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Introduction & Top Questions

Classification of influenza viruses

Evolution and virulence of influenza viruses, pandemics and epidemics.

Influenza pandemic preparedness
Transmission and symptoms
Treatment and prevention

What is the difference between influenza epidemics and influenza pandemics?

What is pandemic influenza preparedness, what are the symptoms of influenza.

Hand washing. Healthcare worker washing hands in hospital sink under running water. contagious diseases wash hands, handwashing hygiene, virus, human health

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Table Of Contents

What is influenza?

Influenza is an acute viral infection of the upper or lower respiratory tract marked by fever, chills, and a generalized feeling of weakness and pain in the muscles together with varying degrees of soreness in the head and abdomen.

What type of virus causes influenza?

Influenza is caused by several closely related viruses in the family Orthomyxoviridae , an RNA virus group. Influenza viruses are categorized as types A, B, C, and D. These major types generally produce similar symptoms but are unrelated antigenically. The infection with one type confers no immunity against the others.

Pandemics are worldwide outbreaks of a disease and are estimated to occur on average once every 50 years for influenza. Epidemics happen much more frequently, and seasonal influenza appears annually in most parts of the world. The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 is the most destructive influenza outbreak in history. It resulted in an estimated 25 million deaths globally.

When an influenza pandemic emerges, WHO adheres to its six-phase preparedness plan. Phases 1–3 are the early stages in pandemic preparedness designed to prevent or contain small outbreaks. The 4th and 5th phases are characterized by urgency in implementation of mitigation procedures. Phase 6 is characterized by widespread disease and sustained transmission of the virus between humans.

The symptoms of influenza include sudden and distinct chills, fatigue, and muscle aches. A person’s body temperature rises rapidly to 38–40 °C (101–104 °F). There are diffuse headaches and severe muscular aches accompanied by irritation or a sense of rawness in the throat. Symptoms associated with respiratory tract infection become more prominent, accompanied by lingering feelings of weakness.

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influenza , an acute viral infection of the upper or lower respiratory tract that is marked by fever , chills, and a generalized feeling of weakness and pain in the muscles, together with varying degrees of soreness in the head and abdomen.

Influenza is caused by any of several closely related viruses in the family Orthomyxoviridae (a group of RNA viruses). Influenza viruses are categorized as types A, B, C, and D. These major types generally produce similar symptoms but are completely unrelated antigenically, so that infection with one type confers no immunity against the others. The A viruses cause the great influenza epidemics , and the B viruses cause smaller localized outbreaks. The C viruses cause only mild respiratory illness in humans. Influenza D viruses are not known to infect humans and have been observed only in pigs and cattle.

Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes, and both influenza B and subtypes of influenza A are further divided into strains. Subtypes of influenza A are differentiated mainly on the basis of two surface antigens (foreign proteins )— hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). Examples of influenza A subtypes include H1N1, H5N1, and H3N2. Influenza B viruses are subdivided into two major lineages, B/Yamagata and B/Victoria. Strains of influenza B and strains of influenza A subtypes are further distinguished by variations in genetic sequence.

Between worldwide outbreaks, known as pandemics , influenza viruses undergo constant, rapid evolution (a process called antigenic drift ), which is driven by mutations in the genes encoding antigen proteins. Periodically, the viruses undergo major evolutionary change by acquiring a new genome segment from another influenza virus ( antigenic shift ), effectively becoming a new subtype. Viral evolution is facilitated by animals such as pigs and birds, which serve as reservoirs of influenza viruses. When a pig is simultaneously infected with different influenza A viruses, such as human, swine, and avian strains, genetic reassortment can occur. This process gives rise to new strains of influenza A.

A Yorkshire terrier dressed up as a veterinarian or doctor on a white background. (dogs)

Newly emerged influenza viruses tend to be initially highly infectious and virulent in humans because they possess novel antigens to which the human body has no prepared immune defense (i.e., existing antibodies ). Once a significant proportion of a population develops immunity through the production of antibodies capable of neutralizing the new virus, the infectiousness and virulence of the virus decreases. Although outbreaks of influenza viruses are generally most fatal to young children and the elderly, the fatality rate in people between ages 20 and 40 is sometimes unexpectedly high, even though the patients receive treatment. This phenomenon is believed to be due to hyper-reaction of the immune system to new strains of influenza virus. Such reaction results from the overproduction of inflammatory substances called cytokines . The release of excessive amounts of these molecules causes severe inflammation , particularly in the epithelial cells of the lungs . Individuals whose immune systems are not fully developed (such as infants) or are weakened (such as the elderly) cannot generate such a lethal immune response.

Influenza pandemics are estimated to occur on average once every 50 years. Epidemics happen much more frequently, and seasonal influenza appears annually in most parts of the world, sometimes in epidemic proportions. Influenza type A virus is the most frequent cause of seasonal influenza. When an influenza A virus undergoes an antigenic shift, a pandemic affecting most of the world can occur within a matter of months. The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 , the most destructive influenza outbreak in history and one of the most severe disease pandemics ever encountered, was caused by a subtype of influenza A known as H1N1 . During this pandemic an estimated 25 million persons throughout the world died of the so-called Spanish flu, which was first widely reported in Spain but originated in the U.S. state of Kansas.

Subsequent pandemics of influenza have been less severe. For example, influenza A subtype H2N2, or 1957 flu pandemic , apparently began in East Asia early in 1957, and by midyear it had circled the globe. The outbreak lasted on a pandemic level until about the middle of 1958 and caused an estimated one million to two million deaths worldwide. After 10 years of evolution that produced annual epidemics, the 1957 flu disappeared in 1968, only to be replaced by a new influenza A subtype, H3N2. This virus is still in circulation . The flu outbreak of 1968 was the third influenza pandemic of the 20th century and resulted in an estimated one million to four million deaths.

In 1997 a type of avian influenza, or bird flu , virus broke out among domesticated poultry in Hong Kong and then infected a small number of people, killing some of them. This same virus, H5N1 , reappeared among chicken flocks in Southeast Asia during the winter of 2003–04, again infecting some people fatally, and it has reappeared periodically since, primarily in wild birds, domestic poultry, and humans. Several other subtypes of bird flu viruses are known, including H7N2, H7N3, and H9N2. Though these subtypes rarely cause infection in humans, they are recognized as having epidemic and pandemic potential.

An outbreak of a previously unknown strain of H1N1 occurred in 2009. Originally called swine flu because the virus was suspected to have been transmitted to humans from pigs, the illness first broke out in Mexico and then spread to the United States . The H1N1 virus that caused the outbreak was discovered to possess genetic material from human, avian, and two different swine influenza viruses. The 2009 H1N1 outbreak was not nearly as deadly as the pandemic of 1918–19. However, the virus was highly contagious and spread rapidly. The pandemic potential of the new H1N1 virus was made clear to the international community by the World Health Organization (WHO), which declared a level 5 pandemic alert on April 29, 2009. This prompted the rapid implementation of mitigation procedures, including the distribution of drugs to treatment facilities, in countries worldwide. Despite these measures, the virus continued to spread globally. On June 11, 2009, following an increase in cases in Chile, Australia, and the United Kingdom , WHO raised the H1N1 alert level from 5 to 6, meaning that the outbreak was officially declared a pandemic. By mid-January 2010 the outbreak had affected people in more than 209 countries worldwide. It was the first influenza pandemic of the 21st century. In the United States the high levels of flu-like illness observed during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic were not observed again until 2018.

Research has indicated that each of the four historic influenza pandemics was preceded by a La Niña event—a change in global weather conditions associated with cool sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean —which, some scientists speculate, may have altered the migratory patterns of birds, possibly increasing their interactions with domestic animals and enabling genetic reassortment and the rise of new pandemic strains of influenza viruses.

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Updated: March 28, 2023 | Original: February 28, 2018

School children gargling their throats as a precaution against the Influenza epidemic, England

The flu, or influenza, is a highly contagious viral infection that mainly affects the respiratory system. It’s usually a seasonal illness, with yearly outbreaks killing hundreds of thousands of people around the world. Though rare, completely new versions of the virus may infect people and spread quickly, resulting in pandemics (an infection that spreads throughout the world) with death tolls in the millions. Symptoms of the flu include sudden onset fever, coughing, sneezing, a runny nose, and severe malaise, though it can also include vomiting, diarrhea and nausea. Influenza has plagued humankind for centuries and, given its highly variable nature, may continue to do so for centuries to come.

What Is the Flu?

Influenza is a viral respiratory infection that causes symptoms similar to, but more severe than, the common cold. Flu symptoms can include sudden onset fever, cough, runny or stuffy nose and severe malaise (feeling unwell).

The flu can also sometimes cause vomiting, diarrhea and nausea, (particularly in young children), but the flu is primarily a respiratory disease and not a stomach or intestinal disease.

Symptoms develop 1 to 4 days after contracting the virus. Most people recover within 2 weeks without medical treatment, but the flu can cause serious complications, including pneumonia, bronchitis and sinus and ear infections.

The “flu season” typically lasts from late fall to spring. Each year, flu epidemics cause 3 to 5 million cases of severe illness and about 290,000 to 650,000 deaths around the globe, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) .

During recent years in the United States, between 12,000 and 56,000 people have died annually from the flu, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) .

What Causes Influenza?

Influenza has likely been around for millennia, though its cause was only identified relatively recently.

One of the earliest reports of an influenza-like illness comes from Hippocrates , who described a highly contagious disease from northern Greece (ca. 410 B.C.).

The word influenza, however, wasn’t used to describe a disease until many centuries later. In 1357, people called an epidemic in Florence, Italy influenza di freddo , which translates to “cold influence,” referring to the disease’s possible cause.

In 1414, French chroniclers used similar terms to describe an epidemic that affected up to 100,000 people in Paris. They said it originated from vent puant et tout plein de froidure , or a “smelly and cold wind.”

The term influenza became commonplace to describe the disease, at least in Britain, in the mid-1700s. At the time, it was thought that the influence of the cold ( influenza di freddo ), along with astrological influences or the conjunction of stars and planets ( influenza di stelle ), caused the disease.

In 1892, Dr. Richard Pfeiffer isolated an unknown bacterium from the sputum of his sickest flu patients, and he concluded that the bacteria caused influenza. He called it Pfeiffer’s bacillus, or Haemophilus influenzae.

Scientists later discovered that H. influenzae causes many types of infections—including pneumonia and meningitis—but not influenza.

Researchers finally isolated the virus that causes flu from pigs in 1931, and from humans in 1933.

Influenza Virus

Influenza viruses, which are part of the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses, cause the flu.

Four types of the virus exist: A and B, which are responsible for seasonal flu epidemics in people; C, which is relatively rare, causes a mild respiratory illness, and is not thought to cause epidemics; and D, which primarily infects cattle and isn’t known to affect people.

Influenza A virus, which also infects including birds, swine, horses, and other animals, is further divided into subtypes based on two antigens (proteins) on the virus’s surface: hemagglutinin (H), of which there 18 subtypes, and neuraminidase (N), of which there 11 subtypes.

The specific virus is recognized by these antigens. For example, H1N1 refers to influenza A virus with hemagglutinin subtype 1 and neuraminidase subtype 1, and H3N2 refers to influenza A virus with hemagglutinin subtype 3 and neuraminidase subtype 2.

Influenza B, on the other hand, is recognized by lineages and strains. The influenza B viruses commonly seen in people belong to one of two lineages: B/Yamagata or B/Victoria.

How Flu Pandemics Arise

Influenza is a constantly evolving virus. It quickly goes through mutations that slightly alter the properties of its H and N antigens.

Due to these changes, acquiring immunity (either by getting sick or vaccinated with a flu shot) to an influenza subtype such as H1N1 one year will not necessarily mean a person is immune to a slightly different virus circulating in subsequent years.

But since the strain produced by this “antigenic drift” is still similar to older strains, the immune systems of some people will still recognize and properly respond to the virus.

In other cases, however, the virus can undergo major changes to the antigens such that most people don’t have an immunity to the new virus, resulting in pandemics rather than epidemics.

This “antigenic shift” can occur if an influenza A subtype in an animal jumps directly into humans.

It can also occur if an intermediate host such as a pig—which is susceptible to avian, human, and swine influenza—becomes simultaneously infected by influenza viruses from two different species and the viruses exchange genetic information to acquire completely new antigens, a process called genetic reassortment.

How the Flu Spreads

The flu spreads several ways: through airborne coughs or sneezes, through touching contaminated surfaces like doorknobs or keyboards, through contact like handshakes or hugs and from saliva shared through drinks or kissing. If you become sick, consider working or studying from home while recovering, as going to work or school can spread the disease to others.

How to Prevent the Flu

The elderly, young children, pregnant women, people with chronic disease and those with compromised immune systems are more likely to get the flu. The CDC says the flu vaccine is the most effective way to prevent the flu, though it is not foolproof. Avoiding close contact with sick individuals, covering coughs and sneezes, and washing your hands often can help prevent the flu. Once someone has contracted the flu, doctors can prescribe antiviral medication to shorten the illness and decrease symptoms.

The History of the Flu

Pinpointing pandemics from historical reports is challenging given the lack of accurate and consistent records, but epidemiologists generally agree that the 1580 influenza outbreak is the earliest known pandemic.

The 1580 pandemic began in Asia during the summer, and then spread to Africa and Europe. Within six months, influenza had spread from southern Europe all the way to the northern European countries, and the infection subsequently reached the Americas. The actual death toll is unknown, but 8,000 deaths occurred in Rome alone.

Nearly 150 years later, another influenza pandemic arose. It began in 1729 in Russia and spread throughout Europe within 6 months and all the world within three years. King Louis XV was reportedly infected and stated that the disease spread like a foolish little girl, or follette in French.

Only 40 years later, in 1781, another pandemic struck. It arose in China, spread to Russia, and then encompassed Europe and North America over the next year. At its peak, the infection struck 30,000 people each day in St. Petersburg and affected two-thirds of the population in Rome.

The pandemic of 1830–1833 began in China, and then spread by ships to the Philippines, India and Indonesia, and finally across Russia and into Europe, which experienced two recurrences over the span of the pandemic.

Outbreaks appeared in North America from 1831–1832. Before it ended, the pandemic may have affected 20 to 25 percent of the world’s population.

Spanish Flu Pandemic

The first “modern” flu pandemic occurred in 1889 in Russia, and its sometimes known as the “Russian flu.” It reached the American continent just 70 days after it began and ultimately affected approximately 40 percent of the world’s population.

The flu pandemic of 1918 is sometimes known as the “mother of all pandemics.” The so-called Spanish flu pandemic was the deadliest in history, affecting one-third of the world’s population and killing up to 50 million people.

The Spanish flu, the first known pandemic to involve the H1N1 virus, came in several waves and killed its victims quickly, often within a matter of hours or days. More U.S. soldiers in World War I died from the flu than from battle.

The 20th century saw two other flu pandemics: the 1957 Asian flu (caused by H2N2), which killed 1.1 million people worldwide, and the Hong Kong flu of 1968 (H3N2), which killed 1 million people worldwide. Both of these flu strains arose from a genetic reassortment between a human and an avian virus.

In 2009, a new influenza A H1N1 virus emerged in North America and spread throughout the world. The “swine flu” pandemic primarily affected children and young adults who had no immunity to the new virus, while nearly one-third of people over the age of 60 had antibodies against the virus due to prior exposure to a similar H1N1 virus strain.

Compared with previous pandemics, the 2009 swine flu was relatively mild, despite killing up to 203,000 people worldwide.

Flu Vaccine: A Moving Target

Shortly after scientists identified the influenza A virus, researchers began work on creating a flu vaccine, with the first clinical trials commencing in the mid-1930s.

Given the high death toll of World War I soldiers to the flu, the U.S. military was highly interested in a flu vaccine. During World War II , U.S. soldiers were part of field tests on the safety and efficacy of the new vaccine.

But during these 1942–1945 tests, scientists discovered influenza type B, necessitating a new bivalent vaccine that protects against both H1N1 and the influenza B virus.

After the Asian flu pandemic arose in 1957, a new vaccine protecting against H2N2 was developed. WHO monitored the circulating influenza virus strains in various countries to determine which flu vaccine would be needed in an upcoming season.

During the 1978 pandemic, scientists developed the first trivalent flu vaccine, which protected against one strain of influenza A/H1N1, one strain of influenza virus A/H3N2 and a type B virus. Most U.S.-licensed seasonal flu vaccines since then have been trivalent.

In 2012, the first quadrivalent flu vaccine that protects against an additional influenza B virus was approved for use.

Scientists at WHO and its collaborating centers determine which strains to vaccinate against based on how the viruses have mutated in the past year and how they are spreading, with different vaccines needed for the Northern and Southern hemisphere.

But given the uncertainties involved in these estimates, vaccine effectiveness can vary widely—the 2004–2005 vaccine was only 10 percent effective in the United States, while the 2010-2011 vaccine was 60 percent effective, according to the CDC.

The 2018–2019 flu vaccine was 29 percent effective against Influenza A and B and 44 percent effective in preventing influenza A (H1N1) viruses in the United States.

Lina B. (2008). “ History of Influenza Pandemics .” In: Raoult D., Drancourt M. (eds) Paleomicrobiology . Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Potter, C.W. (2001). “ A history of influenza .” Journal of Applied Microbiology . Sophie Valtat et al. (2011). “ Age distribution of cases and deaths during the 1889 influenza pandemic .” Vaccine . U.S. Flu VE Data for 2018-2019. CDC . Lone Simonsen et al. (2013). “ Global Mortality Estimates for the 2009 Influenza Pandemic from the GLaMOR Project: A Modeling Study .” PLOS ONE . Barberis, I. et al. “ History and Evolution of Influenza Control through Vaccination: From the First Monovalent Vaccine to Universal Vaccines .” Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene 57.3 (2016): E115–E120. Print. Paules et al. (2018). “ Chasing Seasonal Influenza—The Need for a Universal Influenza Vaccine .” The New England Journal of Medicine. Seasonal Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness, 2005-2018; CDC . The Flu Vaccine Is Working Better Than Expected, C.D.C. Finds; NYTimes . Seasonal Influenza, More Information; CDC . How the Flu Virus Can Change: “Drift” and “Shift”; CDC . Estimating Seasonal Influenza-Associated Deaths in the United States. CDC .

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Five simple steps to protect against flu

The most common symptoms of influenza (flu) include fever, a dry cough, headache, muscle and joint pain, a sore throat and a runny nose.

Each year, millions of people come down with flu. Most recover within a week, but for an unlucky few, flu can be deadly.

Seasonal flu epidemics typically occur in late autumn and winter, so we can anticipate them, and prepare accordingly.

In tropical regions, influenza can occur throughout the year, causing outbreaks more irregularly, but prevention is still important.

Here’s how you can protect yourself, and those around you.

Get vaccinated

Annual vaccination is the most effective way to protect yourself against flu, and serious complications.

Vaccination is especially important for pregnant women, at any stage of pregnancy.

It’s also crucial for children aged 6 months to 5 years, elderly people, those suffering with chronic medical conditions, and for health care workers.

Remember: a flu vaccine cannot give you flu. To feel achy or feverish after vaccination is a completely normal and natural reaction, and generally lasts only a day or two.

Wash your hands regularly

Clean hands protect against many infections, including flu. Keeping your hands clean is an easy way to keep yourself and your family healthy.

Wash your hands with soap and running water regularly and dry them thoroughly with a single-use towel. You can also use an alcohol-based handrub if you can’t get to soap and water.

Remember — washing your hands properly takes about as long as singing “Happy Birthday” twice.

WHO /Harold Ruiz

Avoid touching your eyes, nose and mouth

Germs are most likely to enter your body through the eyes, nose and mouth.

You can’t control everything you inhale, but you can reduce the risk of infection by keeping your hands away from your face.

If you do have to touch your eyes, nose or mouth, do it with a clean tissue, or wash your hands first.

Avoid being around sick people

Flu is contagious. It spreads easily in crowded spaces, such as on public transport, in schools and nursing homes and during public events.

When an infected person coughs or sneezes, droplets containing the virus can spread as far as one metre, and infect others who breathe them in.

If you don’t feel well, stay home

If you’re ill with flu, being around others puts them at risk.

This is especially true for people with chronic medical conditions like cancer, heart disease and HIV.

Quickly isolating yourself can prevent the spread of flu and save lives.

Q&A: Seasonal influenza

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At first, the flu may seem like a cold with a runny nose, sneezing and sore throat. Colds usually start slowly. But the flu tends to come on quickly. And while a cold can be miserable, you usually feel much worse with the flu.

Common symptoms of the flu often — but not always — include a fever as well as aching muscles, chills and sweats.

Other symptoms include:

Dry, persistent cough.
Shortness of breath.
Tiredness and weakness.
Runny or stuffy nose.
Sore throat.

Vomiting and diarrhea also are flu symptoms. But they are more common in children than in adults.

Related information

COVID-19 vs. flu: Similarities and differences - Related information COVID-19 vs. flu: Similarities and differences
COVID-19, cold, allergies and the flu: What are the differences? - Related information COVID-19, cold, allergies and the flu: What are the differences?

When to see a doctor

Most people who get the flu can treat themselves at home and often don't need to see a healthcare professional.

If you have flu symptoms and are at risk of complications, see your healthcare professional right away. Taking antiviral medicine to treat the flu may shorten the length of your illness and help prevent more-serious problems.

If you have emergency symptoms of the flu, get medical care right away. For adults, emergency symptoms can include:

Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath.
Chest pain.
Ongoing dizziness.
Worsening of existing medical conditions.
Severe weakness or muscle pain.

Emergency symptoms in children include all the symptoms seen in adults, as well as:

Gray or blue, lips or nail beds.
Dehydration.

More Information

Flu: When to see a doctor?

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Influenza is caused by viruses. These viruses travel through the air in droplets when someone with the infection coughs, sneezes or talks. You can inhale the droplets directly. Or you can pick up the germs from touching an object, such as a computer keyboard, and then touching your eyes, nose or mouth.

People with the virus are likely contagious from about a day before symptoms appear until about 5 to 7 days after they start. Children and people with weakened immune systems may be contagious for a slightly longer time.

Influenza viruses are constantly changing, with new strains appearing often. If you've had influenza in the past, your body has already made antibodies to fight that specific strain of the virus.

If future influenza viruses are like those you've come across before, either by having the disease or by getting vaccinated, those antibodies may prevent infection or lessen its severity.

But antibody levels may decline over time. And antibodies against past influenza viruses may not protect you from new influenza strains. New strains can be very different from what you had before.

Risk factors

Factors that may raise your risk of getting the flu or its complications include:

Age. Seasonal influenza tends to have worse outcomes in young children, especially those age 12 months and younger. Adults older than age 65 also tend to have worse outcomes.
Living or working conditions. People who live or work in facilities with many other residents, such as nursing homes, are more likely to get the flu. People who are staying in the hospital also are at higher risk.
Weakened immune system. Cancer treatments, anti-rejection medicines, long-term use of steroids, organ transplant, blood cancer or HIV/AIDS can weaken the immune system. This can make it easier to catch the flu virus and may increase the risk of developing complications.
Chronic illnesses. Chronic conditions may increase the risk of influenza complications. Examples include asthma and other lung diseases, diabetes, heart disease, nervous system diseases, previous history of stroke, metabolic disorders, problems with the airway, and kidney, liver or blood disease.
Race or ethnicity. In the United States, people who are American Indian or Alaska Native, Black, or Latino all may have a higher risk of influenza complications.
Aspirin use under age 20. People who are younger than 20 years of age and receiving long-term aspirin therapy are at risk of developing Reye's syndrome if infected with the influenza virus.
Pregnancy. Pregnant people are more likely to develop influenza complications, particularly in the second and third trimesters. This risk continues up to two weeks after the baby is born.
Obesity. People with a body mass index (BMI) of 40 or higher have an increased risk of flu complications.

Complications

If you're young and healthy, the flu usually isn't serious. Although you may feel awful while you have it, the flu usually goes away in a week or two with no lasting effects. But children and adults at high risk may develop complications that may include:

Bronchitis.
Asthma flare-ups.
Heart problems.
Ear infections.
Acute respiratory distress syndrome.

Pneumonia is one of the most serious complications. For older adults and people with chronic illnesses, pneumonia can be deadly.

Flu vaccines at Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic offers flu shots in Arizona, Florida and Minnesota.

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends annual flu vaccination for everyone age 6 months or older. The flu vaccine can lower your risk of getting the flu. The flu vaccine lowers your risk of having serious illness from the flu and needing to stay in the hospital due to flu. The flu vaccine also lowers your risk of dying of flu.

Flu vaccination is especially important because the flu and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cause similar symptoms. Both COVID-19 and the flu may be spreading at the same time. Vaccination is the best way to protect against both.

And if a COVID-19 vaccine or booster and a flu vaccination are due at the same time, you can often get vaccinated for both in one visit.

This year's seasonal flu vaccines each provide protection against the four influenza viruses expected to be the most common during this flu season. This year, the vaccine will be available as an injection and as a nasal spray. There also will be high-dose flu vaccines offered for adults age 65 and older.

The nasal spray is approved for people between ages 2 and 49 years old. It isn't recommended for some groups, such as:

People who had a severe allergic reaction to a flu vaccine in the past.
Pregnant people.
Children age 17 years or younger who are taking aspirin or a salicylate-containing medicine.
People with weakened immune systems and caregivers or close contacts of people with weakened immune systems.
Children between ages 2 and 4 years old diagnosed with asthma or wheezing in the past 12 months.
People who recently took antiviral medicine for the flu.
People with a cerebrospinal fluid leak or the potential for a leak, as with a cochlear implant.

If you have an egg allergy, you can still get a flu vaccine.

Controlling the spread of infection

The influenza vaccine isn't 100% effective, so it's also important to take several measures to lower the spread of infection, including:

Wash your hands. Wash your hands well and often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds. If soap and water aren't available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol. Make sure friends and family that you're around regularly, especially kids, know the importance of hand-washing.
Avoid touching your face. Keeping your hands away from your eyes, nose and mouth helps keep germs away from those places.
Cover your coughs and sneezes. Cough or sneeze into a tissue or your elbow. Then wash your hands.
Clean surfaces. Regularly clean often-touched surfaces to prevent spread of infection from touching a surface with the virus on it and then your face.
Avoid crowds. The flu spreads easily wherever people gather — in child care centers, schools, office buildings and auditoriums and on public transportation. By avoiding crowds during peak flu season, you lower your chances of infection.

Also avoid anyone who is sick. And if you're sick, stay home for at least 24 hours after your fever is gone so that you lessen your chance of infecting others.

Cold and flu viruses: How long can they live outside the body?
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Mayo Clinic Minute: Why getting vaccinated for the flu is doubly important this season
Loscalzo J, et al., eds. Influenza. In: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 21st ed. McGraw Hill; 2022. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com. Accessed Sept. 15, 2022.
Hibberd PL. Seasonal influenza vaccination in adults. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Aug. 23, 2023.
Goldman L, et al., eds. Influenza. In: Goldman-Cecil Medicine. 27th ed. Elsevier; 2024. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Aug. 23, 2023.
Kellerman RD, et al. Influenza. In: Conn's Current Therapy 2023. Elsevier; 2023. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Aug. 23, 2023.
Live attenuated influenza vaccine [LAIV] (the nasal spray flu vaccine). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/prevent/nasalspray.htm. Accessed Aug. 23, 2023.
Flu: What to do if you get sick. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/treatment/takingcare.htm. Accessed Aug. 23, 2023.
AskMayoExpert. Influenza vaccination. Mayo Clinic. 2022.
Grohskopf LA, et al. Prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices — United States, 2023-2024 influenza season. MMWR Recommendations and Reports. 2023; doi:10.15585/mmwr.rr7202a1.
AskMayoExpert. Influenza. Mayo Clinic; 2022.
People at higher risk of flu complications. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/highrisk/index.htm. Accessed Aug. 23, 2023.
Tosh PK (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. Aug. 24, 2023.
Prevent seasonal flu. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/prevent/index.html. Accessed Aug. 23, 2023.
How to protect yourself and others. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed Aug. 3, 2023.
Frequently asked influenza (flu) questions: 2023-2024 season. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/season/faq-flu-season-2023-2024.htm. Accessed Aug. 23, 2023.
CDC's influenza SARS-CoV-2 multiplex assay. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/multiplex.html. Accessed Aug. 3, 2023.

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Influenza Essay example

Influenza Influenza, normally called “the flu”, the influenza virus causes an infection in the respiration tract. Even though the influenza virus can sometimes be compared with the common cold. It also can cause a more severe illness or death. During this past century, pandemics took place in 1918, 1957, and 1968, in all of these cases there where unfortunately many deaths. The “ Spanish flu ” in 1918, killed approximately half a million people in the United States alone. It killed around 20 million worldwide. The “Asian flu” in 1957, in the United States their 70,000 people died. In 1968 the “Hong-Kong flu” There where 34,000 deaths in the United …show more content…

Most people perceive “the flu” to be a common (not a big deal ) illness, but they overlook the 20,000 deaths and over 100,000 hospitalizations nationwide. There are there types of influenza A and C or the most severe types and B which is the most common, Luckily not the to severe. The virus works by first attaching to the outside of a host cell. It injects its RNA into the cell. Unfortunately our cells treat the RNA like they should. It translates the viral genes using the cell’s ribosomes and enzymes. Now the virus can take the cell over and use it to reproduce more viruses. Sooner or later it releases the new nauseating viruses and they search for another cell to raid. Influenza fortunately can be prevented in most cases. You can prevent it through an annual vaccination. The vaccine is made up of 8 to 10 strains of the influenza virus . When you receive the vaccination the strains have been “killed”, so there is no possible way for you to get this illness just by receiving the vaccination. Your body recognizes the unknown strains and builds up immunity so if a “live” virus gets in your system your body has the correct code to “kill” it off. Other then vaccination, some basic treatment is: stay at home, drink fluids, take anti-inflammatory drugs (aspirin or ibuprofen), decongestants, cough medicine, gargles, lozenges, or await a natural treatment.

Influenza Pandemics

Throughout the history, influenza viruses have caused several pandemics or global epidemics, killing many people. For example, the influenza strike in 1918 to 1919 infected an estimated 500 million people worldwide, which is one-third of the planet’s population at the time and killed an estimated 20 million to 50 million people. More than 25 percentage of the U.S. population were affected, and caused 675,000 deaths in U.S during the pandemic.(History, 2015). There were no effective treatments for this type of influenza and no available vaccines can prevent its spread during the period. (History, 2015) U.S government required general population to wear masks and other protective equipments in public areas, and many public places also closed due to the influenza strike. Health care providers tried everything they knew to save people, but none shows any evidence of effects. (National Center for Biotechnology Information [NCBI], 2015). Scientists found out that the influenza virus had invaded their lungs and caused pneumonia, which made so many people died from the pandemic (History,2015). Another influenza strike happened

Influenza Vaccination Should be Mandatory Essay

4 Works Cited

Influenza is very contagious and spreads rapidly from person to person. Influenza causes worldwide yearly epidemics. According to World Health organization Influenza affects 5-15% world’s population and resulting in 500,000 deaths yearly. Ottenberg stated that, in United States, an average of 200,000 were hospitalized and 36,000 died each year from influenza complications. Influenza is the sixth leading cause of death among US adults and is related to 1 in 20 death in persons older than 65 years. Disease control and prevention estimates indicate that infections like H1N1 which is one of the types of influenza, have resulted in an estimated 42 to 86 million cases and 8520 to 17620 deaths. As I mentioned earlier that infections like

Social Factors Contribute To The Development Of Influenza And Epidemiology

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a contagious respiratory illness caused by the influenza virus that infects the nose, throat, and lungs (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

Essay about The Flu Shot Should Not Be Mandatory

3 Works Cited

Although the majority of people infected with influenza recover completely within a week to ten days, some people are at a greater risk of experiencing more severe and long-lasting complications. The flu can lead to complications such as pneumonia and in some circumstances, severe complications in high-risk groups can lead to death. The number of deaths attributed to influenza varies each year, but it is estimated to be approximately 500 to 1500 deaths per influenza season. People who are at an increased risk for complications include very young children, people over 65 years of age, and those already suffering from medical conditions including bronchitis, heart disease, diabetes, and kidney disease. Influenza vaccinations administered to high-risk people reduce hospitalizations, premature deaths, and they result in substantial cost savings to the health care system.

Essay on The Flu Epidemic F 1918

2 Works Cited

     There have been about 20 million reported deaths due to the influenza of 1918. The doctors were too overwhelmed by the many cases they had to care for, which brought about many unreported cases, causing this minuscule number. One fateful day in October 759 people died in Philadelphia (Kolata 19-20). The epidemic spread so far so fast that public officials became frantic looking for ways to fend off the virus. Arrests were made for spitting and coughing, public meetings were prohibited, and a series of medical procedures were all attempts to prevent the virus from entering victims’ lungs (Persico 83).

The History of the Flu Essay

9 Works Cited

Influenza, an innocent little virus that annually comes and goes, has always been a part of people’s lives. Knowing this, one would not believe that it has caused not one, not two, but three pandemics and is on its way to causing a fourth! The Spanish flu of 1918, the Asian flu of 1957, and the Hong Kong

INFLUENZA Essay examples

The 1918 pandemic was known as the “Spanish Flu” and was Influenza strain A(H1N1) and it caused the highest known influenza death rate known, 500,000 Americans and 20 million people worldwide.

Influenza, Avian Influenza, and the Impacts of Past and Looming Pandemics

Avian influenza is a disease that has been wreaking havoc on human populations since the 16th century. With the recent outbreak in 1997 of a new H5N1 avian flu subtype, the world has begun preparing for a pandemic by looking upon its past affects. In the 20th Century, the world witnessed three pandemics in the years of 1918, 1957, and 1968. In 1918 no vaccine, antibiotic, or clear recognition of the disease was known. Killing over 40 million in less than a year, the H1N1 strain ingrained a deep and lasting fear of the virus throughout the world. Though 1957 and 1968 brought on milder pandemics, they still killed an estimated 3 million people and presented a new

Influenza And Antidemic Change

Each winter season brings the horrid infectious disease, influenza also commonly known as “the flu.” Just in the past week, over 250 cases of positive specimens were gathered with it being the highest week in the year of 2017. Influenza has already been in full force this winter, with many people around Australia falling ill. Everyone in their lifetime suffers from the nasty flu as sometime in their life, but for some, it’s a critical and complicated disease. In the selected years of 2006, 2010 and 2015, influenza was one of the leading causes of death. Influenza and pneumonia are at rank 12, with 2015 having at least 3,402 deaths, more than breast cancer. “There has been a total of 12, 360 laboratories confirmed notifications of influenza

The Importance of the Influenza Vaccine Essay

6 Works Cited

Illnesses have long haunted the human race. As long as these illnesses have existed, humans have developed ways to cure themselves, beginning with simple herbs and proceeding as far as vaccines and complex medicines. One cure that long eluded scientists was that of the influenza virus. Now, the influenza vaccine, or flu shot, saves thousands of lives a year and helps prevent serious complications resulting from influenza infection.

Community Teaching Essay

According to Healthy People 2020 a goal of theirs is to “increase immunization rates and reduce preventable infections.” The influenza virus is one of these preventable infections, which can cause serious harm to patients. The influenza virus is known as the “flu.” Everyone in his or her life has had some experience with the flu, whether that is himself or herself or a family member. What if there was a way to ensure people from contracting a strain of the influenza virus? Well, thanks to technology and medical research there is.

International Outbreak: How Pandemics Impact Society

This disease is something you never want to face. We learned in “Silent Killer,” “In a single month, the flu killed 11,000 people in Philadelphia alone.” This caused the population of Philadelphia to drop a lot and it was all because of pandemics. In the text, “International Outbreak” it said, “It killed 280 of 318 people stricken.” The odds were not in people’s favor who caught the

Avian Influenza Research Paper

An influenza is a highly contagious viral infection of the respiratory passages causing fever, severe aching, and catarrh, and often occurring in epidemics. Because it is a viral infection, it cannot be treated with antibiotics. Antiviral agents can reduce the severity and duration of infection, but these are

Symptoms And Symptoms Of The Flu Virus

While I was completing my clinical rotation at the hospital, I was able to observe a 6 year old girl of Hispanic background get admitted with the flu virus. This particular little girl was placed in a room with a precaution sign on the door that said to wear protective gear such as mask and gloves upon entering room. The sign also stated that the flu virus was also spread by droplets. So what is the flu? According to the literature, it was found that in 1933 these causative organisms were later identified as a virus. The flu is a highly contagious virus that attacks our respiratory and immune system. It can furthermore be broken down into categories A, B and C. Human influenza A and B cause seasonal epidemics in the United States. Type C is a mild respiratory illness, not known to cause epidemics. Type A can be further broken down into subgroups of different strains while type B is not broken down into subtypes but lineages and strains. The seasonal flu easily enters through our nose, mouth and carries itself down to our lungs. Each year, a countless number of people from the age of 0-99 become infected with the influenza (flu) virus. The flu has a sudden onset of high fever, usually dry cough, muscle aches, sore throat, runny nose and generally a malaise feeling all over the body. Usually the flu is a seasonal virus occurring typically in the fall or winter months but flu is highly unpredictable. Flu can range from a mild case to a severe hospital ridden case and

Informative Speech On Influenza

Background & Audience Relevance: Influenza is an infection that can affect anyone around the world. Am quite sure almost everyone, if not all of us, have been infected with influenza at some point in our lives.

Influenza Essays (Examples)

410+ documents containing “influenza” .

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Influenza the threat of bird.

Medications must be continued until the vaccine becomes effective. She should contact the state of local health department immediately about the outbreak and report cases to the local health department. The Watson Caring Theory may be infused in the role and functions of the community health nurse when treating and caring for patients or victims of influenza. Jean Watson's 10 carative factors can translate into clinical caritas processes and bring about subject healing processes that can help speed up the recovery of a patient as an individual, as part of a family or as a member of the community. In applying Watson's caring theory or model, the nurse can form or build a humanistic-altruistic system of values with the individual patient, the family or community; instill faith and hope; become more sensitive to them in their suffering; develop a more trusting relationship with them; elicit and accept their expression of….

Bibliography

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004). Influenza: the Disease. Department of Health and Human Services.

Influenza the Story of Pandora's

Two families belong to this one, the Paramyxovirus and the Orthomyxovirus. Influenza virus belong to the latter. It was only perhaps during in the 1930's when the etiologic agent was identified to be a virus, rather than a bacteria.. Influenza virus has five genera: InfluenzavirusA, InfluenzavirusB, InfluenzavirusC, Isavirus and Thogotovirus. The virus that causes influenza has three immunologic types: A, B and C. Influenza type a is known to have great antigenic changes, type B to a lesser degree. Type C appears to be the most stable antigenically among the three. Types a and C. affect multiply species, while Type B exclusively infects humans. (2008 the Flu) Influenza virus a is the prototype of the Influenza virus, and the structures of other Influenza virus are almost the same. Influenza virus are usually spherical, but can also be globular and about 100 nm in diameter, sheathed in a lipid bilayer that is studded….

Brooks, GF, Butel, JS, Ornston, LN 1995, Jawetz, Melnick and Adelberg's Medical Microbiology 20th ed, Appleton and Lange, Norwalk.

2008 the Flu, Available from: http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/I/Influenza.html[April 24, 2008].

2005 Influenza Viruses, Center for Disease and Control Prevention, Available at

Influenza Pandemic

spread? Classification of the influenza virus Definition of pandemic and causes and reasons for its spread How well is USA prepared for the onset of the influenza virus? The morbidity and mortality rates of the influenza virus Details about WHO and CDC and their methods of tackling the disease End Notes Influenza Pandemic What is Influenza and how does it spread: Influenza is defined as a severe infection of the respiratory tract and is shown in the inflammation of the nasal mucosa and the pharynx and the eyes and the patient suffers from a headache and more often severe myalgia. He also suffers from chills, prostration, muscle aches, a sore throat and also, a dry cough. Influenza is also known as the flu and is described as an infectious disease caused by the inhalation of an infectious virus. It may become a life threatening disease in infants, the elderly, and some people whose immunity systems are compromised. It….

CDC protects Health and Safety. Retrieved at http://www.cdc.gov /protect.htm. Accessed on 15 September, 2004

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved at

Influenza Pandemics Past and Future

Future: For many centuries, the influenza virus has been a threat to the health of humans as strains of this virus continue to spread quickly worldwide, especially during the flu season i.e. from late fall through winter. It's estimated that between 5% to 20% of America's population contact the flu and exhibit symptoms like headaches, digestive and breathing difficulties, muscle aches, and high fever. As a result, an estimated 36,000 people in America die from influenza annually because of the high rate of infections. Therefore, the virus has continued to be a major health challenge to many people to an extent that its one of the major pandemics throughout the world. Human Activities Contributing to Environmental Problems: Similar to other communicable diseases, many people continue to suffer from the devastating effects of the influenza virus. In the past few years, numerous attempts have been made to understand the science underlying these infections….

References:

"Chapter One: Unintended Consequences." (n.d.). Department of Health and Ageing. Retrieved from Australian Government website: http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/62447BB3FD99D740CA256F1900041F2D/$File/chapter1.pdf

"Research: The Scientific Method." (n.d.). Small Island Environmental Management. Retrieved July 9, 2012, from http://islands.unep.ch/siemh1.htm

H5N1 Avian Influenza Much Like

, 1378). Much like other influenza a viruses, the virion of the H5N1 virus is enveloped and is either spherical or filamentous as to its formation and in clinical isolates, the virus has been shown to be more filamentous, while in some laboratory strains, it appears more spherical (eigel, et al., 1379). As to the genome of the H5N1 virus, this is composed of eight single non-paired RNA strands, containing a code with eleven specific proteins; the overall size is estimated at 13,588 bases (eigel, et al., 1379). According to Wang and Jiang, the entry of the H5N1 virus into a host cell is mediated by hemagglutinin, "a virus surface glycoprotein that can bind terminal sialic acid residues on host cell glycoproteins and glycolipids (2009, Internet). In most cases, treatment of the H5N1 influenza virus includes immediate hospitalization in the intensive care unit and being placed on a ventilator, along with possible….

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Avian Influenza -- Bird Flu." CDC. 2009. Internet. Retrieved September 25, 2009 from

Bird Flu Avian Influenza and

Symptoms of the bird flu in humans vary depending on the exact subtype which that individual has been infected with. Most people contract the avian influenza from coming into contact with infected birds, "During an outbreak of avian influenza among poultry, there is a possible risk who have contact with infected birds or surfaces that have been contaminated with secretions or excretions from infected birds," (CDC 2007). The etiological agents which infect the body are transmitted through fluids and feces. The most typical subtype is the Avian Influenza A, or the H5N1 virus (CDC 2007). A frightening percentage of more than half of all people who have contracted H5N1 have died. Most cases of contraction between humans falls into the realm of extremely close familial relationships, like between mother and child. However, there are still fears that H5N1 could mutate into a form which could be easier transmitted through human….

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services.

Key Facts About Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and Avian Influenza A (H5N1

Virus)." 2007. http://www.cdc.gov

Department of Health and Human Services. "Pandemic Flu." 2007. http://www.pandemicflu.org

Avian Flu Avian Influenza If

In the event of such an epidemic, it is reasonable to assume that public health departments will be pressed to find ways to maintain their services even when employees are ill, normal supply chains are disrupted, and the nation's infrastructure is inoperative; furthermore, the traditional roles of environmental health professionals can also be expected to change in dramatic ways during a period of pandemic influenza (Fabian, 2006). As U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services Secretary Leavitt has noted, states and local jurisdictions will be in the vanguard of the battle that has 5,000 fronts. According to the secretary, "A lot is going to be expected of us. Fortunately, a great deal of the preparation activities laid out below have already become part of our awareness and skill set as a result of some of the terrorism and emergency response planning that public health has recently experienced" (Fabian, 2006, p.….

Aguirre, A.A., House, C., Ostfeld, R.S., Pearl, M.C., & Tabor, G.M. (2002). Conservation medicine: Ecological health in practice. New York: Oxford University Press.

Anzul, M., Evans, J.F., King, R., & Tellier-Robinson, D. (2001). Moving beyond a deficit perspective with qualitative research methods. Exceptional Children, 67(2), 235

Chikombero, P.M., Haridakis, P.M., Hullman, G.A., Pornsakulvanich, V., & Sun, S. (2003). Television exposure not predictive of terrorism fear. Newspaper Research Journal, 24(1), 128.

Executive Order. (April 1, 2005). Amendment to E.O. 13295 relating to certain influenza v iruses and quarantinable communicable diseases.

Rapid Influenza testing in children and adults

Introduction Influenza is, in basic terms, a viral attack on the respiratory system of an individual. In most cases, it is simply referred to as the flu. Some of the more common symptoms of influenza include, but they are not limited to, a sore throat, nasal congestion, weakness and fatigue, headache, muscle aches, and fever. In as far as diagnosis is concerned, a physical exam is in most cases conducted alongside tests. There are various tests that could be used in influenza diagnosis. These could be inclusive of the rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDTs). Discussion From the onset, it is important to note that according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – CDC (2016), RIDTs “are immunoassays that can identify the presence of influenza A and B viral nucleoprotein antigens in respiratory specimens, and display the result in a qualitative way (positive vs. negative).” As CDC further points out, these tests….

Avian Influenza a H5N1 Avian

However, one cannot develop the vaccine before the outbreak occurs. From development to commercial production of the vaccine would take approximately three months after a pandemic has been declared (WHO, 2008). The vaccine developed must be matched exactly to the disease, or it will prove ineffective. The development of a vaccine that is not effective is a waste of money, resources, and will do nothing to help stop the spread of disease. This does not mean that a vaccine is useless, it will help to control and stop the pandemic once it is started. Without the development of a vaccine, the pandemic would have a more devastating effect on the human population. The disease would literally be able to spread unchecked on a global basis. There are currently two drugs on the market that are effective against H5N1. They are both in the neuraminidase inhibitor class. Osletamivir (tamiflu) and zanamivir….

Center for Infectious Disease Research & Policy (CIDRAP). Pandemic Influenza.

Academic Health Center,

University of Minnesota. 2008. http://id_center.apic.org/cidrap/content/influenza/panflu/biofacts/panflu.html. Accessed April 11, 2008.

Health and Human Services (HHS). Pandemic influenza plan. Released Nov 2, 2005. http://www.hhs.gov/pandemicflu/plan/ . Accessed April 11, 2008.

Emergency the 2009 H1N1 Influenza Pandemic Posed

Emergency The 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic posed enormous challenges for state health departments across the United States. This case focuses on Tennessee which endured an intense resurgence of the disease in 2009 and explores how state health officials, working with their partners from public and private sectors, mobilized in advance for the second wave of the disease. An array of preparedness efforts, such as the development of mechanisms for distributing vaccine, ultimately put the state in a strong position to deal with H1N1 come fall, but health officials still experienced considerable difficulty in several areas, including vaccine delivery, communicating with an anxious public, and managing a surge of patients seeking care. The case highlights methods for preparing for a significant public health emergency and explores the difficulties of coordinating a response involving multiple jurisdictions and a mix of actors from both the public and private sectors. The federal government had approximated….

Alapo, L., & Kennedy, C.W. (2009, April 28). Tennessee Preparing for, not Panicking about, Swine flu. Retrieved September 29, 2012, from www.knoxnews.com: http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2009/apr/28/042809swineet/

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). The 2009 H1N1 Pandemic: Summary Highlights. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

National Conference of State Legislatures. (2009, January 29). H1N1 State and Federal Response . Retrieved September 29, 2012, from www.ncsl.org: http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/h1n1-state-and-federal-response.aspx

Tennessee Department of Health. (2009, November 11). Sentinel Provider Influenza-Like Illness (ILI) Surveillance Summary. Retrieved September 29, 2012, from www.health.state.tn.us: http://health.state.tn.us/Downloads/week50ILI_spnreport_2009.pdf

Seasonal Flu Influenza Problem Centers for Disease

Seasonal Flu (Influenza) Problem Centers for Disease Control The CDC website contains a wide range of information on the seasonal flu, spanning from demographic information and technical information about what 'is' the flu to practical information about preventative measures and treatments that would be of interest to patients. The information is comprehensive and detailed, and also includes special links to information for specific groups, such as the elderly and diabetics. Objectivity: Explain how content does or does not represent bias based on advertising or sponsorship. Most of the data is scientifically validated and virtually all of the entries contain detailed references to matters such as the composition of the different flu viruses that are seldom found in other literature directed at the public. There are parts of the website designed to quiet reader fears in regards to who and who should not get different types of flu vaccines. All information reflects mainstream scientific views regarding….

Flu Deaths Expected to Rise Is Written

Flu deaths expected to rise" is written by influenza expert Mr. . Paul McKinney. He stated that the influenza virus will be stronger and worst this year and the health officials should make precautions for it and spread awareness amongst the masses about the attack. The virus is expected to attack more brutally on the older people and infants, i.e., people who are older than 65 years and younger than 5 years are more likely to be attacked. The virus can also cause several deaths of those who are already suffering with chronic diseases. Hence there will be an overall rise in flu deaths this year. There is no doubt that the government and other health officials and professionals are trying their best in order to educate people about the severity of the virus and to make the situation prominent and vivid, but there is a need of much….

Works Cited

Mckinney, N. Flu deaths expected to rise. Pearson Neighborhood news, Week 11. http://www.pearsonneighborhood.com/lvl1/news/week_11.cfm

Lowell, A. Smoking breaks a thing of the past? Pearson Neighbourhood news, Week 9. http://www.pearsonneighborhood.com/lvl1/news/week_09.cfm

Scutchfield, F.D., & Keck, C.W. (2003). Principles of public health practice. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson/Delmar Learning.

Stanhope, M., & Lancaster, J. (2004). Community & public health nursing. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby.

Avian Bird Flu the Avian

The risk to humans is generally low, however during any outbreak of Avian Flu among poultry, there is always a possible risk to humans who have contact with the infected birds and surfaces contaminated with excretions from the infected fowl (Avian1). The current outbreak of H5N1 among poultry in Asia and Europe is an example of a bird flu outbreak that has caused human infections and death (Avian1). In rare instances, limited human-to-human spread of H5N1 virus has occurred, however transmission has not been observed to continue beyond one person (Avian1). Because all influenza viruses have the ability to change, scientists are concerned that the H5N1 virus could mutate and infect humans with a strain that could easily spread from one person to another (Avian1). Furthermore, according to the CDC, because these viruses do not commonly infect humans, there is little or no immune protection against them in the human population,….

Avian1 Influenza. Retrieved November 01, 2005 from Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention Web site:

Health-Nursing Avian Influenza Avian Influenza is a disease that humans are becoming exposed to through contact, either directly or indirectly with infected poultry or fowl. This paper intends to explore the history of the flu as well as what is being done to combat this infectious and deadly disease. Avian Influenza, also known as Avian flu or "bird flu" is "an infectious disease of birds caused by type A strains of the influenza virus" according to the World Health Organization. Identified over 100 years ago in Italy it has now spread throughout the entire globe. The immune systems of some bird species are more resistant to this disease than other although it is believed that all species are susceptible to becoming infected with the disease. The flue ranges "from mild illness to a highly contagious and rapidly fatal disease results in severe epidemics." Facts of the Disease: The fatal version of the disease is known….

Avian Influenza - Fact Sheet (2004) World Health Organization Web site [Online] available at http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_01_15/en/

Guidance for Protecting Workers Against Avian Flu

http://www.osha.gov/dsg/guidance/avaian-flu.html

Weekly Epidemiological Record: Avian Influenza Thailand

Marketing Strategy and Information Campaign for Flu Shots

Addressing myths targeting the young is particularly important to stress online, given that is where anti-vaccine myths are often disseminated. The fact that the flu shot has minimal risks should also be addressed, to counteract the urban myths about its dangers. Online, links to useful 'myth-busting' sites about the flu and the spread of the flu can be provided. Persuasive techniques Various types of persuasive motivations should be emphasized, across all the types of media used in the campaign. Older individuals may be motivated to get vaccinated because of a fear for their more fragile health -- but also because they do not want to put their grandchildren at risk. Older people may also be motivated by a sense of civic purpose, so as not to spread the disease. So might healthcare workers and teachers, both of whom are in contact with high-risk members of the public on a frequent basis. From….

Questions and Answers: Seasonal Flu Shot. (2010). Centers for Disease Control (CDC).

Retrieved October 28, 2010 at

Can you provide guidance on how to outline an essay focusing on Infectious diseases and lifestyle diseases

I. Introduction A. Brief explanation of infectious diseases B. Brief explanation of lifestyle diseases II. Infectious Diseases A. Definition and characteristics 1. Caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi 2. Transmitted through direct contact, contaminated food or water, or vectors B. Common examples 1. Influenza 2. Tuberculosis 3. Malaria C. Prevention and control 1. Vaccinations 2. Good hygiene practices 3. Public health measures III. Lifestyle Diseases A. Definition and characteristics 1. Chronic diseases caused by unhealthy lifestyle choices 2. Develop over time due to factors such as poor diet, lack of exercise, and smoking B. Common examples 1. Cardiovascular diseases (heart disease, stroke) 2. Type 2 diabetes 3. Obesity C. Prevention and management 1. Healthy diet and nutrition 2. Regular physical activity 3. Smoking....

Outline: Infectious and Lifestyle Diseases I. Introduction - Hook: Start with a captivating statistic or narrative that highlights the global burden of infectious and lifestyle diseases. - Thesis statement: State the central argument that infectious and lifestyle diseases pose significant risks to human health, and that these risks are influenced by various lifestyle factors. II. Infectious Diseases - Definition of infectious diseases and their modes of transmission. - Examples of common infectious diseases (e.g., influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis) and their associated symptoms and severity. - Factors contributing to the spread of infectious diseases, including poverty, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare. - The role of public health....

How did westward invasion impact the Native American tribes?

The westward invasion had a devastating impact on Native American tribes. As settlers moved westward, they encroached on Native American lands, leading to violent conflicts and wars. Many tribes were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands and relocated to less desirable and often unfamiliar territories. The loss of land and resources had a profound impact on the traditional way of life of many tribes. Their hunting grounds were disrupted, their food sources depleted, and their cultural practices threatened. This led to widespread poverty, hunger, and disease among Native American communities. Additionally, the westward invasion resulted in the spread of diseases such as....

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The Profound Significance of Handwashing: A Cornerstone of Personal Hygiene and Public Health Handwashing, an indispensable component of personal hygiene, holds profound implications for both individual well-being and public health. The simple act of cleansing hands with soap and water serves as a potent defense against a myriad of harmful microorganisms, thereby preventing the spread of infections and safeguarding the health of communities worldwide. Handwashing: A Barrier against Microbial Invasion Pathogenic microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, lurk on surfaces we touch and in the air we breathe. These microscopic adversaries can enter our bodies through various portals, such as the mouth,....

Medications must be continued until the vaccine becomes effective. She should contact the state of local health department immediately about the outbreak and report cases to the local…

Two families belong to this one, the Paramyxovirus and the Orthomyxovirus. Influenza virus belong to the latter. It was only perhaps during in the 1930's when the etiologic agent…

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Future: For many centuries, the influenza virus has been a threat to the health of humans as strains of this virus continue to spread quickly worldwide, especially during the…

, 1378). Much like other influenza a viruses, the virion of the H5N1 virus is enveloped and is either spherical or filamentous as to its formation and in clinical isolates,…

Symptoms of the bird flu in humans vary depending on the exact subtype which that individual has been infected with. Most people contract the avian influenza from coming…

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Addressing myths targeting the young is particularly important to stress online, given that is where anti-vaccine myths are often disseminated. The fact that the flu shot has minimal risks…

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Guest Essay

Why Are Lots of Kids Likely to Be Sick This Holiday Season?

By Florian Krammer and Aubree Gordon

Dr. Krammer is a virologist at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. Dr. Gordon is an infectious disease epidemiologist at the University of Michigan.

Before the Covid-19 pandemic, little was done beyond flu shots to counter the seasonal respiratory virus infections that circulate among the general public in a typical year — such as influenza viruses, coronaviruses, rhinoviruses and more.

During the first two years of the pandemic, people largely got a reprieve from other viruses like flu and respiratory syncytial virus, also known as R.S.V . Many people went two years without getting sick, perhaps a first in their lifetime and certainly out of the ordinary for children. Outbreaks that did occur were much smaller than usual.

Now these viruses are back. Heading into winter, pediatricians and hospitals are reporting an influx of young patients with RSV. Flu cases are spiking . But why did these viruses disappear in the first place? And what does this mean for the cold and flu season? Will there be a “ tripledemic ” this winter?

Amid the holiday season, understanding the dynamics of how viruses surge and plunge helps explain why so many people, especially young children, are sick right now — or will be this winter. But as a society, we don’t have to be at the mercy of the dominant virus in a given season, or even another new one, for that matter. The knowledge gained from the Covid-19 pandemic could help lower the toll of respiratory viruses for good.

Scientists have ‌observed in past pandemics that a new virus can ‌‌affect the circulation of existing ones. One example is the influenza virus. During the last three influenza pandemics, in 1957, 1968 and‌ 2009, influenza A viruses that were new to humans replaced some of the flu viruses that were already circulating at the time — resulting in the extinction of some of the older viruses.

‌Scientists do not fully understand why this happens, but a few reasons are likely. For one, when a new and serious virus emerges, people may change their behavior. This certainly happened ‌earlier in the Covid-19 pandemic, whe‌‌n people began masking, spending more time outside and limiting international travel. This greatly ‌affected the spread of ‌respiratory viruses generally, and may have reduced the number of susceptible people‌.

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The 1918 Flu Pandemic: Why It Matters 100 Years Later

Group photo of Red Cross nurses in Boston wearing personal protective equipment.

Here are 5 things you should know about the 1918 pandemic and why it matters 100 years later.

1. The 1918 Flu Virus Spread Quickly

In 1918, many people got very sick, very quickly. In March of that year, outbreaks of flu-like illness were first detected in the United States. More than 100 soldiers at Camp Funston in Fort Riley Kansas became ill with flu. Within a week, the number of flu cases quintupled. There were reports of some people dying within 24 hours or less. 1918 flu illness often progressed to organ failure and pneumonia, with pneumonia the cause of death for most of those who died. Young adults were hit hard. The average age of those who died during the pandemic was 28 years old.

2. No Prevention and No Treatment for the 1918 Pandemic Virus

Policemen patrol the streets in masks in Seattle to ensure public safety.

3. Illness Overburdened the Health Care System

A black-and-white advertisement for the Chicago School of Nursing.

As the numbers of sick rose, the Red Cross put out desperate calls for trained nurses as well as untrained volunteers to help at emergency centers. In October of 1918, Congress approved a $1 million budget for the U. S. Public Health Service to recruit 1,000 medical doctors and more than 700 registered nurses.

At one point in Chicago, physicians were reporting a staggering number of new cases, reaching as high as 1,200 people each day. This in turn intensified the shortage of doctors and nurses. Additionally, hospitals in some areas were so overloaded with flu patients that schools, private homes and other buildings had to be converted into makeshift hospitals, some of which were staffed by medical students.

4. Major Advancements in Flu Prevention and Treatment since 1918

A man dress in personal protective equipment in a laboratory.

There is still much work to do to improve U.S. and global readiness for the next flu pandemic. More effective vaccines and antiviral drugs are needed in addition to better surveillance of influenza viruses in birds and pigs. CDC also is working to minimize the impact of future flu pandemics by supporting research that can enhance the use of community mitigation measures (i.e., temporarily closing schools, modifying, postponing, or canceling large public events, and creating physical distance between people in settings where they commonly come in contact with one another). These non-pharmaceutical interventions continue to be an integral component of efforts to control the spread of flu, and in the absence of flu vaccine, would be the first line of defense in a pandemic.

5. Risk of a Flu Pandemic is Ever-Present, but CDC is on the Frontlines Preparing to Protect Americans

A crowd of people with the Washington Monument in the distance.

CDC works tirelessly to protect Americans and the global community from the threat of a future flu pandemic. CDC works with domestic and global public health and animal health partners to monitor human and animal influenza viruses. This helps CDC know what viruses are spreading, where they are spreading, and what kind of illnesses they are causing. CDC also develops and distributes tests and materials to support influenza testing at state, local, territorial, and international laboratories so they can detect and characterize influenza viruses. In addition, CDC assists global and domestic experts in selecting candidate viruses to include in each year’s seasonal flu vaccine and guides prioritization of pandemic vaccine development. CDC routinely develops vaccine viruses used by manufacturers to make flu vaccines. CDC also supports state and local governments in preparing for the next flu pandemic, including planning and leading pandemic exercises across all levels of government. An effective response will diminish the potential for a repeat of the widespread devastation of the 1918 pandemic.

Visit CDC’s 1918 commemoration website for more information on the 1918 pandemic and CDC’s pandemic flu preparedness work.

63 comments on “The 1918 Flu Pandemic: Why It Matters 100 Years Later”

Comments listed below are posted by individuals not associated with CDC, unless otherwise stated. These comments do not represent the official views of CDC, and CDC does not guarantee that any information posted by individuals on this site is correct, and disclaims any liability for any loss or damage resulting from reliance on any such information. Read more about our comment policy » .

Hi, Thank you for this article. Very informative. Maybe the people that do not understand and do not accept the vaccination campaign will change their minds.

Excellent historical perspective on the 1918 incident. We have come a long way in treatment protocols and diagnostic advancements with respect to infectious diseases. The major concern,at this time, is an unknown pathogen which will be quickly spread worldwide my international jet travel. A few sick people on an aircraft entering the US could easy spread the disease from one end of the Country to the other. Depending on the conditions’ incubation period many more people will be affected before public health officials begin to see a problem. I guess the only thing we can be sure of is something similar will occur again , it’s just a matter of the right conditions and time.

This is a wonderful article on the influenza virus. I have extensively read about the pandemic, and its devastating effect on people. I must admit that I am appalled at the refusal to use trained nurses because they were Black Americans. That nonsense was part of the failure to help people in need of care at this crucial time . I must say it was hateful and ignorant of White Americans. White Americans are not reminded enough that they are immigrants to America just like any other race that came to this country from another country. America does not belong to white people. I don’t believe sick people care who is attending to them when they are on the brink of death.

Well done article. However. You could include a list of historical accounts for Further reading materials.

The possibility of another potential outbreak of any kind is a very scary and real test of how very little know. We indeed have come along way but still have a distance to go. .. Thank you for sharing this fascinating story.

Two of my grandparents were killed in their 30s by this epidemic, leaving my 1 year-old mother, my aunt, and my uncle orphaned. This is important stuff; people need to take influenza seriously.

My grandfather was a doctor in the Spokane Wa area and died from the flu in July of 1918 at age 46 . He was from the St Louis Missouri area and had been in the Spokane area for several years but could have visited or was visited by people from the St Louis area which is close to Kansas City to have caught the flu . Spokane was very isolated . This article gives no answer but gives some background to how he caught the flu in the middle of nowhere at the beginning of this pandemic

Would the mortality rate be as bad as the flu pandemic in 1918 where 675,000 people were killed? How would our economy be affected? Any thoughts?

The book “The Great Influenza” by John M. Barry has many historical references on this topic.

Good summary of the 1918 flu pandemic. But the sentence “The average age of those who died during the pandemic was 28 years old” (end of the first section) is inaccurate. Twenty-eight was the age at which mortality peaked among young adults, who were the hardest hit, along the very young and the very old. As for the average, variations in infant or old adult mortality could easily tip the balance away from 28 years.

In researching flu a few years ago, I read that one reason this flu killed people of supposedly optimum age for strength and resistance (~28 years), was for exactly that reason – their immune systems responded so quickly – with fluid in the lungs – that they drowned. People who responded more slowly, with less fluid produced less quickly – were more likely to survive.

By the way, if this thing posts (my first post ever on this site), I’m getting this message:

You are posting comments too quickly. Slow down.

(Please check your software)

I would agree with Tonya and Robert, there is an ever-present threat of a variant flu virus reeking havoc as many go unprepared for each flu season by not vaccinating, but also with a new, unknown pathogen. With the climate changing and the glacier ice melting to new low levels, bacteria, viruses and parasites previously encased in ice soon may be exposed to air, water, and humans. I am thankful for the diligent surveillance that the CDC and the WHO provides.

Thank you for that summary. The pandemic took my grandmother in the Spring of 1919. My father and his two sisters were orphans then. Their father had died in France, November 1918. It is always so sad for me to read about this.

Any plan to slow or stop a pandemic would include quickly identifying those who are contagious and minimizing their contact with others. However we do not have in place policies that would encourage that behavior, particularly in the low income and immigrant populations, including people who: * cannot afford to take time off work without pay * would lose their jobs if they did not show up * have no health insurance and can’t afford medical care * are afraid to seek care because of immigration status (their own or family member’s) And anyone who was quarantined would want to know that their basic needs would be met if they complied. I believe these issues would be best addressed in advance to overcome resistance. Once a potential pandemic starts, it will be difficult to get the necessary public and private buy-in, resources and authority until it is too late.

It’s surprising that to see that the first three items listed would apply to any similar pandemic of unknown origin today. Today’s air travel would spread an illness at previously unheard of rates. Couple that with an unknown origin and our health care systems would be over run just as they were in 1918.

Thank you so much for this article. I appreciate the information included and I pray that it convinces people with reservations to keep their own and their families health in mind for everyone’s sake but especially their own.

My grandmother was 11 years old in 1918. The family was from Philadelphia. I remember her telling me that she had to help load dead bodies into wagons. They would yell in the neighborhoods, “throw out your dead!” She never got the flu, but it must have been horrible! That is why we were always told never to spit on the streets. It can carry diseases, etc. People—Don’t think this cannot happen again. We live in an age where we can prevent the worst from happening when it comes to flu and other diseases. Get your flu shots!

Very educative write-up. A big lesson for us in Africa. The surveillance of influenza viruses must be sustained especially at animal-human interface to monitor possible new mutations. Thank you.

My grandfather was 15 years old. His parents and his two siblings were very ill with the flu so he ran to get help. By the time he got back to the house they were all dead. I am lying in bed with the H1N1 right now. Probably the sickest I’ve ever been. I personally believe facemasks should be mandatory and all public transportation. What a tragedy all the way around.

Great information on the flu pandemic. Very educative and sad.

History has taught us much about various past outbreaks. It’s the future unknown pathogens manmade or natural we need to worry about.

Great article on the flu pandemic. I have done a lot of studying on the issue. John Barry has written many books about the pandemic I find it incredible and riveting to learn about how people would wake up in the morning feeling fine and be dead in the evening. I have spoken to many people who experienced the flu through their families. I have always wondered if this can never happen again. Let’s hope not.

Great informative article thanks I`ve just been watching THE LATEST NEWS ON THE 2020 CORONAVIRUS! making me wonder ?? I also remember COLLAPSING as I was walking down the street with HONG KONG FLU in 1956 Woke up in hospital…..TOOK MANY WEEKS TO RECOVER!!

while air travel will spread the virus faster today than before, the news of such virus is traveling even faster today, as can be seen in the current outbreak of 2019CoV. People around the world are in a state of panic as soon as it is reported. China did a total lock down pretty quickly. Nowadays, we get more information about the characteristics of the virus, like the temperature and humidity condition that is favorable/unfavorable to it, Scientists can produce a vaccine much sooner than before. So yes, we should be vigilant, but we do not need to be too scared to live our life normally.

Reading this in 2020, and it looks like the U.S. has not learned much.

those who do not know history are doomed to repeat it.

Actually, if you read how fast the flu spread, and how many died, some within 24 hours, we have come a long way! It took over 30 years to develop a flu vaccine, and within 3 months of coronavirus hitting, we have already started the clinical trials of a vaccine. Amazing!!

It’s like you saw into the future. The very not so distant future. Thanks for writing this as it reinforces the steps and procedures being followed today. If only they had been implemented sooner.

Here we go all over again

From this article I think WHO and CDC have not learned much to be in preparation. After 100 year another virus is here to take million lives away. Poor nation like Africa is in trouble. America should have known better to be prepare after 100years. God save us all

Apparently, there was no national plan then either. The lack of leadership by politicians on national and local levels is appalling and the realization that many top officials refuse to accept and follow recommendations of the CDC and other experts is terrifying. We are following exactly the same recommendations as were suggested in 1918, and there is inconsistent use of the precautions that we know help. Please support those who are taking the Coronavirus seriously and working to help us all. Bless the CDC and Drs and nurses on the front lines trying to save us all.

Great information

Watching the overrun hospitals, lack of supplies and reliance on local and state authorities because the federal government cannot or will not help. Schools are canceled. All groups more than 10 people. Social distancing rules are in place. The economy is crashing. No possible vaccine. History is repeating itself. I am literally hiding in my home with my family, knowing it’s the only way to avoid it.

Thank you for this article. It certainly puts the current COVID-19 pandemic in perspective, as well as reinforcing the need for social distancing! We are fortunate to live in a time when significant advances have been made in medicine and technology.

The CDC dropped the ball on this one, we need to shut down the country to prevent a worst case scenario. (writing this on 3/30/20) The economy will tank no matter what, but we can prevent millions of deaths yet.

My mother’s cousin was 21 when the 1918 influenza epidemic hit. He had cerebral palsy and was at risk for disease and he died. It’s hard though to comprehend how the influenza reached his tiny town outside of Abilene, Texas. There was very little medicine for colds or pneumonia for anyone in that time period.

100 years later viruses are still a problem.

The history repeats itself, we can see USA as the richest country, powerful country, is so unprepared! Doctors and nurses are lacking of protective gears, yet they have to work with the patients who are infected with the virus! The States have to bid against one another for ventilators etc. So many people are infected and die from this neglected, unguided way ! So sad!

Very informative information and thanks to all those people that put this information together. It seems to be working for this coronavirus we are currently experiencing. Keep up the good work and lets try to do our best to improve what we have learned from this virus and make it better next time around as we can see …. there will be a next time …. just currently unknown as to when.

Sydney Daniels Looking back at the comments in 2018 it is haunting. The accuracy of concerns and predictions! The rapid spread through international travel , the less privileged forced to continue working ,not only to perish but spread it. The fear of an unknown pathogen and it’s economic impact. The parallels of past and present are too hard to ignore. The Spanish flu acting very similar to Coronavirus. There are several stories in the news of patients over 100, who were alive during the 1918 flu, surviving coronavirus. Is it a stretch to think whatever immunity they acquired back in 1918 could have given them an edge or are they just tough as nails!? Is it immunologically impossible being a different virus and the years past? Just a thought? Unfortunately the reassurance, given in this article, that we have multiple guardrails in place to prevent such a huge spread again was wishful thinking. God bless everyone and stay safe.

My grandfather died from the Spanish flu and struck both my father and uncle as children. My father suffered cardiomyopathy and succumbed to it decades later. Financial struggles where perhaps worse since women had less legal rights and job opportunities that had any semblance of equal pay. My grandmother supported her family through a variety of seamstress jobs and cleaning for those that could afford that luxury. History is a good teacher if we can learn from it.

Watching the BOSSA. 45 min documentary on the spanish flu of 1918 so enlightening also. The symptoms of severe cases were bizarre and freakish, fatal in less than 24 hrs. A second wave (fall 2020) of covid must be minimized if world wants to prevent millions of deaths. Unfortunately, so many spoiled americans are selfish and very impatient willing to risk and sacrifice many others lives for a day at the beach or a new tattoo. If only they all could have done a 6 month sentence in county jail they would see that they could stomach months of quarantine in their own homes standing on their head, provided ample food and necessities are avialable.Too bad history will be repeated and this will be a disaster for so many more that shall lose their lives

here we go again!

102 years later and the struggles that our ancestors dealt with daily are being resurfaced again. As an RN working in the frontlines with the current flu pandemic, the level of stress that is experienced among health care workers is almost unbearable. Just as the 1918 flu was fast to spread with no prevention or treatment plan in place, this new outbreak is fast to spread and hard to treat and prevent. Taking a lesson from the 1918 pandemic, our facility took to making the staff and the patients wear mask for all interactions during their stay at our facility in an effort to reduce the risk of spreading patient to nurse or nurse to patient. The most unnerving concern to me personally is the fact that unlike the 1918 flu, an estimated 50% of individuals who have the COVID-19 virus have experienced zero symptoms. This makes the task of identifying the positive patients from simple screening procedures much more difficult due to lack of testing ability to confirm actual positive patients. For example, we had an elderly man in our facility for more than two weeks for an unrelated health care issue, screening upon admission declared he was a zero risk for COVID-19 and he never exhibited a single symptom during his admission, however upon discharge and transfer to a rehab facility, he had a COVID-19 positive test result. He continues to have ZERO symptoms but has exposed multiple health care workers and family members to COVID-19. The risk of infecting health care workers who are already spread thin only increases the workload demand on those still able to work.

We are currently short staffed at our facility with most nurses working four to six 12 hour shifts per week to keep the work demand in our facility at a manageable level. With the re-opening of our surgical units and other outpatient services, the “extra” support we were receiving from their health care staff has diminished but the increased workload demand on the inpatient staff is ever growing as the community continues to open up and social distancing is not adhered to. Our COVID-19 related ER visits more than doubled over one weekend when beaches alone opened up. As with the 1918 pandemic, the call for help in many areas had been made even to the point of allowing current nursing students to perform duties as an RN.

Because health care facilities across our nation are short staffed and limited on PPE, the task of identifying positive flu patients is important to isolate the continued spread of the virus but to also protect the health care workers and reduce the waste of precious PPE. Just as our health care workers in the past, social distancing, hand washing and face covers are the best methods that we have available to help slow the spread of this virus.

A hard lesson learned in the 1918 pandemic was that the early shut down of large social events and gatherings could help slow the spread and decrease the the burden on the local healthcare facilities. The CDCs plans of closing down schools, shopping centers, social gatherings of large numbers, and bars/clubs was the outcome of that hard learned lesson from 1918. Our community seems to have fared well with the early closing as we have not had many local citizens hospitalized with COVID-19, we do have a many COVID-19 patients in our facilities due to hospital transfers however due to our location being near two other States, one of which is a well known hot zone. We are all in this together and just like our 1918 health care teams, we too have answered the call to aid our neighboring States.

Opening up the public with care and caution is going to have to occur as many small business owners have already had to close their doors to our community permanently due to the length of time they went with no income. The economical impact this virus had already had on our community is evident and will only be truly seen in the future as things begin to return to our “New” normal.

COVID19 will also last for years as compared to Spanish flu and we should take the precautionary measures seriously

That was hard to read , here we are again in 2020.

im postin just to post kepp up the good work guys

It was so good but it was only 100 years and we have a sickness that is killing the people.

My father and his younger sister both had the flu in Glasgow in 1919. He survived, his sister died. He never had the flu again, and I have never had it…I’m 81 now. I’ve been told I am immune and have never had the flu shot. There is an area south of Glasgow/northern England that has been studied because there is are a number of people there who are also immune. J. Wilson Saville

To keep this thread (article) in check and updated I’d like to add that there was hope of a slow down. However, the desire for normalcy has in turn resulted in a resurgence of the virus. Hospitals are now getting brunt of the aged ill. Some retirement homes are nearly at 75% plus positive to the virus, whereas; the nurses are infected as well and even though now overtaken by the virus are capable of working. In my opinion, this will continue for another year. I hope the timeframe is less, but the end result will likely be another depression. Our country needs to prepare and seek aid from other countries to prepare for this. The USA are the worlds leading consumers and I dint believe the rest of the world could take a financial hit like a US collapse.

Well, vaccines are on the way. Half of America is still crazy. I guess you could say we started “rounding the corner” on Nov. 3rd. Hopefully things back to normal this time next year.

Very good and informative article. Thank you

The Spanish fly and the COVID -19 are are bit similar

When roll out to massive vaccinate happens worldwide we will heal. It reminds me of the World War 2 armament. Once we got the ball rolling we were successful.

I was always strong never in the hospital because of illness. October 2020 came , and despite all my efforts to avoid COVID-19 I landed in the local hospital, and spent the month of October in the covid unit. The infectious disease specialists went to work with what was available, and saved my life. I was on oxygen until March, or April, and I was doing rehab at home until I could walk again. Thank God my wife and I were able to get our COVID-19 shots. Please get yours, everyone!!!

History have already repeating it self In a bad way and we did not learn anything at all ! .

The covid -19 or coronavirus in 2020

Life expectancy dropped by 12 years during the Spanish flu. The virus continued until 1957. Some believe a lack of nutrition played a part in the mortality rate at the time Life expectancy for COVID 19 is the same as normal life expectancy (around 78). Like the Spanish flu our body should adapt to the coming variations. Like the Spanish flu it may last decades.

Why was there a 37 year absence of flu pandemic between 1920 & 1957; yet subsequent to 1957 they have appeared more frequently?

@Sumeyo, I think you mean “The Spanish Flu” 😉

people did not learn about the requirements for this😑. I mean really!

Good info and everything but could had added more info

The article was worded very well and fairly informative. And that leads me to bring up a part of the Article that most people tend to over look. The flu started in the military and spread rapidly. When i was six years old i had very similar symptoms of the Spanish flue and I compared the symptoms of covid 19 and what I had when it was six was actually worse. Im 55 yrs old now and I haven’t had a flu shot in 36 years now and I have no intentions of getting another one with all the Chemical war fair going on in the world.

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Influenza Treatment

Antiviral medicines are an important tool in both controlling influenza by treating the patient’s infection and helping to prevent severe illness that can result from flu, including bacterial pneumonia. When taken promptly, antiviral drugs can reduce the severity of the flu’s worst symptoms, and can shorten the length of the illness by an average of one day. Taking antiviral drugs early is especially important for people who are at high risk for flu complications, such as the elderly or people with compromised immune systems.

Currently, there are three antiviral drugs recommended for treating the flu: oseltamivir (Tamiflu®), zanamivir (Relenza®), and peramivir (Rapivab®). These drugs work by interrupting the function of neuraminidase on the virus surface and preventing the release of viral particles from infected host cells. These drugs can treat cases of both influenza A and B and have the biggest impact when taken within 48 hours of the onset of flu symptoms, so rapid diagnosis and treatment are important.

Antimicrobial Resistance is a Problem

Two other drugs, rimantadine (Flumadine®) and amantadine (Symmetrel®), were used to treat flu infection in the past. They worked by disrupting ion channels in the wall of the virus, preventing the virus from replicating during the initial stages of infection, soon after its been taken inside a human cell. However, rimantadine and amantadine are only effective in treating Influenza A, and several strains of flu have already developed resistance to them. Thus, the two medicines are no longer recommended in the United States for treating the flu.

NIAID Flu Treatment Research

Because the influenza virus can develop resistance to antiviral drugs, NIAID is working to find new and better treatments to fight the flu. These efforts include supporting the development and testing of the next generation of antiviral drugs. For example, NIAID supported the initial Phase 1 clinical studies of peramivir, which was approved in 2014 by the Food and Drug Administration to treat flu infection in adults. This is the first neuraminidase inhibitor available in intravenous formulation, which is especially needed to deliver the effective drug dose to hospitalized patients who cannot take an oral or inhaled drug. NIAID has advanced the development and testing of additional next-generation neuraminidase inhibitors, as well as flu RNA polymerase inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies targeting the flu surface protein hemagglutinin.

Additionally, NIAID has provided support for the following:

DAS 181-novel host-based antiviral agent: NIAID works closely with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) to move candidate antivirals from early to advanced development. NIAID supported the preclinical and clinical development of DAS 181, a new class of antiviral therapeutic candidate that inhibits the influenza virus from attaching to host cells. BARDA supported a Phase 2b clinical trial of DAS 181.
Broadly reactive monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) CR6261 and CR8020: These candidate immunotherapeutics target the stem region of influenza HA glycoprotein were discovered and developed by Crucell and supported by NIAID contract funding. CR621 targets the Flu A Group 1 HA stem, which includes flu types H1, H2, H5 and H9. CR8020 targets the Flu A group 2 HA stem, which includes H3, H7 and H10 flu subtypes. Phase 1 studies were completed in 2013.

Three NIAID clinical trials are currently exploring the effectiveness of novel flu therapeutics in high-risk populations, including human plasma containing high levels of anti-flu antibodies, concentrated human immunoglobulin with high levels of anti-flu antibodies, and a cocktail of the three licensed flu antiviral medicines.

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Bird flu has been invading the brains of mammals. here’s why.

H5N1 and its relatives are more likely to infect brain tissue than other kinds of flu

a sea lion facing the camera lies on a concrete wall. A person wearing a white jumpsuit and blue gloves is walking toward it

A National Fisheries and Aquaculture service employee wearing biosafety gear approaches a sea lion at a beach in Chile that was closed in May 2023 due to the spread of bird flu in the region. That year, at least 24,000 South American sea lions died from an H5N1 infection.

Photo by MARTIN BERNETTI/AFP via Getty Images

Bird flu on the brain

H5N1 is now known to infect more than 50 mammal species. Scientists had documented bird flu cases in only about a dozen species during previous outbreaks.

There’s nothing particularly special about this strain that allows it to plague so many species, research suggests. Rather, because the strain has spread so far and wide among birds — both wild and domesticated — there are simply more opportunities for mammals to be exposed, says virologist Emmie de Wit of the National Institutes of Health’s Rocky Mountain Laboratories in Hamilton, Mont. ( SN: 1/25/24 ). For some mammals, infected birds may be on the menu. For others, their water or food might be contaminated with virus-laden bird excrement.

Water-loving birds are exposed to influenza A viruses so often that most have some form of immunity that can protect them from a serious case of H5N1. If the birds do exhibit symptoms, they are usually mild and respiratory or gastrointestinal in nature. But other birds that don’t get infected as frequently, such as eagles, vultures and pelicans, can become severely ill and die.

In mammals, bird flu typically causes respiratory symptoms such as congestion or shortness of breath. Neurological symptoms such as seizures or paralysis are among the most striking and common signs that the virus has reached the brain. And once it does, the infection is often fatal. In the ongoing H5N1 outbreak, such cases have been confirmed posthumously in house cats , raccoons, sea lions, dolphins and several other species ( SN: 5/31/24 ).

Mammal infections

From a bottlenosed dolphin in Florida to a polar bear in Alaska, many mammals across the United States have tested positive for avian influenza since 2022. Click on a colored dot to find out what species the virus was detected in and the county in which the animals were found. Zoom in for a closer look.

H5N1 and its close relatives have an easier path to the brain compared with other flu strains, de Wit says. And the virus is exceptionally good at making copies of itself inside a variety of cells, including nerve cells.

To break inside a cell, flu viruses exploit a protein called sialic acid on the cell’s surface. Bird cells and mammalian cells in the upper airway typically have different types of sialic acids, which means that bird flu viruses don’t easily infect mammals and vice versa.

But studies have shown that parts of the human brain, for instance, are covered in birdlike sialic acid proteins. Many cells, including the nerve cells in the olfactory bulb — which is important for sense of smell and links directly to the brain — also have additional proteins that allow H5 viruses to replicate. Both of those traits mean that “there’s a direct entry route [to the brain] from your nose,” de Wit says. So avian flu viruses may pose a bigger threat to the brain than, say, seasonal influenzas that mostly target cells in the nose, throat and lungs.

Since 2003, there have been 891 cases of H5N1 in people , about half of which were fatal according to the World Health Organization. In the current outbreak, 15 people have been infected with the strain hitting mammals hard. Four people had severe disease — two developed pneumonia — and at least one died.

Symptoms in people can vary from mild to severe, and some individuals infected with avian influenza viruses during previous outbreaks have developed neurological symptoms. Such cases are rare, the agency says, although how often the virus makes it to the brain is unclear.

How often the virus invades the brains of other mammals is also unknown. Most countries don’t regularly test healthy-looking wildlife for viral infections, so such cases likely represent only the sickest individuals, Elsmo says. It’s possible that some infected animals never develop severe disease and therefore escape the notice of people.

Avian influenza viruses can affect other parts of the body as well. “When you break it out by species, it seems like the pattern of tissues that are most affected are little bit different,” Elsmo says.

For instance, foxes and raccoons seem to have severe brain lesions as well as lesions in the heart and lungs. Striped skunks, meanwhile, tend to have few brain lesions, some of which are mild compared with red foxes. Instead, at least in Elsmo’s experience, H5N1 seems to target the skunk livers and organs in the lymphoid system, which protects against infection and removes waste from the body.

Stranger things

Some animals that have been killed by H5N1 weirdly had signs of infection only in the brain. “Flu’s a respiratory virus,” says Richard Webby, a virologist at St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital in Memphis, Tenn. “So [the respiratory system is] where it should be before anywhere else.”

The brain of a red fox in the Netherlands, for instance, was infected with H5N1 but not the animal’s lungs. Red foxes and mink in Canada similarly had mostly neurological disease. And bird flu didn’t seem to touch the lungs of a bottlenosed dolphin found off the coast of Florida in 2022, despite the animal having virus-infected brain tissue, Webby and colleagues reported April 18 in Communications Biology .

It’s possible that the dolphin had cleared the respiratory infection before it died, but the team found no evidence of pulmonary disease. Nor do dolphins have a sense of smell, which eliminates the possibility that the virus could reach the brain through the nose.

Exactly how the virus might sometimes sidestep respiratory tissues and hitch a ride directly to the brain is unclear. One possibility is that H5N1 already has that ability. “Maybe it was more common, but we just never had the numbers [of mammalian infections necessary] to see it,” Webby says.

Or perhaps when a mammal like a red fox or a dolphin takes a bite out of an infected bird, viral particles in the meat gain a direct path to the brain via nerves lining the mouth and digestive tract.

Virologist and veterinarian Víctor Neira thinks that’s what may be happening in some sea lions in Chile. He and colleagues investigated an outbreak in the animals in 2023 along the coast of Chile, including two animals that the team necropsied. Although one animal didn’t have neurological symptoms, the other had paralysis, disorientation, lack of coordination and tremors , the researchers reported in October 2023 in Veterinary Quarterly . The virus had infected multiple organs including the lungs, liver and kidneys, but the highest viral counts came from the brain.

Because H5N1 hasn’t been infecting sea lions for very long, since just 2023, there is still a lot to learn about how the virus affects the animals, says Neira, of the University of Chile in Santiago.

Just how many mammal species are susceptible to infection is an open question. “Usually, scientists study influenza virus in swine, mice, humans and birds,” Neira says. “Different wild animals, even several domestic animals, have not been studied with this virus.”

There’s an urgency to finding out. That’s because every infection gives the virus an opportunity to adapt in ways that could allow it to spread more readily among mammals, de Wit says. Some research suggests that the virus may be spreading from marine mammal to marine mammal in parts of South America. But so far, infections in other animals are largely dead ends, with no spread to other individuals. The risk to people remains low, although workers on poultry and cattle farms who work closely with animals are at a higher risk than the general public.

Still, “we cannot stop paying attention,” de Wit says. The ongoing outbreak serves as a reminder that viruses are versatile foes.

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Bovine H5N1 flu virus in cow milk poses significant health risks, study shows

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In a recent study published in the journal Nature , a group of researchers characterized the pathogenicity and transmissibility of a highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI H5N1) (a severe, contagious bird flu that can infect humans and mammals) virus from cow milk in mammals.

Study: Pathogenicity and transmissibility of bovine H5N1 influenza virus. Image Credit: Toa55 / Shutterstock

Background

After unexplained symptoms and reduced milk production in dairy cattle in Texas, HPAI H5N1 was detected in cow milk and nasal wash samples on March 25, 2024. By May 30, 2024, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) confirmed 69 infected herds in nine states, with spread linked to cattle movement and potential transmission through contaminated milking equipment. This outbreak, alongside cases in farm workers and cats, underscores the public health risk. The bovine H5N1 virus is closely related to North American wild bird strains. Further research is necessary to understand its replication, pathogenicity, and transmission in mammals.

About the study

In the present study, animals were acclimated to the facilities before the start of the experiments, maintained on a 12-hour light cycle, and provided with food, water, and enrichment. Humane endpoint criteria included ≥35% body weight loss or inability to remain upright. In the United States (US), HPAI viruses are classified as 'Select Agents' under federal regulations, requiring immediate reporting to the Federal Select Agent Program. All experiments were conducted in Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3) laboratories at the Influenza Research Institute at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, approved for studies with these viruses. The research received funding from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Centers of Excellence for Influenza Research and Response (CEIRR). All animal experiments and procedures were approved by the Institutional Care and Use Committees of the University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine.

Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells were used for virus isolation and amplification, and no mutations emerged during passage in these cells. The isolated virus, A/dairy cattle/New Mexico/A240920343-93/2024 (H5N1), was fully sequenced and found to be part of the same clade as other publicly available cow H5N1 virus sequences. This virus and control viruses were used for all studies. Mice and ferrets were used to test replication, pathogenicity, and respiratory droplet transmission. Lactating mice were also used to study vertical transmission. Tissue samples were collected for virus titration and plaque assays, while receptor specificity was compared among different virus strains. The studies were reviewed and approved by relevant institutional committees, and the NIAID grant for the research was determined not to meet the criteria of Dual Use Research of Concern (DURC).

Study results

To evaluate the public health risk of H5N1 virus-containing milk, researchers demonstrated that oral consumption of milk from an HPAI H5N1-infected cow led to rapid disease symptoms and virus dissemination in Bagg Albino Laboratory-Bred Mouse/C strain J (BALB/cJ) mice. Repeating this experiment with smaller volumes of milk, they observed substantial weight loss and virus titers in the lung, nasal turbinate, and brain in mice inoculated with 25 μl or 10 μl of infected milk. In contrast, mice inoculated with 25 μl of milk from a healthy cow showed no symptoms. Mice inoculated with smaller volumes (5 μl and 1 μl) exhibited less apparent disease and sporadic virus replication. No seroconversion was observed in surviving mice.

Conclusions

To summarize, HPAI H5N1 influenza viruses do not typically transmit efficiently among mammals, and influenza A viruses are rarely detected in cattle. However, the current HPAI H5N1 outbreak in dairy cows and spillover into other mammals poses significant risks to public health and the dairy industry. Despite over 850 human infections, sustained mammal-to-mammal transmission has not been reported, though recent outbreaks in mink and sea mammals suggest it is possible. In this study, a bovine HPAI H5N1 virus exhibited limited respiratory droplet transmission in ferrets, supporting findings of potential mammal-to-mammal transmission. The virus also displayed dual human/avian-type receptor-binding specificity, highlighting the pandemic potential of these viruses.

Eisfeld, A. J. et al. Pathogenicity and transmissibility of bovine H5N1 influenza virus. Nature (2024), DOI - 10.1038/s41586-024-07766-6, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07766-6

Posted in: Medical Science News | Medical Research News | Disease/Infection News

Tags: Agriculture , Allergy , Avian Influenza , Bird Flu , Blood , Brain , Flu , Food , H1N1 , H5N1 , Infectious Diseases , Influenza , Kidney , Laboratory , Medicine , Muscle , Pandemic , Public Health , Receptor , Research , Respiratory , Titration , Veterinary , Virus , Weight Loss

Vijay Kumar Malesu

Vijay holds a Ph.D. in Biotechnology and possesses a deep passion for microbiology. His academic journey has allowed him to delve deeper into understanding the intricate world of microorganisms. Through his research and studies, he has gained expertise in various aspects of microbiology, which includes microbial genetics, microbial physiology, and microbial ecology. Vijay has six years of scientific research experience at renowned research institutes such as the Indian Council for Agricultural Research and KIIT University. He has worked on diverse projects in microbiology, biopolymers, and drug delivery. His contributions to these areas have provided him with a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and the ability to tackle complex research challenges.

Please use one of the following formats to cite this article in your essay, paper or report:

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Current Situation
Monitoring Current Situation
Bird Flu in Animals and People
Caring for Yourself and Others
Avian Influenza Communication Resources
Information for Specific Groups
Case Definitions for Investigations of Human Infection with Avian Influenza A Viruses in the United States
Clinical Overview
Interim Guidance on the Use of Antiviral Medications for Treatment of Human Infections with Novel Influenza A Viruses Associated with Severe Human Disease
Clinical Testing and Diagnosis
Interim Guidance on Influenza Antiviral Chemoprophylaxis of Persons Exposed to Birds with Avian Influenza A Viruses Associated with Severe Human Disease or with the Potential to Cause Severe Human Disease
Infection Control Guidance
Considerations for Veterinarians: Evaluating and Handling of Cats Potentially Exposed to Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus in Cats
Conversation Tips: Unpasteurized (Raw Milk)
H5N1 Bird Flu: Current Situation Summary
Public Health Strategies for Bird Flu
Novel Influenza A Guidance on Testing and Specimen Collection
Interim Guidance for Follow-up of Close Contacts of Persons Infected with Novel Influenza A Viruses and Use of Antiviral Medications for Chemoprophylaxis
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CDC A(H5N1) Bird Flu Response Update, July 5, 2024

At a glance.

CDC provides an update on its response activities related to the multistate outbreak of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus, or "H5N1 bird flu," in dairy cows and other animals in the United States.

July 5, 2024 – CDC continues to respond to the public health challenge posed by a multistate outbreak of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus, or “H5N1 bird flu,” in dairy cows and other animals in the United States . CDC is working in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), state public health and animal health officials, and other partners using a One Health approach . Four human cases of A(H5) infection associated with this outbreak in U.S. dairy cows have been reported. A The most recent report was on July 3, 2024 , and occurred in Colorado. Like the previous three cases (1 Texas , 2 Michigan , 3 Michigan ), this person is a dairy worker who had exposure to sick cows. Cumulatively, there have been five human cases of A(H5) in the U.S., the first occurred in Colorado during 2022 in a poultry worker with exposure to sick birds. Based on the information available at this time, CDC’s current H5N1 bird flu human health risk assessment for the U.S. general public remains low. On the animal health side, USDA is reporting that 139 dairy cow herds in 12 U.S. states have confirmed cases of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infections in dairy cows as the number of infected herds continues to grow.

Among other activities previously reported in past spotlights and still ongoing, recent highlights of CDC's response to this include:

Continuing to support strategies to maximize protection of farm workers, who are at higher risk of infection based on their exposures. This includes targeted outreach to farm workers in affected counties through Meta (Facebook and Instagram), digital display, and audio (Pandora). These resources provide information in English and Spanish about potential risks of A(H5N1) infection, recommended preventive actions, symptoms to be on the look-out for, and what to do if they develop symptoms. Since May 30, when English assets launched, Meta outreach has generated more than 6 million impressions. Spanish Meta assets launched on June 6, and since then have garnered 859,000 impressions.
Continuing to support states that are monitoring people with exposure to cows, birds, or other domestic or wild animals infected, or potentially infected, with avian influenza A(H5N1) viruses. To date, more than 1,390 people have been monitored as a result of their exposure to infected or potentially infected animals, and at least 60 people who have developed flu-like symptoms have been tested as part of this targeted, situation-specific testing. Testing of exposed people who develop symptoms is happening at the state or local level, and CDC conducts confirmatory testing. More information on monitoring can be found at Symptom Monitoring Among Persons Exposed to HPAI .
Continuing to monitor flu surveillance data using CDC’s enhanced, nationwide summer surveillance strategy , especially in areas where A(H5N1) viruses have been detected in dairy cows or other animals, for any unusual trends, including in flu-like illness, conjunctivitis, or influenza virus activity.
Overall, for the most recent week of data, CDC flu surveillance systems show no indicators of unusual flu activity in people, including avian influenza A(H5N1) viruses.

CDC Recommendations

As a reminder, CDC recommends that:

People should avoid exposures to sick or dead animals, including wild birds, poultry, other domesticated birds, and other wild or domesticated animals (including cows), if possible.
People should also avoid exposures to animal poop, bedding (litter), unpasteurized ("raw") milk, or materials that have been touched by, or close to, birds or other animals with suspected or confirmed A(H5N1) virus, if possible.
People should not drink raw milk. Pasteurization kills A(H5N1) viruses, and pasteurized milk is safe to drink.
People who have job-related contact with infected or potentially infected birds or other animals should be aware of the risk of exposure to avian influenza viruses and should take proper precautions. People should wear appropriate and recommended personal protective equipment when exposed to an infected or potentially infected animal(s). CDC has recommendations for worker protection and use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
People who have job-related contact with infected or potentially infected birds or other animals should be aware of the risk of exposure to avian influenza viruses and should take proper precautions. People should wear appropriate and recommended personal protective equipment when exposed to an infected or potentially infected animal(s). CDC has recommendations for worker protection and use of personal protective equipment (PPE) .
CDC has interim recommendations for prevention, monitoring, and public health investigations of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infections in people.

Following these recommendations is central to reducing a person's risk and containing the overall public health risk.

In addition to limiting interactions between infected animals and people, containing the outbreak among animals also is important, which underscores the urgency of the work being done by USDA and animal health and industry partners.

This is an evolving situation, and CDC is committed to providing frequent and timely updates.

1. The first human case of H5N1 bird flu linked to an outbreak in dairy cows in the United States was reported on April 1, 2024 , in Texas. It was also likely the first human infection with avian influenza A(H5N1) virus from a cow globally. A second human case associated with the dairy cow outbreak was identified in Michigan on May 22, 2024 followed by a a third case in Michigan on May 30, 2024 . The fourth human case was identified in Colorado on July 3, 2024 . None of these cases are associated with the others. These cases were actually the second, third, fourth, and fifth human cases of H5 bird flu reported in the United States. The first human case of H5N1 bird flu in the United States was reported on April 28, 2022 , in a person in Colorado who had direct exposure to poultry and who was involved in depopulating poultry with presumptive H5N1 bird flu. The 2022 human case was not related to dairy cows. The person only reported fatigue without any other symptoms and recovered., in a person in Colorado who had direct exposure to poultry and who was involved in depopulating poultry with presumptive H5N1 bird flu. The 2022 human case was not related to dairy cattle. The person only reported fatigue without any other symptoms and recovered.

Avian influenza or bird flu refers to the disease caused by infection with avian (bird) influenza (flu) Type A viruses.

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Study: Nanoparticle vaccines enhance cross-protection against influenza viruses

by LaTina Emerson, Georgia State University

To offer cross-protection against diverse influenza virus variants, nanoparticle vaccines can produce pivotal cellular and mucosal immune responses that enhance vaccine efficacy and broaden protection, according to a study by researchers in the Institute for Biomedical Sciences at Georgia State University.

The study, published in the journal Nature Communications , offers valuable insights into tailoring immunization strategies to optimize influenza vaccine effectiveness. To alleviate the significant public health burden of influenza epidemics and occasional pandemics, it's essential to enhance influenza vaccine cross-protection, according to the authors.

While the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends annual influenza vaccination, current seasonal influenza vaccines typically provide strain-specific and short-lived immunity. Seasonal influenza vaccines offer limited cross-protection against antigenically diverse virus variants and provide no defense against sporadic influenza pandemics, the authors explained.

"Developing effective influenza vaccines or vaccination strategies that can confer cross-protection against variant influenza viruses is a high priority to mitigate the public health consequences of influenza," said Dr. Chunhong Dong, first author of the study and a postdoctoral fellow in the Institute for Biomedical Sciences at Georgia State.

In the study, the researchers investigated the effects of immunization strategies on the generation of cross-protective immune responses in female mice using mRNA lipid nanoparticle (LNP) and protein-based polyethyleneimine-HA/CpG (PHC) nanoparticle vaccines targeting influenza hemagglutinin. The mice were immunized with either intramuscular mRNA LNP or intranasal PHC vaccines in a typical prime-plus-boost regimen. A variety of sequential immunization strategies were included in this study for parallel comparison.

"We demonstrated that cellular and mucosal immune responses are pivotal correlates of cross-protection against influenza," said Dr. Baozhong Wang, senior author of the study and a Distinguished University Professor in the Institute for Biomedical Sciences at Georgia State.

"Notably, intranasal PHC immunization outperforms its intramuscular counterpart in inducing mucosal immunity and conferring cross-protection. Sequential mRNA LNP prime and intranasal PHC boost demonstrated optimal cross-protection against antigenically drifted and shifted influenza strains."

The study highlights the importance of immunization orders and indicates that in a sequential immunization, an mRNA vaccine priming plays an important role in steering the Th1/Th2 immune responses. Also, the intranasal PHC boost is crucial to the induction of mucosal immunity, Wang said.

Additional authors of the study include Wandi Zhu, Lai Wei, Joo Kyung Kim, Yao Ma and Sang-Moo Kang of the Institute for Biomedical Sciences at Georgia State.

Journal information: Nature Communications

Provided by Georgia State University

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Published: 08 July 2024

Pathogenicity and transmissibility of bovine H5N1 influenza virus

Amie J. Eisfeld 1 na1 ,
Asim Biswas 1 na1 ,
Lizheng Guan 1 na1 ,
Chunyang Gu 1 na1 ,
Tadashi Maemura 1 na1 ,
Sanja Trifkovic 1 ,
Tong Wang 1 ,
Lavanya Babujee 1 ,
Randall Dahn 1 ,
Peter J. Halfmann ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1648-1625 1 ,
Tera Barnhardt 2 ,
Gabriele Neumann 1 ,
Yasuo Suzuki 3 ,
Alexis Thompson ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4405-5313 4 ,
Amy K. Swinford 5 ,
Kiril M. Dimitrov ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5525-4492 5 ,
Keith Poulsen 6 &
Yoshihiro Kawaoka ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5061-8296 1 , 7 , 8 , 9

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Influenza virus
Viral pathogenesis
Viral transmission

Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza (HPAI H5N1) viruses occasionally infect, but typically do not transmit, in mammals. In the Spring of 2024, an unprecedented outbreak of HPAI H5N1 in bovine herds occurred in the US, with virus spread within and between herds, infections in poultry and cats, and spillover into humans, collectively indicating an increased public health risk 1-4 . Here, we characterized an HPAI H5N1 virus isolated from infected cow milk in mice and ferrets. Like other HPAI H5N1 viruses, the bovine H5N1 virus spread systemically, including to the mammary glands of both species; however, this tropism was also observed for an older HPAI H5N1 virus isolate. Importantly, bovine HPAI H5N1 virus bound to sialic acids expressed in human upper airways and inefficiently transmitted to exposed ferrets (one of four exposed ferrets seroconverted without virus detection). Bovine HPAI H5N1 virus thus possesses features that may facilitate infection and transmission in mammals.

You have full access to this article via your institution.

Characterization of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5Nx viruses in the ferret model

Potential pandemic risk of circulating swine H1N2 influenza viruses

Risk assessment of a highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus from mink

Author information.

These authors contributed equally: Amie J. Eisfeld, Asim Biswas, Lizheng Guan, Chunyang Gu, Tadashi Maemura

Authors and Affiliations

Influenza Research Institute, Dept. of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Amie J. Eisfeld, Asim Biswas, Lizheng Guan, Chunyang Gu, Tadashi Maemura, Sanja Trifkovic, Tong Wang, Lavanya Babujee, Randall Dahn, Peter J. Halfmann, Gabriele Neumann & Yoshihiro Kawaoka

Heritage Vet Partners, Johnson, KS, USA

Tera Barnhardt

Department of Biochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan

Yasuo Suzuki

Texas A&M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Canyon, TX, USA

Alexis Thompson

Texas A&M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, College Station, TX, USA

Amy K. Swinford & Kiril M. Dimitrov

Wisconsin Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Keith Poulsen

Department of Virology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

Yoshihiro Kawaoka

The University of Tokyo Pandemic Preparedness, Infection and Advanced research center (UTOPIA), University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

The Research Center for Global Viral Diseases, National Center for Global Health and Medicine Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan

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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yoshihiro Kawaoka .

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Cite this article.

Eisfeld, A.J., Biswas, A., Guan, L. et al. Pathogenicity and transmissibility of bovine H5N1 influenza virus. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07766-6

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Received : 01 June 2024

Accepted : 28 June 2024

Published : 08 July 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07766-6

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Preparing schools for the H5N1 bird flu they’re likely to face

By Mario Ramirez July 11, 2024

Four kindergarten students line up in a classroom facing the exit, extending their arms for social distance — first opinion coverage from STAT

A s Covid-19 swept across the United States, schools were among the most highly affected public spaces. To prepare for a potential H5N1 avian influenza jump to humans, schools need to be preparing for the scenario now before a sustained transmission event occurs.

The response to Covid-19, which first appeared in the U.S. in early 2020, has been scrutinized by numerous case studies, after-action reports , and Congressional fact-finding hearings . Despite the federal government investing billions of dollars to improve public health infrastructure and efforts to streamline red tape through the new White House Office of Pandemic Preparedness and Response Policy , significant challenges remain. While these efforts suggest that the U.S. should be better prepared for the next pandemic, recent warnings from experts give pause for concern.

Robert Redfield, the former director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, recently predicted that avian flu will cause a pandemic . Seth Berkley, the former CEO of GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance, derided the shocking ineptitude of the U.S. response to the avian flu outbreak among dairy cattle .

While these are individual opinions, they represent a growing sense of alarm among public health scientists that the H5N1 avian flu virus, which first infected humans in 1997 , is developing characteristics that allow it to infect mammals more efficiently. With enough time and enough bad luck, the ability of this virus to infect and spread more efficiently between humans could be next.

These warnings highlight a critical need for a more robust and adaptable plan, especially for protecting children and schools, severely affected by the faults in the Covid-19 pandemic response.

Related: Congress extends some pandemic preparedness programs, but not all

The problem is that the Pandemic Influenza Plan public health officials would likely turn to in the event H5N1 bird flu jumps to humans is the same as the playbook used for Covid-19. It didn’t work then for K-12 schools, and won’t work now.

Policymakers, public health experts, and education leaders need to consider what was learned during Covid-19 and make changes that reflect realities that exist on the ground today. These include:

In school settings, testing, contact tracing, masks, and isolation cannot be counted on to control the spread of an avian flu that has adapted to efficiently infect humans. Before Covid-19, these nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) were a cornerstone of pandemic response strategy. While such interventions can work for short periods of time in small settings, lack of consistent use and variability in operation make them unreliable over longer periods. It is also clear that views towards masks and other NPIs are influenced by political preferences, which further contribute to differing patterns of behavior and personal use.

Beyond political beliefs, however, reports have shown that parents routinely sent their children to school and daycare during Covid-19 because they had no other options for childcare. Students, as well as their parents and other family members, used masks infrequently, incorrectly, or not at all. Some chose not to test themselves for Covid-19 at home, while others tested too often. These decisions and their underlying motivations may be difficult for public health professionals to fully understand, but they must meet students, educators, and parents where they are. Instead of relying on nonpharmaceutical interventions, they should anticipate similar behavior patterns in the event of an avian flu pandemic and plan for it.

During the Covid-19 pandemic, the lack of clear authority on decision-making related to school health policies led to inconsistent responses. Not much has changed since then. Many argued during the Covid-19 pandemic that if children’s needs had been prioritized by reopening schools ahead of reopening adult social settings, education losses could have been mitigated while also minimizing the impact of the social and emotional aspects of Covid-19-related isolation. Perhaps, but that’s not a debate that can be settled at this point.

Who takes responsibility for public health measures in the United States today emerges from a widely fragmented patchwork of incomplete administrative policies and political authorities that compete with fundamental ideals of free speech, individualism, and personal liberty. This realty, compounded by the fog of uncertainty in the early days of any viral outbreak, when nearly everything about an emerging infectious disease is up in the air, suggests a high likelihood of repeating the disjointed approach to Covid-19, with some jurisdictions opting to close schools to in-person instruction, others moving to hybrid learning, and others making no changes and remaining open.

Coordination processes between local school and public health leaders remain highly variable across the country. If an H5N1 pandemic does emerge, there will be calls for social distancing and school closures to protect students and teachers, just as was seen in the early days of the Covid-19 pandemic. The challenges may even be the same: It will take time before it is known how efficiently the virus is spreading, what the case and case fatality rates are, and whether — and how long — schools should remain closed. But this time it will be happening among a public more skeptical of school closures and rightfully expecting far better coordination between health and education officials.

Related: Massive amounts of H5N1 vaccine would be needed if there’s a bird flu pandemic. Can we make enough?

While some districts instituted public health department and school data-sharing practices during the Covid-19 pandemic, these structures have not been institutionalized or scaled reproducibly across the country. Systems like these, which help public health officials understand how disease is spreading within schools and the community, are critical for understanding disease transmission patterns and whether tools like closing schools are necessary. This period right now, between health security events, offers school leaders a chance to pressure test health data sharing systems and online education platforms; perform scenario exercises that test attendance, supply chain, and meal service delivery modeling; and practice online instruction, all of which are critical to improve upon the failures from the collective experience of Covid-19.

Preparing schools for the next pandemic

In light of this growing potential for a global pandemic from a virus with a high mortality rate , and in the face of unreliable nonpharmaceutical interventions and ineffective local public health infrastructure, what should be done to protect children and schools?

Vaccination is one answer, but given the significant disagreement in society about this measure, vaccine mandates are not a realistic option. In its place, getting schools ready for a pandemic will require steps from both the education community and federal health leaders.

Step 1 involves urgently and intentionally addressing the gaps between theoretical and practical emergency pandemic response planning that exists in schools. This includes approaching these policies with greater nuance and deeper understanding. School disaster-response plans frequently address other natural and manmade emergencies with greater specificity, but leave infectious disease outbreaks with vague and nonspecific action steps. District superintendents and school principals should use the interpandemic period to take a comprehensive accounting of what changes were instituted during the response to Covid-19, adapt best practices to local contexts, and codify these policies to respond to the challenges laid out above.

Step 2 in preparing schools for a pandemic requires action by both the education community and federal health leaders to:

Test health data-sharing systems and policies. School districts should establish and test robust, real-time absenteeism data-sharing practices with local health authorities. This should include the pre-approval of memoranda of understanding that can facilitate this data sharing while also protecting personal health information.
Conduct tabletop exercises. As with leaders responsible for other critical infrastructure, education leaders should conduct tabletop scenario exercises with local public health leaders to simulate various disease outbreak, vaccination, and treatment scenarios, test critical supply chains, evaluate online education delivery, and improve overall response strategies.
Strengthen communication plans. Effective communication between the scientific and education communities was a critical failure during the Covid-19 pandemic. School leaders should develop clear communication plans to keep parents, students, staff, and local governmental leaders, including public health officials, informed about health measures and changes in school operations. These plans should be communicated regularly at school assemblies, parent-teacher conferences, and included with report cards and other mailings to facilitate stakeholder engagement.

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Step 3 is out of the hands of those in the education community, but is essential: Federal health officials need to accelerate development of both cell-based and mRNA vaccines for pediatric populations as well as for adults. The federal government has made the decision to fill and finish 4.8 million doses of a cell-based vaccine to combat avian influenza, and just announced funding for a Phase 3 trial and acquisition vehicle of an mRNA based vaccine. However, it is unclear whether these trials and purchases include doses for children and adolescents that can be safety tested and made available as quickly as possible.

In the event of an H5N1 bird flu pandemic, recreating the Covid-19 experience, in which adult vaccines were approved six months ahead of the pediatric doses, is a recipe for disaster. If the worst comes to pass and this virus makes an efficient jump to humans, vaccines for both adults and children will need to be ready on day one.

These are not easy actions to focus on when school budgets are shrinking and leaders are still focused on education recovery after Covid-19. But by taking these steps during this critical interpandemic period, schools will be better prepared for future health security emergencies which will mitigate disruptions to education and ensure a more resilient response.

Mario Ramirez, M.D., is an emergency medicine physician, current managing director at Opportunity Labs, and former Acting Director for Pandemic and Emerging Threats in the Office of Global Affairs at the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Opportunity Labs is a national nonprofit working at the intersection of public health and K-12 education to help improve outcomes for children.

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v.125(Suppl 3); 2010

The 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic in the United States: Lessons Learned and Challenges Exposed

Alexandra minna stern.

Alexandra Minna Stern is the Zina Pitcher Collegiate Professor in the History of Medicine and Associate Director of the Center for the History of Medicine at the University of Michigan Medical School in Ann Arbor, Michagan. Martin S. Cetron is Director of the Division of Global Migration and Quarantine at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia. Howard Markel is the George E. Wantz Distinguished Professor of the History of Medicine, Director of the Center for the History of Medicine, and a Professor of pediatrics and communicable disease in the University of Michigan Medical School.

Martin S. Cetron

Howard markel.

Few have described the influenza pandemic of 1918–1919 better than Dr. Victor Clarence Vaughan, the portly dean of the University of Michigan Medical School and advisor to the U.S. Surgeon General during World War I. In early September 1918, upon surveying the destruction wrought not from bullets but rather from microbes at a military camp outside of Boston, Vaughan bemoaned that influenza had “… encircled the world, visited the remotest corners, taking toll of the most robust, sparing neither soldier nor civilian, and flaunting its red flag in the face of science.” 1 Striding between the crowded, makeshift hospital wards and the overflowing morgue, Vaughan anxiously recorded that bodies were being stacked about “like cordwood.”

Vaughan's macabre image of the alarming and accelerating loss of thousands of young soldiers in the prime of their lives foreshadowed the overwhelming sickness and death that would engulf the globe in the fall of 1918, as the deadliest wave of this contagious calamity took its harrowing toll. After the pandemic subsided in the winter of 1920, at least 50 million people had died worldwide, including approximately 550,000 in the United States. It reached its height during the final months of “the war to end all wars,” which mobilized tens of millions of young men to the European theater of battle. Moreover, it appeared at a time when public health had made tremendous advances thanks to a combination of sanitarian campaigns and bacteriological science, but several decades before the viral etiology of influenza had been determined.

When influenza appeared in the United States in 1918, Americans responded to the incursion of disease with measures used since Antiquity, such as quarantines and social distancing. During the pandemic's zenith, many cities shut down essential services. Public health professionals on the home front, including many volunteer nurses, deployed their limited medical armamentarium as they tirelessly tended to the ill and attempted to contain the spread of disease. Across the nation, hundreds of thousands of personal tragedies unfolded and irrevocably changed the lives of those who survived. Children were orphaned, a disproportionate number of young adults died, and for a brief period fear, suspicion, and panic prevailed. Yet even in this trying context, the historical record reveals that many Americans responded courageously during the crisis.

Historians and journalists have long been interested in this dramatic chapter in American life and have produced an impressive body of books, articles, and multimedia on this topic. The memory of the 1918 pandemic has also left a lasting mark on public health policy, planning, and practice. Indeed, for each influenza pandemic that followed in its wake—in 1957, 1968, and most recently in 2009, as well as during the swine flu scare of 1976—the events of 1918 have served both as a reference point and as a severe if not “worst-case” scenario.

Even with a growing literature on the historical, epidemiological, and public health aspects of the 1918 influenza pandemic in the United States, significant lacunae remain in our social and cultural understanding of this cataclysmic event. Although influenza was in the air and heralded on the front pages of newspapers across the nation during the fall of 1918, communities great and small experienced the pandemic in markedly different ways. Indeed, the 1918 influenza pandemic can be best characterized as many tales of multiple places and people. Consequently, narratives that capture the human dimension of pandemic response often can best be told from the local and personal perspective. At the same time, overgeneralizations can discredit or distort the stories of the participants, misrepresent the varying nature of community responses, and diminish the lessons that we can glean from studying the past.

Pandemics typically unfold across a wide spectrum of communities that are diverse in race, ethnicity, age, gender, and socioeconomic means. There is a delicate and interwoven balance among the virus, the host, and the social milieu that influences the timing, transmission patterns, spread, and severity of the pandemic. It is not uncommon for pandemics to disproportionately impact some sectors of society. Young adults may be severely impacted by infections, complications, and death in contrast to epidemics of seasonal influenza, which tend to hit hardest at the extremes of age. Morbidity, suffering, and even mortality rates may also be exaggerated by preexisting differences and disparities in underlying conditions both medical and cultural, such as war, poverty, crowding, and slavery.

Several underlying themes in this special supplement merit highlighting because they resonate with our contemporary experience with the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, despite the marked difference in the severity of the circulating virus between 1918 and today. These events are not simply medical or public health events in isolation, but vast and complex in their social impact. As a consequence, influenza pandemics demand a multidisciplinary response, and call on all of society to engage and participate. There are clear roles for both private citizens and uniformed personnel; for households, communities, work forces, volunteer organizations, and professional organizations; and for traditional governance structures at the local, state, and federal levels.

By examining the most devastating influenza pandemic in the modern era, this supplement seeks to extract lessons for public health professionals working in the 21st century. Most of the 13 original essays in this supplement were first presented in a workshop held at the University of Michigan in May 2009, a productive and stimulating event during which each author received substantive feedback on her or his paper and participated in discussions and debates about the historical implications of the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic on public health and American society. Just as the maker of a mosaic creates a particular tile to fit into a larger pattern, the contributors have thoughtfully reconstructed important dimensions of the 1918–1919 pandemic. Assembled into a whole, this collection allows us to step back and appreciate a more complete picture of these intricate events. Together, these articles paint a nuanced and multifaceted portrait of the health crisis that gripped America in 1918. In addition, we believe they are especially pertinent for public health practitioners actively engaged in combating and containing the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic, not to mention emerging infectious threats that have yet to declare themselves.

This supplement opens with a photographic essay of the people and places that influenza affected. Following it are three essays that frame the 1918 influenza pandemic in terms of the biological history of the virus, the response of scientists who unsuccessfully sought to produce an effective vaccine, and the guiding parameters of urban public health during the early 20th century. Moving from this broad focus, the next section of essays examines crucial aspects of public health response and social behavior, exploring crowd control and personal hygiene, the response of one major city (New York City), and the experiences of three major cities that deviated from the norm by keeping open, rather than closing, their public schools during the crisis. Highlighting key social institutions, the next section depicts the activities of the U.S. military, the efforts of the American Red Cross, and the formidable role nurses played during the pandemic. The final section focuses on individual communities—including African Americans (who confronted the pandemic against the backdrop of Jim Crow racism) and ethnic immigrants (such as Southern Italians and Eastern European Jews)—and analyzes the suffering of patients during the pandemic.

In toto, these essays shed much new light on the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic, all the while emphasizing the immediate context of war and the general contours of an era when Progressivism had greatly expanded health infrastructure and programs. This supplement attaches human faces and emotions to this devastating event, and underscores continuities and discontinuities between public health and pandemic responses then and now.

DIGITAL ARCHIVE

The University of Michigan Center for the History of Medicine and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are working together to produce an extensive digital archive and encyclopedia containing the world's largest database and set of records on the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic in the United States. The American Influenza Epidemic of 1918: A Digital Encyclopedia ( www.influenzaarchive.org ) is being created in partnership with the University of Michigan Scholarly Publishing Office and launches officially in 2012. It will include interpretative essays, timelines, archival documents, and images, and be fully searchable. Once operational, the archive will exist as a free access resource to the general public, policy makers, historians, and the public health community.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Daniel M. Fox and Jackie Wehmueller for their incisive comments on the essays.

Dr. Stern and Dr. Markel received partial support for this project through an RWJF Investigator Award in Health Policy Research from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation®, Princeton, New Jersey, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Project No. 000HCVKC-2007-44323).

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Etiology. Influenza viruses belong to the family of viruses termed " Orthomyxoviridae", an RNA type virus with diverse antigenic characteristics.They are divided into 3 main types: A, B, and C. Most of the epidemics and outbreaks of flu are caused by types A and B, with type C being generally responsible for sporadic mild upper respiratory symptoms. 8,9
Influenza
Influenza pandemics are estimated to occur on average once every 50 years. Epidemics happen much more frequently, and seasonal influenza appears annually in most parts of the world, sometimes in epidemic proportions. Influenza type A virus is the most frequent cause of seasonal influenza. When an influenza A virus undergoes an antigenic shift, a pandemic affecting most of the world can occur ...
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In the early 20th century, science was sufficiently sophisticated to anticipate that influenza, which had twice reached pandemic proportions in the late 19th century, would recur, but was largely powerless to blunt the devastating impact of the 1918 (H1N1) pandemic. Since then, mankind has gained several advantages against the disease: experience of three better characterized pandemics (1918 ...
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The 1957 pandemic was known as the "Asian Flu" and was Influenza strain A (H2N2) and caused 70,000 U.S. deaths. The emergence of the "Hong Kong Flu" in 1968-1969 marked the beginning of the A (H3N2) days. When this virus first emerged it had the lowest mortality rate in the 20th century. Although this virus first emerged with such a ...
An Overview of Influenza Viruses and Vaccines
The virus, also called "2009 H1N1", was a reassortment product between two pre-existing swine flu viruses—a North American H1N2 and a Eurasian H1N1 . There has been an increase in reports of direct bird-to-human transmission of avian influenza viruses in the last two decades, resulting in an ongoing outbreak of influenza A/H5N1 among ...
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Overview. Seasonal influenza (the flu) is an acute respiratory infection caused by influenza viruses. It is common in all parts of the world. Most people recover without treatment. Influenza spreads easily between people when they cough or sneeze. Vaccination is the best way to prevent the disease. Symptoms of influenza include acute onset of ...
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Characterizing historic influenza A viruses to compare and understand their genetic traits to learn why some influenza virus strains of the same subtype are more severe than others. For example, 1918 H1N1 flu killed an estimated 675,000 people in the United States and was much more severe than the 2009 H1N1 influenza.
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Wash your hands regularly. Clean hands protect against many infections, including flu. Keeping your hands clean is an easy way to keep yourself and your family healthy. Wash your hands with soap and running water regularly and dry them thoroughly with a single-use towel. You can also use an alcohol-based handrub if you can't get to soap and ...
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Flu, also called influenza, is an infection of the nose, throat and lungs, which are part of the respiratory system. The flu is caused by a virus. Influenza is commonly called the flu, but it's different from the stomach "flu" viruses that cause diarrhea and vomiting. Most people with the flu get better on their own.
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Influenza Essay example. Influenza, normally called "the flu", the influenza virus causes an infection in the respiration tract. Even though the influenza virus can sometimes be compared with the common cold. It also can cause a more severe illness or death. During this past century, pandemics took place in 1918, 1957, and 1968, in all of ...
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Future: For many centuries, the influenza virus has been a threat to the health of humans as strains of this virus continue to spread quickly worldwide, especially during the flu season i.e. from late fall through winter. It's estimated that between 5% to 20% of America's population contact the flu and exhibit symptoms like headaches, digestive and breathing difficulties, muscle aches, and ...
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Influenza is an acute respiratory illness, caused by influenza A, B, and C viruses, that occurs in local outbreaks or seasonal epidemics. Clinical illness follows a short incubation period and presentation ranges from asymptomatic to fulminant, depending on the characteristics of both the virus and the individual host. Influenza A viruses can also cause sporadic infections or spread worldwide ...
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Here are 5 things you should know about the 1918 pandemic and why it matters 100 years later. 1. The 1918 Flu Virus Spread Quickly. 500 million people were estimated to have been infected by the 1918 H1N1 flu virus. At least 50 million people were killed around the world including an estimated 675,000 Americans.
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Because the influenza virus can develop resistance to antiviral drugs, NIAID is working to find new and better treatments to fight the flu. These efforts include supporting the development and testing of the next generation of antiviral drugs. For example, NIAID supported the initial Phase 1 clinical studies of peramivir, which was approved in ...
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1. Introduction. Influenza disease, usually called "the flu", is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses. The common symptoms are fever, aches, chills, chest discomfort, cough, and headache [].The incubation period is very short, typically from 1 to 4 days [].While the majority of infected subjects recover, some develop complications, particularly at-risk groups such ...
Bovine H5N1 flu virus in cow milk poses significant health risks, study
Please use one of the following formats to cite this article in your essay, paper or report: APA. Kumar Malesu, Vijay. (2024, July 10). Bovine H5N1 flu virus in cow milk poses significant health ...
CDC A(H5N1) Bird Flu Response Update, July 5, 2024
CDC Update. July 5, 2024 - CDC continues to respond to the public health challenge posed by a multistate outbreak of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus, or "H5N1 bird flu," in dairy cows and other animals in the United States.CDC is working in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), state public health and animal health officials ...
Opinion: Runny eggs are delicious. But in an era of bird flu, should
This avian flu virus is clearly something to take seriously as it spreads rapidly through dairy farms ... On the morning I began writing this essay, the first words I heard came from one of those ...
Study: Nanoparticle vaccines enhance cross-protection against influenza
The influence of priming vaccination on the antigen-specific IgG1/IgG2a antibody responses and antibody cross-reactivity. Credit: Nature Communications (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50087-5
Pathogenicity and transmissibility of bovine H5N1 influenza virus
Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza (HPAI H5N1) viruses occasionally infect, but typically do not transmit, in mammals. In the Spring of 2024, an unprecedented outbreak of HPAI H5N1 in bovine ...
Covid failures can't be repeated if H5N1 bird flu reaches schools
While these are individual opinions, they represent a growing sense of alarm among public health scientists that the H5N1 avian flu virus, which first infected humans in 1997, is developing ...
Bird flu strains: Where are they spreading around the globe?
The first known cases of infected dairy cattle occurred in Texas in March, and is now in dairy herds in 12 states. The U.S. Agriculture Department said tests so far indicate that the virus ...
The 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic in the United States: Lessons Learned
Following it are three essays that frame the 1918 influenza pandemic in terms of the biological history of the virus, the response of scientists who unsuccessfully sought to produce an effective vaccine, and the guiding parameters of urban public health during the early 20th century.