speech and language meaning

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Difference between speech, language and communication

• 25 September 2020
• Science outreach

In our day-to-day language, the terms speech, language, and communication are often used interchangeably. However, are these words synonyms? As it turns out, no, they are not! 

Here is how to better distinguish these terms:

Speech refers to the way we produce and perceive the consonants and vowels that form all the languages in the world. It can be considered the perceptual and motor components of oral language. More specifically, it includes the following elements:

• Voice. This refers to the way we use our vocal folds (sometimes called cords), in the larynx, and our respiration (especially the expiration) to produce speech sounds. Our voice varies in intensity and pitch – that is, it can be more or less loud and have a higher or lower pitch. These parameters are determined by the contraction and extension of the vocal folds.
• Articulation. It is the way we use our articulators, including our lips and our tongue, to produce speech sounds. For example, our lips are rounded to produce the vowel /o/, while they are stretched to produce the vowel /i/.
• Resonance. This refers to the modification of the sound generated by the vocal folds as it travels through the cavities formed by the pharynx as well as the inside of our nose and mouth. Resonance influences the quality of speech sounds (a nasal vowel such as “an” vs an oral vowel such as “a”) and depends mostly on our capacity to control the amount of air that is expelled from our nose when we speak. To block air from going through the nose, we lift soft palate (also called velopharynx); to allow air going into the nose, we drop the soft palate (see figure 1). For example, too much airflow through the nose results in a nasal voice (Kummer). It should be noted that damage to resonance or to the respiratory system is likely to make speech less natural and intelligible (ASHA). 
• Fluency. This concerns the rhythm of our speech and is characterized by the number of hesitations and repetitions of sounds when we speak. Non fluent speech is associated with communication disorders such as stuttering.
• Perception. The ability to detect and perceive fine variations in the acoustic signal of speech, including variations in intensity and frequency in a locutor’s voice or variations in their speech rate, are also key elements of speech at the receptive level.

Language refers to the comprehension and production of words and sentences to share ideas or information. Language can be oral, written, or signed (e.g. Quebec Sign Language). Below are the different spheres of language (ASHA; Bishop et al, 2017): 

• Phonology. At the interface between speech and language, phonology refers to the ability to identify and use speech sounds to distinguish the words of a language. For example, in English, it is important to distinguish the sounds associated with the letters “b” and “p” since words such as “bay” and “pay” do not have the same meaning.
• Morphology. This refers to the rules that regulate the use of morphemes, the smallest units of language that carry meaning. For example, in oral and written English, the plural is often indicated by adding the morpheme “-s” to a noun (eg. anemones). Some morphemes can be added at the beginning or at the end of a word to slightly modify the meaning. For example, the morpheme ‘’-est’’ in English is used to express the superlative. For example, when we add “est” to the adjective  tall, we  create the word  tallest , meaning the person who is the most tall.
• Lexicology and semantics. These components refer to vocabulary as well as the knowledge of the word meaning (e.g., knowing the word  anemone  and that it refers not only to a marine animal, but also to a colorful perennial plant).
• Syntax. This refers to the rules to combine words to create sentences in a language. For example, the sentence ‘’I love anemones’’ is composed of a subject (I) and a predicate (formed by the verb  love  and the noun  anemones ); the two obligatory components in an English sentence.
• Pragmatics. This refers to the rules about the use of language in a specific communication context. These rules include the respect of the turn-taking or the adjustment of the language level or content based on the interlocutor. It also includes the ability to detect humour, irony and sarcasm.

Communication

Communication refers to the process of exchanging information, including emotions and thoughts (Bishop and al., 2016), with others using speaking, writing, signs, facial expressions and body language. Communication thus incorporates speech and language, but also prosody (linguistic and emotional). Prosody refers to the ability to vary the intonation, rate and voice intensity to either emphasize certain syllables or words when we speak or to draw the attention of our interlocutor to a particular piece of information (linguistic prosody), or to convey our emotions, voluntarily or not (emotional prosody; Wilson & Wharton, 2005). 

Although the words  speech ,  language  and  communication  are often used interchangeably, these words have distinct meanings when used in scientific or clinical contexts. While  communication  is a broad concept,  speech  and  language  have very specific meaning. This is important because communication difficulties can affect speech and language independently. For example, a person with a speech impairment may have difficulty articulating correctly without having any language difficulty. Likewise, a person with a language disorder may have difficulty understanding the meaning of words, forming grammatically sentences, respecting speaking turns during a conversation, etc., while having no difficulty related to speech (normal voice, normal articulation).

Suggested readings:

• The cocktail party explained
• Comic strip about speech
• Speech perception: a complex ability
• What is the most important element of communication?

Speech analysis

• What is prosody?

References:

American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA). (2020, September 1 rst ). What Is Speech? What Is Language? https://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/speech-and-language/

American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA). (2020, September 1 rst ). Language in brief. https://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Clinical-Topics/Spoken-Language-Disorders/Language-In–Brief/

American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA). (2020, September 23). Dysarthria in Adults. https://www.asha.org/PRPSpecificTopic.aspx?folderid=8589943481&section=Signs_and_Symptoms

Bishop, D.V.M., Snowling, M.J., Thompson, P.A., Greenhalgh, T., & CATALISE consortium. (2016). CATALISE: A Multinational and Multidisciplinary Delphi Consensus Study. Identifying Language Impairments in Children. PLOS ONE 11 (12): e0168066.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168066

Kummer, A.W. (2020, September 23). Resonance Disorders and Velopharyngeal Dysfunction.  https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/- /media/cincinnati%20childrens/home/service/s/speech/patients/handouts/resonance-disorders-and-vpd.pdf?la=en

Wilson, D., & Wharton, T. (2006). Relevance and prosody. Journal of Pragmatics 38 , 1559–1579. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2005.04.012

The peripheral auditory system

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Speech-Language Pathologists (SLP): What Do They Treat?

What Is a Speech-Language Pathologist?

A speech-language pathologist (SLP), also known as a speech therapist, is a health professional who diagnoses and treats communication and swallowing problems. They work with both children and adults of all ages in clinics, schools, and hospitals. They can help if you or someone you love has a developmental disorder, neurological condition, or brain injury that affects your ability to communicate with other people. They also can help if you have trouble eating or drinking safely due to swallowing issues.

What Do Speech-Language Pathologists Do?

A speech-language pathologist does many things. Typically, they check how you're able to communicate or swallow. When you're having trouble communicating or swallowing , they will try to find the cause. They'll also develop a treatment plan just for you based on the trouble you're having and the reason for it. They'll work with you and provide therapy to help. They'll also keep track of how you're doing over time. Any treatment they offer is known as speech therapy.

SLPs provide a broad range of therapies because they treat communication and swallowing problems caused by so many different disorders. Their work may include:

• Helping people learn how to form sounds
• Teaching how to speak clearly and easily
• Using exercises to strengthen muscles used to speak or swallow
• Helping people increase the number of words they can say and/or understand
• Working with people to improve the way they put words together in sentences
• Providing augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems for people who have severe language disorders
• Educating patients and their families about how to overcome challenges from the communication or swallowing problem
• Providing a type of treatment called aural rehabilitation, which helps people with hearing loss

An SLP can help you understand other people better. They can also help other people understand you better by improving your ability to share your feelings through words, gestures, or other means. They can help you learn how to carry on a conversation, including taking turns or giving other people personal space.

SLPs can help you even if you have very limited or no ability to speak the way other people do. They can train you on how to use devices, such as electronic tablets or communication boards. In addition, they can help you learn to swallow safely with approaches that help you better control your swallowing muscles.

SLPs also can help you with:

• How your voice sounds
• How loud you talk
• Memory, attention, problem-solving, organization, and thinking
• Sucking and chewing

Types of Speech Therapy

Speech-language pathologists use different techniques and tools depending on what the underlying cause is, how old you are, and other factors. You may have different types of therapy including:

• Articulation therapy. You'll work on articulating sounds and words more clearly. Your therapist may use games to make it fun.
• Oral motor therapy. Your therapist will work on the muscles around your mouth with exercises to help with speaking or swallowing.
• Language intervention therapy. This type of therapy can help when you have a speech delay or language disability.
• VitalStim therapy. Your therapist may use electrical stimulation around your neck. This approach can help if you've had a stroke leading to problems with eating, swallowing, drinking, or speaking.
• Lee Silverman speech therapy (LSVT). This approach can help with vocal control, volume, and facial expressions. Your therapist may use it if your issues aren't related to your speech ability.
• Modeling techniques. Your therapist may repeat what you say back to you correctly or add in extra words. They'll offer plenty of praise and feedback to help with speech problems.

Speech pathologist vs. speech therapist

You might hear SLPs called speech pathologists or speech therapists. But they are the same thing. Either refers to a health care provider who helps with problems related to speech, communication, or swallowing.

What Conditions Does a Speech-Language Pathologist Treat?

SLPs provide therapy for people with hearing loss, children with developmental delays, and people with communication and swallowing problems. They treat disorders such as:

Speech disorders

These conditions make it difficult to produce sounds. Some examples include:

• Apraxia: When the brain has trouble directing the movements of the muscles used to speak
• Articulation disorders: The inability to form certain sounds, such as “th” or “r”
• Stuttering: When the flow of speech is broken by pauses and repetition
• Resonance disorders: Caused by an obstruction such as a cleft palate
• Dysarthria: Weakness in the muscles used in speech, caused by brain injury

Language disorders

These may be receptive (difficulty understanding language) or expressive (difficulty making oneself understood by others). Some examples are:

• Aphasia: Difficulty speaking or understanding others because of damage to the brain
• Auditory processing disorder: When the brain has trouble understanding the meaning of sounds

Cognitive-communication disorders

Usually, any brain injury that causes problems with memory, attention, organization, or reasoning, cognitive-communication disorders can make it difficult for a person to speak, listen, read, or write. Causes of cognitive-communication disorders include traumatic brain injury, stroke, or dementia .

Social-communication disorders

These conditions make it hard to communicate socially: greeting, asking questions, taking part in conversations, and talking in ways that are appropriate for the situation. Difficulty with social communication can be caused by autism spectrum disorder or events such as a traumatic brain injury.

Swallowing disorders

Sometimes called dysphagia, swallowing disorders are problems with eating and swallowing. Symptoms include coughing or choking during or after eating, food leaking from the mouth, taking much longer than normal to finish meals, weight loss, dehydration, and frequent pneumonia.

How to Become a Speech Pathologist

Speech-language pathologists hold a master’s degree from a program accredited by the Council on Academic Accreditation in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology. Along with classes in the assessment and treatment of communication and swallowing disorders, these programs include at least 375 hours of clinical experience.

After graduation, a 1-year clinical fellowship (or medical training period) is required, with a minimum of 1,260 hours of work under the supervision of a certified SLP. Then the candidate must pass an exam to become certified as a speech-language pathologist.

Where Do Speech-Language Pathologists Work?

You can find speech-language pathologists in many different places. Settings include:

• Assisted living facilities
• Business or work settings
• Military bases
• Rehabilitation centers
• Long-term care or skilled nursing facilities

Reasons to See a Speech-Language Pathologist

If you or a loved one experience any of the following problems, it might be a good idea to seek out a speech-language pathologist.

Difficulty communicating after an injury or illness

Speech therapy can help some people regain the ability to express wants and needs, build relationships, carry out daily tasks, and succeed in school or at work. 

Difficulty eating after an injury or illness

Swallowing therapy can strengthen the muscles used in eating, help adults relearn swallowing coordination, and teach ways to reduce the risk of aspiration (accidentally inhaling food particles).

Feeding issues in infants and children

Babies and toddlers with swallowing disorders may have a pattern of fussiness at mealtimes, avoiding certain food textures or temperatures (called sensory aversions ), congestion or vomiting after eating, or gagging during meals. Feeding therapy can teach chewing, sipping, and swallowing, overcome sensory aversions, and help children learn to eat independently and enjoy mealtimes.

Delayed speech development

If you’re concerned that your child might not be speaking or understanding speech at a level appropriate for their age, talk with your child’s doctor. They can refer you to a speech-language pathologist if your child needs to be evaluated. If a child does have a speech or language disorder, getting therapy early can help.

Speech-language pathologists work in many different places to help people of all ages when they have problems related to communication, speech, or swallowing for any reason. If you or a loved one is having trouble in any of these areas, ask your doctor if they'd recommend you get speech therapy to help.

Speech-Language Pathologist FAQs

• What happens during speech therapy?

Speech therapists treat many different problems that may be caused by many different conditions. They also use many different techniques and tools. What happens during your speech therapy session will depend on the problems you need help with. Ask your doctor or speech therapist what you can expect.

• How long do you need speech therapy?

That depends. Some people may need speech therapy for a few weeks, while others may benefit for months or even years. It depends on what you need speech therapy for. It also can depend on how much time you put into practicing the exercises or other skills your speech therapist recommends.

• How well does speech therapy work?

Speech therapists go through a lot of training and learn how to use methods that are based on evidence they work. One study of kids with a speech or language problem showed that 6 hours of speech and language therapy over 6 months helped. Another study suggests more variable outcomes after a stroke. How well speech therapy works for you will depend on the condition it's treating. It isn't a cure for any disorder, but it can help you with issues that affect your everyday life and ability to interact with people or eat. Ask your doctor or speech therapist how much they think it can help in your case.

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Language vs Speech: Difference and Comparison

Key Takeaways Language is a communication system that uses words, symbols, and grammar to convey meaning, while speech refers to producing sounds to convey a message. Language is a complex cognitive process that involves comprehension, expression, and interpretation, while speech is a physical activity that involves the vocal cords, mouth, and lungs. Language is a fundamental aspect of human communication and culture, while speech is one of many ways language can be expressed.

Language vs Speech 

Similar reads, comparison table.

What is Language?

What is speech, main differences between language and speech, share this post, 21 thoughts on “language vs speech: difference and comparison”.

The productive and creative nature of languages highlights their ability to evolve and adapt, reflecting the dynamic nature of human expression and communication over time.

Absolutely, language’s dynamic and evolving characteristics offer a fascinating insight into the diversity and richness of human communication, reflecting its profound impact on societal development.

The characteristics of language, such as its arbitrary nature and symbolic elements, underscore the complexity and richness of communication systems employed by human societies.

Indeed, the unique features and characteristics of language contribute to the diversity and richness of different linguistic systems, reflecting the depth of human expression and interaction.

The distinction between language and speech is an interesting one – while language acts as a system of communication, speech is the action of communicating through spoken vocalizations.

Indeed, this differentiation is important, particularly when considering the fundamental role that language and speech play in human expression and interaction.

There is no doubt that language is crucial for communication, and the development of civilizations is closely tied to the development and influence of different languages.

Absolutely, language has played a central role in the development and history of different cultures and societies around the world.

This thorough exploration of language and speech truly emphasizes their profound impact on human interaction and societal development. It’s fascinating to see the interplay between these linguistic and communicative elements.

The significance of language as a fundamental aspect of human communication is underscored by its socio-cultural and historical influences, which emphasize its pivotal role in human societies.

The intricate comparison between language and speech sheds light on their unique characteristics, providing a deeper understanding of their roles in shaping human interaction and societal development.

Completely agree, the detailed examination of language and speech offers valuable insights into their distinct roles as tools of communication, ultimately shaping the way humans interact and form connections.

Indeed, the comprehensive exploration of language and speech unveils their profound impact on human society and highlights the intricate relationship between language and human interaction.

The comparison between language and speech helps us understand the different components and characteristics of each, shedding light on their roles as tools for communication.

Absolutely, the detailed comparison highlights the intricacies and complexities of both language and speech, providing insight into their importance in communication and social structure.

Yes, by examining the parameters of comparison, we can identify the unique functions and rules of language and speech, which are essential to human interaction and society.

The distinct elements of speech, such as the speaker, message, and channel, provide valuable insight into the dynamic nature of human communication, and how language is employed as a tool for conveying information and ideas.

Indeed, the comprehensive exploration of speech components highlights their intricate role in the effective conveyance of information and the dynamic nature of human interaction.

The role of language as a means of communication and socialization, as well as the role of speech in message delivery and conveyance, showcases the intricate relationship between linguistic systems and human interaction.

Completely agree, the detailed examination of language and speech underscores their crucial roles in human society, ultimately shaping the way we interact and communicate with one another.

Absolutely, the interconnectivity between language, speech, and human interaction is a fascinating aspect to explore, and it highlights the depth of human communication and expression.

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ARTICULATION TEACHER

• speakeasycommunity
• Dec 15, 2022

The difference between speech and language

Speech and language are often used interchangeably, but they are actually two separate aspects of communication. While they are related and can affect each other, it is important to understand the differences between speech and language and how they impact a person's ability to communicate.

Language is the system of words, sounds, and grammar that people use to communicate with each other. It allows us to express our thoughts and ideas and understand those of others. Language is made up of four main components: phonology, which is the study of sounds; semantics, which is the study of meaning; syntax, which is the study of sentence structure; and pragmatics, which is the study of how language is used in social situations.

Speech, on the other hand, is the physical production of language. It involves the use of the mouth, lips, tongue, and other speech muscles to produce sounds that make up words and sentences. Speech is how we physically produce language and make it audible to others.

While speech and language are related, they can be affected by different factors. For example, a person may have difficulty producing speech due to a physical impairment or a speech disorder, but their language skills may still be intact. On the other hand, a person may have difficulty understanding or using language due to a language disorder, but their speech production may be unaffected.

It is important for parents and caregivers to be aware of the differences between speech and language and how they can impact a person's ability to communicate. If you are concerned about your child's speech and language development, it is important to speak with a healthcare provider or speech-language pathologist who can assess their skills and provide support as needed.

Articulation Teacher focuses on speech development and articulation, while our other app, SpeakEasy: Home Speech Therapy , focuses more on language development. Happy talking!

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Speech and Language Impairments

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA, defines the term “speech or language impairment” as follows:

“(11)  Speech or language impairment  means a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.” [34 CFR §300.8(c)(11]

(Parent Information and Resources Center, 2015)

Table of Contents

What is a Speech and Language Impairment?

Characteristics of speech or language impairments, interventions and strategies, related service provider-slp.

• A Day in the Life of an SLP

Assistive Technology

Speech and language impairment  are basic categories that might be drawn in issues of communication involve hearing, speech, language, and fluency.

A speech impairment is characterized by difficulty in articulation of words. Examples include stuttering or problems producing particular sounds. Articulation refers to the sounds, syllables, and phonology produced by the individual. Voice, however, may refer to the characteristics of the sounds produced—specifically, the pitch, quality, and intensity of the sound. Often, fluency will also be considered a category under speech, encompassing the characteristics of rhythm, rate, and emphasis of the sound produced.

A language impairment is a specific impairment in understanding and sharing thoughts and ideas, i.e. a disorder that involves the processing of linguistic information. Problems that may be experienced can involve the form of language, including grammar, morphology, syntax; and the functional aspects of language, including semantics and pragmatics.

(Wikipedia, n.d./ Speech and Language Impairment)

*It’s important to realize that a language delay isn’t the same thing as a speech or language impairment. Language delay is a very common developmental problem—in fact, the most common, affecting 5-10% of children in preschool.  With language delay, children’s language is developing in the expected sequence, only at a slower rate. In contrast, speech and language disorder refers to abnormal language development.  Distinguishing between the two is most reliably done by a certified speech-language pathologist.  (CPIR, 2015)

The characteristics of speech or language impairments will vary depending upon the type of impairment involved. There may also be a combination of several problems.

When a child has an  articulation disorder , he or she has difficulty making certain sounds. These sounds may be left off, added, changed, or distorted, which makes it hard for people to understand the child.

Leaving out or changing certain sounds is common when young children are learning to talk, of course. A good example of this is saying “wabbit” for “rabbit.” The incorrect articulation isn’t necessarily a cause for concern unless it continues past the age where children are expected to produce such sounds correctly

Fluency  refers to the flow of speech. A fluency disorder means that something is disrupting the rhythmic and forward flow of speech—usually, a stutter. As a result, the child’s speech contains an “abnormal number of repetitions, hesitations, prolongations, or disturbances. Tension may also be seen in the face, neck, shoulders, or fists.”

Voice  is the sound that’s produced when air from the lungs pushes through the voice box in the throat (also called the larnyx), making the vocal folds within vibrate. From there, the sound generated travels up through the spaces of the throat, nose, and mouth, and emerges as our “voice.”

A voice disorder involves problems with the pitch, loudness, resonance, or quality of the voice. The voice may be hoarse, raspy, or harsh. For some, it may sound quite nasal; others might seem as if they are “stuffed up.” People with voice problems often notice changes in pitch, loss of voice, loss of endurance, and sometimes a sharp or dull pain associated with voice use.

Language  has to do with meanings, rather than sounds.  A language disorder refers to an impaired ability to understand and/or use words in context. A child may have an expressive language disorder (difficulty in expressing ideas or needs), a receptive language disorder (difficulty in understanding what others are saying), or a mixed language disorder (which involves both).

Some characteristics of language disorders include:

• improper use of words and their meanings,
• inability to express ideas,
• inappropriate grammatical patterns,
• reduced vocabulary, and
• inability to follow directions.

Children may hear or see a word but not be able to understand its meaning. They may have trouble getting others to understand what they are trying to communicate. These symptoms can easily be mistaken for other disabilities such as autism or learning disabilities, so it’s very important to ensure that the child receives a thorough evaluation by a certified speech-language pathologist.

(CPIR, 2015)

• Use the (Cash, Wilson, and DeLaCruz, n.d) reading and/or the [ESU 8 Wednesday Webinar] to develop this section of the summary. 

Cash, A, Wilson, R. and De LaCruz, E.(n,d.) Practical Recommendations for Teachers: Language Disorders. https://www.education.udel.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/LanguageDisorders.pdf 

[ESU 8 Wednesday Webinar] Speech Language Strategies for Classroom Teachers.- video below

Video: Speech Language Strategies for Classroom Teachers (15:51 minutes)’

[ESU 8 Wednesday Webinars]. (2015, Nov. 19) . Speech Language Strategies for Classroom Teachers. [Video FIle]. From https://youtu.be/Un2eeM7DVK8

Most, if not all, students with a speech or language impairment will need  speech-language pathology services . This related service is defined by IDEA as follows:

(15)  Speech-language pathology services  include—

(i) Identification of children with speech or language impairments;

(ii) Diagnosis and appraisal of specific speech or language impairments;

(iii) Referral for medical or other professional attention necessary for the habilitation of speech or language impairments;

(iv) Provision of speech and language services for the habilitation or prevention of communicative impairments; and

(v) Counseling and guidance of parents, children, and teachers regarding speech and language impairments. [34 CFR §300.34(c)(15)]

Thus, in addition to diagnosing the nature of a child’s speech-language difficulties, speech-language pathologists also provide:

• individual therapy for the child;
• consult with the child’s teacher about the most effective ways to facilitate the child’s communication in the class setting; and
• work closely with the family to develop goals and techniques for effective therapy in class and at home.

Speech and/or language therapy may continue throughout a student’s school years either in the form of direct therapy or on a consultant basis.

A Day in the Life of an SLP

Christina is a speech-language pathologist.  She works with children and adults who have impairments in their speech, voice, or language skills. These impairments can take many forms, as her schedule today shows.

First comes Robbie.  He’s a cutie pie in the first grade and has recently been diagnosed with childhood apraxia of speech—or CAS. CAS is a speech disorder marked by choppy speech. Robbie also talks in a monotone, making odd pauses as he tries to form words. Sometimes she can see him struggle. It’s not that the muscles of his tongue, lips, and jaw are weak. The difficulty lies in the brain and how it communicates to the muscles involved in producing speech. The muscles need to move in precise ways for speech to be intelligible. And that’s what she and Robbie are working on.

Next, Christina goes down the hall and meets with Pearl  in her third grade classroom. While the other students are reading in small groups, she works with Pearl one on one, using the same storybook. Pearl has a speech disorder, too, but hers is called dysarthria. It causes Pearl’s speech to be slurred, very soft, breathy, and slow. Here, the cause is weak muscles of the tongue, lips, palate, and jaw. So that’s what Christina and Pearl work on—strengthening the muscles used to form sounds, words, and sentences, and improving Pearl’s articulation.

One more student to see—4th grader Mario , who has a stutter. She’s helping Mario learn to slow down his speech and control his breathing as he talks. Christina already sees improvement in his fluency.

Tomorrow she’ll go to a different school, and meet with different students. But for today, her day is…Robbie, Pearl, and Mario.

Assistive technology (AT) can also be very helpful to students, especially those whose physical conditions make communication difficult. Each student’s IEP team will need to consider if the student would benefit from AT such as an electronic communication system or other device. AT is often the key that helps students engage in the give and take of shared thought, complete school work, and demonstrate their learning. (CPIR, 2015)

Project IDEAL , suggests two major categories of AT computer software packages to develop the child’s speech and language skills and augmentative or alternative communication (AAC).

Augmentative and alternative communication  ( AAC ) encompasses the communication methods used to supplement or replace speech or writing for those with impairments in the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. Augmentative and alternative communication may used by individuals to compensate for severe speech-language impairments in the expression or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC can be a permanent addition to a person’s communication or a temporary aid.

(Wikipedia, (n.d. /Augmentative and alternative communication)

Center for Parent Information and Resources (CPIR)  (2015), Speech and Language Impairments, Newark, NJ, Author, Retrieved 4.1.19 from https://www.parentcenterhub.org/speechlanguage/

Wikipedia (n.d.) Augmentative and alternative communication. From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmentative_and_alternative_communication 

Wikipedia, (n.d.) Speech and Language Impairment. From  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_and_language_impairment 

Updated 8.8.23

Understanding and Supporting Learners with Disabilities Copyright © 2019 by Paula Lombardi is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Introduction

Definitions of language

• Historical attitudes toward language
• Phonetics and phonology
• Pidgins and creoles
• Sign language
• Paralinguistics
• Symbolic and computer language
• Speech production
• Language acquisition
• Structural, or grammatical, meaning
• Lexical meaning
• General and specific designations
• Language and conceptualization
• Transmission of language and culture
• Language and social differentiation and assimilation
• Second-language learning
• Nationalistic influences on language
• Translation
• Messages and codes
• Bilingualism
• Evolution of writing systems
• Written versus spoken languages
• Changes through time
• Changes through geographical movement
• Tendencies against change
• Language typology

• What was Noam Chomsky’s early life like?
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• Ancient Origins - How Does Language Emerge? Answer: Spontaneously
• American Speech-Language-Hearing Association - What is Speech? What is Language?
• NSCC Libraries Pressbooks - Introduction to Sociology Lumen/OpenStax - Symbols and Language
• National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Language evolution and human history: what a difference a date makes
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Knowledge of Language
• Linguistic Society of America - How Did Language Begin?
• Social Sciences LibreTexts - Symbols and Language
• Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History - Language and Symbols
• language - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• language - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

language , a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture , express themselves. The functions of language include communication , the expression of identity , play , imaginative expression, and emotional release.

Characteristics of language

Many definitions of language have been proposed. Henry Sweet, an English phonetician and language scholar, stated: “Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts.” The American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager formulated the following definition: “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” Any succinct definition of language makes a number of presuppositions and begs a number of questions. The first, for example, puts excessive weight on “thought,” and the second uses “arbitrary” in a specialized, though legitimate , way.

A number of considerations (marked in italics below) enter into a proper understanding of language as a subject:

Every physiologically and mentally typical person acquires in childhood the ability to make use, as both sender and receiver, of a system of communication that comprises a circumscribed set of symbols (e.g., sounds, gestures, or written or typed characters). In spoken language , this symbol set consists of noises resulting from movements of certain organs within the throat and mouth. In signed languages , these symbols may be hand or body movements, gestures, or facial expressions. By means of these symbols, people are able to impart information, to express feelings and emotions, to influence the activities of others, and to comport themselves with varying degrees of friendliness or hostility toward persons who make use of substantially the same set of symbols.

Different systems of communication constitute different languages; the degree of difference needed to establish a different language cannot be stated exactly. No two people speak exactly alike; hence, one is able to recognize the voices of friends over the telephone and to keep distinct a number of unseen speakers in a radio broadcast. Yet , clearly, no one would say that they speak different languages. Generally, systems of communication are recognized as different languages if they cannot be understood without specific learning by both parties, though the precise limits of mutual intelligibility are hard to draw and belong on a scale rather than on either side of a definite dividing line. Substantially different systems of communication that may impede but do not prevent mutual comprehension are called dialects of a language. In order to describe in detail the actual different language patterns of individuals, the term idiolect , meaning the habits of expression of a single person, has been coined.

Typically, people acquire a single language initially—their first language, or native tongue, the language used by those with whom, or by whom, they are brought up from infancy. Subsequent “second” languages are learned to different degrees of competence under various conditions. Complete mastery of two languages is designated as bilingualism ; in many cases—such as upbringing by parents using different languages at home or being raised within a multilingual community—children grow up as bilinguals. In traditionally monolingual cultures , the learning, to any extent, of a second or other language is an activity superimposed on the prior mastery of one’s first language and is a different process intellectually.

Language, as described above, is species-specific to human beings. Other members of the animal kingdom have the ability to communicate, through vocal noises or by other means, but the most important single feature characterizing human language (that is, every individual language), against every known mode of animal communication, is its infinite productivity and creativity . Human beings are unrestricted in what they can communicate; no area of experience is accepted as necessarily incommunicable, though it may be necessary to adapt one’s language in order to cope with new discoveries or new modes of thought . Animal communication systems are by contrast very tightly circumscribed in what may be communicated. Indeed, displaced reference, the ability to communicate about things outside immediate temporal and spatial contiguity, which is fundamental to speech, is found elsewhere only in the so-called language of bees . Bees are able, by carrying out various conventionalized movements (referred to as bee dances) in or near the hive, to indicate to others the locations and strengths of food sources. But food sources are the only known theme of this communication system. Surprisingly, however, this system, nearest to human language in function, belongs to a species remote from humanity in the animal kingdom. On the other hand, the animal performance superficially most like human speech, the mimicry of parrots and of some other birds that have been kept in the company of humans, is wholly derivative and serves no independent communicative function. Humankind’s nearest relatives among the primates, though possessing a vocal physiology similar to that of humans, have not developed anything like a spoken language. Attempts to teach sign language to chimpanzees and other apes through imitation have achieved limited success, though the interpretation of the significance of ape signing ability remains controversial.

In most accounts, the primary purpose of language is to facilitate communication, in the sense of transmission of information from one person to another. However, sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic studies have drawn attention to a range of other functions for language. Among these is the use of language to express a national or local identity (a common source of conflict in situations of multiethnicity around the world, such as in Belgium, India , and Quebec). Also important are the “ludic” (playful) function of language—encountered in such phenomena as puns , riddles , and crossword puzzles —and the range of functions seen in imaginative or symbolic contexts , such as poetry , drama , and religious expression.

Language interacts with every aspect of human life in society, and it can be understood only if it is considered in relation to society. This article attempts to survey language in this light and to consider its various functions and the purposes it can and has been made to serve. Because each language is both a working system of communication in the period and in the community wherein it is used and also the product of its history and the source of its future development, any account of language must consider it from both these points of view.

The science of language is known as linguistics . It includes what are generally distinguished as descriptive linguistics and historical linguistics . Linguistics is now a highly technical subject; it embraces, both descriptively and historically, such major divisions as phonetics , grammar (including syntax and morphology ), semantics , and pragmatics , dealing in detail with these various aspects of language.

Speech in Linguistics

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In linguistics , speech is a system of  communication  that uses spoken words  (or sound symbols ). 

The study of speech sounds (or spoken language ) is the branch of linguistics known as phonetics . The study of sound changes in a language is phonology . For a discussion of speeches in rhetoric and oratory , see Speech (Rhetoric) .

Etymology:  From the Old English, "to speak"

Studying Language Without Making Judgements

• "Many people believe that written language is more prestigious than spoken language--its form is likely to be closer to Standard English , it dominates education and is used as the language of public administration. In linguistic terms, however, neither speech nor writing can be seen as superior. Linguists are more interested in observing and describing all forms of language in use than in making social and cultural judgements with no linguistic basis." (Sara Thorne, Mastering Advanced English Language , 2nd ed. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)

Speech Sounds and Duality

• "The very simplest element of speech --and by 'speech' we shall henceforth mean the auditory system of speech symbolism, the flow of spoken words--is the individual sound, though, . . . the sound is not itself a simple structure but the resultant of a series of independent, yet closely correlated, adjustments in the organs of speech." ( Edward Sapir , Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech , 1921)
• "Human language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. This property is called duality (or 'double articulation'). In speech production, we have a physical level at which we can produce individual sounds, like n , b and i . As individual sounds, none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning . In a particular combination such as bin , we have another level producing a meaning that is different from the meaning of the combination in nib . So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and, at another level, we have distinct meanings. This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language because, with a limited set of discrete sounds, we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning." (George Yule, The Study of Language , 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Approaches to Speech

• "Once we decide to begin an analysis of speech , we can approach it on various levels. At one level, speech is a matter of anatomy and physiology: we can study organs such as tongue and larynx in the production of speech. Taking another perspective, we can focus on the speech sounds produced by these organs--the units that we commonly try to identify by letters , such as a 'b-sound' or an 'm-sound.' But speech is also transmitted as sound waves, which means that we can also investigate the properties of the sound waves themselves. Taking yet another approach, the term 'sounds' is a reminder that speech is intended to be heard or perceived and that it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyzes or processes a sound wave." (J. E. Clark and C. Yallop, An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology . Wiley-Blackwell, 1995)

Parallel Transmission

• "Because so much of our lives in a literate society has been spent dealing with speech recorded as letters and text in which spaces do separate letters and words, it can be extremely difficult to understand that spoken language simply does not have this characteristic. . . . [A]lthough we write, perceive, and (to a degree) cognitively process speech linearly--one sound followed by another--the actual sensory signal our ear encounters is not composed of discretely separated bits. This is an amazing aspect of our linguistic abilities, but on further thought one can see that it is a very useful one. The fact that speech can encode and transmit information about multiple linguistic events in parallel means that the speech signal is a very efficient and optimized way of encoding and sending information between individuals. This property of speech has been called parallel transmission ." (Dani Byrd and Toben H. Mintz, Discovering Speech, Words, and Mind . Wiley-Blackwell, 2010)

Oliver Goldsmith on the True Nature of Speech

• "It is usually said by grammarians , that the use of language is to express our wants and desires; but men who know the world hold, and I think with some show of reason, that he who best knows how to keep his necessities private is the most likely person to have them redressed; and that the true use of speech is not so much to express our wants, as to conceal them." (Oliver Goldsmith, "On the Use of Language." The Bee , October 20, 1759)

Pronunciation: SPEECH

• 5 Theories on the Origins of Language
• Duality of Patterning in Language
• Phonology: Definition and Observations
• What Is Phonetics?
• Definition and Examples of Productivity in Language
• Spoken English
• Definition of Voice in Phonetics and Phonology
• Phonological Segments
• What Are Utterances in English (Speech)?
• Sound Symbolism in English: Definition and Examples
• Grapheme: Letters, Punctuation, and More
• What Is a Phoneme?
• Phoneme vs. Minimal Pair in English Phonetics
• Connected Speech
• What Is Graphemics? Definition and Examples
• 10 Titillating Types of Sound Effects in Language

Speech and Language Development

What is speech and language development.

Speech and language are the skills we use to communicate with others. We form these skills during the first years of life. By age 6, most children learn the basics. Try to talk and read to your child often to boost these skills.

Speech is making the sounds that become words—the physical act of talking.

Language is our system of using words to communicate. It includes using words and gestures to say what we mean, and understanding what others say.

When does speech and language development begin?

Infants start learning in the womb, where they hear and respond to familiar voices. The fastest learning occurs from ages 2 to 5 years.

Speech and language milestones help tell whether a child is developing as expected. Milestones are certain skills, such as babbling, saying "mama" or "dada," or putting two words together. Usually, a child needs to master one milestone before reaching the next.

Babies usually start cooing at around 2 months and are babbling by about 6 months. Most children speak by one year, but it may still be hard to understand what they're saying. At 15 to 18 months, a typical toddler understands much more than they are able to put into words. Starting around 18 months, many children have a burst in talking. By 24 months, children tend to use at least 50 words and are also starting to use two-word phrases.

Keep in mind that the age at which children reach milestones varies from child to child. Some children are advanced. Others develop more slowly.

Why do speech and language problems develop in some children?

Speech and language problems mean your child has trouble speaking or saying words. Or your child may find it hard to understand or explain ideas.

Hearing problems can cause speech and language delays in children. All children with speech and language delays should have their hearing tested. Certain disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder, can also cause a delay. Speech and language problems may also run in families.

A child can overcome many speech and language problems with treatment such as speech therapy. Speech therapy helps your child learn speech and language skills. Treatment works best when problems are caught early.

• What You Can Expect

Birth to age 1

Here are some of the things babies may do at each age milestone.

Less than 1 month old

• Listen to the rhythm and melodies of speech.
• Pick out their mother's voice.
• Learn the rhythm of two languages when both are spoken at home.
• Use crying that sounds the same no matter what they need.

Ages 1 to 4 months

• Prefer "baby talk" and voices with a high pitch.
• Blink or widen eyes when noticing sounds.
• Become startled or turn toward a sound to look for its source.
• Become quiet to their mother's voice.
• Make cooing sounds, such as "ah-ah-ah" or "ooh-ooh-ooh." Babies may also make cooing sounds back to someone who is talking to them.

Ages 5 to 6 months

• Recognize their own name.
• Make sounds like "goo" and blow bubbles at the same time.
• Start to babble or repeat sounds, such as "ma-ma-ma" or "bah-bah-bah" to get attention or express feeling.
• Vary their cries to signal specific needs.

Ages 7 to 9 months

• Hear words as distinct sounds.
• Recognize the meaning of some facial expressions and tone of voice, such as when a parent says "No!"
• Repeat sounds that they hear.
• Mimic the rhythm of the way others talk.
• May say words like "mama" and "dada."
• May wave "bye-bye" when asked.

Ages 10 to 12 months

• Start to follow simple commands like "Give me the toy."
• Usually understand "mama" and "dada."
• Correctly refer to each parent as "mama" or "dada."
• Point to things they want or need.
• Say a few single words besides "mama" or "dada."

Ages 1 to 3

Here are some of the things children may do at each age milestone.

Ages 1 to 2 years

• Understand that words have meaning.
• Know the names of family members and familiar objects. Start to know the names of other people, body parts, and objects.
• Make simple statements and understand simple requests, such as "All gone" and "Give daddy the ball."
• Use gestures, such as pointing.
• Make one- or two-syllable sounds that stand for items they want, such as "baba" for "bottle."
• Use their own language that is a mix of made-up words and real words.
• Say 20 to 50 words that family understands.

Ages 2 to 3 years

• Recognize the names of at least seven body parts, and can name some of these.
• Increase their understanding of the names of things.
• Follow simple requests, such as "Put the book on the table."
• When asked, point to a picture of something named, such as "Where is the cow?"
• Continue to learn and use gestures.
• Develop a way to communicate using gestures and facial expressions if they are quiet and don't talk much.
• Name favorite toys and familiar objects.
• Use pronouns like "me" and "you," but may get them mixed up.
• Make phrases, such as "No bottle" or "Want cookie."
• Say 150 to 200 words by age 3. Strangers may be able to understand them about 75% of the time.

Ages 3 to 5

Age 3 years.

• Follow two-part requests, such as "Put your pajamas in the hamper and your slippers in the closet."
• Learn new words quickly.
• Know the names of most common objects.
• Understand the concept of "two."
• Understand the differences between girls and boys.
• Know their own full name.
• Begin correctly using plurals, pronouns, and prepositions more consistently.
• Frequently ask "why" and "what."
• Often use complete sentences of 3 to 4 words.

Age 4 years

• Know the names of colors.
• Understand the difference between things that are the same and things that are different, such as the difference between children and grown-ups.
• Follow three-step instructions, such as "Go to the sink, wash your hands, and dry them on the towel."
• Use the past tense of words.
• Use sentences of 5 to 6 words.
• Describe something that has happened to them or tell a story.
• Speak clearly enough so that strangers can understand them almost all of the time.

Age 5 years

• Understand relationships between things, such as "the girl who is playing ball" and "the boy who is jumping rope."
• Carry on a conversation with another person.
• Call people or things by their relationship to others, such as "Bobby's mom" instead of "Mrs. Smith."
• Define words such as "spoon" and "cat."
• Infant Crying
• Common Concerns

It's common for parents to have questions about their child's speech and language development.

Speech and language delays

Many different things affect a child's speech development. Some of these things may cause a child to start speaking a little later than others of the same age. For example:

• Children who have older siblings may start to talk slightly later than their older brothers or sisters did.
• Children raised in bilingual homes may have a slight delay in starting to speak. But they don't have more trouble learning to talk, read, and write than those who learn only one language. In fact, learning two or more languages may boost a child's overall ability to learn.

True delays are related to developmental or health issues, such as some types of hearing loss or a family history of speech and language delay.

Signs of speech or language delays are generally based on standard speech and language milestones. For example, if your child is not babbling by 9 months or not saying any words by 15 months, talk with your doctor. The first step may be a hearing test.

Talk to your child's doctor anytime you have concerns. It's important to find speech and language delays early and rule out other conditions. Early treatment can help prevent long-term problems.

Behavioral issues

While they learn and master new language skills, children sometimes talk in ways that are demanding or impolite. For example, a child may say "Give me!" when they want a toy. Often this behavior is because children can't find the words that fit their feelings. Or they may simply repeat what is being said around them. Gently remind your child to use an appropriate voice and manners. And always model polite speech and behavior.

Some parents think that their child is constantly talking or chattering. This is a child's way of practicing. Parents don't have to listen and respond to everything a talkative child says. But don't completely tune out your chatterer either. Singing and dancing with your child and playing music or reading stories geared toward children will help your child learn to listen and to express themself.

Common mistakes

Most children make "mistakes" when they first learn to talk. This is a natural part of language development. For example, children commonly mispronounce words, such as saying "pasghetti" for "spaghetti." As children listen to other people, they often correct their mistakes. They learn to say words clearly and use grammar correctly through practice.

• Speech and Language Delays: Common Misconceptions
• Speech and Language Development: Signs of Possible Problems
• Routine Checkups

Regularly scheduled checkups begin shortly after birth and last through the teen years. They are often called well-child visits.

These visits let your doctor keep a close watch on your child's general health and development. Finding possible problems early gives your child the best chance for proper and successful treatment. Also, any concerns you have about your child can be discussed at these visits.

During the visits, the doctor examines your child. The doctor also asks you questions about your child's development and behavior. And immunizations and screenings are either given or scheduled at this time.

Your child's doctor will recommend a schedule for well-child visits.

Checking for speech and language delays

Mild and temporary speech delays can happen. And some children learn to communicate faster than others do.

Your doctor will check your child's speech and language skills during regular well-child visits. But call your doctor anytime you have concerns about how your child is developing. A child can overcome many speech and language problems with treatment, especially when you catch problems early.

Screening for hearing problems

Almost all 50 states require newborn hearing tests for all babies born in hospitals. Hearing should be checked by a doctor at each well-child visit and anytime you or your child may notice changes. Some hearing problems can delay your child's speech and language development. Be sure your child has regular hearing exams.

• Screening for Hearing Problems
• Well-Child Visits

• When to Call a Doctor

Call your doctor anytime you or another caregiver has concerns about your child's speech and language development. Be aware of signs that point to a possible developmental delay , such as when your child does not make sounds that are expected for your child's age.

Your doctor will do a physical exam and ask questions about your child's medical history. This information can help your doctor identify developmental patterns and assess whether any other conditions, such as hearing loss, are interfering with development.

Your doctor may also recommend other tests to:

• Rule out other conditions. For example, hearing tests done by an audiologist may be recommended to rule out hearing loss.
• Assess speech and language developmental progress. Questionnaires and evaluations by a speech-language pathologist can help define where your child's abilities are in relation to other children of the same age.
• Find out whether other problems, such as behavioral difficulties or developmental delays in other areas, are also occurring.
• Building Skills at Home

To help your child develop speech and language skills, make sure to talk and read to your baby. Later, encourage conversation with your child. The size of a 2-year-old's vocabulary is directly related to how much parents and other caregivers have spoken to that child since the child was born.

Newborn babies are programmed to learn. And parents are naturally excellent language teachers. The kinds of interactions and conversations parents normally have with their children, from "baby talk" to repeating words, are perfect language lessons. Talking, reading, listening, and responding to babies and young children usually are all that they need to help them learn to talk.

Teaching sign language to babies 6 months or older could also help them in several ways. Signing gives babies a way to express their wants and needs when they can't talk. And it gives you another way to bond with your child.

Start reading to your child before he or she is 6 months old. Read to your child each day. Reading to your young child is a very important learning activity for several reasons. While reading, you and your child share a comforting closeness. You also both focus on the same picture and the same concept. Your child can ask you questions, and you can reinforce his or her observations. Reading gives children a chance to learn new words that they wouldn't normally hear in everyday conversation. If you often read to your child, you may help with his or her speech development. It may also help your child's later reading abilities and school performance.

If you have concerns about your own reading skills, seek out an adult reading program at your local library or public school system. You can also go to America's Literacy Directory at www.literacydirectory.org to find reading programs in your area.

Helping your baby, birth to age 1

These are some things you can do to help your baby develop speech and language.

Interacting with your baby and sharing a loving environment will help make your baby more curious, build confidence, and help your baby get familiar with language. These traits will provide a strong foundation for speech and language development.

When you play or read with your child, leave the TV off. Even a show playing in the background can distract you and your baby.

Helping your child, ages 1 to 2

There are things you can do to encourage and support your child's speech and language development.

• Involve your child in conversations.
• Talk about the names of favorite toys and other common objects around the house.
• Speak slowly and clearly, and praise your child's attempts to speak.

To help your child's brain develop, play and read together instead of letting your child watch TV, watch movies, or play games on a screen.

When you play or read with your child, leave the TV off. Even a show playing in the background can distract you and your child. For children younger than 18 months, the American Academy of Pediatrics advises parents to avoid screen time.

Helping your child, ages 2 to 4

These are some things you can do to help your 2- to 4-year-old learn new words and say sentences.

When you can, gently encourage your child to talk to others, including other children near the same age.

When your child makes a language mistake, gently rephrase, repeat, or relabel.

• Read to your child every day.

The American Academy of Pediatrics advises parents to limit screen time to an hour or less each day of high-quality programs.

Helping your child, ages 3 to 5

The best way to help your child learn is to talk and read to your child. Doing these things will help your child learn language skills faster. Try these ideas:

• Read books to your child that tell stories with a beginning, middle, and end.
• Choose stories about your child's interests. Stories about facing fears and solving problems are also good.
• As you read, talk with your child about the story. Ask questions like "What's going to happen next?" and "Why do you think the character did that?"
• Listen to and talk with your child every day.
• Play games that require listening and following instructions.
• Speak clearly and correctly. Avoid "baby talk."
• Encouraging Language Development in Your Preschooler
• Speech and Language Development: Helping Your 1- to 2-Year-Old
• Related Information
• Growth and Development, Ages 1 to 12 Months
• Growth and Development, Ages 12 to 24 Months
• Growth and Development, Ages 2 to 5 Years
• Growth and Development, Newborn
• Hearing Loss

Current as of: October 24, 2023

Author: Healthwise Staff Clinical Review Board All Healthwise education is reviewed by a team that includes physicians, nurses, advanced practitioners, registered dieticians, and other healthcare professionals.

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Speech and Language Developmental Milestones

On this page:

How do speech and language develop?

What are the milestones for speech and language development, what is the difference between a speech disorder and a language disorder, what should i do if my child’s speech or language appears to be delayed, what research is being conducted on developmental speech and language problems.

• Your baby's hearing and communicative development checklist

Where can I find additional information about speech and language developmental milestones?

The first 3 years of life, when the brain is developing and maturing, is the most intensive period for acquiring speech and language skills. These skills develop best in a world that is rich with sounds, sights, and consistent exposure to the speech and language of others.

There appear to be critical periods for speech and language development in infants and young children when the brain is best able to absorb language. If these critical periods are allowed to pass without exposure to language, it will be more difficult to learn.

The first signs of communication occur when an infant learns that a cry will bring food, comfort, and companionship. Newborns also begin to recognize important sounds in their environment, such as the voice of their mother or primary caretaker. As they grow, babies begin to sort out the speech sounds that compose the words of their language. By 6 months of age, most babies recognize the basic sounds of their native language.

Children vary in their development of speech and language skills. However, they follow a natural progression or timetable for mastering the skills of language. A checklist of milestones for the normal development of speech and language skills in children from birth to 5 years of age is included below. These milestones help doctors and other health professionals determine if a child is on track or if he or she may need extra help. Sometimes a delay may be caused by hearing loss, while other times it may be due to a speech or language disorder.

Children who have trouble understanding what others say (receptive language) or difficulty sharing their thoughts (expressive language) may have a language disorder. Developmental language disorder  (DLD) is a language disorder that delays the mastery of language skills. Some children with DLD may not begin to talk until their third or fourth year.

Children who have trouble producing speech sounds correctly or who hesitate or stutter when talking may have a speech disorder. Apraxia of speech is a speech disorder that makes it difficult to put sounds and syllables together in the correct order to form words.

Talk to your child’s doctor if you have any concerns. Your doctor may refer you to a speech-language pathologist, who is a health professional trained to evaluate and treat people with speech or language disorders. The speech-language pathologist will talk to you about your child’s communication and general development. He or she will also use special spoken tests to evaluate your child. A hearing test is often included in the evaluation because a hearing problem can affect speech and language development. Depending on the result of the evaluation, the speech-language pathologist may suggest activities you can do at home to stimulate your child’s development. They might also recommend group or individual therapy or suggest further evaluation by an audiologist (a health care professional trained to identify and measure hearing loss), or a developmental psychologist (a health care professional with special expertise in the psychological development of infants and children).

The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) sponsors a broad range of research to better understand the development of speech and language disorders, improve diagnostic capabilities, and fine-tune more effective treatments. An ongoing area of study is the search for better ways to diagnose and differentiate among the various types of speech delay. A large study following approximately 4,000 children is gathering data as the children grow to establish reliable signs and symptoms for specific speech disorders, which can then be used to develop accurate diagnostic tests. Additional genetic studies are looking for matches between different genetic variations and specific speech deficits.

Researchers sponsored by the NIDCD have discovered one genetic variant, in particular, that is linked to developmental language disorder (DLD), a disorder that delays children’s use of words and slows their mastery of language skills throughout their school years. The finding is the first to tie the presence of a distinct genetic mutation to any kind of inherited language impairment. Further research is exploring the role this genetic variant may also play in dyslexia, autism, and speech-sound disorders.

A long-term study looking at how deafness impacts the brain is exploring how the brain “rewires” itself to accommodate deafness. So far, the research has shown that adults who are deaf react faster and more accurately than hearing adults when they observe objects in motion. This ongoing research continues to explore the concept of “brain plasticity”—the ways in which the brain is influenced by health conditions or life experiences—and how it can be used to develop learning strategies that encourage healthy language and speech development in early childhood.

A recent workshop convened by the NIDCD drew together a group of experts to explore issues related to a subgroup of children with autism spectrum disorders who do not have functional verbal language by the age of 5. Because these children are so different from one another, with no set of defining characteristics or patterns of cognitive strengths or weaknesses, development of standard assessment tests or effective treatments has been difficult. The workshop featured a series of presentations to familiarize participants with the challenges facing these children and helped them to identify a number of research gaps and opportunities that could be addressed in future research studies.

What are voice, speech, and language?

Voice, speech, and language are the tools we use to communicate with each other.

Voice is the sound we make as air from our lungs is pushed between vocal folds in our larynx, causing them to vibrate.

Speech is talking, which is one way to express language. It involves the precisely coordinated muscle actions of the tongue, lips, jaw, and vocal tract to produce the recognizable sounds that make up language.

Language is a set of shared rules that allow people to express their ideas in a meaningful way. Language may be expressed verbally or by writing, signing, or making other gestures, such as eye blinking or mouth movements.

Your baby’s hearing and communicative development checklist

Birth to 3 months, 4 to 6 months, 7 months to 1 year, 1 to 2 years, 2 to 3 years, 3 to 4 years, 4 to 5 years.

This checklist is based upon How Does Your Child Hear and Talk ?, courtesy of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association.

The NIDCD maintains a directory of organizations that provide information on the normal and disordered processes of hearing, balance, taste, smell, voice, speech, and language.

Use the following keywords to help you find organizations that can answer questions and provide information on speech and language development:

• Early identification of hearing loss in children
• Speech-language pathologists

For more information, contact us at:

NIDCD Information Clearinghouse 1 Communication Avenue Bethesda, MD 20892-3456 Toll-free voice: (800) 241-1044 Toll-free TTY: (800) 241-1055 Email: [email protected]

NIH Publication No. 00-4781 September 2010

*Note: PDF files require a viewer such as the free Adobe Reader .

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Speech Versus Language: What’s the Difference?

It’s common to hear the words "speech" and "language"   used interchangeably however, they actually have different meanings. A child who comes to Hear and Say for help with their speech will receive different support than a child who sees one of our speech pathologists for help with developing their language skills.

What is speech?

Speech  is the way we produce sounds to form words. That is, speech is the physical act of talking. It’s how we articulate vowels and consonants to generate the recognisable sounds that make language.

For example, to produce the ‘s’ sound our mouth, lips, tongue and voice need to be in specific places. The blade of the tongue is almost touching the roof of the mouth just behind the upper teeth (the alveolar ridge), our lips are spread similarly to when we smile and our teeth are almost closed. Air then flows over the centre of the tongue through our teeth to produce the ‘s’ sound.

What is language?

Language  is how we use words to get our message across to others. This includes vocabulary, use of expressive language (how we talk to others) and receptive language (how we understand others).

Language is governed by a series of rules including:

• Sentence structure (e.g. in English we would say, “Annie got a new shirt” rather than, “Annie new shirt got”)
• Meaning of words (e.g. ‘bark’ can be the noise a dog makes or it can be found on a tree)
• The emphasis we put on words (e.g. the sentence, “I didn’t say he crashed his bike” can have different meanings when we emphasise specific words – “ I  didn’t say he crashed his bike” or “I didn’t  say he crashed his bike” or “I didn’t say he  crashed  his bike”).

Speech and language disorders

People of all ages can face challenges with speech, language or both. For parents, knowing the red flags to keep an eye out for with children with possible speech and language delays will help to identify any developmental concerns early so the right support can be received.

Common speech development issues

Concerns relating to a child’s speech development   may include:

• Difficulty understanding what the child is saying
• Only parents or carers recognising what their child is saying or asking for, while other family members, peers or educators have significant difficulty understanding them
• Certain sounds are difficult and they are not consistent with their pronunciation of words (e.g. when a child produces the same word in multiple ways –  car or  dar  or  gar )
• Producing words with incorrect vowels (e.g.  car  becomes  core )
• Dropping off initial sounds of words (e.g.  car  becomes ‘ ar )
• Frustration when trying to communicate with others

Common language development issues

Concerns relating to a child’s  language development  may include:

• Difficulties following instructions (e.g. “Go and put your shoes on.”)
• Shows signs of echolalia – this is where a child simply repeats back what was said without following through (e.g. a parent says, “Go and get your shoes on” and the child repeats, “Get shoes” but does not complete the task)
• Poor vocabulary, with minimal understanding of words or unable to name objects, animals etc.
• Difficulties answering “wh-” questions (who, what, when, where, why)
• Poor concentration
• Demonstrates understanding of what an object is (e.g. by pointing), but is unable to find the word to say what it’s called

Speech and language development - what to expect?

All children develop speech and language skills at different rates, however there are some general guidelines as to when they'll hit typical milestones. These include:

One year old

When a child is one year old they might be able to:

• Imitate speech sounds
• Say their first words (for example, "dada" or "mama") but generally have a limited vocabulary
• Be able to localise sounds (i.e. know what direction sounds are coming from)
• Understand basic instructions (e.g. "look over there")
• To convey meaning, your child might use a lot of gestures, along with a few words

Two years old

Typically developing children often have the below communication skills at two years old:

• Can refer to themselves by name
• They have a vocabulary of 50 words or more
• Can talk about things that are not in the room or in front of them
• Able to use two- or three-word sentences
• Adults other than their parents and carers can understand them about 50 per cent of the time
• Can ask some basic questions (e.g. What?, Where’s Mum?)
• Can understand opposites (e.g. hot/cold, down/up)

Three years old

By the time a child is three-years-old they may communicate using the below speech and language skills:

• They will usually have a vocabulary of more than 200 words
• They can have a conversation with at least two back-and-forth exchanges
• Can correctly use all vowels and some consonants consistently
• People other than the child's parents and carers can understand them about 75 per cent of the time
• Can understand two-step directions when they are simple (e.g. get your toy and go to bed)
• Can use pronouns (e.g. I, me, you, mine, yours)

Four years old

At four years old, a child’s speech and language skills often include:

• Being able to consistently pronounce these sounds: p, b, m, h, n, w, d, k, g, d, f, y
• When talking with others, they can be understood up to 90 per cent of the time by people other than their parents and carers
• They can express their feelings by using words like “upset”, “confused”, “happy”
• They are able to state where things are (e.g. use words like top, below, between)
• Being able to use long sentences and take turns speaking in a conversation

Five years old

By the time they're five, their skills might include:

• Understand sequence language (e.g. before, after, later, tomorrow)
• They are expressive and able to tell a short story or share ideas using several sentences long
• They are able to use compound sentences, when two independent clauses are joined by words like "and" or "but". For example, "I really wanted a snack but I'm too full."
• They can use complex sentences, with one independent clause and one dependent clause that have been conjoined. For example, "After that person let us in, we enjoyed the show."
• Being able to follow directions with three steps

How to help your child if they have a speech or language disorder

Speech and language disorders impact a child’s ability to express themselves and understand others. It is more common in children under the age of three, and by four children’s speech and language skills should be more accurate and stable. Below are some signs to look out for. It’s always good to remember to be as patient as you can as your child is still learning.

• Compared to the milestone guidelines above and other children of the same age, they have a limited vocabulary
• They find forming sentences and the articulation of words tricky
• They say words in the wrong order
• They repeat sounds, this is particularly common for those who suffer from stuttering
• Taking pauses regularly when talking

Some of the causes and conditions that can lead to speech and language disorders include:

• Damage to the vocal cords
• Muscle weakness
• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

If you are worried about your child's progress, here are a few things that might help:

• Constantly talk about what you're doing - this will help your child to learn new words. For example, “I’m washing the dishes with, warm, soapy water.”
• Read books with a simple plot line, talk about what's happening and describe the pictures you see. Depending on age, retelling the story using dress-ups and acting it out can also be a good activity.
• Ask lots of questions
• Consider seeing a speech pathologist if extra support is needed

How working with a speech pathologist can help

A speech pathologist can conduct an assessment of your child’s speech and language skills and work with you to improve their communication. Speech therapists, like those at Hear and Say, often use play in lessons to assist your child in developing their articulation, spoken language, literacy and more. It is vital to practice the learnings from these lessons at home and implement them in everyday life.

If you are worried about your child’s speech or language development, Hear and Say has a number of Queensland clinics and our speech pathologists will be more than happy to help. Book a speech and language assessment near you:

• Sunshine Coast
• Online speech therapy

We're here to help if you have any questions about your child’s speech and language development

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Speaking, writing and reading are integral to everyday life, where language is the primary tool for expression and communication. Studying how people use language – what words and phrases they unconsciously choose and combine – can help us better understand ourselves and why we behave the way we do.

Linguistics scholars seek to determine what is unique and universal about the language we use, how it is acquired and the ways it changes over time. They consider language as a cultural, social and psychological phenomenon.

“Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human,” said Dan Jurafsky , the Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor in Humanities and chair of the Department of Linguistics in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford . “Discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.”

The stories below represent some of the ways linguists have investigated many aspects of language, including its semantics and syntax, phonetics and phonology, and its social, psychological and computational aspects.

Understanding stereotypes

Stanford linguists and psychologists study how language is interpreted by people. Even the slightest differences in language use can correspond with biased beliefs of the speakers, according to research.

One study showed that a relatively harmless sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist stereotypes. Because of the statement’s grammatical structure, it implies that being good at math is more common or natural for boys than girls, the researchers said.

Language can play a big role in how we and others perceive the world, and linguists work to discover what words and phrases can influence us, unknowingly.

How well-meaning statements can spread stereotypes unintentionally

New Stanford research shows that sentences that frame one gender as the standard for the other can unintentionally perpetuate biases.

Algorithms reveal changes in stereotypes

New Stanford research shows that, over the past century, linguistic changes in gender and ethnic stereotypes correlated with major social movements and demographic changes in the U.S. Census data.

Exploring what an interruption is in conversation

Stanford doctoral candidate Katherine Hilton found that people perceive interruptions in conversation differently, and those perceptions differ depending on the listener’s own conversational style as well as gender.

Cops speak less respectfully to black community members

Professors Jennifer Eberhardt and Dan Jurafsky, along with other Stanford researchers, detected racial disparities in police officers’ speech after analyzing more than 100 hours of body camera footage from Oakland Police.

How other languages inform our own

People speak roughly 7,000 languages worldwide. Although there is a lot in common among languages, each one is unique, both in its structure and in the way it reflects the culture of the people who speak it.

Jurafsky said it’s important to study languages other than our own and how they develop over time because it can help scholars understand what lies at the foundation of humans’ unique way of communicating with one another.

“All this research can help us discover what it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.

Stanford PhD student documents indigenous language of Papua New Guinea

Fifth-year PhD student Kate Lindsey recently returned to the United States after a year of documenting an obscure language indigenous to the South Pacific nation.

Students explore Esperanto across Europe

In a research project spanning eight countries, two Stanford students search for Esperanto, a constructed language, against the backdrop of European populism.

Chris Manning: How computers are learning to understand language​

A computer scientist discusses the evolution of computational linguistics and where it’s headed next.

Stanford research explores novel perspectives on the evolution of Spanish

Using digital tools and literature to explore the evolution of the Spanish language, Stanford researcher Cuauhtémoc García-García reveals a new historical perspective on linguistic changes in Latin America and Spain.

Language as a lens into behavior

Linguists analyze how certain speech patterns correspond to particular behaviors, including how language can impact people’s buying decisions or influence their social media use.

For example, in one research paper, a group of Stanford researchers examined the differences in how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online to better understand how a polarization of beliefs can occur on social media.

“We live in a very polarized time,” Jurafsky said. “Understanding what different groups of people say and why is the first step in determining how we can help bring people together.”

Analyzing the tweets of Republicans and Democrats

New research by Dora Demszky and colleagues examined how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online in an attempt to understand how polarization of beliefs occurs on social media.

Examining bilingual behavior of children at Texas preschool

A Stanford senior studied a group of bilingual children at a Spanish immersion preschool in Texas to understand how they distinguished between their two languages.

Predicting sales of online products from advertising language

Stanford linguist Dan Jurafsky and colleagues have found that products in Japan sell better if their advertising includes polite language and words that invoke cultural traditions or authority.

Language can help the elderly cope with the challenges of aging, says Stanford professor

By examining conversations of elderly Japanese women, linguist Yoshiko Matsumoto uncovers language techniques that help people move past traumatic events and regain a sense of normalcy.

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What is speech, language and communication.

Speech: When we use the term ‘speech’, we are referring to the production of sounds to form words.  

Language: In the simplest sense, we think of language as being the understanding and use of words, sentences and grammar. This involves both receptive language (understanding) and expressive language (use of language).

Communication: Communication involves conveying thoughts, needs, wants and ideas to another person or people. We communicate using language but also non-verbal means such as gesture, facial expression, body language, eye contact etc. Speech is not essential.

Children develop their Speech, Language and Communication skills at different rates and ages. Typically, children will do this through the development of the skills represented in the Communication Pyramid below.

The skills at the bottom of the pyramid act as the foundations for the skills at the top. 

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Definition of language

• mother tongue

Examples of language in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'language.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle English, from Anglo-French langage , from lange, langue tongue, language, from Latin lingua — more at tongue

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Phrases Containing language

• assembly language
• bad language
• body language
• contact language
• figurative language
• gesture language
• hypertext markup language

language arts

• language barrier
• language lab
• language laboratory
• language model
• large language model
• living language
• love language
• machine language
• markup language
• mind one's tongue / language
• object language
• ordinary - language philosophy
• play with words / language
• Romance language
• scripting language
• second language
• sign language
• source language
• speak / talk the same language
• strong language
• sub - language
• target language
• tone language
• trade language
• watch one's language
• watch one's language / mouth / tongue
• whole language

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Dictionary Entries Near language

Cite this entry.

“Language.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/language. Accessed 11 Jul. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of language.

Middle English language "language," from early French language (same meaning), from langue "language, tongue," from Latin lingua "tongue, language"

More from Merriam-Webster on language

Nglish: Translation of language for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of language for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about language

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What is language for?

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Language is a defining feature of humanity, and for centuries, philosophers and scientists have contemplated its true purpose. We use language to share information and exchange ideas — but is it more than that? Do we use language not just to communicate, but to think?

In the June 19 issue of the journal Nature , McGovern Institute for Brain Research neuroscientist Evelina Fedorenko and colleagues argue that we do not. Language, they say, is primarily a tool for communication.

Fedorenko acknowledges that there is an intuitive link between language and thought. Many people experience an inner voice that seems to narrate their own thoughts. And it’s not unreasonable to expect that well-spoken, articulate individuals are also clear thinkers. But as compelling as these associations can be, they are not evidence that we actually use language to think.

“I think there are a few strands of intuition and confusions that have led people to believe very strongly that language is the medium of thought,” she says. “But when they are pulled apart thread by thread, they don’t really hold up to empirical scrutiny.”

Separating language and thought

For centuries, language’s potential role in facilitating thinking was nearly impossible to evaluate scientifically. But neuroscientists and cognitive scientists now have tools that enable a more rigorous consideration of the idea. Evidence from both fields, which Fedorenko, MIT brain and cognitive scientist and linguist Edward Gibson , and University of California at Berkeley cognitive scientist Steven Piantadosi review in their Nature Perspective, supports the idea that language is a tool for communication, not for thought.

“What we’ve learned by using methods that actually tell us about the engagement of the linguistic processing mechanisms is that those mechanisms are not really engaged when we think,” Fedorenko says. Also, she adds, “you can take those mechanisms away, and it seems that thinking can go on just fine.”

Over the past 20 years, Fedorenko and other neuroscientists have advanced our understanding of what happens in the brain as it generates and understands language. Now, using functional MRI to find parts of the brain that are specifically engaged when someone reads or listens to sentences or passages, they can reliably identify an individual’s language-processing network. Then they can monitor those brain regions while the person performs other tasks, from solving a sudoku puzzle to reasoning about other people’s beliefs.

“Pretty much everything we’ve tested so far, we don’t see any evidence of the engagement of the language mechanisms,” Fedorenko says. “Your language system is basically silent when you do all sorts of thinking.”

That’s consistent with observations from people who have lost the ability to process language due to an injury or stroke. Severely affected patients can be completely unable to process words, yet this does not interfere with their ability to solve math problems, play chess, or plan for future events. “They can do all the things that they could do before their injury. They just can’t take those mental representations and convert them into a format which would allow them to talk about them with others,” Fedorenko says. “If language gives us the core representations that we use for reasoning, then … destroying the language system should lead to problems in thinking as well, and it really doesn’t.”

Conversely, intellectual impairments do not always associate with language impairment; people with intellectual disability disorders or neuropsychiatric disorders that limit their ability to think and reason do not necessarily have problems with basic linguistic functions. Just as language does not appear to be necessary for thought, Fedorenko and colleagues conclude that it is also not sufficient to produce clear thinking.

Language optimization

In addition to arguing that language is unlikely to be used for thinking, the scientists considered its suitability as a communication tool, drawing on findings from linguistic analyses. Analyses across dozens of diverse languages, both spoken and signed, have found recurring features that make them easy to produce and understand. “It turns out that pretty much any property you look at, you can find evidence that languages are optimized in a way that makes information transfer as efficient as possible,” Fedorenko says.

That’s not a new idea, but it has held up as linguists analyze larger corpora across more diverse sets of languages, which has become possible in recent years as the field has assembled corpora that are annotated for various linguistic features. Such studies find that across languages, sounds and words tend to be pieced together in ways that minimize effort for the language producer without muddling the message. For example, commonly used words tend to be short, while words whose meanings depend on one another tend to cluster close together in sentences. Likewise, linguists have noted features that help languages convey meaning despite potential “signal distortions,” whether due to attention lapses or ambient noise.

“All of these features seem to suggest that the forms of languages are optimized to make communication easier,” Fedorenko says, pointing out that such features would be irrelevant if language was primarily a tool for internal thought.

“Given that languages have all these properties, it’s likely that we use language for communication,” she says. She and her coauthors conclude that as a powerful tool for transmitting knowledge, language reflects the sophistication of human cognition — but does not give rise to it. 

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• Published: 01 July 2024

Speech and language classification in the human phenotype ontology

• Angela T. Morgan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1147-7405 1 , 2 ,
• Ben Coleman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4422-1708 3 ,
• Adam P. Vogel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3505-2631 2 ,
• Alisdair McNeill 4 &
• Peter N. Robinson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0736-9199 3 , 5  

European Journal of Human Genetics ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Introduction

Communication is a critical skill, not only for daily survival but also for leading a successful and fulfilled life. Speech and language skills are supported by widespread, complex brain networks. Ergo, communication disorders are common in neurogenetic conditions and may appear even with relatively subtle perturbations of brain development [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Speech and language difficulties frequently co-occur but are distinct and dissociable skills. In simple terms, speech is the perception and motor production of sounds; and language the ability to understand and produce a message using vocabulary and grammar, in spoken or written form.

The human genetics literature is currently restricted by conflation of the terms speech and language, and by a lack of specificity of the sub-phenotypes of these domains. This is reflected in the Human Phenotype Ontology (HPO) which has grown organically with speech and language terms inputted by experts working across multiple conditions, rather than being developed with a pre-determined framework. The HPO provides a standardized vocabulary of phenotypic abnormalities of human disease, with each term describing a specific feature, such as ‘language impairment’. The HPO contains over 16,000 terms and over 156,000 annotations to hereditary diseases. The HPO is a flagship of the NIH-supported Monarch Initiative; dedicated to semantic integration of biomedical and model organism data with a view to improve research. Software has been developed by the HPO project and others to support this goal, facilitating phenotype-driven differential diagnostics, genomic diagnostics, and translational research.

Speech and language classification in the HPO has detailed descriptors in some areas, and in others, a blunt selection of phenotypes which fail to dissociate speech and language features across genotypes, where presentations are in fact, different. A common example of this occurs in neurodevelopment where a catch-all-term of Delayed speech and language development HP:0000750 is commonly applied across conditions, even those that are strikingly different in the clinic, e.g. individuals with FOXP2 -only disorder are typically verbal communicators with a relatively homogeneous presentation of childhood apraxia of speech [ 5 ], in comparison to individuals with KAT6A syndrome where around 75% of individuals remain minimally verbal and rely on aided communication even into adulthood [ 6 ]. Documenting the natural history of specific speech and language phenotypes for distinct conditions paves the way for application of targeted therapies at an early age [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]; critical for optimising communication, wellbeing, and life outcomes. A final challenge of the current limited speech and language classification in the HPO is an inability to capitalise on rich electronic medical record data to drive knowledge discovery across diagnosis, prognosis or therapies in the speech and language genetics field. Here we specify core challenges to be addressed and suggest an approach to improve the specificity and efficiency of speech and language ontologies with the HPO.

Current speech and language phenotyping in the HPO

The HPO successfully incorporates a broad range of speech and language phenotypes across the ontology. Yet inconsistencies of the system contribute to clinical confusion and poor application of terms. There are currently three core pathways by which to reach speech and language phenotypes (see Fig.  1 ). Two pathways stem from Abnormality of the nervous system HP:0000707, Abnormal nervous system physiology HP:0012638 . One pathway branches to Abnormality of mental function HP:0011446 and Abnormal communication HP:0034434 where six further communication sub-phenotypes are denoted. The second pathway from Abnormal nervous system physiology HP:0012638 branches to Neurodevelopmental abnormality HP:0012759 , Neurodevelopmental delay HP:0012758 and Delayed speech and language development HP:0000750 which results in three further language and non-verbal sub-phenotypes. The third and final pathway branches from Abnormality of the voice HP:0001608 under which there are nine further categories largely focused on speech, voice and resonance phenotypes. There are also further pathways focused on social language which we will not discuss in detail here. These multiple pathways, all resulting in different end descriptors, lead to confusion for busy clinicians who tend to find their own most efficient, yet arguably not always most specific, pathway for their conditions of interest.

Blue boxes denote examples of the broad and often overlapping phenotyping options related to speech and language phenotyping in the HPO. Not all options are presented here.

A further challenge regards inconsistent application of medical terminology. One example is the use of a- versus dys-, the former denoting a complete absence of a skill and the latter a relatively less impaired presentation. There are inconsistencies in application of terms a-phasia, dys-phasia, a-narthria, dys-arthria, a-graphia, dys-graphia across the medical literature and these terms are reflected in the HPO. For example, the term a-phasia is now unanimously used in the adult language literature, not dys-phasia. Further, aphasia was originally defined as an acquired language impairment following stroke, but it is now also used to categorise language in neurodegenerative diseases such as primary progressive aphasia, not just acquired conditions. Hence there is a need for all these synonymous or confusing terminological issues to be refined in a clear framework with transparency of approach and definitions to best support their clinical application.

Refining classification of speech and language in the HPO

Speech and language and associated disorders can be classified in myriad ways. Further to the HPO, core medical classifications with speech and language terms include the World Health Organisation’s International Classification of Disease’s (ICD-11) and the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V). These classification systems are, necessarily, exceptionally broad and as a result they have a relatively limited specificity for speech and language diagnoses (e.g., just five diagnostic categories under communication disorder for children across both domains of speech and language in the DSM-V) and often focus on literacy as a separate domain without the ability to consider links between speech, language, and literacy. The other challenge for adoption of some existing large-scale systems is the common division of paediatric and adult populations, as currently also occurs in the HPO, with age-related terminology commonly applied in each case. For example, use of the term ‘language’ in children in contrast to the term ‘aphasia’ (traditionally applied to acquired language disorders) used for adults. Failure to take a ‘lifespan approach’ to terminology wherever possible, particularly in the context of neurogenetic developmental disorders, results in complexities when collating data to gain further insights into the genetic condition of interest, e.g. if one were to attempt to map the language abilities of individuals with an EBF3- neurodevelopmental disorder longitudinally from birth into adulthood using HPO terms mined from electronic medical records. Arguably a parsimonious approach has been adopted by leading clinically related speech and language organisations or peak bodies, such as the American Speech and Hearing Association, Speech Pathology Australia, the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists and the World Health Organisation. A classification adapted from these established clinically relevant frameworks includes core domains of speech as well as spoken and written language and their sub-phenotypes (Fig.  2 , Supplementary Tables ).

Adapted from American Speech Hearing Association, World Health Organisation, Royal College of Speech Language Therapists, International Association for Communication Disorders and Sciences, Speech Pathology Australia, DSM-5, ICD-11, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Speech involves perception of speech sounds as well as the use of the articulators, namely lips, larynx, soft and hard palate, tongue, jaw and cheeks, to produce a speech signal, made up of the sounds of one’s language. Speech also requires adequate airflow from the lungs to pass through the larynx with enough force to produce voicing and to control the loudness and prosodic aspects of speech. The size, placement and configuration of an individual’s larynx also impacts pitch for speech, whether too high, low or sex or age appropriate. The velum or soft palate must move quickly and rapidly to produce oral or nasal (m, n, ng in the case of English) sounds. Speech challenges can result due to speech perception difficulties (e.g., hearing loss), structural deficits (e.g., cleft palate, macroglossia, malocclusion) or neurological deficits (e.g., hypotonia of face, tongue etc, soft palate poor function, vocal fold palsy, cerebellar disease). Numerous pathologies of speech are already encapsulated within the HPO, yet these could arguably be better organised under an easy to apply framework which guides the clinician and encourages specificity in use of the terms speech and language as a constructive first step.

Language, by contrast to speech, is a higher-level cognitive construct and can be divided further into spoken and written modalities, with the latter also encompassing literacy. Spoken and written language both involve imparting and receiving a message – that is they involve both expressive and receptive channels of communication. Beyond expressive and receptive sub-domains, language can be further categorised into sub-phenotypes affecting syntactic or semantic domains, minimally verbal presentations or even regression/disease progression. Language features across children and adults are highly similar, yet different terminology has been historically used, which could also be better addressed in a new system to better fit the many lifelong neurogenetic conditions that exist in our society. It is important to note that we are not advocating for an immediate change to use of such a classification system as shared here in Fig.  2 . Rather we are using this viewpoint article to highlight current challenges and to advocate for positive change. The current authorship team are leading a working group to carefully consider and revise the HPO speech and language classification and branching of terms using a consensus-based approach with other international experts in the field.

Here we propose a revision and simplification of the speech and language hierarchy and sub-phenotypes. Application of an over-arching framework with clarification of the differences between speech and language domains and their sub-phenotypes will transform current communication phenotyping. In turn, increased phenotypic precision will improve individual clinical care, enable a more sensitive understanding of similarities and differences across genetic conditions to drive efficiencies of treatment and provide a solid platform for data driven discovery in the speech and language genetics field.

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National Human Genome Research Institute (5U24HG011449) awarded to PR; National Health and Medical Research Council Australia (2015727; 1195955) awarded to AM. PR and BC are funded by the National Institutes of Health Monarch Initiative. AV is funded by the Australian Research Council. Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions.

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Morgan, A.T., Coleman, B., Vogel, A.P. et al. Speech and language classification in the human phenotype ontology. Eur J Hum Genet (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-024-01635-6

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What is language for? Researchers make the case that it's a tool for communication, not for thought

by Jennifer Michalowski, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Language is a defining feature of humanity, and for centuries, philosophers and scientists have contemplated its true purpose. We use language to share information and exchange ideas—but is it more than that? Do we use language not just to communicate, but to think?

In the June 19 issue of the journal Nature , McGovern Institute for Brain Research neuroscientist Evelina Fedorenko and colleagues argue that we do not. Language, they say, is primarily a tool for communication.

Fedorenko acknowledges that there is an intuitive link between language and thought. Many people experience an inner voice that seems to narrate their own thoughts. And it's not unreasonable to expect that well-spoken, articulate individuals are also clear thinkers. But as compelling as these associations can be, they are not evidence that we actually use language to think.

"I think there are a few strands of intuition and confusions that have led people to believe very strongly that language is the medium of thought," she says. "But when they are pulled apart thread by thread, they don't really hold up to empirical scrutiny."

Separating language and thought

For centuries, language's potential role in facilitating thinking was nearly impossible to evaluate scientifically. But neuroscientists and cognitive scientists now have tools that enable a more rigorous consideration of the idea. Evidence from both fields, which Fedorenko, MIT brain and cognitive scientist and linguist Edward Gibson, and University of California at Berkeley cognitive scientist Steven Piantadosi review in their Nature Perspective, supports the idea that language is a tool for communication, not for thought.

"What we've learned by using methods that actually tell us about the engagement of the linguistic processing mechanisms is that those mechanisms are not really engaged when we think," Fedorenko says. Also, she adds, "you can take those mechanisms away, and it seems that thinking can go on just fine."

Over the past 20 years, Fedorenko and other neuroscientists have advanced our understanding of what happens in the brain as it generates and understands language. Now, using functional MRI to find parts of the brain that are specifically engaged when someone reads or listens to sentences or passages, they can reliably identify an individual's language-processing network. Then they can monitor those brain regions while the person performs other tasks, from solving a sudoku puzzle to reasoning about other people's beliefs.

"Pretty much everything we've tested so far, we don't see any evidence of the engagement of the language mechanisms," Fedorenko says. "Your language system is basically silent when you do all sorts of thinking."

That's consistent with observations from people who have lost the ability to process language due to an injury or stroke. Severely affected patients can be completely unable to process words, yet this does not interfere with their ability to solve math problems, play chess, or plan for future events.

"They can do all the things that they could do before their injury. They just can't take those mental representations and convert them into a format which would allow them to talk about them with others," Fedorenko says. "If language gives us the core representations that we use for reasoning, then … destroying the language system should lead to problems in thinking as well, and it really doesn't."

Conversely, intellectual impairments do not always associate with language impairment ; people with intellectual disability disorders or neuropsychiatric disorders that limit their ability to think and reason do not necessarily have problems with basic linguistic functions. Just as language does not appear to be necessary for thought, Fedorenko and colleagues conclude that it is also not sufficient to produce clear thinking.

Language optimization

In addition to arguing that language is unlikely to be used for thinking, the scientists considered its suitability as a communication tool, drawing on findings from linguistic analyses. Analyses across dozens of diverse languages, both spoken and signed, have found recurring features that make them easy to produce and understand.

"It turns out that pretty much any property you look at, you can find evidence that languages are optimized in a way that makes information transfer as efficient as possible," Fedorenko says.

That's not a new idea, but it has held up as linguists analyze larger corpora across more diverse sets of languages, which has become possible in recent years as the field has assembled corpora that are annotated for various linguistic features. Such studies find that across languages, sounds and words tend to be pieced together in ways that minimize effort for the language producer without muddling the message.

For example, commonly used words tend to be short, while words whose meanings depend on one another tend to cluster close together in sentences. Likewise, linguists have noted features that help languages convey meaning despite potential "signal distortions," whether due to attention lapses or ambient noise.

"All of these features seem to suggest that the forms of languages are optimized to make communication easier," Fedorenko says, pointing out that such features would be irrelevant if language was primarily a tool for internal thought.

"Given that languages have all these properties, it's likely that we use language for communication," she says. She and her co-authors conclude that as a powerful tool for transmitting knowledge, language reflects the sophistication of human cognition—but does not give rise to it.

This story is republished courtesy of MIT News ( web.mit.edu/newsoffice/ ), a popular site that covers news about MIT research, innovation and teaching.

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