. Burrows told the Citizen Times the Glamper is currently for sale.

The county found that Burrows and Jordan never gained a certificate of occupancy for any of the Airbnbs, did not receive approval to connect the buildings to the electrical grid and failed to connect the structures to an approved wastewater sewage disposal system.

No permits for construction on the property were filed for the completion of the buildings.

Some of the county attachments include Facebook posts from Burrows. One them reads: "There are no regulations about this, and if there were I wouldn't give a s---."

"A regulation is not a law, and this is a private property," Burrows continued in the post.

The notices of violation have racked up over $6,500 in fines, as Buncombe County continually issues $100 a day fines for non-compliance. The county is seeking injunctive relief and payment of the fines in the lawsuit.

"At the end of the day, this is a code enforcement action where we’re looking to the court for assistance with individuals who are refusing to comply with basic health and safety standards set forth by the state of North Carolina," county spokesperson Lillian Govus wrote to the Citizen Times March 1.

The suit comes as the county discusses regulations on short-term vacation rentals, commonly referred to as Airbnbs. Some proposed regulations highlight health and safety concerns regarding the use of Airbnbs.

Owners repeatedly stated intent to sue the county

When the Citizen Times contacted the Airbnb hosts Feb. 29, Burrows said "she didn't know anything about a lawsuit," and stated that she had "privately" sued the county. When the Citizen Times expressed interest in the lawsuit, Burrows noted: "You're not going to find it, (the county) is hiding it."

However, Burrows did note that sheriff's deputies have visited recently and have handed her papers she called "fake summons."

When the Citizen Times asked whether the Buncombe County Sheriff's Office might be trying to serve her with the complaint, Burrows said the sheriff's office should serve her with "real papers."

Burrows defined "real papers" as "delivered through certified mail."

In a Feb. 29 Facebook reel video posted by Burrows, Sheriff's Deputy Nathan Honeycutt is seen entering his patrol vehicle after stating: "Ma'am, I'm just delivering the paperwork. I have no idea what's going on here."

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Will Hofmann is the Growth and Development Reporter for the Asheville Citizen Times, part of the USA Today Network. Got a tip? Email him at [email protected].

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Guest Essay

I Supervised New York City Judges. Juan Merchan Put On a Master Class in the Trump Trial.

By George Grasso

Mr. Grasso is a retired New York City administrative judge.

I spent almost 13 years as a judge in Brooklyn, Queens and the Bronx. I supervised judges presiding over a wide spectrum of cases, dealing with complex legal issues, angry victims, difficult defendants and intense media scrutiny. The job can at times be thankless and frustrating.

But for all the cases I saw, I never encountered anything remotely as challenging as what Justice Juan Merchan faced in his Manhattan courtroom while presiding over the first criminal trial of a former president. And since Donald Trump was found guilty on 34 counts, Justice Merchan has come under further vicious attack.

As a retiree, I was able to attend each day of the Trump trial. What I saw was a master class in what a judge should be — how one can serve fairly and impartially for the prosecution and the defense, and above all remain a pillar for the rule of law in America.

Since the indictment over the cover-up of hush-money payments was issued last year, Justice Merchan has been subjected to an unrelenting pressure campaign. The defendant, Mr. Trump, and his supporters viciously attacked the judge and his family in deeply personal terms. Most judges strive to maintain their composure under the greatest of stress, but few succeed — yet Justice Merchan remained cool, calm and collected at every step of the trial.

As a supervising judge, I always emphasized the importance of maintaining control to those under my charge. That is how a judge ensures that all defendants — especially the most difficult ones — get a fair trial. That is how everyone is treated with courtesy and how rulings are evenhanded and fair. In this area, Justice Merchan excelled.

He issued a gag order carefully designed to protect witnesses, jurors, prosecutors and court staff, but left himself out of the order. He did this to ensure that the defendant’s right to harshly criticize the proceedings was protected even though he must have known that he would become an even greater target of Mr. Trump’s ire. When Mr. Trump repeatedly violated the order, Justice Merchan bent over backward to avoid sending the defendant to jail, despite a clear legal justification to do so.

It is hard for me to think of another defendant acting out in the same manner who would have received such lenient treatment. But special times — and special trials — sometimes call for special measures. A judge needs to know when to apply such measures.

In the course of the trial, he maintained his composure. Defense attorneys received many favorable rulings, and in some instances (like during the testimony of Stormy Daniels) he even made and sustained objections on behalf of the defense during direct examination. On other occasions, when Mr. Trump engaged in particularly objectionable behavior (like muttering curses about a testifying witness), he calmly called one of the defense attorneys to the bench to put a stop to the inappropriate behavior. Other judges might have called out the behavior directly, embarrassing Mr. Trump in front of the jury, which could be seen as prejudicial to the defendant.

I can’t think of one time when the judge interjected himself unnecessarily against either prosecution or defense, but not everyone agrees with that. In a recent New York Post opinion piece , for example, the lawyer Alan Dershowitz referred to “one of the most remarkable wrongheaded biases I have ever seen” regarding Justice Merchan’s handling of the defense witness Robert Costello’s behavior.

Maintaining order and fairness in a courtroom is not bias; it is how justice is served, and it is no easy thing to obtain.

Since the verdict, Republicans have unleashed further attacks against Justice Merchan. One Arizona Republican running for a House seat called Justice Merchan “a corrupt and biased political operative” and said that he “must be disbarred and prosecuted.”

Let’s be clear, these attacks are not really about Justice Merchan. They are direct attacks on our entire system of justice. As President Biden said in remarks concerning this case on Friday afternoon, they are reckless, dangerous and irresponsible.

However, I do agree with Mr. Dershowitz’s position in that same opinion essay that we should televise trials in New York State, so all could see for themselves what I saw every day and what he saw on the day he was there. For most Americans who followed the case, all they were able to see has come from media gaggles outside the courtroom.

Justice Merchan had to set a boundary between Mr. Trump’s raucous but protected speech (barring transgressions of the gag order) and the fact-based evidentiary and back-and-forth questioning that is central to a trial. By guarding that boundary, he protected the integrity of the rule of law.

I am aware of the deep divisions in our country as to the wisdom and strength of this case. But I am certain that Americans were well served by Justice Merchan.

George Grasso is a retired New York City administrative judge and a former Police Department first deputy commissioner.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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Beware crimes of negligence and omission in the rose garden 

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It must have been the atmosphere in the Hall of Justice.

On my recent jury duty, the words “crimes, misdemeanors, negligence and omissions” swirled around my head. And since roses are always uppermost in my mind, the rose garden became the unlikely landing stage for these undesirable words and concepts.

Well-tended roses contribute to a garden adorned with grace, but neglected rose gardens are quite the opposite. Avoid committing these crimes, misdemeanors, acts of negligence and omissions and enjoy a well-deserved garden of beauty.

Crimes and misdemeanors

The crime of abandonment and neglect: I am sometimes asked, “Do roses take time and effort to grow?” Since there is no plant that blooms with the simplicity of a silk houseplant, the answer is an emphatic “yes,” and this was expressed wonderfully by Rudyard Kipling when he said, “Gardens are not made by singing ‘Oh, how beautiful,’ and sitting in the shade.”

Success with plants takes time. How wonderful the world would be if pests and fungal diseases were courteous with our roses and left them untouched. In that Utopian garden, pests wouldn’t suck or chew on our plants, and fungal diseases would stay out of rose gardens. Dream on: If this is your vision, or expectation reality will hit hard.

Each plant at the nursery has a tag that details the conditions the plant needs to grow well. Buy the plant only if you can meet its specified needs. Roses need to be planted where they receive six hours of full sun per day. They should be properly spaced in a well-draining soil, and they MUST be watered. Roses should be pruned annually to open them up to air and sunlight and they need to be fertilized adequately and appropriately. Fungal disease should be removed from the garden, and the soil amended annually with organic compost or worm castings topped with several inches of an organic mulch. Bottom line: Just like us, plants need to be understood, loved and nurtured.

Don’t buy plants only to abandon and neglect them. If you can’t provide the care, leave the plant at the nursery for someone else, and buy the silk houseplant.

Culpable negligence

Inattention: In addition to the monetary cost of the plant, there is the “cost” of our time and watchfulness. When we spend time with our roses, we know what they look like when all is going well. This helps us to spot pest and fungal issues as soon as they occur, which enables us to address the problems right away. Failure to walk through the garden regularly or notice problems can result in big pest and fungal issues that can stress the plant and overwhelm the gardener.

Sloth and procrastination: A rose garden is not all rosy. The peaceful bliss will be marred by pests and fungi. You will see damaged, holey and chewed leaves and blooms. This is not the time to say, ‘manãna’ and walk inside. A good rosarian will stop in his or her tracks and crush the pest or cut out and remove the damage right away.

Procrastination can wreak havoc in the rose garden. For instance, lacy leaves throughout your entire rose garden is NOT a good look, but this will happen if you don’t stop and squish rose slugs that are on the underside of lacy rose leaves right away. There are several varieties of rose slugs. The bristly rose slugs are the variety most commonly seen in San Diego rose gardens. They are pale green or yellowish green with a brown head. You will see their lacy damage this month in your rose garden as the larvae typically commence feeding on your leaves in May. Although rose slugs are the larvae of the sawfly, in appearance they resemble the caterpillar in Eric Carle’s “The Very Hungry Caterpillar.” Like that caterpillar, they start out very tiny and all they do is eat and eat, and like that caterpillar, they just get bigger and bigger and do more and more damage. Young larvae chew off the surface of the underside of leaves, leaving windowpane-like damage. Older larvae chew holes through leaves. This makes for many, many lacy rose leaves throughout the garden.

Sawflies develop through four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Since these pests have several generations throughout the year, every rose slug you leave on a leaf or procrastinate crushing will accumulate progeny that will continue to harass you in future months this year — and in future years.

Planting what you can’t care for: Being realistic about how many roses we can manage is a winning strategy that contributes to a beautiful garden. Tending to more roses than we have time for in conjunction with life’s activities and duties can get tedious. We should be honest with ourselves and plant only the number of roses we can take care of. Otherwise, gardening, which should feel like fun, will start to feel like a chore. When roses are not deadheaded and damaged blooms and foliage are not cut out, the garden looks neglected. A neglected and unkempt rose garden is not a good look.

Disrupting the balance of nature: Pesticides, especially broad-spectrum pesticides, can do more harm than good, and they are not a guarantee that our garden will be spared from insects chomping down on our blooms and leaves. The rose gardeners who rely solely on pesticides and do not employ the cultural, mechanical and biological components of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) often do not understand the risks pesticides pose in disrupting nature’s balance. A healthier approach is to relax excessive perfectionism and transform our thinking, so we are more tolerant and not so bothered by a little pest damage. In conjunction, we should employ the biological tenets of IPM which entice beneficials into our garden to help us with our own mechanical management of pests, and the cultural tenets which keep our plants healthy and better equipped to deal with pest damage.

Infractions

Gambling … an understandable urge: In a perfect world, we should research the roses we are going to buy before we go to the nursery to ensure that they are disease resistant. Since many lovers of roses are constantly “hungry” for more, going to the nursery is akin to going to the grocery store to buy groceries when we are REALLY hungry. There is a chance we will buy our planned roses and then some, because we are very likely to see a rose with the wow factor that is not on our list. What to do?

Buying a rose we are unfamiliar with and have not seen growing locally is a definite gamble. Mitigate the gamble and research the rose on your smartphone. If it claims to be a good rose and you have the space, buy it. We only live once … and you can always “shovel prune” it if it does not perform adequately.

A hugely negligent omission

Not taking the time to smell the roses: We know we should select roses with disease-resistant genes and nurture them. But we must also practice self-care. Are we nurturing our roses but failing to nurture ourselves? This is a huge omission. Our gardens are a place of refuge and healing where we can escape the mundane distractions and anxieties of everyday life. Our garden can reassure us that beauty and peace still exist despite the chaos in our present world. Nature provides nourishment for all our senses. Periodically, we should put down our tools and sit and gaze upon the beauty of our plants and experience the joy of observing birds, bees and butterflies in our gardens.

Our garden can be a welcoming haven and a spot for meditation, contemplation and spiritual reflection. Let’s take the time to care for our plants, and then let’s take the time to stop. We can find and feel harmony, peace, tranquility and gratitude in our garden when we literally and figuratively stop and smell the roses. Do not fail to embrace these gifts of nature. They are some of life’s best pleasures.

Perwich is a member of the San Diego Rose Society , a consulting rosarian and a master gardener with UC Cooperative Extension .

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