introduction to case study

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

Whatever field you're in, ATLAS.ti puts your data to work for you

Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti to turn your data into insights.

Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

Ready to jumpstart your research with ATLAS.ti?

Conceptualize your research project with our intuitive data analysis interface. Download a free trial today.

Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

Ready to analyze your data with ATLAS.ti?

See how our intuitive software can draw key insights from your data with a free trial today.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved July 11, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Blog about Writing Case Study and Coursework

dudestudy.com

How to Write an Introduction for a Case Study Report

If you’re looking for examples of how to write an introduction for a case-study report, you’ve come to the right place. Here you’ll find a sample, guidelines for writing a case-study introduction, and tips on how to make it clear. In five minutes or less, recruiters will read your case study and decide whether you’re a good fit for the job.

Example of a case study introduction

An example of a case study introduction should be written to provide a roadmap for the reader. It should briefly summarize the topic, identify the problem, and discuss its significance. It should include previous case studies and summarize the literature review. In addition, it should include the purpose of the study, and the issues that it addresses. Using this example as a guideline, writers can make their case study introductions. Here are some tips:

The first paragraph of the introduction should summarize the entire article, and should include the following sections: the case presentation, the examinations performed, and the working diagnosis, the management of the case, and the outcome. The final section, the discussion, should summarize the previous subsections, explain any apparent inconsistencies, and describe the lessons learned. The body of the paper should also summarize the introduction and include any notes for the instructor.

The last section of a case study introduction should summarize the findings and limitations of the study, as well as suggestions for further research. The conclusion section should restate the thesis and main findings of the case study. The conclusion should summarize previous case studies, summarize the findings, and highlight the possibilities for future study. It is important to note that not all educational institutions require the case study analysis format, so it is important to check ahead of time.

The introductory paragraph should outline the overall strategy for the study. It should also describe the short-term and long-term goals of the case study. Using this method will ensure clarity and reduce misunderstandings. However, it is important to consider the end goal. After all, the objective is to communicate the benefits of the product. And, the solution should be measurable. This can be done by highlighting the benefits and minimizing the negatives.

Structure of a case study introduction

The structure of a case study introduction is different from the general introduction of a research paper. The main purpose of the introduction is to set the stage for the rest of the case study. The problem statement must be short and precise to convey the main point of the study. Then, the introduction should summarize the literature review and present the previous case studies that have dealt with the topic. The introduction should end with a thesis statement.

The thesis statement should contain facts and evidence related to the topic. Include the method used, the findings, and discussion. The solution section should describe specific strategies for solving the problem. It should conclude with a call to action for the reader. When using quotations, be sure to cite them properly. The thesis statement must include the problem statement, the methods used, and the expected outcome of the study. The conclusion section should state the case study’s importance.

In the discussion section, state the limitations of the study and explain why they are not significant. In addition, mention any questions unanswered and issues that the study was unable to address. For more information, check out the APA, Harvard, Chicago, and MLA citation styles. Once you know how to structure a case study introduction, you’ll be ready to write it! And remember, there’s always a right and wrong way to write a case study introduction.

During the writing process, you’ll need to make notes on the problems and issues of the case. Write down any ideas and directions that come to mind. Avoid writing neatly. It may impede your creative process, so write down a rough draft first, and then draw it up for your educational instructor. The introduction is an overview of the case study. Include the thesis statement. If you’re writing a case study for an assignment, you’ll also need to provide an overview of the assignment.

Guidelines for writing a case study introduction

A case study is not a formal scientific research report, but it is written for a lay audience. It should be readable and follow the general narrative that was determined in the first step. The introduction should provide background information about the case and its main topic. It should be short, but should introduce the topic and explain its context in just one or two paragraphs. An ideal case study introduction is between three and five sentences.

The case study must be well-designed and logical. It cannot contain opinions or assumptions. The research question must be a logical conclusion based on the findings. This can be done through a spreadsheet program or by consulting a linguistics expert. Once you have identified the major issues, you need to revise the paper. Once you have revised it twice, it should be well-written, concise, and logical.

The conclusion should state the findings, explain their significance, and summarize the main points. The conclusion should move from the detailed to the general level of consideration. The conclusion should also briefly state the limitations of the case study and point out the need for further research in order to fully address the problem. This should be done in a manner that will keep the reader interested in reading the paper. It should be clear about what the case study found and what it means for the research community.

The case study begins with a cover page and an executive summary, depending on your professor’s instructions. It’s important to remember that this is not a mandatory element of the case study. Instead, the executive summary should be brief and include the key points of the study’s analysis. It should be written as if an executive would read it on the run. Ultimately, the executive summary should include all the key points of the case study.

Clarity in a case study introduction

Clarity in a case study introduction should be at the heart of the paper. This section should explain why the case was chosen and how you decided to use it. The case study introduction varies according to the type of subject you are studying and the goals of the study. Here are some examples of clear and effective case study introductions. Read on to find out how to write a successful one. Clarity in a case study introduction begins with a strong thesis statement and ends with a compelling conclusion.

The conclusion of the case study should restate the research question and emphasize its importance. Identify and restate the key findings and describe how they address the research question. If the case study has limitations, discuss the potential for further research. In addition, document the limitations of the case study. Include any limitations of the case study in the conclusion. This will allow readers to make informed decisions about whether or not the findings are relevant to their own practices.

A case study introduction should include a brief discussion of the topic and selected case. It should explain how the study fits into current knowledge. A reader may question the validity of the analysis if it fails to consider all possible outcomes. For example, a case study on railroad crossings may fail to document the obvious outcome of improving the signage at these intersections. Another example would be a study that failed to document the impact of warning signs and speed limits on railroad crossings.

As a conclusion, the case study should also contain a discussion of how the research was conducted. While it may be a case study, the results are not necessarily applicable to other situations. In addition to describing how a solution has solved the problem, a case study should also discuss the causes of the problem. A case study should be based on real data and information. If the case study is not valid, it will not be a good fit for the audience.

Sample of a case study introduction

A good case study introduction serves as a map for the reader to follow. It should identify the research problem and discuss its significance. It should be based on extensive research and should incorporate relevant issues and facts. For example, it may include a short but precise problem statement. The next section of the introduction should include a description of the solution. The final part of the introduction should conclude with the recommended action. Once the reader has a sense of the direction the study will take, they will feel confident in pursuing the study further.

In the case of social sciences, case studies cannot be purely empirical. The results of a case study can be compared with those of other studies, so that the case study’s findings can be assessed against previous research. A case study’s results can help support general conclusions and build theories, while their practical value lies in generating hypotheses. Despite their utility, case studies often contain a bias toward verification and tend to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions.

In the case of case studies, the conclusions section should state the significance of the findings, stating how the findings of the study differ from other previous studies. Likewise, the conclusion section should summarize the key findings, and make the reader understand how they address the research problem. In the case of a case study, it is crucial to document any limitations that have been identified. After all, a case study is not complete without further research.

After the introduction, the main body of the paper is the case presentation. It should provide information about the case, such as the history, examination results, working diagnosis, management, and outcome. It should conclude with a discussion, explaining the correlations, apparent inconsistencies, and lessons learned. Finally, the conclusion should state whether the case study presented the results in the desired way. The findings should not be overgeneralized, and the conclusions must be derived from this information.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

• << Previous: Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Next: Writing a Field Report >>
• Last Updated: Jun 3, 2024 9:44 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/assignments

How to Write a Case Study: A Step-by-Step Guide (+ Examples)

by Todd Brehe

on Jan 3, 2024

If you want to learn how to write a case study that engages prospective clients, demonstrates that you can solve real business problems, and showcases the results you deliver, this guide will help.

We’ll give you a proven template to follow, show you how to conduct an engaging interview, and give you several examples and tips for best practices.

Let’s start with the basics.

What is a Case Study?

A business case study is simply a story about how you successfully delivered a solution to your client.

Case studies start with background information about the customer, describe problems they were facing, present the solutions you developed, and explain how those solutions positively impacted the customer’s business.

Do Marketing Case Studies Really Work?

Absolutely. A well-written case study puts prospective clients into the shoes of your paying clients, encouraging them to engage with you. Plus, they:

• Get shared “behind the lines” with decision makers you may not know;
• Leverage the power of “social proof” to encourage a prospective client to take a chance with your company;
• Build trust and foster likeability;
• Lessen the perceived risk of doing business with you and offer proof that your business can deliver results;
• Help prospects become aware of unrecognized problems;
• Show prospects experiencing similar problems that possible solutions are available (and you can provide said solutions);
• Make it easier for your target audience to find you when using Google and other search engines.

Case studies serve your clients too. For example, they can generate positive publicity and highlight the accomplishments of line staff to the management team. Your company might even throw in a new product/service discount, or a gift as an added bonus.

But don’t just take my word for it. Let’s look at a few statistics and success stories:

5 Winning Case Study Examples to Model

Before we get into the nuts and bolts of how to write a case study, let’s go over a few examples of what an excellent one looks like.

The five case studies listed below are well-written, well-designed, and incorporate a time-tested structure.

1. Lane Terralever and Pinnacle at Promontory

This case study example  from Lane Terralever  incorporates images to support the content and effectively uses subheadings to make the piece scannable.

2. WalkMe Mobile and Hulyo

This case study  from WalkMe Mobile  leads with an engaging headline and the three most important results the client was able to generate.

In the first paragraph, the writer expands the list of accomplishments encouraging readers to learn more.

3. CurationSuite Listening Engine

This is an example of a well-designed printable case study . The client, specific problem, and solution are called out in the left column and summarized succinctly.

4. Brain Traffic and ASAE

This long format case study (6 pages) from Brain Traffic  summarizes the challenges, solutions, and results prominently in the left column. It uses testimonials and headshots of the case study participants very effectively.

5. Adobe and Home Depot

This case study  from Adobe and Home Depot  is a great example of combining video, attention-getting graphics, and long form writing. It also uses testimonials and headshots well.

Now that we’ve gone over the basics and showed a few great case study examples you can use as inspiration, let’s roll up our sleeves and get to work.

A Case Study Structure That Pros Use

Let’s break down the structure of a compelling case study:

Choose Your Case Study Format

In this guide, we focus on written case studies. They’re affordable to create, and they have a proven track record. However, written case studies are just one of four case study formats to consider:

• Infographic

If you have the resources, video (like the Adobe and Home Depot example above) and podcast case studies can be very compelling. Hearing a client discuss in his or her own words how your company helped is an effective content marketing strategy

Infographic case studies are usually one-page images that summarize the challenge, proposed solution, and results. They tend to work well on social media.

Follow a Tried-and-True Case Study Template

The success story structure we’re using incorporates a “narrative” or “story arc” designed to suck readers in and captivate their interest.

Note:  I recommend creating a blog post or landing page on your website that includes the text from your case study, along with a downloadable PDF. Doing so helps people find your content when they perform Google and other web searches.

There are a few simple SEO strategies that you can apply to your blog post that will optimize your chances of being found. I’ll include those tips below.

Craft a Compelling Headline

The headline should capture your audience’s attention quickly. Include the most important result you achieved, the client’s name, and your company’s name. Create several examples, mull them over a bit, then pick the best one. And, yes, this means writing the headline is done at the very end.

SEO  Tip:  Let’s say your firm provided “video editing services” and you want to target this primary keyword. Include it, your company name, and your client’s name in the case study title.

Write the Executive Summary

This is a mini-narrative using an abbreviated version of the Challenge + Solution + Results model (3-4 short paragraphs). Write this after you complete the case study.

SEO  Tip:  Include your primary keyword in the first paragraph of the Executive Summary.

Provide the Client’s Background

Introduce your client to the reader and create context for the story.

List the Customer’s Challenges and Problems

Vividly describe the situation and problems the customer was dealing with, before working with you.

SEO  Tip:  To rank on page one of Google for our target keyword, review the questions listed in the “People also ask” section at the top of Google’s search results. If you can include some of these questions and their answers into your case study, do so. Just make sure they fit with the flow of your narrative.

Detail Your Solutions

Explain the product or service your company provided, and spell out how it alleviated the client’s problems. Recap how the solution was delivered and implemented. Describe any training needed and the customer’s work effort.

Show Your Results

Detail what you accomplished for the customer and the impact your product/service made. Objective, measurable results that resonate with your target audience are best.

List Future Plans

Share how your client might work with your company in the future.

Give a Call-to-Action

Clearly detail what you want the reader to do at the end of your case study.

Talk About You

Include a “press release-like” description of your client’s organization, with a link to their website. For your printable document, add an “About” section with your contact information.

And that’s it. That’s the basic structure of any good case study.

Now, let’s go over how to get the information you’ll use in your case study.

How to Conduct an Engaging Case Study Interview

One of the best parts of creating a case study is talking with your client about the experience. This is a fun and productive way to learn what your company did well, and what it can improve on, directly from your customer’s perspective.

Here are some suggestions for conducting great case study interviews:

When Choosing a Case Study Subject, Pick a Raving Fan

Your sales and marketing team should know which clients are vocal advocates willing to talk about their experiences. Your customer service and technical support teams should be able to contribute suggestions.

Clients who are experts with your product/service make solid case study candidates. If you sponsor an online community, look for product champions who post consistently and help others.

When selecting a candidate, think about customer stories that would appeal to your target audience. For example, let’s say your sales team is consistently bumping into prospects who are excited about your solution, but are slow to pull the trigger and do business with you.

In this instance, finding a client who felt the same way, but overcame their reluctance and contracted with you anyway, would be a compelling story to capture and share.

Prepping for the Interview

If you’ve ever seen an Oprah interview, you’ve seen a master who can get almost anyone to open up and talk. Part of the reason is that she and her team are disciplined about planning.

Before conducting a case study interview, talk to your own team about the following:

• What’s unique about the client (location, size, industry, etc.) that will resonate with our prospects?
• Why did the customer select us?
• How did we help the client?
• What’s unique about this customer’s experience?
• What problems did we solve?
• Were any measurable, objective results generated?
• What do we want readers to do after reading this case study analysis?

Pro Tip:  Tee up your client. Send them the questions in advance.

Providing questions to clients before the interview helps them prepare, gather input from other colleagues if needed, and feel more comfortable because they know what to expect.

In a moment, I’ll give you an exhaustive list of interview questions. But don’t send them all. Instead, pare the list down to one or two questions in each section and personalize them for your customer.

Nailing the Client Interview

Decide how you’ll conduct the interview. Will you call the client, use Skype or Facetime, or meet in person? Whatever mode you choose, plan the process in advance.

Make sure you record the conversation. It’s tough to lead an interview, listen to your contact’s responses, keep the conversation flowing, write notes, and capture all that the person is saying.

A recording will make it easier to write the client’s story later. It’s also useful for other departments in your company (management, sales, development, etc.) to hear real customer feedback.

Use open-ended questions that spur your contact to talk and share. Here are some real-life examples:

Introduction

• Recap the purpose of the call. Confirm how much time your contact has to talk (30-45 minutes is preferable).
• Confirm the company’s location, number of employees, years in business, industry, etc.
• What’s the contact’s background, title, time with the company, primary responsibilities, and so on?

Initial Challenges

• Describe the situation at your company before engaging with us?
• What were the initial problems you wanted to solve?
• What was the impact of those problems?
• When did you realize you had to take some action?
• What solutions did you try?
• What solutions did you implement?
• What process did you go through to make a purchase?
• How did the implementation go?
• How would you describe the work effort required of your team?
• If training was involved, how did that go?

Results, Improvements, Progress

• When did you start seeing improvements?
• What were the most valuable results?
• What did your team like best about working with us?
• Would you recommend our solution/company? Why?

Future Plans

• How do you see our companies working together in the future?

Honest Feedback

• Our company is very focused on continual improvement. What could we have done differently to make this an even better experience?
• What would you like us to add or change in our product/service?

During the interview, use your contact’s responses to guide the conversation.

Once the interview is complete, it’s time to write your case study.

How to Write a Case Study… Effortlessly

Case study writing is not nearly as difficult as many people make it out to be. And you don’t have to be Stephen King to do professional work. Here are a few tips:

• Use the case study structure that we outlined earlier, but write these sections first: company background, challenges, solutions, and results.
• Write the headline, executive summary, future plans, and call-to-action (CTA) last.
• In each section, include as much content from your interview as you can. Don’t worry about editing at this point
• Tell the story by discussing their trials and tribulations.
• Stay focused on the client and the results they achieved.
• Make their organization and employees shine.
• When including information about your company, frame your efforts in a supporting role.

Also, make sure to do the following:

Add Testimonials, Quotes, and Visuals

The more you can use your contact’s words to describe the engagement, the better. Weave direct quotes throughout your narrative.

Strive to be conversational when you’re writing case studies, as if you’re talking to a peer.

Include images in your case study that visually represent the content and break up the text. Photos of the company, your contact, and other employees are ideal.

If you need to incorporate stock photos, here are three resources:

• Deposit p hotos

And if you need more, check out Smart Blogger’s excellent resource: 17 Sites with High-Quality, Royalty-Free Stock Photos .

Proofread and Tighten Your Writing

Make sure there are no grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors. If you need help, consider using a grammar checker tool like Grammarly .

My high school English teacher’s mantra was “tighten your writing.” She taught that impactful writing is concise and free of weak, unnecessary words . This takes effort and discipline, but will make your writing stronger.

Also, keep in mind that we live in an attention-diverted society. Before your audience will dive in and read each paragraph, they’ll first scan your work.  Use subheadings  to summarize information, convey meaning quickly, and pull the reader in.

Be Sure to Use Best Practices

Consider applying the following best practices to your case study:

• Stay laser-focused on your client and the results they were able to achieve.
• Even if your audience is technical, minimize the use of industry jargon . If you use acronyms, explain them.
• Leave out the selling and advertising.
• Don’t write like a Shakespearean wannabe. Write how people speak. Write to be understood.
• Clear and concise writing is not only more understandable, it inspires trust. Don’t ramble.
• Weave your paragraphs together so that each sentence is dependent on the one before and after it.
• Include a specific case study call-to-action (CTA).
• A recommended case study length is 2-4 pages.
• Commit to building a library of case studies.

Get Client Approval

After you have a final draft, send it to the client for review and approval. Incorporate any edits they suggest.

Use or modify the following “Consent to Publish” form to get the client’s written sign-off:

Consent to Publish

Case Study  Title:

I hereby confirm that I have reviewed the case study listed above and on behalf of the [Company Name], I provide full permission for the work to be published, in whole or in part, for the life of the work, in all languages and all formats by [Company publishing the case study].

By signing this form, I affirm that I am authorized to grant full permission.

Company Name:

E-mail Address:

Common Case Study Questions (& Answers)

We’ll wrap things up with a quick Q&A. If you have a question I didn’t answer, be sure to leave it in a blog comment below.

Should I worry about print versions of my case studies?

Absolutely.

As we saw in the CurationSuite  and Brain Traffic  examples earlier, case studies get downloaded, printed, and shared. Prospects can and will judge your book by its cover.

So, make sure your printed case study is eye-catching and professionally designed. Hire a designer  if necessary.

Why are good case studies so effective?

Case studies work because people trust them.

They’re not ads, they’re not press releases, and they’re not about how stellar your company is.

Plus, everyone likes spellbinding stories with a hero [your client], a conflict [challenges], and a riveting resolution [best solution and results].

How do I promote my case study?

After you’ve written your case study and received the client’s approval to use it, you’ll want to get it in front of as many eyes as possible.

Try the following:

• Make sure your case studies can be easily found on your company’s homepage.
• Tweet and share the case study on your various social media accounts.
• Have your sales team use the case study as a reason to call on potential customers. For example: “Hi [prospect], we just published a case study on Company A. They were facing some of the same challenges I believe your firm is dealing with. I’m going to e-mail you a copy. Let me know what you think.”
• Distribute printed copies at trade shows, seminars, or during sales presentations.
• If you’re bidding on a job and have to submit a quote or a Request for Proposal (RFP), include relevant case studies as supporting documents.

Ready to Write a Case Study That Converts?

If you want to stand out and you want to win business, case studies should be an integral part of your sales and marketing efforts.

Hopefully, this guide answered some of your questions and laid out a path that will make it faster and easier for your team to create professional, sales-generating content.

Now it’s time to take action and get started. Gather your staff, select a client, and ask a contact to participate. Plan your interview and lead an engaging conversation. Write up your client’s story, make them shine, and then share it.

Get better at the case study process by doing it more frequently. Challenge yourself to write at least one case study every two months.

As you do, you’ll be building a valuable repository of meaningful, powerful content. These success stories will serve your business in countless ways, and for years to come.

Content Marketing

GET PAID TO WRITE

Make 2-5k per month, even if you're a beginner . we're seeking writers of any skill level ..

Written by Todd Brehe

6 thoughts on “how to write a case study: a step-by-step guide (+ examples)”.

Just the guide I needed for case studies! Great job with this one!

Hey Todd, great post here. I liked that you listed some prompting questions. Really demonstrates you know what you’re talking about. There are a bunch of Ultimate Guides out there who list the theories such as interview your customer, talk about results, etc. but really don’t help you much.

Thanks, Todd. I’ve planned a case study and this will really come in handy. Bookmarked.

Very good read. Thanks, Todd. Are there any differences between a case study and a use case, by the way?

Hi Todd, Very well-written article. This is the ultimate guide I have read till date. It has actionable points rather than some high-level gyan. Creating a new case study always works better when (1) you know the structure to follow and (2) you work in a group of 3-4 members rather than individually. Thanks for sharing this guide.

Hi Todd. Very useful guide. I learn step by step. Looking forward to continually learning from you and your team. Thanks

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Latest from the blog.

66 Euphemism Examples to Read Before You Meet Your Maker

18 Satire Examples Spoofing Politics, Film, & Literature

35+ Synecdoche Examples (+ A Simple, Clear Definition)

With over 300k subscribers and 4 million readers, Smart Blogger is one of the world's largest websites dedicated to writing and blogging.

Best of the Blog

© 2012-2024 Smart Blogger — Boost Blog Traffic, Inc.

Terms  |  Privacy Policy  |  Refund Policy  |  Affiliate Disclosure

5 Steps for Writing a Case Study for Business (+Templates)

Get professional tips for writing a case study that drives business impact. Learn the best format and research method to use alongside examples & templates.

John McTale

7 minute read

SHORT ANSWER

What is a case study.

• Open with an introductory overview
• Explain the problem in question
• Detail the solutions that solved the problem
• Refer to key results
• Finish with recommendations and next steps

Why you need a case study

“I climbed Mount Everest and I did it all by myself.” “Yeah mate, pics or it didn’t happen.” The same logic applies to case studies. In business, it’s “case studies or it didn’t happen.” A well-written case study legitimizes your product or services. It proves the impact your actions have on the bottom line and is the single most important element of building trust amongst prospective clients. But… How do you write a *perfect* case study? One that engages readers and makes them care about your offering and excited to work with you?

In business, a case study , or customer success story, is a marketing tool that showcases how your product or service helped clients overcome business challenges. It uses statistics, quotes, and specific examples to convincingly highlight your ability to produce results.

What is the purpose of a case study?

The purpose of a case study, usually, is to provide your prospective clients with specific examples of how your products or services can help solve business problems they might be facing.

Case studies legitimize your business activities allowing you to go beyond explaining what you do and focus on how well you do it. (And, in case you were wondering just HOW important case studies are, here’s an item of data to ponder: according to a DemandGen report , 78% of B2B buyers want to review case studies before making a purchase decision. Another study by Uplift found that at the end of 2023, f or the third year in a row, marketers ranked case studies the #1 most effective marketing tactic to increase sales—ahead of general website content, SEO, blog posts, social media, paid ads and other tactics. )

There’s no magic behind it. Just a proven, simple formula I’m about to share with you. Spend the next 7 minutes reading this guide and you’ll learn how to write case studies better than any case study you’ve created in the past. Important caveat: this article explains how to write a case study for business purposes. If you’re interested in writing research case studies for academia, refer to this excellent guide by University of Southern California. If, in turn, you’re struggling with putting together a medical case study, here’s a fantastic 101 by the BMJ . I’m not going to pretend I know better than these guys do.

For your reference, here’s an example of our very own case study, showing how, at Storydoc, we helped the Spot company boost some of their key metrics: Learn How Spot by NetApp boosted their conversion rates 2x.

Spot's team used this deck to boost their conversion 2x

By drawing the bigger picture even deep-tech software products can be easily explained.

Browse interactive case study templates

No matter how great the contents of your case study might be, if you fail to present it in an eye-pleasing way, most likely, no one will really read it. The good news? I’ve put together a gallery of the most professional, attention-grabbing case study templates available online. You can find it here: Case Study Templates & Design Tips Or, take a shortcut to great case study design and use our presentation maker . Have a look below to see what your case study might look like.

And now, let’s get to the case study 101. (If you’re only interested in a specific section of a case study, simply click on a jump-to link in the table of contents below.

Here's how to write a case study:

1. Open with an introductory overview

The last thing you want is for someone to open your case study, give it a quick glance, and decide to skip. See— People don’t usually read case studies. At least not immediately. First, they skim the contents to see if the subject is relevant enough. How to make sure your case study sticks? At the beginning, place an introductory overview (also called an “executive summary”). Provide an overview of the whole case. It’s not supposed to be a catchy intro but a full synopsis, detailing the problem at hand, your assumptions, the solutions implemented, and the results achieved.

How to write a case study introduction?

Introduce the purpose of the case study—specify exactly what you were aiming to achieve.

Define the problem or the most significant challenge. For instance, low conversion rates, a technological issue or high costs. (It could also be a combination of such factors!)

Explain briefly what the solution to the problem was.

Share the most important results your actions produced. Don’t go into too much detail, a few key points will do. It’s best if you can quantify the results: numbers pop!

Keep it short. Usually, 2–4 paragraphs + a few bullet points with key results will do.

While, as its name implies, this section comes at the beginning of your case study, write it last. First, craft the rest of your document, then pick the most important bits and compile them into the introductory overview.

2. Explain the problem in question

“Adam caught a flat tire. In the middle of the desert. He had no spare, no signal, no food, and only enough water to keep him alive for 48 hours.” Oh dear, poor Adam! What could possibly be done to help him?! See, in your case study, make the client seem like Adam so that, later on, you can paint your company like the miraculous savior. Of course, I’m exaggerating, but only so much. The purpose of the “problem” section in a case study is to arouse emotions from the readers. Ideally, in such a way that they can picture themselves as Adam. Highlight a problem your product or services solve and present an example of when that problem was troubling a client really badly.

How to write a “problem” section in a case study?

In a single sentence, describe your customer’s business challenges and objectives.

Explain the problem your customer faced that prevented them from achieving those objectives prior to working with you.

If that was the case, mention other solutions your client experimented with that didn’t work out and explain why.

Make it clear how the issue or problem impacted the client’s business results so that it’s easy to understand why a solution was badly needed.

3. Detail the solutions implemented to solve the problem

Here comes the moment to toot your own horn a bit (and also that moment when you can get slightly technical). Present your solutions in reference to the issue your client was dealing with and make it obvious that those are easily replicable for all future cases. Of course, the exact formula for this section will depend on your industry and mode of operation. Sometimes a 2–3 paragraph summary will be enough, in other cases, you’ll need to include more detailed technical specs regarding the solution you implemented.

How to write a solutions section in a case study?

Focus on your customer’s experience in using your product or services.

Explain the process: say how long it took to get the solution up and running and what teams on your customer’s end were involved.

Highlight the features of your product or service that turned out to be the most beneficial to your customer.

If possible, attach or link to relevant assets that will work as real-life examples of your solution (unless, of course, the information is highly sensitive).

Always run your case study by your client’s marketing team before you go live. Even if you’re using direct quotes or verifiable results, it’s ultimately their decision whether or not to make certain information freely available.

4. Refer to key results

In business, nothing speaks louder than ROI and you know it. Prospective customers reading your case study won’t be bothered to take notice of your state-of-the-art technology or innovative approach. Neither will they care about your past customers’ happiness. What they want to know is this: Will that help me save or make money? When writing a case study, your job is to present results in a way that answers the above question with a resounding YES. You need to make it blatantly obvious that your solutions heavily impact the bottom line of the client in question and that such results are easily replicable.

Here’s how to write about results:

In a few bullet points, list numerical results your solution delivered to the client.

Ideally, you’ll want to include revenue-related data: increase in clients’ base, more demos booked, higher conversion rates, or optimized pricing.

If you can’t (or aren’t allowed to) share hard sales numbers, refer to softer KPIs: time saved, customer happiness scores, expanding the community, or enhancing brand visibility.

If possible, by all means include quotes from your client. Results should speak for themselves, obviously, but showing the real human whose problems you solved makes for a much more powerful narrative. Plus, it further adds credibility to the case study. Start by preparing a list of powerful case study questions to guide your client interviews.8

5. Finish with recommendations and next steps

Everyone enjoys a solid epilogue. To end on a high note, include a list of key findings from your case study. Even if a given reader won’t decide to get in touch with you, at least you’ll provide them with a valuable source of knowledge—sometimes that’s enough to keep your company top of mind in the future. Plus, if you’re planning to continue working with the subject of your case study, definitely mention that! It shows that your support is valuable enough to warrant long-term collaboration, not just a one-off endeavor. Now, not every case study requires a call to action (especially if your main purpose is to inform and educate rather than convert, which is okay, too), but for those more commercially-oriented ones, do add it. Make your CTA singular and clear —if the most desired action is to reach out to you, leave your contact details, if you’d rather direct prospects to a landing page or a welcome screen, add a button.

And that’s a wrap!

Here are the key points to keep in mind when writing a case study:

Put an introductory overview at the beginning.

Present the problem you were solving and your exact solutions to that problem.

Include numerical, verifiable results your product or services delivered for the client.

Explain what the next steps are, especially if you plan to continue working with the client.

Finish with a strong, clear CTA, making it easy for prospects to reach out to you.

Thanks for reading the guide. Keeping my fingers crossed for your case study and wishing many successful cases so that you’ll always have something to write about.

Hi, I'm John, Editor-in-chief at Storydoc. As a content marketer and digital writer specializing in B2B SaaS, my main goal is to provide you with up-to-date tips for effective business storytelling and equip you with all the right tools to enable your sales efforts.

Found this post useful?

Subscribe to our monthly newsletter.

Get notified as more awesome content goes live

(No spam, no ads, opt-out whenever)

You've just joined an elite group of people that make the top performing 1% of sales and marketing collateral.

Make your best case study to date

Try Storydoc for free for 14 days (keep anything you make for ever!)

• Translators
• Graphic Designers

Please enter the email address you used for your account. Your sign in information will be sent to your email address after it has been verified.

Your Step-By-Step Guide To Writing a Case Study

Creating a case study is both an art and a science. It requires making an in-depth exploration of your chosen subject in order to extract meaningful insights and understand the dynamics that more general surveys or statistical research might not uncover. At the same time, your case study also needs to be a compelling read to ensure those insights get attention from other people!

Unsurprisingly, the prospect of crafting an effective case study can be daunting. It calls for strategic planning, careful organization, and clear communication, all of which can be challenging even for experienced researchers. That's why we've created this step-by-step guide, which breaks the process down into manageable steps, demystifying the journey from defining your research question to sharing your findings. Whether you're a seasoned researcher or a first-timer, this guide aims to equip you with the necessary tools and tips to create a case study that's not just informative, but also engaging and impactful.

Are you ready to unlock the potential of case studies? Let's dive in!

What is a case study?

First, it's important to understand what a case study is – and what it isn't.

A case study is a thorough exploration of a specific subject or event over a certain time frame. Case studies are utilized in numerous fields, including sociology, psychology, education, anthropology, business, and the health sciences, and employ various research techniques to shed light on complex issues.

A case study does not provide absolute proof or conclusions that can be universally applied. Because it concentrates on one particular case or just a few cases, the findings might not apply to different contexts or subjects. Case studies also aren't ideal for determining cause-and-effect relationships as they do not use controlled conditions to separate and measure the impacts of different factors. Lastly, it must be said that a case study isn't just a random assortment of facts or observations; it necessitates a clear research question, a methodical approach to data collection and analysis, and a thoughtful interpretation of the results.

Getting started

Now that we've established the definition and purpose of a case study, let's explore the process by which one is created. You can produce a case study by following these nine steps:

1. Define the purpose of your case study

Before you start writing a case study, you need to define its purpose clearly. Ask yourself: What is the research question or problem you aim to solve? What insights are you looking to uncover? Your goals will guide your research design and influence your choice of case. This initial stage of introspection and clarification is crucial as it acts as a roadmap for your study.

2. Select the case to study

Once you've defined your research objective, the next step is to choose a suitable case that can help answer your research question. This might be a unique, critical, or representative instance. Unique cases offer the opportunity to observe and analyze a situation that is unusual or not well-understood. In contrast, a representative or typical case is often chosen because it represents other cases or a broader phenomenon.

In any case, be sure to justify your choice. Explain why the case is of interest and how it can contribute to the knowledge or understanding of the issue at hand. For instance, if you're studying the effects of corporate restructuring on employee morale, you might choose to focus on a company that recently underwent a significant restructure.

3. Conduct a thorough literature review

Performing a literature review involves a careful examination of relevant scholarly articles, books, and other sources related to your research question or problem. In the process, you identify gaps in the current knowledge and determine how your case study can address them. By critically examining existing research, you will not only gain a comprehensive understanding of your chosen topic but also be able to refine your research question or hypothesis, if necessary.

4. Choose a methodological approach

The methodological approach used in your case study will depend on your research objectives and the nature of the case. Methodologies that can be employed in case studies include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods .

Qualitative methods are often used when the goal is to explore, understand, or interpret certain phenomena. These involve approaches like interviews, focus groups, or ethnography. Quantitative methods, on the other hand, are used when the goal is to test hypotheses or examine relationships between variables. Quantitative approaches often include experiments. Also, surveys may be either qualitative or quantitative depending on the question design.

You may choose to use a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed methods) if it suits your research objectives.

5. Collect and organize your data

Data collection should be systematic and organized to maintain the integrity and reliability of your research. You need to plan how you will record and store your data to ensure that it's accessible and usable.

If you're conducting interviews or observations, consider using recording devices (with participant consent) to capture the data accurately. In addition, you may want to transcribe the recorded material for easier analysis. If you're using documents or archival records, develop a system for coding and categorizing the data.

6. Analyze the data

Analysis involves interpreting your data to draw out meaningful insights; it is in this stage that your findings start to take shape. Depending on the nature of your data and your research question, you might use any of a variety of analysis methods. For qualitative data, you might employ thematic analysis to identify key themes or grounded theory to generate a new theoretical framework. For quantitative data, you might use statistical analysis to identify patterns or correlations.

Always be open to unexpected findings. Your initial hypotheses might not be supported, or you might uncover new insights that you hadn't initially considered. Remember that all data, whether they fit neatly into your analysis or not, provide valuable insights and contribute to the holistic understanding of your case.

7. Write the case study report

After analyzing the data, it's finally time to compose your case study. In terms of structure, a typical case study might consist of an introduction, background information, the collected data (results), analysis of that data, and the conclusion. Here's a brief breakdown of each section:

• Introduction: The introduction should be brief but engaging, providing a clear statement of the research question or problem, explaining why the case was chosen, and outlining what the case study will cover.
• Background: The background provides the context for your case. Describe the case, its history, and any relevant information that will help readers understand the situation.
• Results: This section should provide a comprehensive account of what you found, without interpretation or opinion. Present your findings in a clear, organized manner. Use visuals such as charts or graphs if they aid comprehension.
• Analysis: This section should provide your interpretations and arguments. Discuss the patterns, themes, or relationships you've identified in your data. Explain what these findings mean in relation to your research question.
• Conclusion: Finally, summarize the key insights from your case study along with their implications. Discuss the limitations of your study and propose avenues for future research.

8. Review and revise

The process of writing a case study doesn't actually end when the report is written; you also need to review your writing for coherence, clarity, and correctness. Don't underestimate the importance of this step! Make sure the information flows logically and that your arguments are well-supported. Check for any grammar or spelling errors. Having a peer or mentor review your work can be incredibly helpful as they provide a fresh perspective and can catch mistakes you might have missed.

9. Get approval if required

If your case study involves human subjects, you may need to obtain approval from an ethical review board. You'll also need to obtain informed consent from your subjects and ensure you respect their privacy and confidentiality throughout the research process. Always follow your institution's ethical guidelines and any other relevant legislation .

Practical tips for writing a compelling case study

Getting through all those steps can feel like a formidable challenge, but here are some practical tips to make the process more manageable:

Be systematic and organized

Given the importance of detail in case studies, it's vital to be systematic and organized from the get-go. This means keeping meticulous records of your data, your sources, and any changes to your research design. A good practice is to maintain a research journal or log where you can record your process, thoughts, and reflections.

In addition, use technology to your advantage. Digital tools like citation managers can help you keep track of your sources and make formatting references a breeze, while spreadsheet or database software can assist in managing and organizing your data. Developing a consistent system for labeling and storing information at the outset will save you time and effort later when you need to retrieve data for analysis.

Stay focused

One common pitfall in research and writing is loss of focus: getting sidetracked by interesting but ultimately irrelevant digressions, which can be very easy, especially when you're dealing with a rich and complex case. Always remember your research question and objectives, and let these guide your study at every step. It's perfectly acceptable – and in fact advisable – to delineate what your study will not cover. Setting clear boundaries can help you stay focused and manage the scope of your study effectively.

Use visual aids

Visual aids such as charts, diagrams, or photographs can greatly enhance your case study. They provide readers with a break from the monotony of text and can communicate complex data or relationships more easily. For instance, if you're presenting a lot of numerical data, consider using a chart or graph. If you're describing a process or sequence of events, portraying it in a flowchart or timeline might be useful. Remember, the goal is to aid comprehension, so make sure your visual aids are clear, well-labeled, and integrated into the text.

Include direct quotes

If your case study involves interviews, including direct quotes can add depth and a sense of the personal to your findings. They provide readers with a firsthand perspective and make your case study more engaging.

When using quotes, be sure to integrate them smoothly into your text. Provide enough context so readers understand the quote's relevance. Also, remember to adhere to ethical guidelines– always respect confidentiality and anonymity agreements.

Maintain ethical standards

Ethics is a fundamental consideration in all research, including case studies. Ensure you have proper consent from participants, respect their privacy, and accurately present your findings without manipulation.

Misrepresenting data or failing to respect participants' rights can lead to serious ethical violations. Always follow your institution's ethical guidelines and any other relevant legislation. If in doubt, seek advice from a supervisor or your institution's ethics committee.

Acknowledge limitations

Every research study has limitations, which could relate to the research design, data collection methods, or other aspects of the study. Being transparent about the limitations of your study can enhance its credibility; moreover, not only does identifying limitations demonstrate your critical thinking and honesty, but it also helps readers accurately interpret your findings.

Finally, acknowledging the limitations of your work helps to set the stage for further research. By identifying aspects that your study couldn't address, you provide other researchers with avenues for building on your findings.

Learn from examples

Before you start writing your case study, it can be helpful to review some published case studies in your field. Different fields may have different conventions, and familiarizing yourself with case studies in your own field can help guide your writing. Look at the structure, tone, and style. Pay attention to how the authors present and analyze data, and how they link their findings back to the research question. You can also learn a lot from the strengths and weaknesses of previously published works. However, remember to develop your own unique voice and perspective – don't just mimic what others have done.

Design for triangulation

Triangulation involves using multiple data sources or methods to gain a more comprehensive and balanced understanding of your research topic. By coming at your research question from multiple directions, such as by examining different datasets or using different methods, you can increase the validity of your results and gain more nuanced insights.

For example, if you're studying the impact of a new teaching method in a school, you might observe classes, interview teachers, and also survey students. Each method will provide a slightly different perspective, and together, they allow you to develop a more complete picture of the teaching method's impact.

Practice reflexivity

Reflexivity involves reflecting on how your assumptions, values, or experiences might influence your research process and interpretations. As a researcher, it's essential to be aware of your potential biases and how they might shape your study.

Consider keeping a reflexivity journal where you can note your thoughts, feelings, and reflections throughout the research process. This practice can help you stay aware of your biases and ensure your research is as objective and balanced as possible.

Write for your audience

Always make sure that your writing is on target for your intended audience. If you're writing for an academic audience, for example, you'll likely use a more formal tone and include more detailed methodological information. If you're writing for practitioners or a general audience, you might use a more accessible language and focus more on practical implications.

Remember to define any technical terms or jargon, and provide sufficient context so your readers can understand your research. The goal is to communicate your findings effectively, regardless of who your readers are.

Seek feedback

Feedback is valuable for improving your case study. Consider sharing drafts with your peers, mentors, or supervisors and asking for their input. Fresh eyes can provide different perspectives, catch errors, or suggest ways to strengthen your arguments.

Remember, feedback is not personal; it's about improving your work. Be open to critique and willing to revise your work based on the feedback you receive.

Writing a case study is a meticulous process that requires clear purpose, careful planning, systematic data collection, and thoughtful analysis. Although it can be time-consuming, the rich, detailed insights a well-executed case study can provide make this study design an invaluable tool in research.

By following this guide and adopting its practical tips, you will be well on your way to crafting a compelling case study that contributes meaningful insights to your chosen field. Good luck with your research journey!

Header image by Kateryna Hliznitsova .

• Academic Writing Advice
• All Blog Posts
• Writing Advice
• Admissions Writing Advice
• Book Writing Advice
• Short Story Advice
• Employment Writing Advice
• Business Writing Advice
• Web Content Advice
• Article Writing Advice
• Magazine Writing Advice
• Grammar Advice
• Dialect Advice
• Editing Advice
• Freelance Advice
• Legal Writing Advice
• Poetry Advice
• Graphic Design Advice
• Logo Design Advice
• Translation Advice
• Blog Reviews
• Short Story Award Winners
• Scholarship Winners

Need an academic editor before submitting your work?

Your competitors are optimizing their content. Are you?

✅ Analyze competitor strategies ✅ Plan a path to topical authority ✅ Find profitable keywords ✅ Create winning content ✅ Scale content strategy with AI ✅ Keep old content ranking ✅ Get more organic traffic

Don’t miss out. Join 150k+ Agencies, Marketers, and SEOs.

How To Write A Case Study [Template plus 20+ Examples]

In an era where every niche seems completely saturated, learning how to write a case study is one of the most important time investments you can make in your business.

That’s because case studies help you present a compelling story of success to bottom-of–funnel decision makers. Do it right, and a solid case study can greatly increase your chances of closing new deals.

A 2023 study from the Content Marketing Institute found that 36% of B2B marketers consider case studies to be effective tools for converting prospects into customers.

In this article, I’ll show you step-by-step exactly how to write a case study that makes an impact. Along the way, I’ll highlight several stellar case studies that illustrate how to do it right.

What you will learn

• What a case study is and what it's not.
• How an effective case study can help establish you as an expert and land more clients.
• How to choose the right topic for your case study, taking into account client successes and broad appeal in your customer's industry.
• The essential parts of a good case study and how to write each one.
• Style and formatting points that will make your case study stand out for readers to understand.
• 4 tips for conducting an effective client interview.
• 6 real-life case studies that you can use as examples for creating your own customer stories.

What is a case study?

A case study is a detailed story about how your products or services helped a client overcome a challenge or meet a goal. Its main purpose is to prove to potential customers that you understand their problems and have the experience and expertise to help solve them.

But, even though a case study can help you attract and win customers, it's not just an advertisement for your offerings.

In truth, your company shouldn’t even be the main focus of a good case study.

Instead, a winning case study follows a successful business transformation from beginning to end and shows how you made it all possible for your client.

An example of a case study that conveys a strong customer story is the deep dive we did into how ClickUp used SurferSEO to boost their blog traffic by 85% in a year.

Why you should write a case study

The most obvious reason why you should write a case study is that it's a great way to show potential customers how others in their position have benefited from your product or service.

Here are a few of the key benefits of writing a case study, all of which can help you turn readers into customers.

Demonstrates expertise 

A well-written case study shows clearly how your company solved a complex problem or helped a particular customer make improvements using your solution.

This is the sort of expertise other potential clients will look for when they run into the same sort of issues.

For instance, one of CrowdStrike's case studies shows how they helped Vijilan scale its logging capacity so they could stop turning away business.

This positions CrowdStrike as experts in helping deal with log management issues.

Other companies dealing with their own logging problems will definitely find this to be a compelling story. And you can bet CrowdStrike will be on their short list of potential solution providers after reading this case study.

Educates potential customers 

You might have the best product on the market, but it won't do you any good if potential clients don't understand how it might help them.

A case study breaks down those barriers by showing real-life examples of your product in action, helping other customers solve their problems.

A good example is the Trello case study library .

Each story gives detailed examples showing how the customer uses Trello and includes actual screenshots from their workflows.

Here is an interesting snapshot from the BurgerFi example.

Here, you get a glimpse of a live Trello board that BurgerFi uses to manage their marketing assets.

By showing how existing clients use your product, you make it a lot easier for future customers to imagine how it might work for their needs, too.

Generates leads 

A strong case study is a valuable piece of content that provides insights and can help companies make decisions.

Many of them would be happy to give you their contact information in exchange for the chance to read about potential solutions to their problems.

That combination of valuable content and a hungry market makes case studies great tools for lead generation.

You can either gate part of your case study and leave the rest of it public, or require an email address and other contact information in order to download the full study.

That's the approach Pulsara took in detailing how their telehealth communication platform helped EvergreenHealth improve efficiency:

The names and addresses you collect with this approach will be about as warm as you could ever hope for since they probably have the same sort of problems you solved in your case study.

Along the same lines, case studies can be extremely effective in upselling or cross-selling other products to the decision-makers who read them.

And they are great tools for persuading a client to make a purchase with you.

Indeed, a great case study can often be the "final straw" that lands you a client considering your services.

A 2023 survey by Uplift Content , for example, found that 39% of SaaS marketers ranked case studies as being very effective for increasing sales.

That made it their #1 tactic for the second year in a row.

Builds trust 

Potential clients want to know that they can trust you to handle their business with care and to deliver on your promises.

A case study is the perfect vehicle to show that you can do just that.

Take advantage of that opportunity to present statistics, client testimonials, graphics, and any other proof that you can get results.

For example, in their case study about helping a law firm uncover critical data for a tricky case, Kroll shows us just how much they were able to cut through the noise:

Any law firm staring at its own pile of documents to search through would love to have that haystack reduced by a factor of 32.5x, too.

And Sodexo makes good use of customer testimonials in their case studies, like this quote from the procurement lead for a Montana mining company.

Having existing customers tell the world that they count on you is powerful free advertising and builds trust with your readers. That can help transform them into customers down the road.

Provides social proof 

You can also use your case study to show that your product or service works in a specific industry.

Real-world examples of customer success stories position you as someone their peers and competitors can turn to, too.

For instance, Stericycle details how they helped seven children's hospitals get a handle on their "sharps" management:

They also include glowing quotes from hospital leaders in the same study.

Other hospitals looking for help in disposing of their hazardous waste will know right away after reading this study that Stericycle understands their needs.

This is the type of social proof that can really help establish you as a go-to solution for the industries you serve.

How to choose a subject for your case study

In order to get the most bang for your buck from your case study, you need to make sure you pick a topic that resonates with your target audience. And one that can make your solution look its best.

Below are 4 ways to select the best subject for your case study.

1. Choose a popular topic

Make sure the topic you tackle in your case study is one that most of your potential clients are searching for.

You may be tempted to highlight an unusual project that you find especially interesting. But that usually won't have the same sort of selling power as a topic with more broad appeal.

For instance, Aruba Networks has helped colleges and universities with all sorts of networking projects. Some of those involve really fascinating edge cases like research labs, esports arenas, and other innovative solutions.

But what most schools are looking for in a network upgrade is improving connectivity across campus while enhancing security and saving money.

Those are exactly the outcomes Aruba focuses on in its Doane University case study .

Remember that your case study is likely to be read by decision-makers at the bottom of the sales funnel who are ready to buy.

Your content needs to resonate with them and address the questions they want answered in order to make their decision.

Aruba tackles their customers' concerns head-on throughout the Doane study, as you can see from their section headings:

• "Realizing a hyper-connected vision"
• "10X throughput eliminates academic barriers"
• "More secure with less effort"
• "Greener and more resilient at better insurance rates"

College administrators can see at a glance that Aruba understands their needs and has helped other institutions with similar problems.

2. Consider relevance and attractiveness

Although you want to choose a popular subject for your case study (as discussed above), it's also important to make sure it's relevant to your target audience.

For instance, if you provide design services, a one-off project you did to help a local company set up its website might have taught you a lot. But most of your potential readers will be much more interested in reading about how your designs helped that client improve brand perception.

It’s also best to choose a situation where your product or service is used in a way that you expect most potential users to adopt. 

For example, Allegion's Mount Holyoke case study (PDF) details how one campus used their products to move to contactless and mobile entry systems.

Students today demand more control over their physical security than ever before. And the administrative overhead of managing thousands of doors and physical keys on a college campus is enormous.

As a result, most schools are interested in using technology to enable their students and reduce staffing costs.

Allegion hits those points dead-on with this case study.

An added benefit of choosing a topic with broad appeal among your target client base is that you can use the content in your normal distribution channels.

For example, you can publish all or part of it as a blog post, include it in your newsletter, or use it as the basis for a YouTube video. Wherever your audience is, that's probably a good place to promote your case study.

3. Identify a 5 star use case

A case study is like a sales executive for your company.

It needs to show your product or service in the best possible light and highlight its features and benefits while distinguishing it from other products.

Choose a client example that really makes your solution look like a superstar and showcases its most outstanding attributes.

You should also avoid showing your product or service being used in a novel or completely innovative way. While that can provide some solid insight, you risk alienating your typical client who needs to know that you can solve their specific problem.

Instead, your case study should demonstrate how your solution took on a common industry problem and delivered stellar results.

A great example is Beckman Coulter's case study that details their work with Alverno Labs.

The objective was to reduce the time it took Alverno to deliver lab test results while reducing operating costs, which are common goals for many testing labs.

The case study presents a detailed description of how Beckman Coulter implemented a continuous improvement process for Alverno. They enhance the discussion with several meaty visuals like this project roadmap:

They also include plenty of tangible data to prove their success.

And of course, include direct client testimonials:

From top to bottom, this case study proves that Beckman Coulter understands their customers business needs and can offer top-notch solutions.

4. Find a satisfied customer

You're going to need input from your client in order to build the most complete and accurate case study that you can.

So when you're trying to choose a customer story to use, look for a client who is happy to share their positive experience working with you.

Try to find one who seems genuinely eager to talk so that they will be timely with their responses to your questions.

If you have a customer who is willing to sit down for an actual interview with you, they're a great candidate. You'll get answers quickly, and the client is obviously comfortable enough with your relationship to talk with you directly.

A good example that focuses on a satisfied client comes from Aerofloat, an Australian wastewater treatment company.

In their Norco Food Case Study , Aerofloat reports that Norco hired them for additional projects as a result of their successful prior engagement:

It's always good to show prospective clients that your existing customers stick with you.

So try to pick a case study done in collaboration with a current client, not one from the past.

Aerofloat also highlights their ongoing relationship with Norco by also including them in the customer list on their About page:

How to write a case study

Now that we’ve covered the benefits of writing a case study and figured out how to pick the best topic for your situation, it’s time to get down to the business of writing.

Below is a rundown of the sections that make up the structure of a typical case study. For each piece, I’ll show you what types of content you should include and give you an example of a study that does it right.

Here are 8 tips to writing a case study.

1. Attention grabbing title

The title of your case study needs to grab potential readers attention and convince them that this is a valuable piece of content.

Make your title catchy, concise, and descriptive, just like you would for a good blog post. But you also need to make sure you give your readers a clear idea of what the case study is about.

Offer them at least a hint of the type of results you were able to deliver, too.

It’s a good idea to use numbers here – the higher, the better. It's especially effective if you can show how quickly you got results and how much money your client saved or made as a result of working with you.

Our ClickUp case study that I mentioned earlier is a good example. The full title is

SurferSEO Helps ClickUp Publish 150+ Articles And Achieve Blog Traffic Growth of 85% in 12 Months.

Here are some other case studies that make effective use of numbers in their titles:

• Healthcare Administrative Partners Increases Online Patient Payments by 20% in Two Months
• Case Study: Taylor Kotwa, Sprinter, Increases FTP 7% in 4 months
• Case Study: Lakeview Farms Reduced Downtime by 36% in 6 Months
• CASELY case study: Improved first response time by 10x while experiencing 16,954% growth

This type of headline gives potential clients a sense that you will work with urgency to improve their bottom-line results.

2. Hook readers in your introduction

The introduction of your case study should set the stage for the comprehensive narrative that follows.

Give a brief description of the problem for context and quickly introduce the customer's story. Touch on the results you helped them achieve, but don't go overboard on details.

Overall, the introduction should give your reader just enough information to keep them engaged and ready to move into the heart of the case study.

It should also establish that they're in the right place and that you are the right person to be telling this story.

This case study about the cybersecurity program at Investors Bank includes a solid example of an effective introduction:

3. Highlight the challenge

This section should clearly outline the problem or challenge that your customer is facing.

Help your readers understand why a solution was necessary, and why that specific pain point was bothering the client. 

And, since this is the entire motivation for the project in the first place, don't skimp on details.

For instance, one of Verkada's case studies explains why maintaining security cameras is a huge challenge for Crystal Mountain Resort in Washington state. They start off with a direct quote from the resort's IT director:

The elevation tops out at a little over 7,000 feet, so the weather conditions can get extreme. We needed durable cameras capable of handling everything from snowstorms to 100 MPH winds.

That makes it crystal clear what sort of problem Crystal Mountain was facing.

The case study then adds more detail with separate subsections about hardware durability, image quality, and cumbersome footage retrieval.

By the time they finish reading this section, your readers should have no doubt about what the problem is and why a solution is needed.

4. Solve their problem

The solution section is one of the most important parts of a case study.

This is your chance to describe how your product or service provided a solution to the problem or challenge your client was having.

It's where you can really start to make a connection with potential new clients by showing them that you understand the issue at hand.

First, provide some details about how you analyzed the situation. The Kroll case study on handling critical legal data mentioned earlier does a great job of this with bullet points describing their research process.

This type of analysis helps build confidence that you take a thorough approach to your engagements and are looking out for your clients best interests.

Now you can move on to describe the solution you and your client chose based on your investigation.

In their legal case study, Kroll determined that the best solution involved digitizing thousands of paper documents and using AI to analyze more than a million documents.

Kroll describes in detail how they used their RelativityOne system to achieve those goals:

This level of detail helps prospective customers better understand the root cause of their problems and positions you as the right company to solve them.

5. Showcase your results

The results section is all about proving that you can actually deliver on the promise of your proposed solution. Go heavy on the details here, too, and make sure your readers understand the results you achieved.

Wherever possible, use specific numbers and data points to show exactly how effective your solution was for your client.

A good example is this BetterBricks case study showing how they helped an aerospace company slash energy costs.

They distilled their bottom line results into a simple table:

The text of the study then goes into more detail about what these numbers mean, but this quick graphic lets readers know right away the scope of the results achieved.

Here is a sampling of BetterBrick’s more detailed explanation of their results in this case:

This is your place to really crow about the success you achieved with your client, so make it as obvious as possible just how impactful you were.

6. Use multimedia well

One way to make a lasting impression on potential clients is to include relevant visuals throughout your case study.

Graphs, screenshots, and product photos help break up the text and make your study more engaging overall.

But they can also add details to your story and make a memorable visual impact beyond what mere words can accomplish.

We got a taste of that with the table of results in the BetterBricks example above, but that's just the start.

Inrix is a good example of a company that loads up its case studies with insightful and engaging media to tell a better story.

For instance, in their breakdown of a collaboration with the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (DOT), Inrix uses charts, tables, and graphs throughout.

One innovative example is this diagram about crash distances:

This really brings the idea to life in a way that words alone can't, and it's likely to stick with readers long after they've clicked off the case study.

Other types of media that companies use to good effect in their case studies include pictures of key client stakeholders, interactive charts, tables, and simple graphs.

You can see in this high-level overview that Inrix includes most of these in their Pennsylvania DOT case study:

You can even use video to demonstrate your solution or to share a client testimonial.

If possible, include direct quotes from your client to add authenticity to the case study.

This will show potential customers that you and your existing client have a good relationship and that they value your work.

It’s pretty compelling stuff to have a ringing endorsement like this one from an EnergyCAP case study , to show your readers:

You can place customer quotes throughout the case study to highlight important points, and you should definitely try to include at least one that shows overall customer satisfaction.

Chances are you have some of these quotes already in the form of testimonials or as part of the customer interview you conducted in preparing for your case study (more on that later).

You can use those quotes here if they fit the context of your case study.

That will save time and red tape for both you and your client since they'll be reviewing your final case study before it goes live anyway.

8. Conclusion

The conclusion should summarize the key points of the case study and reinforce the success of the solution. It could also include a call to action, encouraging readers to try your product or service or to get in touch for more information.

You might also include information about future plans with the client to reinforce the idea that your relationship is strong and ongoing.

That's the approach that Gravitate Design used in their case study about helping GoBeyond with their bounce rates and time on page:

Like the introduction, the conclusion section of a case study should be short and sweet, giving just enough detail to make the reader want to hear more from you.

Checklist for case studies

Beyond the story that you want to tell in your case study, you also need to pay attention to several other factors. Indeed, the layout and format of your study can have a big impact on how effective it is at keeping your readers engaged and delivering your message.

Here is a quick checklist for creating case studies.

Break up the text with headings and subheadings

Big blocks of text can be intimidating and make it tough for your audience to stay on track.

In contrast, a case study with clear headings and subheadings throughout breaks up the story and gives readers visual clues about what's coming.

This also makes the case study easier for readers to scan and helps you keep each section focused on a single idea.

Use bullet points for lists or key points

Along the same lines, bullet points let you present important information in small bits that are easy for readers to digest.

Some of the best uses of bullet points include:

• A series of facts or tips
• A list of product features or benefits
• A quick summary of results
• Steps in a how-to procedure
• A rundown of multiple statistics

For these bite-sized hunks of detail, bullets often make for a much cleaner and readable list than jamming all the information into a single paragraph. 

Bullet point lists also make great quick references for readers to come back to later.

Highlight key points with bold or italic text

Bold and italic text draws the reader’s eyes to the words you highlight, which lets you really drive home key ideas in your case study.

You can use this technique to introduce new terms, place emphasis on a sentence, and showcase important parts of your approach or results.

Like bullet points, bold and italic text also give readers a visual anchor for reference as they’re working through your document.

Make paragraphs short and to-the-point

Aim for 3-4 sentences per paragraph to keep the text readable and engaging. Each paragraph should focus on one main idea to support the subject of the section it’s in.

Using short paragraphs tells readers at a glance that there are break points throughout your case study and helps keep them engaged.

Keep consistent length across the case study 

Throughout all parts of your case study, try to cover your main points in detail without overwhelming the reader.

Your potential clients are there to find a possible solution to their problems, not to read a novel.

Give them an inviting document structure and then lead them through each section with clear explanations and no fluff.

Adjust the length based on the complexity of the subject 

The flip side of the tip above about keeping your case study tight and focused is that you need to make sure you cover your topic in detail.

Very complex topics will require more explanation and longer overall case studies than simpler subjects.

For example, a case study about paving a church parking lot might be pretty short.

But a story about implementing a comprehensive information security program for a state government will likely be much longer and more detailed.

Include a summary with some takeaways 

At the end of your case study, summarize the key takeaways and results to reinforce the message you’re trying to get across.

Briefly recap the problem your client was facing, the solution you came up with, and the results you achieved. Think of this as an executive summary that gives business leaders the TL;DR version of your customer’s success story.

Content Snare includes an eye-catching summary in the case study detailing their efforts to grow their email list:

The overall goal is to leave potential clients with a good last impression and invite them to contact you with questions.

Use visuals to break up text and illustrate points

As we saw in the "How to write a case study" section above, graphs, charts, or images can make your case study more engaging and help illustrate key ideas or results. They also add visual variety and help break up the monotony of text-heavy studies.

Use these types of visuals to help keep your readers interested and make your story more complete.

Below is a high-level view of a portion of Advanced HPC’s Philips case study , which does a great job of incorporating the points in this section. It pulls together all the visual elements to create a very appealing reader experience.

4 tips to create an effective case study

You’re going to need your customer’s input in order to craft the most effective case study possible. It’s their story, after all, and they’re the ones who know what it was like to work with you throughout the process.

They also hold key details that you probably don’t know.

So, once you have their permission to write about the project, you’ll need to talk to them about the specifics. But you also want to respect their time.

Here are 4 tips on how to conduct an interview for your case study.

Prepare questions in advance

Know what information you need and prepare questions to pull that information from your client.

Doing this in advance will help you formulate the questions and sequence them properly to avoid bias and wasting time.

Have a few follow-up or emergency questions ready, too, in case you run into a dead end. 

Record the interview

With your client’s permission, record the interview to ensure accuracy and so you can come back to listen to important points again.

This helps you avoid bothering your clients with follow-up questions and also gives you more freedom to let the interview evolve in a natural conversational manner. 

Make the interviewee comfortable

Explain the interview process to your client, why you're asking them to talk, and how the information will be used. Remember that you are the one who “needs” the case study, not them. 

So you go the extra mile to ensure that your guest is as comfortable as possible.

That also means being flexible with the format of your interview.

If your client doesn’t have time for calls, offer to trade voice notes. Or give them a shared Google document for trading questions and answers.

And if you do end up conducting a live interview, agree to meet at a time that’s best for them.

No matter how you end up conducting your interview, make it clear that your client will be able to review the final version before you make it live.

Give them veto power over any of the information you put together.

Ask open-ended questions

Even though you’ll start out with a series of questions you need answered, don’t limit yourself to those. Instead, encourage your interviewee to share their story in their own words. 

Leave some room to ask open-ended questions and let the conversation evolve naturally.

Here are a few examples of the types of questions for discussion:

• What would you do differently if you were starting this project again?
• What do you think about XYZ emerging technology in relation to your industry's challenges?
• What sorts of other projects do you think Acme's solution might help with?
• How do your company's day-to-day operations and needs from how the relevant theories describe the industry?

Especially if you’re recording the interview, as suggested above, you can go back later and put things in a logical order.

Once you have all of the raw material, then you can curate the information and edit it to come up with your final product.

6 case study examples to follow

Now that you know what makes a great case study and how to write one, let's finish up with a few more top-notch business case study examples.

Each of the case studies below hits many of the points in this article, but they all take a different approach. Use them for inspiration or when you need a little refresher on how to write a case study.

This case study provides a detailed account of how Monograph, a B2B SaaS company, improved its marketing projects and reporting using Databox.

It's a pretty straightforward example of the best practices we've discussed in this article, with an introduction followed by background information on the company (Monograph) and the challenges they faced with manual tracking of each data point.

It describes the solution that Databox helped put in place and then shows clear evidence of the results their customer achieved:

Case studies don't come much more textbook than this one, which makes it a great example to follow.

Growth Design on Airbnb

Growth Design takes a totally unique approach to case studies, each one is an online comic book!

Read through their case study about Airbnb , though, and you'll see that it meets all the criteria for a complete case study even if the setup is a little different than most.

Here is a look at the landing page for this beauty of a study.

The author starts out with a problem: the need to book a place to stay in a foreign country in a hurry. So he heads to Airbnb but ends up overwhelmed by choices and bounces to Google Maps to make his reservation.

He concludes that Airbnb was not the full solution for him in this case and suggests several places they could make improvements.

It's a pretty neat dive into a well-known user experience, and it's also a great lesson in how to use visuals to keep your readers engaged in your case study.

This case study about how Grubhub used Webflow to build a viral marketing campaign hits you with stunning results right off the bat.

From there, the study tells the full story of how they achieved these results. Even though the author doesn't explicitly break out the problem, solution, and results sections, she still takes the reader through that journey.

It's a concise but complete story broken up by a few choice graphics.

This case study dives into how Employment Hero uses Slack to keep their remote employees engaged and productive as the company grows.

It details how Employee Hero continuously reevaluates its app usage to identify possible solutions to issues that arise and how Slack consistently helps meet the challenges.

This case study is a great example of picking a use case that is relevant to most of Slack's user base -- improving communication and productivity among remote employees.

Slack also makes effective use of quotes from the decision makers at Employment Hero.

We already talked about our ClickUp case study a little earlier in this article, but it's worth a deeper look as an example to help guide your writing.

As you would expect, this case study hits main points we've covered here: problem statement, solution, and results.

But there are a couple of "extras" that make this one stand out.

For starters, it doesn't just present a single solution. It presents three , each one addressing a different aspect of ClickUp's objectives and each one showcasing a different Surfer feature set. 

For example, solution #1 describes how ClickUp improved their on-page SEO with the help of Surfer’s Content Editor . 

This case study also provides a high-level view of ClickUp’s project management processes and describes how they incorporated Surfer into their content workflows.

It’s a really instructive example of how you can use a case study to help prospective clients envision how your product might fit their situation.

Zoom’s library

This one isn't a single case study at all but a library full of case studies designed to help potential clients understand how Zoom can benefit them.

Here you'll find stories about how very recognizable organizations like Capital One, Vox Media, and the University of Miami are using Zoom to boost connectivity and productivity among remote workers.

There are plenty of good examples here that you can consult when you get stuck writing your own case study.

And the entire library is a great example of using case studies to demonstrate expertise with the help of social proof:

The Zoom case study library also makes liberal use of video, which might give you some good ideas about how you can, too.

Key takeaways

• Case studies are one of the best ways to generate leads and convert readers into customers.
• By showcasing the success you've had helping previous customers, case studies position you as an expert in your field.
• Good case studies can be the final push businesses need in their decision making process to buy your products or services.
• Pick a use case for your study that has broad appeal in your industry and that showcases your products and services in the best light possible.
• Effective case studies follow a predictable format: introduction, problem statement, solution, results, and conclusion.
• Make your case studies as readable as possible by including visual elements like graphs and images, and by breaking up the text into smaller sections, subsections, and concise paragraphs.
• Be as thorough and accurate as possible by conducting client interviews to gather background information for your case studies.
• Follow top-notch case studies for inspiration and ideas about how to make your own case studies as good as possible.

A well-written case study shines a light on your products and services like nothing else and helps position you as an expert in your field.

By showing that you understand their problems and have helped others overcome similar issues, you can prove to prospective clients that you are well-suited to help them, too.

Use the step-by-step instructions in this article to craft a case study that helps you and your company stand out from the competition.

https://surferseo.com/blog/write-case-study/

Get started now, ‍7 days for free

Choose a plan that fits your needs and try Surfer out for yourself. Click below to sign up!

How to Write a Case Study - All You Wanted to Know

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

Need Case Study DONE FAST?

Pick a topic, tell us your requirements and get your paper on time.

Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

Don't Know Where to Start?

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. Request ' write my case study ' assistance from our service.

What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

Case Studies: How to write a case study

• Find case studies
• How to write a case study
• Indigenous Business Case Studies This link opens in a new window
• Research & Citation Help This link opens in a new window

Structure of a case study

A case study is a type of paper that focuses on a specific problem affecting a population, place, or organization. Examples of subjects in a case study include a person, a group, city, company, department, or event.

The typical structure of a case study includes:

1) Introduction: provides background information about what is being studied. Introduce the topic and describe the problem. Consider the following questions when writing your introduction:

• Who or what is being studied?
• What specific problem you will be focusing on?
• Why is the investigation important in the field?

2) Literature review: provides context for the problem being studied.

• How is the problem or the subject you are investigating described in the literature?
• What is the relationship to other cases?
• What interpretations, gaps, conflicts are identified in the literature?
• How do the ideas of other authors relate to the problem you are investigating?

3) Method: provides details about how the problem is being investigated.

• Provide details about the subject (person, population, organization, etc.) that will be the focus of your study.
• Explain why and how the subject and problem were selected.
• Explain how you collected data to investigate the problem. Examples of possible data collection methods: structure or semi-structured interviews, focus groups, observation, surveys, etc.

4) Discussion: describe your findings.

• Reiterate the research problem and describe the main findings of your research.
• Interpret your findings and how they relate to other studies.
• Provide explanations for the findings, identify gaps and limitations, and suggest future areas of research

5) Conclusion: summarize your findings

• Synthesize the findings and how they are connected to the research problem.
• Emphasize the importance of the study and how they contribute to clarify the research problem.
• Provide recommendations based on your findings; if not done so already, clarify gaps, limitations, alternative explanations, and suggest areas for future research.

This section was based on recommendations provided by :

USC Libraries. (2020, November 1). Organizing your social sciences research paper. https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/casestudy

Further reading:

Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. Call number: H62 .Y56 2003

Cengage Learning. (n.d.). Business resources for students: Case studies. https://college.cengage.com/business/resources/casestudies/students/index.html

• << Previous: Find case studies
• Next: Indigenous Business Case Studies >>
• Last Updated: Jun 27, 2024 12:16 PM
• URL: https://yukonu.libguides.com/case_studies

How to Write a Case Study: A Breakdown of Requirements

It can take months to develop a case study. First, a topic must be chosen. Then the researcher must state his hypothesis, and make certain it lines up with the chosen topic. Then all the research must be completed. The case study can require both quantitative and qualitative research, as well as interviews with subjects. Once that is all done, it is time to write the case study.

Not all case studies are written the same. Depending on the size and topic of the study, it could be hundreds of pages long. Regardless of the size, the case study should have four main sections. These sections are:

1. Introduction

2. Background

3. Presentation of Findings

4. Conclusion

The Introduction

The introduction should set the stage for the case study, and state the thesis for the report. The intro must clearly articulate what the study's intention is, as well as how you plan on explaining and answering the thesis.

Again, remember that a case study is not a formal scientific research report that will only be read by scientists. The case study must be able to be read and understood by the layperson, and should read almost as a story, with a clear narrative.

As the reader reads the introduction, they should fully understand what the study is about, and why it is important. They should have a strong foundation for the background they will learn about in the next section.

The introduction should not be long. You must be able to introduce your topic in one or two paragraphs. Ideally, the introduction is one paragraph of about 3-5 sentences.

The Background

The background should detail what information brought the researcher to pose his hypothesis. It should clearly explain the subject or subjects, as well as their background information. And lastly, the background must give the reader a full understanding of the issue at hand, and what process will be taken with the study. Photos and videos are always helpful when applicable.

When writing the background, the researcher must explain the research methods used, and why. The type of research used will be dependent on the type of case study. The reader should have a clear idea why a particular type of research is good for the field and type of case study.

For example, a case study that is trying to determine what causes PTSD in veterans will heavily use interviews as a research method. Directly interviewing subjects garners invaluable research for the researcher. If possible, reference studies that prove this.

Again, as with the introduction, you do not want to write an extremely long background. It is important you provide the right amount of information, as you do not want to bore your readers with too much information, and you don't want them under-informed.

How much background information should a case study provide? What would happen if the case study had too much background info?

What would happen if the case study had too little background info?

The Presentation of Findings

While a case study might use scientific facts and information, a case study should not read as a scientific research journal or report. It should be easy to read and understand, and should follow the narrative determined in the first step.

The presentation of findings should clearly explain how the topic was researched, and summarize what the results are. Data should be summarized as simply as possible so that it is understandable by people without a scientific background. The researcher should describe what was learned from the interviews, and how the results answered the questions asked in the introduction.

When writing up the report, it is important to set the scene. The writer must clearly lay out all relevant facts and detail the most important points. While this section may be lengthy, you do not want to overwhelm the reader with too much information.

The Conclusion

The final section of the study is the conclusion. The purpose of the study isn't necessarily to solve the problem, only to offer possible solutions. The final summary should be an end to the story.

Remember, the case study is about asking and answering questions. The conclusion should answer the question posed by the researcher, but also leave the reader with questions of his own. The researcher wants the reader to think about the questions posed in the study, and be free to come to their own conclusions as well.

When reading the conclusion, the reader should be able to have the following takeaways:

Was there a solution provided? If so, why was it chosen?

Was the solution supported with solid evidence?

Did the personal experiences and interviews support the solution?

The conclusion should also make any recommendations that are necessary. What needs to be done, and you exactly should do it? In the case of the vets with PTSD, once a cause is determined, who is responsible for making sure the needs of the veterans are met?

English Writing Standards For Case Studies

When writing the case study, it is important to follow standard academic and scientific rules when it comes to spelling and grammar.

Spelling and Grammar

It should go without saying that a thorough spell check should be done. Remember, many case studies will require words or terms that are not in standard online dictionaries, so it is imperative the correct spelling is used. If possible, the first draft of the case study should be reviewed and edited by someone other than yourself.

Case studies are normally written in the past tense, as the report is detailing an event or topic that has since passed. The report should be written using a very logical and clear tone. All case studies are scientific in nature and should be written as such.

The First Draft

You do not sit down and write the case study in one day. It is a long and detailed process, and it must be done carefully and with precision. When you sit down to first start writing, you will want to write in plain English, and detail the what, when and how.

When writing the first draft, note any relevant assumptions. Don't immediately jump to any conclusions; just take notes of any initial thoughts. You are not looking for solutions yet. In the first draft use direct quotes when needed, and be sure to identify and qualify all information used.

If there are any issues you do not understand, the first draft is where it should be identified. Make a note so you return to review later. Using a spreadsheet program like Excel or Google Sheets is very valuable during this stage of the writing process, and can help keep you and your information and data organized.

The Second Draft

To prepare the second draft, you will want to assemble everything you have written thus far. You want to reduce the amount of writing so that the writing is tightly written and cogent. Remember, you want your case study to be interesting to read.

When possible, you should consider adding images, tables, maps, or diagrams to the text to make it more interesting for the reader. If you use any of these, make sure you have permission to use them. You cannot take an image from the Internet and use it without permission.

Once you have completed the second draft, you are not finished! It is imperative you have someone review your work. This could be a coworker, friend, or trusted colleague. You want someone who will give you an honest review of your work, and is willing to give you feedback, whether positive or negative.

Remember, you cannot proofread enough! You do not want to risk all of your hard work and research, and end up with a final case study that has spelling or grammatical errors. One typo could greatly hurt your project and damage your reputation in your field.

All case studies should follow LIT – Logical – Inclusive – Thorough.

The case study obviously must be logical. There can be no guessing or estimating. This means that the report must state what was observed, but cannot include any opinion or assumptions that might come from such an observation.

For example, if a veteran subject arrives at an interview holding an empty liquor bottle and is slurring his words, that observation must be made. However, the researcher cannot make the inference that the subject was intoxicated. The report can only include the facts.

With the Genie case, researchers witnessed Genie hitting herself and practicing self-harm. It could be assumed that she did this when she was angry. However, this wasn't always the case. She would also hit herself when she was afraid, bored or apprehensive. It is essential that researchers not guess or infer.

In order for a report to be inclusive, it must contain ALL data and findings. The researcher cannot pick and choose which data or findings to use in the report.

Using the example above, if a veteran subject arrives for an interview holding an empty liquor bottle and is slurring his words; any and all additional information that can be garnered should be recorded. For instance, what the subject was wearing, what was his demeanor, was he able to speak and communicate, etc.

When observing a man who might be drunk, it can be easy to make assumptions. However, the researcher cannot allow personal biases or beliefs to sway the findings. Any and all relevant facts must be included, regardless of size or perceived importance. Remember, small details might not seem relevant at the time of the interview. But once it is time to catalog the findings, small details might become important.

The last tip is to be thorough. It is important to delve into every observation. The researcher shouldn't just write down what they see and move on. It is essential to detail as much as possible.

For example, when interviewing veteran subjects, there interview responses are not the only information that should be garnered from the interview. The interviewer should use all senses when detailing their subject.

How does the subject appear? Is he clean? How is he dressed?

How does his voice sound? Is he speaking clearly and making cohesive thoughts? Does his voice sound raspy? Does he speak with a whisper, or does he speak too loudly?

Does the subject smell? Is he wearing cologne, or can you smell that he hasn't bathed or washed his clothes? What do his clothes look like? Is he well dressed, or does he wear casual clothes?

What is the background of the subject? What are his current living arrangements? Does he have supportive family and friends? Is he a loner who doesn't have a solid support system? Is the subject working? If so, is he happy with the job? If he is not employed, why is that? What makes the subject unemployable?

Case Studies in Marketing

We have already determined that case studies are very valuable in the business world. This is particularly true in the marketing field, which includes advertising and public relations. While case studies are almost all the same, marketing case studies are usually more dependent on interviews and observations.

Well-Known Marketing Case Studies

DeBeers is a diamond company headquartered in Luxembourg, and based in South Africa. It is well known for its logo, "A diamond is forever", which has been voted the best advertising slogan of the 20 th century.

Many studies have been done about DeBeers, but none are as well known as their marketing case study, and how they positioned themselves to be the most successful and well-known diamond company in the world.

DeBeers developed the idea for a diamond engagement ring. They also invented the "eternity band", which is a ring that has diamonds going all around it, signifying that long is forever.

They also invented the three-stone ring, signifying the past, present and future. De Beers was the first company to attribute their products, diamonds to the idea of love and romance. They originated the idea that an engagement ring should cost two-months salary.

The two-month salary standard is particularly unique, in that it is totally subjective. A ring should mean the same whether the man makes $25,000 a year or $250,000. And yet, the standard sticks due to DeBeers incredible marketing skills.

The De Beers case study is one of the most famous studies when it comes to both advertising and marketing, and is used worldwide as the ultimate example of a successful ongoing marketing campaign.

Planning the Market Research

The most important parts of the marketing case study are:

1. The case study's questions

2. The study's propositions

3. How information and data will be analyzed

4. The logic behind what is being proposed

5. How the findings will be interpreted

The study's questions should be either "how" or "why" questions, and their definitions are the researchers first job. These questions will help determine the study's goals.

Not every case study has a proposition. If you are doing an exploratory study, you will not have propositions. Instead, you will have a stated purpose, which will determine whether your study is successful, or not.

How the information will be analyzed will depend on what the topic is. This would vary depending on whether it was a person, group, or organization. Event and place studies are done differently.

When setting up your research, you will want to follow case study protocol. The protocol should have the following sections:

1. An overview of the case study, including the objectives, topic and issues.

2. Procedures for gathering information and conducting interviews.

3. Questions that will be asked during interviews and data collection.

4. A guide for the final case study report.

When deciding upon which research methods to use, these are the most important:

1. Documents and archival records

2 . Interviews

3. Direct observations (and indirect when possible)

4. Indirect observations, or observations of subjects

5. Physical artifacts and tools

Documents could include almost anything, including letters, memos, newspaper articles, Internet articles, other case studies, or any other document germane to the study.

Developing the Case Study

Developing a marketing case study follows the same steps and procedures as most case studies. It begins with asking a question, "what is missing?"

1. What is the background of the case study? Who requested the study to be done and why? What industry is the study in, and where will the study take place? What marketing needs are you trying to address?

2. What is the problem that needs a solution? What is the situation, and what are the risks? What are you trying to prove?

3. What questions are required to analyze the problem? What questions might the reader of the study have?

4. What tools are required to analyze the problem? Is data analysis necessary? Can the study use just interviews and observations, or will it require additional information?

5. What is your current knowledge about the problem or situation? How much background information do you need to procure? How will you obtain this background info?

6. What other information do you need to know to successfully complete the study?

7. How do you plan to present the report? Will it be a simple written report, or will you add PowerPoint presentations or images or videos? When is the report due? Are you giving yourself enough time to complete the project?

Formulating the Marketing Case Study

1. What is the marketing problem? Most case studies begin with a problem that management or the marketing department is facing. You must fully understand the problem and what caused it. That is when you can start searching for a solution.

However, marketing case studies can be difficult to research. You must turn a marketing problem into a research problem. For example, if the problem is that sales are not growing, you must translate that to a research problem.

What could potential research problems be?

Research problems could be poor performance or poor expectations. You want a research problem because then you can find an answer. Management problems focus on actions, such as whether to advertise more, or change advertising strategies. Research problems focus on finding out how to solve the management problem.

Method of Inquiry

As with the research for most case studies, the scientific method is standard. It allows you to use existing knowledge as a starting point. The scientific method has the following steps:

1. Ask a question – formulate a problem

2. Do background research

3. Formulate a problem

4. Develop/construct a hypothesis

5. Make predictions based on the hypothesis

6. Do experiments to test the hypothesis

7 . Conduct the test/experiment

8 . Analyze and communicate the results

The above terminology is very similar to the research process. The main difference is that the scientific method is objective and the research process is subjective. Quantitative research is based on impartial analysis, and qualitative research is based on personal judgment.

Research Method

After selecting the method of inquiry, it is time to decide on a research method. There are two main research methodologies, experimental research and non-experimental research.

Experimental research allows you to control the variables and to manipulate any of the variables that influence the study.

Non-experimental research allows you to observe, but not intervene. You just observe and then report your findings.

Research Design

The design is the plan for how you will conduct the study, and how you will collect the data. The design is the scientific method you will use to obtain the information you are seeking.

Data Collection

There are many different ways to collect data, with the two most important being interviews and observation.

Interviews are when you ask people questions and get a response. These interviews can be done face-to-face, by telephone, the mail, email, or even the Internet. This category of research techniques is survey research. Interviews can be done in both experimental and non-experimental research.

Observation is watching a person or company's behavior. For example, by observing a persons buying behavior, you could predict how that person will make purchases in the future.

When using interviews or observation, it is required that you record your results. How you record the data will depend on which method you use. As with all case studies, using a research notebook is key, and will be the heart of the study.

Sample Design

When developing your case study, you won't usually examine an entire population; those are done by larger research projects. Your study will use a sample, which is a small representation of the population. When designing your sample, be prepared to answer the following questions:

1. From which type of population should the sample be chosen?

2. What is the process for the selection of the sample?

3. What will be the size of the sample?

There are two ways to select a sample from the general population; probability and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling uses random sampling of everyone in the population. Non-probability sampling uses the judgment of the researcher.

The last step of designing your sample is to determine the sample size. This can depend on cost and accuracy. Larger samples are better and more accurate, but they can also be costly.

Analysis of the Data

In order to use the data, it first must be analyzed. How you analyze the data should be decided upon as early in the process as possible, and will vary depending on the type of info you are collecting, and the form of measurement being used. As stated repeatedly, make sure you keep track of everything in the research notebook.

The Marketing Case Study Report

The final stage of the process is the marketing case study. The final study will include all of the information, as well as detail the process. It will also describe the results, conclusions, and any recommendations. It must have all the information needed so that the reader can understand the case study.

As with all case studies, it must be easy to read. You don't want to use info that is too technical; otherwise you could potentially overwhelm your reader. So make sure it is written in plain English, with scientific and technical terms kept to a minimum.

Using Your Case Study

Once you have your finished case study, you have many opportunities to get that case study in front of potential customers. Here is a list of the ways you can use your case study to help your company's marketing efforts.

1. Have a page on your website that is dedicated to case studies. The page should have a catchy name and list all of the company's case studies, beginning with the most recent. Next to each case study list its goals and results.

2. Put the case study on your home page. This will put your study front and center, and will be immediately visible when customers visit your web page. Make sure the link isn't hidden in an area rarely visited by guests. You can highlight the case study for a few weeks or months, or until you feel your study has received enough looks.

3. Write a blog post about your case study. Obviously you must have a blog for this to be successful. This is a great way to give your case study exposure, and it allows you to write the post directly addressing your audience's needs.

4 . Make a video from your case study. Videos are more popular than ever, and turning a lengthy case study into a brief video is a great way to get your case study in front of people who might not normally read a case study.

5. Use your case study on a landing page. You can pull quotes from the case study and use those on product pages. Again, this format works best when you use market segmentation.

6. Post about your case studies on social media. You can share links on Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn. Write a little interesting tidbit, enough to capture your client's interest, and then place the link.

7 . Use your case study in your email marketing. This is most effective if your email list is segmented, and you can direct your case study to those most likely to be receptive to it.

8. Use your case studies in your newsletters. This can be especially effective if you use segmentation with your newsletters, so you can gear the case study to those most likely to read and value it.

• Course Catalog
• Group Discounts
• Gift Certificates
• For Libraries
• CEU Verification
• Medical Terminology
• Accounting Course
• Writing Basics
• QuickBooks Training
• Proofreading Class
• Sensitivity Training
• Excel Certificate
• Teach Online
• Terms of Service
• Privacy Policy

Business growth

Marketing tips

16 case study examples (+ 3 templates to make your own)

I like to think of case studies as a business's version of a resume. It highlights what the business can do, lends credibility to its offer, and contains only the positive bullet points that paint it in the best light possible.

Imagine if the guy running your favorite taco truck followed you home so that he could "really dig into how that burrito changed your life." I see the value in the practice. People naturally prefer a tried-and-true burrito just as they prefer tried-and-true products or services.

To help you showcase your success and flesh out your burrito questionnaire, I've put together some case study examples and key takeaways.

What is a case study?

A case study is an in-depth analysis of how your business, product, or service has helped past clients. It can be a document, a webpage, or a slide deck that showcases measurable, real-life results.

For example, if you're a SaaS company, you can analyze your customers' results after a few months of using your product to measure its effectiveness. You can then turn this analysis into a case study that further proves to potential customers what your product can do and how it can help them overcome their challenges.

It changes the narrative from "I promise that we can do X and Y for you" to "Here's what we've done for businesses like yours, and we can do it for you, too."

16 case study examples 

While most case studies follow the same structure, quite a few try to break the mold and create something unique. Some businesses lean heavily on design and presentation, while others pursue a detailed, stat-oriented approach. Some businesses try to mix both.

There's no set formula to follow, but I've found that the best case studies utilize impactful design to engage readers and leverage statistics and case details to drive the point home. A case study typically highlights the companies, the challenges, the solution, and the results. The examples below will help inspire you to do it, too.

1. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Volcanica Coffee and AdRoll

People love a good farm-to-table coffee story, and boy am I one of them. But I've shared this case study with you for more reasons than my love of coffee. I enjoyed this study because it was written as though it was a letter.

In this case study, the founder of Volcanica Coffee talks about the journey from founding the company to personally struggling with learning and applying digital marketing to finding and enlisting AdRoll's services.

It felt more authentic, less about AdRoll showcasing their worth and more like a testimonial from a grateful and appreciative client. After the story, the case study wraps up with successes, milestones, and achievements. Note that quite a few percentages are prominently displayed at the top, providing supporting evidence that backs up an inspiring story.

Takeaway: Highlight your goals and measurable results to draw the reader in and provide concise, easily digestible information.

2. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Taylor Guitars and Airtable

This Airtable case study on Taylor Guitars comes as close as one can to an optimal structure. It features a video that represents the artistic nature of the client, highlighting key achievements and dissecting each element of Airtable's influence.

It also supplements each section with a testimonial or quote from the client, using their insights as a catalyst for the case study's narrative. For example, the case study quotes the social media manager and project manager's insights regarding team-wide communication and access before explaining in greater detail.

Takeaway: Highlight pain points your business solves for its client, and explore that influence in greater detail.

3. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} EndeavourX and Figma

My favorite part of Figma's case study is highlighting why EndeavourX chose its solution. You'll notice an entire section on what Figma does for teams and then specifically for EndeavourX.

It also places a heavy emphasis on numbers and stats. The study, as brief as it is, still manages to pack in a lot of compelling statistics about what's possible with Figma.

Takeaway: Showcase the "how" and "why" of your product's differentiators and how they benefit your customers.

4. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} ActiveCampaign and Zapier

Zapier's case study leans heavily on design, using graphics to present statistics and goals in a manner that not only remains consistent with the branding but also actively pushes it forward, drawing users' eyes to the information most important to them. 

The graphics, emphasis on branding elements, and cause/effect style tell the story without requiring long, drawn-out copy that risks boring readers. Instead, the cause and effect are concisely portrayed alongside the client company's information for a brief and easily scannable case study.

Takeaway: Lean on design to call attention to the most important elements of your case study, and make sure it stays consistent with your branding.

5. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Ironclad and OpenAI

In true OpenAI fashion, this case study is a block of text. There's a distinct lack of imagery, but the study features a narrated video walking readers through the product.

The lack of imagery and color may not be the most inviting, but utilizing video format is commendable. It helps thoroughly communicate how OpenAI supported Ironclad in a way that allows the user to sit back, relax, listen, and be impressed. 

Takeaway: Get creative with the media you implement in your case study. Videos can be a very powerful addition when a case study requires more detailed storytelling.

6. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Shopify and GitHub

GitHub's case study on Shopify is a light read. It addresses client pain points and discusses the different aspects its product considers and improves for clients. It touches on workflow issues, internal systems, automation, and security. It does a great job of representing what one company can do with GitHub.

To drive the point home, the case study features colorful quote callouts from the Shopify team, sharing their insights and perspectives on the partnership, the key issues, and how they were addressed.

Takeaway: Leverage quotes to boost the authoritativeness and trustworthiness of your case study. 

7 . .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Audible and Contentful

Contentful's case study on Audible features almost every element a case study should. It includes not one but two videos and clearly outlines the challenge, solution, and outcome before diving deeper into what Contentful did for Audible. The language is simple, and the writing is heavy with quotes and personal insights.

This case study is a uniquely original experience. The fact that the companies in question are perhaps two of the most creative brands out there may be the reason. I expected nothing short of a detailed analysis, a compelling story, and video content. 

Takeaway: Inject some brand voice into the case study, and create assets that tell the story for you.

8 . .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Zoom and Asana

Asana's case study on Zoom is longer than the average piece and features detailed data on Zoom's growth since 2020. Instead of relying on imagery and graphics, it features several quotes and testimonials. 

It's designed to be direct, informative, and promotional. At some point, the case study reads more like a feature list. There were a few sections that felt a tad too promotional for my liking, but to each their own burrito.

Takeaway: Maintain a balance between promotional and informative. You want to showcase the high-level goals your product helped achieve without losing the reader.

9 . .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Hickies and Mailchimp

I've always been a fan of Mailchimp's comic-like branding, and this case study does an excellent job of sticking to their tradition of making information easy to understand, casual, and inviting.

It features a short video that briefly covers Hickies as a company and Mailchimp's efforts to serve its needs for customer relationships and education processes. Overall, this case study is a concise overview of the partnership that manages to convey success data and tell a story at the same time. What sets it apart is that it does so in a uniquely colorful and brand-consistent manner.

Takeaway: Be concise to provide as much value in as little text as possible.

10. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} NVIDIA and Workday

The gaming industry is notoriously difficult to recruit for, as it requires a very specific set of skills and experience. This case study focuses on how Workday was able to help fill that recruitment gap for NVIDIA, one of the biggest names in the gaming world.

Though it doesn't feature videos or graphics, this case study stood out to me in how it structures information like "key products used" to give readers insight into which tools helped achieve these results.

Takeaway: If your company offers multiple products or services, outline exactly which ones were involved in your case study, so readers can assess each tool.

11. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} KFC and Contentful

I'm personally not a big KFC fan, but that's only because I refuse to eat out of a bucket. My aversion to the bucket format aside, Contentful follows its consistent case study format in this one, outlining challenges, solutions, and outcomes before diving into the nitty-gritty details of the project.

Say what you will about KFC, but their primary product (chicken) does present a unique opportunity for wordplay like "Continuing to march to the beat of a digital-first drum(stick)" or "Delivering deep-fried goodness to every channel."

Takeaway: Inject humor into your case study if there's room for it and if it fits your brand. 

12. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Intuit and Twilio

Twilio does an excellent job of delivering achievements at the very beginning of the case study and going into detail in this two-minute read. While there aren't many graphics, the way quotes from the Intuit team are implemented adds a certain flair to the study and breaks up the sections nicely.

It's simple, concise, and manages to fit a lot of information in easily digestible sections.

Takeaway: Make sure each section is long enough to inform but brief enough to avoid boring readers. Break down information for each section, and don't go into so much detail that you lose the reader halfway through.

13. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Spotify and Salesforce

Salesforce created a video that accurately summarizes the key points of the case study. Beyond that, the page itself is very light on content, and sections are as short as one paragraph.

I especially like how information is broken down into "What you need to know," "Why it matters," and "What the difference looks like." I'm not ashamed of being spoon-fed information. When it's structured so well and so simply, it makes for an entertaining read.

14. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Benchling and Airtable

Benchling is an impressive entity in its own right. Biotech R&D and health care nuances go right over my head. But the research and digging I've been doing in the name of these burritos (case studies) revealed that these products are immensely complex. 

And that's precisely why this case study deserves a read—it succeeds at explaining a complex project that readers outside the industry wouldn't know much about.

Takeaway: Simplify complex information, and walk readers through the company's operations and how your business helped streamline them.

15. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Chipotle and Hubble

The concision of this case study is refreshing. It features two sections—the challenge and the solution—all in 316 words. This goes to show that your case study doesn't necessarily need to be a four-figure investment with video shoots and studio time. 

Sometimes, the message is simple and short enough to convey in a handful of paragraphs.

Takeaway: Consider what you should include instead of what you can include. Assess the time, resources, and effort you're able and willing to invest in a case study, and choose which elements you want to include from there.

16. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Hudl and Zapier

I may be biased, but I'm a big fan of seeing metrics and achievements represented in branded graphics. It can be a jarring experience to navigate a website, then visit a case study page and feel as though you've gone to a completely different website.

The case study is essentially the summary, and the blog article is the detailed analysis that provides context beyond X achievement or Y goal.

Takeaway: Keep your case study concise and informative. Create other resources to provide context under your blog, media or press, and product pages.

3 case study templates

Now that you've had your fill of case studies (if that's possible), I've got just what you need: an infinite number of case studies, which you can create yourself with these case study templates.

Case study template 1

If you've got a quick hit of stats you want to show off, try this template. The opening section gives space for a short summary and three visually appealing stats you can highlight, followed by a headline and body where you can break the case study down more thoroughly. This one's pretty simple, with only sections for solutions and results, but you can easily continue the formatting to add more sections as needed.

Case study template 2

For a case study template with a little more detail, use this one. Opening with a striking cover page for a quick overview, this one goes on to include context, stakeholders, challenges, multiple quote callouts, and quick-hit stats. 

Case study template 3

Whether you want a little structural variation or just like a nice dark green, this template has similar components to the last template but is designed to help tell a story. Move from the client overview through a description of your company before getting to the details of how you fixed said company's problems.

Tips for writing a case study

Examples are all well and good, but you don't learn how to make a burrito just by watching tutorials on YouTube without knowing what any of the ingredients are. You could , but it probably wouldn't be all that good.

Have an objective: Define your objective by identifying the challenge, solution, and results. Assess your work with the client and focus on the most prominent wins. You're speaking to multiple businesses and industries through the case study, so make sure you know what you want to say to them.

Focus on persuasive data: Growth percentages and measurable results are your best friends. Extract your most compelling data and highlight it in your case study.

Use eye-grabbing graphics: Branded design goes a long way in accurately representing your brand and retaining readers as they review the study. Leverage unique and eye-catching graphics to keep readers engaged. 

Simplify data presentation: Some industries are more complex than others, and sometimes, data can be difficult to understand at a glance. Make sure you present your data in the simplest way possible. Make it concise, informative, and easy to understand.

Use automation to drive results for your case study

A case study example is a source of inspiration you can leverage to determine how to best position your brand's work. Find your unique angle, and refine it over time to help your business stand out. Ask anyone: the best burrito in town doesn't just appear at the number one spot. They find their angle (usually the house sauce) and leverage it to stand out.

Case study FAQ

Got your case study template? Great—it's time to gather the team for an awkward semi-vague data collection task. While you do that, here are some case study quick answers for you to skim through while you contemplate what to call your team meeting.

What is an example of a case study?

An example of a case study is when a software company analyzes its results from a client project and creates a webpage, presentation, or document that focuses on high-level results, challenges, and solutions in an attempt to showcase effectiveness and promote the software.

How do you write a case study?

To write a good case study, you should have an objective, identify persuasive and compelling data, leverage graphics, and simplify data. Case studies typically include an analysis of the challenge, solution, and results of the partnership.

What is the format of a case study?

While case studies don't have a set format, they're often portrayed as reports or essays that inform readers about the partnership and its results. 

Related reading:

Get productivity tips delivered straight to your inbox

We’ll email you 1-3 times per week—and never share your information.

Hachem Ramki

Hachem is a writer and digital marketer from Montreal. After graduating with a degree in English, Hachem spent seven years traveling around the world before moving to Canada. When he's not writing, he enjoys Basketball, Dungeons and Dragons, and playing music for friends and family.

• Content marketing

Related articles

How to build a Discord community for your brand

How to build a Discord community for your...

Google Local Services Ads: What they are and how to use them

Google Local Services Ads: What they are and...

14 content marketing examples to get the creative juices flowing

14 content marketing examples to get the...

AI in advertising: Examples, tools, and what to expect next

AI in advertising: Examples, tools, and what...

Improve your productivity automatically. Use Zapier to get your apps working together.

• How to Order

Writing A Case Study

Case Study Examples

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

15 min read

People also read

A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

It’s no surprise that writing a case study is one of the most challenging academic tasks for students. You’re definitely not alone here!

Most people don't realize that there are specific guidelines to follow when writing a case study. If you don't know where to start, it's easy to get overwhelmed and give up before you even begin.

Don't worry! Let us help you out!

We've collected over 25 free case study examples with solutions just for you. These samples with solutions will help you win over your panel and score high marks on your case studies.

So, what are you waiting for? Let's dive in and learn the secrets to writing a successful case study.

• 1. An Overview of Case Studies
• 2. Case Study Examples for Students
• 3. Business Case Study Examples
• 4. Medical Case Study Examples
• 5. Psychology Case Study Examples 
• 6. Sales Case Study Examples
• 7. Interview Case Study Examples
• 8. Marketing Case Study Examples
• 9. Tips to Write a Good Case Study

An Overview of Case Studies

A case study is a research method used to study a particular individual, group, or situation in depth. It involves analyzing and interpreting data from a variety of sources to gain insight into the subject being studied. 

Case studies are often used in psychology, business, and education to explore complicated problems and find solutions. They usually have detailed descriptions of the subject, background info, and an analysis of the main issues.

The goal of a case study is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Typically, case studies can be divided into three parts, challenges, solutions, and results. 

Here is a case study sample PDF so you can have a clearer understanding of what a case study actually is:

Case Study Sample PDF

How to Write a Case Study Examples

Learn how to write a case study with the help of our comprehensive case study guide.

Case Study Examples for Students

Quite often, students are asked to present case studies in their academic journeys. The reason instructors assign case studies is for students to sharpen their critical analysis skills, understand how companies make profits, etc.

Below are some case study examples in research, suitable for students:

Case Study Example in Software Engineering

Qualitative Research Case Study Sample

Software Quality Assurance Case Study

Social Work Case Study Example

Ethical Case Study

Case Study Example PDF

These examples can guide you on how to structure and format your own case studies.

Struggling with formatting your case study? Check this case study format guide and perfect your document’s structure today.

Business Case Study Examples

A business case study examines a business’s specific challenge or goal and how it should be solved. Business case studies usually focus on several details related to the initial challenge and proposed solution. 

To help you out, here are some samples so you can create case studies that are related to businesses: 

Here are some more business case study examples:

Business Case Studies PDF

Business Case Studies Example

Typically, a business case study discovers one of your customer's stories and how you solved a problem for them. It allows your prospects to see how your solutions address their needs. 

Medical Case Study Examples

Medical case studies are an essential part of medical education. They help students to understand how to diagnose and treat patients. 

Here are some medical case study examples to help you.

Medical Case Study Example

Nursing Case Study Example

Want to understand the various types of case studies? Check out our types of case study blog to select the perfect type.

Psychology Case Study Examples 

Case studies are a great way of investigating individuals with psychological abnormalities. This is why it is a very common assignment in psychology courses. 

By examining all the aspects of your subject’s life, you discover the possible causes of exhibiting such behavior. 

For your help, here are some interesting psychology case study examples:

Psychology Case Study Example

Mental Health Case Study Example

Sales Case Study Examples

Case studies are important tools for sales teams’ performance improvement. By examining sales successes, teams can gain insights into effective strategies and create action plans to employ similar tactics.

By researching case studies of successful sales campaigns, sales teams can more accurately identify challenges and develop solutions.

Sales Case Study Example

Interview Case Study Examples

Interview case studies provide businesses with invaluable information. This data allows them to make informed decisions related to certain markets or subjects.

Interview Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Examples

Marketing case studies are real-life stories that showcase how a business solves a problem. They typically discuss how a business achieves a goal using a specific marketing strategy or tactic.

They typically describe a challenge faced by a business, the solution implemented, and the results achieved.

This is a short sample marketing case study for you to get an idea of what an actual marketing case study looks like.

 Here are some more popular marketing studies that show how companies use case studies as a means of marketing and promotion:

“Chevrolet Discover the Unexpected” by Carol H. Williams

This case study explores Chevrolet's “ DTU Journalism Fellows ” program. The case study uses the initials “DTU” to generate interest and encourage readers to learn more. 

Multiple types of media, such as images and videos, are used to explain the challenges faced. The case study concludes with an overview of the achievements that were met.

Key points from the case study include:

• Using a well-known brand name in the title can create interest.
• Combining different media types, such as headings, images, and videos, can help engage readers and make the content more memorable.
• Providing a summary of the key achievements at the end of the case study can help readers better understand the project's impact.

“The Met” by Fantasy

“ The Met ” by Fantasy is a fictional redesign of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, created by the design studio Fantasy. The case study clearly and simply showcases the museum's website redesign.

The Met emphasizes the website’s features and interface by showcasing each section of the interface individually, allowing the readers to concentrate on the significant elements.

For those who prefer text, each feature includes an objective description. The case study also includes a “Contact Us” call-to-action at the bottom of the page, inviting visitors to contact the company.

Key points from this “The Met” include:

• Keeping the case study simple and clean can help readers focus on the most important aspects.
• Presenting the features and solutions with a visual showcase can be more effective than writing a lot of text.
• Including a clear call-to-action at the end of the case study can encourage visitors to contact the company for more information.

“Better Experiences for All” by Herman Miller

Herman Miller's minimalist approach to furniture design translates to their case study, “ Better Experiences for All ”, for a Dubai hospital. The page features a captivating video with closed-captioning and expandable text for accessibility.

The case study presents a wealth of information in a concise format, enabling users to grasp the complexities of the strategy with ease. It concludes with a client testimonial and a list of furniture items purchased from the brand.

Key points from the “Better Experiences” include:

• Make sure your case study is user-friendly by including accessibility features like closed captioning and expandable text.
• Include a list of products that were used in the project to guide potential customers.

“NetApp” by Evisort 

Evisort's case study on “ NetApp ” stands out for its informative and compelling approach. The study begins with a client-centric overview of NetApp, strategically directing attention to the client rather than the company or team involved.

The case study incorporates client quotes and explores NetApp’s challenges during COVID-19. Evisort showcases its value as a client partner by showing how its services supported NetApp through difficult times. 

• Provide an overview of the company in the client’s words, and put focus on the customer. 
• Highlight how your services can help clients during challenging times.
• Make your case study accessible by providing it in various formats.

“Red Sox Season Campaign,” by CTP Boston

The “ Red Sox Season Campaign ” showcases a perfect blend of different media, such as video, text, and images. Upon visiting the page, the video plays automatically, there are videos of Red Sox players, their images, and print ads that can be enlarged with a click.

The page features an intuitive design and invites viewers to appreciate CTP's well-rounded campaign for Boston's beloved baseball team. There’s also a CTA that prompts viewers to learn how CTP can create a similar campaign for their brand.

Some key points to take away from the “Red Sox Season Campaign”: 

• Including a variety of media such as video, images, and text can make your case study more engaging and compelling.
• Include a call-to-action at the end of your study that encourages viewers to take the next step towards becoming a customer or prospect.

“Airbnb + Zendesk” by Zendesk

The case study by Zendesk, titled “ Airbnb + Zendesk : Building a powerful solution together,” showcases a true partnership between Airbnb and Zendesk. 

The article begins with an intriguing opening statement, “Halfway around the globe is a place to stay with your name on it. At least for a weekend,” and uses stunning images of beautiful Airbnb locations to captivate readers.

Instead of solely highlighting Zendesk's product, the case study is crafted to tell a good story and highlight Airbnb's service in detail. This strategy makes the case study more authentic and relatable.

Some key points to take away from this case study are:

• Use client's offerings' images rather than just screenshots of your own product or service.
• To begin the case study, it is recommended to include a distinct CTA. For instance, Zendesk presents two alternatives, namely to initiate a trial or seek a solution.

“Influencer Marketing” by Trend and WarbyParker

The case study "Influencer Marketing" by Trend and Warby Parker highlights the potential of influencer content marketing, even when working with a limited budget. 

The “Wearing Warby” campaign involved influencers wearing Warby Parker glasses during their daily activities, providing a glimpse of the brand's products in use. 

This strategy enhanced the brand's relatability with influencers' followers. While not detailing specific tactics, the case study effectively illustrates the impact of third-person case studies in showcasing campaign results.

Key points to take away from this case study are:

• Influencer marketing can be effective even with a limited budget.
• Showcasing products being used in everyday life can make a brand more approachable and relatable.
• Third-person case studies can be useful in highlighting the success of a campaign.

Marketing Case Study Template

Marketing Case Study Example

Now that you have read multiple case study examples, hop on to our tips.

Tips to Write a Good Case Study

Here are some note-worthy tips to craft a winning case study 

• Define the purpose of the case study This will help you to focus on the most important aspects of the case. The case study objective helps to ensure that your finished product is concise and to the point.
• Choose a real-life example. One of the best ways to write a successful case study is to choose a real-life example. This will give your readers a chance to see how the concepts apply in a real-world setting.
• Keep it brief. This means that you should only include information that is directly relevant to your topic and avoid adding unnecessary details.
• Use strong evidence. To make your case study convincing, you will need to use strong evidence. This can include statistics, data from research studies, or quotes from experts in the field.
• Edit and proofread your work. Before you submit your case study, be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. This will help to ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.

There you go!

We’re sure that now you have secrets to writing a great case study at your fingertips! This blog teaches the key guidelines of various case studies with samples. So grab your pen and start crafting a winning case study right away!

Having said that, we do understand that some of you might be having a hard time writing compelling case studies.

But worry not! Our expert case study writing service is here to take all your case-writing blues away! 

With 100% thorough research guaranteed, our online essay service can craft an amazing case study within 24 hours! 

So why delay? Let us help you shine in the eyes of your instructor!

Write Essay Within 60 Seconds!

Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

Paper Due? Why Suffer? That’s our Job!

Keep reading

• Search Menu
• Sign in through your institution
• Advance articles
• Editor's Choice
• 100 years of the AJE
• Collections
• Author Guidelines
• Submission Site
• Open Access Options
• About American Journal of Epidemiology
• About the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
• Journals Career Network
• Editorial Board
• Advertising and Corporate Services
• Self-Archiving Policy
• Dispatch Dates
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

Article Contents

Introduction, overview of methods, case studies: quasi-experimental vaccine evaluation, conflict of interest, data availability.

• < Previous

Quasi-experimental methods for pharmacoepidemiology: difference-in-differences and synthetic control methods with case studies for vaccine evaluation

• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data

Lee Kennedy-Shaffer, Quasi-experimental methods for pharmacoepidemiology: difference-in-differences and synthetic control methods with case studies for vaccine evaluation, American Journal of Epidemiology , Volume 193, Issue 7, July 2024, Pages 1050–1058, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwae019

• Permissions Icon Permissions

Difference-in-differences and synthetic control methods have become common study designs for evaluating the effects of changes in policies, including health policies. They also have potential for providing real-world effectiveness and safety evidence in pharmacoepidemiology. To effectively add to the toolkit of the field, however, designs—including both their benefits and drawbacks—must be well understood. Quasi-experimental designs provide an opportunity to estimate the average treatment effect on the treated without requiring the measurement of all possible confounding factors, and to assess population-level effects. This requires, however, other key assumptions, including the parallel trends or stable weighting assumptions, a lack of other concurrent events that could alter time trends, and an absence of contamination between exposed and unexposed units. The targeted estimands are also highly specific to the settings of the study, and combining across units or time periods can be challenging. Case studies are presented for 3 vaccine evaluation studies, showcasing some of these challenges and opportunities in a specific field of pharmacoepidemiology. These methods provide feasible and valuable sources of evidence in various pharmacoepidemiologic settings and can be improved through research to identify and weigh the advantages and disadvantages in those settings.

This article is part of a Special Collection on Pharmacoepidemiology.

Determining the safety and efficacy of drugs and biologics is crucial, yet it faces many statistical, epidemiologic, regulatory, and logistical challenges. A related yet distinct challenge—determining the effects of health and social policies—has incorporated quasi-experimental study designs into its set of methods. Quasi-experimental methods can provide a convenient means for assessing the real-world effectiveness and safety of pharmacological products—especially those with population-level effects—in well-defined populations and specific circumstances that mitigate the risks of bias.

Quasi-experiments (in some cases also known as “natural experiments”) here refer to observational studies that identify a causal effect by taking advantage of circumstances that create variation in exposure status in ways that avoid the usual sources of confounding for that exposure and the outcome of interest. 1 , 2 This often comes through changes in the exposure that are not otherwise causally connected to the outcome, often referred to as exogeneity. 2 , 3

A suite of such approaches developed or formalized in the quantitative social sciences—including instrumental variables, regression discontinuity designs, interrupted time series, difference-in-differences, and synthetic control methods, among others—have become major empirical approaches in those fields 3 , 4 and have become popular in epidemiology as well. 5 For example, during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, they have been used to assess the effectiveness of universal masking in schools, 6 vaccine lotteries, 7 and other interventions. 8 , 9 Along with this rise in the use of the methods have come articles describing the uses and limitations of these methods in health policy evaluation. 1 , 2 , 10 , - 16

This article focuses on difference-in-differences (DiD) and the synthetic control method (SCM), quasi-experimental designs that are both controlled (ie, include exposed and unexposed units) and longitudinal (ie, exploit a change in exposure status over time to adjust for unmeasured confounders). 11 , 17

Despite their expanding use in health policy research, these methods have not been extensively studied for use in evaluating drugs and biologics. This article provides a brief overview of these methods (including recent developments from the econometrics literature), advice on settings where they are beneficial for pharmacoepidemiology (exemplified through 3 case studies of vaccine effectiveness evaluation), and discussion of the trade-offs and limitations they face. Finally, the article describes future research that can improve their use in pharmacoepidemiology.

DiD and SCM analyses estimate the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) by constructing the potential outcome for the exposed units in the (counterfactual) absence of the exposure using both cross-unit and within-unit comparisons. Below, I give a brief overview of these methods and their estimators, along with recent extensions. For a more comprehensive treatment, see the relevant econometrics 3 , 4 or public health review literature. 1 , 10 , 14 , 15 , 17

Difference-in-differences

Schematics showing simulated observed and counterfactual data for 4 quasi-experimental methods: A) difference-in-differences (DiD); B) DiD with staggered adoption; C) synthetic control method (SCM); D) augmented SCM. Vertical lines represent the beginning of exposure in exposed units/groups. Black dotted lines (A, B) and gray shaded regions (C, D) represent estimated effects. Note that different counterfactuals are possible with additional assumptions (B) and that augmented SCM is shown here when the exposed unit lies outside of the convex hull of the unexposed units (D).

Extensions of the DiD model

Several extensions to the DiD model aim to improve the validity of the parallel trends assumption. For example, covariates can be added when parallel trends holds only conditionally, or the so-called difference-in-difference-in-differences (or triple-differences) model can be used to remove nonparallel trends. 4 Both of these have analogous approaches in the epidemiology literature: adjusting for measured covariates in cohort studies for the former, and using negative controls to adjust for residual bias for the latter. 22 , 23

The functional form of the parallel trends assumption can also be changed by transforming the outcome variable. For example, if the counterfactual outcomes are judged more likely to have equivalent multiplicative trends than linear trends, a logarithmic transformation can be used on the outcome. Importantly, only one functional form can truly have parallel trends, so the modeling and estimand choices determine the validity of the causal assumptions made. 24

Recently, literature has extensively investigated DiD in cases where there are units with different exposure-onset times (eg, “staggered treatment adoption”; see Figure 1B ). 25 The TWFE model is subject to biased estimation of the ATT under this setting as the unit and time fixed effects do not properly capture treatment effect heterogeneity. 21 , 25 Various approaches have been proposed to ameliorate this problem in the DiD and related stepped-wedge trials literature 26 , - 30 ; these include different estimators and explicit weighting of time- and unit-specific estimators. 3 , 26 , 27

Synthetic control method

The major assumption of SCM is that these weights are stable, in the sense that a weighting scheme that matches the preexposure outcome trends well will also give an unbiased estimate of the potential outcome after the exposure time point. 31 A long preexposure time series on which to optimize the weights provides the best justification for this assumption under many data-generating processes. 31 For multiple exposed units and/or multiple postexposure periods, the individual estimators can be combined to target the desired estimand. 29 , 33

Extensions of the synthetic control method

One reason for the growth of SCM in comparative case studies is its interpretability: All unexposed units have a nonnegative weight showing their contribution to the estimated counterfactual, allowing discussion of the reasonableness of the counterfactual. However, this also imposes restrictions on the model; SCM does not work when the outcomes of the exposed unit fall outside the convex hull (loosely, the range) of the unexposed units’ outcomes. 31 Thinking of past outcomes as the “adjustment variables,” this requirement is roughly analogous to positivity requirements in cohort studies: Adjustment fails if there are combinations of covariates for which there are only exposed units.

Several extensions of SCM—including the generalized SCM, 34 augmented SCM (see Figure 1D ), 35 and Bayesian structural time series model 36 —trade off some interpretability by allowing outcome modeling and extrapolation outside of the convex hull. This allows the use of more control series, including those on different scales than the outcome itself. 37 This extrapolation, however, can lead to bias, especially when there are few pretreatment periods or unexposed units. 34

Quantifying uncertainty and negative controls

Pharmacoepidemiologic studies require not just point estimates but also quantification of uncertainty, often through P values, confidence intervals, or Bayesian alternatives. 38 For quasi-experiments, this can be more challenging, as they often involve only 1 or a limited number of exposed observations, and rarely form a sample of an identifiable study population. Because of this, model-based estimates of variability—even in cases when they can be computed, such as regression-based DiD and generalized SCM—may not have the desired interpretation or may require additional design-based assumptions. 27

Beyond statistical inference, it is desirable to quantify the causal or model-based uncertainty. Negative controls, sensitivity analyses, and robustness checks provide a means to assess the required assumptions to some extent. These include assessing the validity of the assumptions for the particular setting through models and graphical inspection of preexposure time trends, as well as assessing the model performance in settings with known effects. 17

Repeated negative controls—often called placebo tests or dummy analyses—conducted for different time points (where no change in exposure occurs), different units (ie, only using untreated units), or different outcomes (where the exposure should have no effect) generate null distributions using cases that should identify effects of zero. 3 , 31 Comparing the observed estimate with these distributions allows hypothesis testing. Bayesian frameworks are also feasible but may be sensitive to the prior distributions used. 36 Properly reporting and interpreting these measures of uncertainty remains a challenge for these quasi-experimental methods, especially as they are applied to new fields.

Case studies of the use of DiD and SCM in vaccine evaluation can illuminate the benefits and challenges of these designs. Vaccine evaluation studies demonstrate the use of large-scale routinely collected datasets in the context of exogenous variation to identify key public health effects as a supplement to randomized trial evidence or when it is not available. They also show potential pitfalls: the risk of concurrent events and misspecification leading to bias and the limited generalizability of targeted estimands.

Case 1: SCM analysis of meningococcal vaccines

Prunas et al analyzed the impact of early childhood meningococcal vaccination programs in Brazil and England in the 2010s (see Table 1 ). 39 Real-world estimates of vaccine effectiveness for hard-to-predict and highly variable diseases like invasive meningococcal disease are challenging, making quasi-experiments particularly useful. Using SCM on the logarithmic scale with Bayesian time-series modeling, the authors compared meningococcal disease incidence after the program roll-out with a synthetic control constructed from time series of other (nontargeted) diseases and the targeted disease in older age groups who were ineligible for vaccination.

Summary of meningococcal vaccine analyses in Prunas et al, a 2022.

Abbreviations: CrI, credible interval; MenB, meningococcal serogroup B; MenC, meningococcal serogroup C; SCM, synthetic control method.

a Prunas et al. 39

To demonstrate the value of the method, the authors conducted placebo tests using other quasi-experimental designs and found that the SCM better captured seasonality and nonlinear time trends; notably it avoids the need to specify a parametric time trend. It thus likely suffers from less bias in the desired analyses, although there could still be extrapolation bias due to the time series modeling. 32 , 36

Within-region controls (here, time series of nontargeted populations and outcomes) are particularly valuable for quasi-experimental evaluation of vaccines and drugs. By avoiding comparisons across geographic areas, they mitigate the risk of bias due to concurrent events or changes. However, they come with a potential increased risk of spillover or contamination, especially in infectious disease settings. 40 For the nontargeted age groups, bias could be caused by indirect protection of the vaccine (ie, a younger child receiving the vaccine is less likely to infect an older child in the household). For the nontargeted diseases, there is perhaps less risk of bias, but it could still occur due to off-target effects of vaccination or changes in health-seeking behavior and diagnosis in the wake of the vaccination policy. The authors used placebo tests and sensitivity analyses that dropped the older age groups as candidate control series, finding robust results that suggest these biases were minimal in this setting. 39

The results demonstrated effectiveness of the vaccination program against the targeted infections. Within each country of analysis, results on different early childhood age groups showed remarkable similarity, indicating that there may be some generalizability of these effects. However, as ATT estimands, these may still not be appropriate to transport to other countries with different infection risks. On the other hand, these estimates assess the overall effect of the program, rather than the individual-level direct effect, and so can provide an additional piece of evidence that is rarely achieved in preauthorization trials. 41 This is useful for public health policy-makers as real-world evidence of both the vaccine itself and the vaccination program. 42

Case 2: DiD analysis of an off-target vaccine against COVID-19

Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers sought to use existing drugs and vaccines to prevent infection, illness, and severe outcomes until COVID-19-specific drugs and vaccines could be developed and authorized. The bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine against tuberculosis was one such candidate because of its hypothesized off-target effects, 43 which were supported by cross-sectional analyses showing better COVID-19 outcomes in countries with high BCG vaccination coverage. 44 While randomized controlled trials would eventually occur in specific populations, 43 the emergency situation called for interim evidence to confirm or refute this hypothesis. A preprint by Matsuura et al in 2020 reexamined this hypothesis with a DiD analysis using existing country-level data (see Table 2 ). 44

Summary of BCG vaccine off-target effects vs. COVID-19 analysis in Matsuura et al, a 2020.

Abbreviations: BCG, bacille Calmette-Guérin; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; DiD, difference-in-differences; TWFE, 2-way fixed effects.

a Matsuura et al. 44

The authors identified countries that changed BCG vaccination recommendations at some point in the past and determined for various age groups in each country whether they were in a national vaccination cohort or not. They then conducted a TWFE analysis of the relationship between being in a BCG vaccination cohort and the log of confirmed COVID-19 cases for that age group and country, finding no protective effect of the vaccine. 44

In this study, incorporating within-country controls helped mitigate the bias of comparing across countries cross-sectionally. However, the use of age cohorts as the distinguishing feature risks contamination—as individuals of different ages interact and may provide indirect protection—and concurrent events, since many nonpharmaceutical interventions and recommendations in the COVID-19 pandemic were targeted to specific age groups. Identification for this design requires that the difference in log-cases between age cohorts would be constant (parallel multiplicative trends) across countries absent differential BCG vaccination policies. This would be threatened by differential age-targeted policies.

As in the previous study, the generalizability of the ATT is limited, since it is specific to the age cohorts and countries studied, as well as the time since BCG vaccination inherent in those age groups. However, the staggered adoption that occurs in this setting (different countries changed vaccination rules for different age cohorts) risks a larger problem of bias or incorrect interpretation of the ATT. The estimate given by the TWFE model is a weighted average of individual effects in each country-age cohort combination, with some given potentially negative weights. 21 Careful specification of the estimand and the analysis method in quasi-experimental analyses, especially with staggered adoption, is thus crucial. In this case, individual 2-by-2 DiD analyses may be more useful, providing a range of estimated treatment effects in the different age group-country combinations. 21 , 45

The challenges of estimand interpretation and generalizability limit the internal and external validity of this approach. Nonetheless, it provided useful exploratory evidence that controlling to some extent for country-level factors could account for the correlation observed in a cross-sectional analysis. As this negative finding was borne out by a randomized controlled trial, 43 this study provided immediate useful interim evidence before that trial was concluded.

Case 3: DiD and SCM analyses of the indirect protection of a COVID-19 vaccine

After the authorization of COVID-19 vaccines to prevent symptomatic and severe illness in adults, questions remained about the effectiveness of the vaccines in providing indirect protection by preventing infection and transmission. 41 Winner et al 46 sought to assess the indirect protection of children via adult vaccination by comparing infection rates among Austrian children in the district of Schwaz—which had high adult vaccination uptake due to a campaign during a localized outbreak—to other districts with much lower rates as of March 2021. They used both SCM analysis with other Austrian districts as controls and DiD analyses comparing Schwaz municipalities to neighboring municipalities outside the district (see Table 3 ). 46 All analyses reported strong indirect protection of children. 46

Summary of COVID-19 vaccine indirect protection analyses in Winner et al, a 2022.

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; DiD, difference-in-differences; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; SCM, synthetic control method; TWFE, 2-way fixed effects.

a Winner et al. 46

With a clear time point for the mass vaccination campaign, quasi-experimental methods are a natural design for this setting, and the neighboring municipalities and other districts in the country form a large pool of potential controls. Selecting unexposed units within the same country increases the plausibility of similar nonpharmaceutical interventions and other policies, supporting the assumptions of stable weights and parallel trends. The risk of cross-border contamination through indirect protection remains but would, if anything, yield conservative estimates. Negative controls included an in-space placebo test for SCM (ie, using the same method on nontargeted districts to create a null distribution) and assessment of preexposure parallel trends for DiD. 46

While policies spurred by a particular need create variation, there is risk in using them as quasi-experiments. In this case, a large outbreak in Schwaz spurred the vaccination campaign. This creates concurrent events and anticipation: The past outbreak and the vaccination both influence infection dynamics going forward and may violate the assumptions needed for these methods. 8 The authors sought to use districts with similar prior infection trends to mitigate this bias. Parallel trends could also be threatened by the use of linear functional forms for a nonlinear outcome like infections, although the authors used both a linear TWFE model and a logarithmic 2-by-2 DiD model here. 8 , 17 , 47

Once again, the results are highly contingent on the campaign and the setting in which it was enacted. The differential outcomes result from both the vaccination itself and any changes in behavior that may have resulted from a mass vaccination campaign; this point is well-described in the quasi-experimental literature for policy evaluation. 1 , 19 For pharmacoepidemiologic purposes, then, this makes it difficult to ascribe the full effect to the pharmaceutical itself in such cases. In addition, indirect protection in infectious disease outbreaks is specific to the prior evolution of the outbreak and the population at risk, limiting the generalizability and interpretability of estimates. 23 , 40 , 48 , 49 Nonetheless, the finding of a large indirect effect could inform public health practice and motivate the study of this effect in other settings, even if precise estimates are not transportable. 41 , 42

Quasi-experimental methods provide a promising set of designs for pharmacoepidemiology. The designs discussed here, among others, provide a class of observational study designs that can target useful public health-relevant estimands and provide meaningful real-world evidence in advance of or as a supplement to randomized controlled trials. 14 , 50 , 51 In the case of vaccines, for example, these designs can identify potential off-target effects of pharmaceutical products, encouraging further research into those effects, 44 , 51 and identify rare safety signals through the use of large, routinely collected datasets. 52 In addition, these studies can provide important postmarketing evaluation of the effects of products on their target outcomes in actual use, including indirect effects and changing effectiveness over time as conditions change. 53 , 54

By avoiding the need to measure and model all confounders between exposure and outcome, quasi-experimental methods can achieve high internal validity with routine data sources. 3 , 4 , 32 , 52 This, however, requires other counterfactual assumptions, such as parallel trends or stable weights. Justifying these assumptions, especially the appropriate functional form, requires an understanding of the setting and likely effect. 8 , 17 , 24 As seen in the case studies, both linear and logarithmic scales are used in vaccine evaluation studies, leading to different assumptions and different estimands.

Moreover, spillover and contamination of control units by the exposure and anticipation or lagged effects of the intervention can cause bias, often towards the null. 8 , 27 , 32 For pharmacoepidemiology, this could occur through off-label prescribing or, as in the vaccine cases, indirect effects within networks and communities. Attributing the observed causal effect to the exposure also requires a lack of concurrent events in the study units, which may be threatened by changes in behavior that co-occur with pharmaceutical interventions, like behavior changes that follow vaccination. 5 , 8 , 9 , 17

As in all medical studies, understanding the estimand targeted by these methods is crucial to properly using the evidence. 55 When aggregate population data are used, these methods target aggregate or population-level effects, and thus cannot be transported to individuals. 19 But this also provides useful real-world evidence, such as the overall effect measure in vaccine studies, as seen in the case studies. 23 This is rarely targeted by randomized trials and provides useful additional regulatory and public health evidence. 41 , 42 , 53

ATT estimands from quasi-experimental studies, however, are specific to the setting, exposure, outcomes, and exposed unit(s), as well as the contrast identified and other statistical analysis choices. Since the exposed units are rarely randomly selected (ie, the mass vaccination campaign in Schwaz occurred because of a prior outbreak 46 ), the ATT differs from the average treatment effect that is usually targeted by randomized trials and used in regulatory decisions. 56 It may be of specific interest in safety studies, as it represents the effect of removing the exposure from all exposed units (eg, compare Cowger et al 6 ). In general, however, it may be less transportable to populations yet to be exposed or require further assumptions. 5 , 16

Compared with other observational study designs, quasi-experimental designs tend to trade away some external validity for internal validity, although these aspects should ideally be considered in concert. 3 , 57 Researchers need to be careful about generalizing results of these methods to other settings and populations, especially for outcomes that have marked spatiotemporal patterns (eg, infectious diseases) or for populations with specific health needs and vulnerabilities (eg, specific age groups or people with co-morbidities). 19

Achieving the potential benefits of these designs will require further research and careful reporting and interpretation. The general methodology of these designs in the field of pharmacoepidemiology—as well as how to report results and place evidence in the context of other studies routinely conducted in the field—will be important for ensuring validity and appropriate interpretation. 9 , 11 Connecting the literature across various disciplines will improve uptake of the most appropriate methods as well. Moreover, research on the most appropriate designs for specific settings, considering the populations, interventions, and outcomes, is crucial. 50 This can include simulation studies in those settings to observe the relationship between estimates and true estimands. 15

For example, quasi-experimental vaccine evaluation studies will need to determine appropriate lag times, functional forms, and time frames for the necessary DiD and SCM assumptions to hold. 14 , 52 This can build on the existing health policy and stepped-wedge trials literature. 8 , 47 , 48 Understanding and communicating the trade-offs of identifying population-level effects but potentially losing generalizability will be key to appropriately contextualizing this evidence.

Negative controls, placebo tests, and sensitivity analyses also have an important role to play. Assessing methods for sensitivity to the selection of control units and time periods can inform both internal and external validity. Quantitative placebo tests can also allow the reporting of causal uncertainty alongside statistical uncertainty. 3 Investigators can improve generalizability by using multiple populations (as in the meningococcal vaccine case study 39 ), different methodological approaches or models (as in the COVID-19 vaccine case study 46 ), or multiple units and exposure points (as in the BCG vaccine case study 44 ). The latter, however, targets an estimand that averages potentially heterogeneous treatment effects, which may or may not have greater generalizability—depending on the setting—and can be statistically inefficient. 21 , 30 , 48 The proposed alternatives vary in their targeted estimands, required assumptions, and statistical properties. 25 , - 27 , 45 , 58 Investigation of the assumptions and relative performance of these methods in specific pharmacoepidemiologic settings (see, eg, multiple references 8 , 9 , 17 , 47 ), alongside the appropriate reporting of these challenges, is needed.

Quasi-experimental methods can alleviate some of the challenges of pharmacoepidemiology, while introducing others. Understanding and using them provides another tool for regulators, physicians, and public health policy-makers to understand the benefits and risks of drugs and biologics.

None declared.

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone.

Craig   P , Katikireddi   SV , Leyland   A , et al.    Natural experiments: an overview of methods, approaches, and contributions to public health intervention research . Annu Rev Public Health .   2017 ; 38 ( 1 ): 39 - 56 . https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044327

Google Scholar

Matthay   EC , Hagan   E , Gottlieb   LM , et al.    Alternative causal inference methods in population health research: evaluating tradeoffs and triangulating evidence . SSM - Popul Health .   2020 ; 10 :100526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100526

Cunningham   S.   Causal Inference: The Mixtape . New Haven, CT : Yale University Press ; 2021 . https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300255881

Google Preview

Huntington-Klein   N.   The Effect: An Introduction to Research Design and Causality . Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press ; 2022 , https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003226055

Matthay   EC , Glymour   MM . Causal inference challenges and new directions for epidemiologic research on the health effects of social policies . Curr Epidemiol Rep .   2022 ; 9 ( 1 ): 22 - 37 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-022-00288-7

Cowger   TL , Murray   EJ , Clarke   J , et al.    Lifting universal masking in schools—Covid-19 incidence among students and staff . N Engl J Med .   2022 ; 387 ( 21 ): 1935 - 1946 . https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2211029

Brehm   ME , Brehm   PA , Saavedra   M . The Ohio vaccine lottery and starting vaccination rates . Am J Health Econ .   2022 ; 8 ( 3 ): 387 - 411 . https://doi.org/10.1086/718512

Goodman-Bacon   A , Marcus   J . Using difference-in-differences to identify causal effects of COVID-19 policies . Surv Res Methods .   2020 ; 14 ( 2 ): 153 - 158 . https://doi.org/10.18148/srm/2020.v14i2.7723

Haber   NA , Clarke-Deelder   E , Feller   A , et al.    Problems with evidence assessment in COVID-19 health policy impact evaluation: a systematic review of study design and evidence strength . BMJ Open .   2022 ; 12 ( 1 ):e053820. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-053820

Basu   S , Meghani   A , Siddiqi   A . Evaluating the health impact of large-scale public policy changes: classical and novel approaches . Annu Rev Public Health .   2017 ; 38 ( 1 ): 351 - 370 . https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044208

Waddington   H , Aloe   AM , Becker   BJ , et al.    Quasi-experimental study designs series—paper 6: risk of bias assessment . J Clin Epidemiol .   2017 ; 89 : 43 - 52 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.02.015

Bouttell   J , Craig   P , Lewsey   J , et al.    Synthetic control methodology as a tool for evaluating population-level health interventions . J Epidemiol Community Health .   2018 ; 72 ( 8 ): 673 - 678 . https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2017-210106

Wing   C , Simon   K , Bello-Gomez   RA . Designing difference in difference studies: best practices for public health policy research . Annu Rev Public Health .   2018 ; 39 ( 1 ): 453 - 469 . https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-0135074

Lopez Bernal   JA , Andrews   N , Amirthalingam   G . The use of quasi-experimental designs for vaccine evaluation . Clin Infect Dis .   2019 ; 68 ( 10 ): 1769 - 1776 . https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciy906

Nianogo   RA , Benmarhnia   T , O’Neill   S . A comparison of quasi-experimental methods with data before and after an intervention: an introduction for epidemiologists and a simulation study . Int J Epidemiol .   2023 ; 52 ( 5 ): 1522 - 1533 . https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyad032

Rothbard   S , Etheridge   JC , Murray   EJ . A tutorial on applying the difference-in-differences method to health data   [published online ahead of print September 7, 2023] . Curr Epidemiol Rep .   https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-023-00327-x

Haber   NA , Clarke-Deelder   E , Salomon   JA , et al.    Impact evaluation of coronavirus disease 2019 policy: a guide to common design issues . Am J Epidemiol .   2021 ; 190 ( 11 ): 2474 - 2486 . https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwab185

Coleman   T.   Causality in the time of cholera: John snow as a prototype for causal inference . SSRN . https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3262234 , October 30, 2018, preprint: not peer reviewed.

Caniglia   EC , Murray   EJ . Difference-in-difference in the time of cholera: a gentle introduction for epidemiologists . Curr Epidemiol Rep.   2020 ; 7 ( 4 ): 203 - 211 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-020-00245-2

Card   D , Krueger   A . Minimum wages and employment: a case study of the fast food industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania . Am Econ Rev .   1994 ; 84 ( 4 ): 772 - 793 .

Goodman-Bacon   A . Difference-in-differences with variation in treatment timing . J Econom.   2021 ; 225 ( 2 ): 254 - 277 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2021.03.014

Lipsitch   M , Tchetgen Tchetgen   E , Cohen   T . Negative controls: a tool for detecting confounding and bias in observational studies . Epidemiology .   2010 ; 21 ( 3 ): 383 - 388 . https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181d61eeb

Halloran   ME , Hudgens   MG . Estimating population effects of vaccination using large, routinely collected data . Stat Med .   2018 ; 37 ( 2 ): 294 - 301 . https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.7392

Kahn-Lang   A , Lang   K . The promise and pitfalls of differences-in-differences: reflections on 16 and Pregnant and other applications . J Bus Econ Stat .   2020 ; 38 ( 3 ): 613 - 620 . https://doi.org/10.1080/07350015.2018.1546591

Sun   L , Abraham   S . Estimating dynamic treatment effects in event studies with heterogeneous treatment effects . J Econom.   2021 ; 225 ( 2 ): 175 - 199 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2020.09.006

De Chaisemartin   C , D’Haultfœuille   X . Two-way fixed effects and differences-in-differences with heterogeneous treatment effects: a survey . Econom J .   2023 ; 26 ( 3 ): C1 - C30 . https://doi.org/10.1093/ectj/utac017

Roth   J , Sant’Anna   PHC , Bilinski   A , et al.    What’s trending in difference-in-differences? A synthesis of the recent econometrics literature . J Econom .   2023 ; 235 ( 2 ): 2218 - 2244 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2023.03.008

Thompson   JA , Davey   C , Fielding   K , et al.    Robust analysis of stepped wedge trials using cluster-level summaries within periods . Stat Med .   2018 ; 37 ( 16 ): 2487 - 2500 . https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.7668

Kennedy-Shaffer   L , Gruttola   V , Lipsitch   M . Novel methods for the analysis of stepped wedge cluster randomized trials . Stat Med .   2020 ; 39 ( 7 ): 815 - 844 . https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.8451

Lindner   S , McConnell   KJ . Heterogeneous treatment effects and bias in the analysis of the stepped wedge design . Health Serv Outcomes Res Methodol .   2021 ; 21 ( 4 ): 419 - 438 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10742-021-00244-w

Abadie   A , Diamond   A , Hainmueller   J . Synthetic control methods for comparative case studies: estimating the effect of California’s tobacco control program . J Am Stat Assoc .   2010 ; 105 ( 490 ): 493 - 505 . https://doi.org/10.1198/jasa.2009.ap08746

Abadie   A . Using synthetic controls: feasibility, data requirements, and methodological aspects . J Econ Lit .   2021 ; 59 ( 2 ): 391 - 425 . https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20191450

Ben-Michael   E , Feller   A , Rothstein   J . Synthetic controls with staggered adoption . J R Stat Soc Ser B Stat Methodol .   2022 ; 84 ( 2 ): 351 - 381 . https://doi.org/10.1111/rssb.12448

Xu   Y . Generalized synthetic control method: causal inference with interactive fixed effects models . Polit Anal .   2017 ; 25 ( 1 ): 57 - 76 . https://doi.org/10.1017/pan.2016.2

Ben-Michael   E , Feller   A , Rothstein   J . The augmented synthetic control method . J Am Stat Assoc .   2021 ; 116 ( 536 ): 1789 - 1803 . https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.2021.1929245

Brodersen   KH , Gallusser   F , Koehler   J , et al.    Inferring causal impact using Bayesian structural time-series models . Ann Appl Stat .   2015 ; 9 ( 1 ): 247 - 274 . https://doi.org/10.1214/14-AOAS788

Bruhn   CAW , Hetterich   S , Schuck-Paim   C , et al.    Estimating the population-level impact of vaccines using synthetic controls . Proc Natl Acad Sci .   2017 ; 114 ( 7 ): 1524 - 1529 . https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1612833114

Kennedy-Shaffer   L . When the alpha is the omega: P values, “substantial evidence,” and the 0.05 standard at FDA . Food Drug Law J .   2017 ; 72 ( 4 ): 595 - 635 .

Prunas   O , Weinberger   DM , Medini   D , et al.    Evaluating the impact of meningococcal vaccines with synthetic controls . Am J Epidemiol .   2022 ; 191 ( 4 ): 724 - 734 . https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwab266

Halloran   ME , Longini   IM , Struchiner   CJ . Design and Analysis of Vaccine Studies . New York, NY : Springer ; 2010 . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-68636-3

Kennedy-Shaffer   L . Public health impacts of vaccines for COVID-19 and beyond: opportunities to overcome technical and regulatory barriers for randomized trials . Am J Public Health .   2023 ; 113 ( 7 ): 778 - 785 . https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307302

Jones   M , Jetelina   KK . Vaccination has more to offer than direct clinical benefit: FDA’s vaccine licensure process ignores population health and social determinants of disease . Am J Epidemiol .   2024 ; 193 ( 1 ): 1 - 5 . https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwad161

Pittet   LF , Messina   NL , Orsini   F , et al.    Randomized trial of BCG vaccine to protect against Covid-19 in health care workers . N Engl J Med .   2023 ; 388 ( 17 ): 1582 - 1596 . https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2212616

Matsuura   H , Fukui   M , Kawaguchi   K . Does TB vaccination reduce COVID-19 infection?: no evidence from a regression discontinuity and difference-in-differences analysis . Research Square . https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-56123/v1 , August 13, 2020, preprint: not peer reviewed.

De Chaisemartin   C , D’Haultfœuille   X . Two-way fixed effects estimators with heterogeneous treatment effects . Am Econ Rev .   2020 ; 110 ( 9 ): 2964 - 2996 . https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20181169

Winner   H , Kimpel   J , Krammer   F , et al.    Can high COVID-19 vaccination rates in adults help protect unvaccinated children? Evidence from a unique mass vaccination campaign, Schwaz/Austria, March 2021 . Eurosurveillance .   2022 ; 27 ( 39 ):pii=2101027. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.39.2101027

Callaway   B , Li   T . Policy evaluation during a pandemic . J Econom.   2023 ; 236 ( 1 ):105454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2023.03.009

Kennedy-Shaffer   L , Lipsitch   M . Statistical properties of stepped wedge cluster-randomized trials in infectious disease outbreaks . Am J Epidemiol .   2020 ; 189 ( 11 ): 1324 - 1332 . https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwaa141

Kahn   R , Schrag   SJ , Verani   JR , et al.    Identifying and alleviating bias due to differential depletion of susceptible people in postmarketing evaluations of COVID-19 vaccines . Am J Epidemiol .   2022 ; 191 ( 5 ): 800 - 811 . https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwac015

Basta   NE , Halloran   ME . Evaluating the effectiveness of vaccines using a regression discontinuity design . Am J Epidemiol .   2019 ; 188 ( 6 ): 987 - 990 . https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwz043

Eyting   M , Xie   M , Hess   S , et al.    Causal evidence that herpes zoster vaccination prevents a proportion of dementia cases . medRxiv . https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.05.23.23290253   May 25, 2023, preprint: not peer reviewed .

Pescarini   JM , Teixeira   CSS , Cruz   EP , et al.    Métodos para avaliação da efetividade de vacinas para COVID-19 com ênfase em abordagens quase-experimentais . Ciênc Saúde Coletiva .   2021 ; 26 ( 11 ): 5599 - 5614 . https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-812320212611.18622021

Clemens   J . Evaluating new vaccines for developing countries. Efficacy or effectiveness?   JAMA .   1996 ; 275 ( 5 ): 390 - 397 . https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.275.5.390

Saadatian-Elahi   M , Horstick   O , Breiman   RF , et al.    Beyond efficacy: the full public health impact of vaccines . Vaccine .   2016 ; 34 ( 9 ): 1139 - 1147 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.01.021

Kahan   BC , Cro   S , Li   F , et al.    Eliminating ambiguous treatment effects using estimands . Am J Epidemiol .   2023 ; 192 ( 6 ): 987 - 994 . https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwad036

Permutt   T . Do covariates change the estimand?   Stat Biopharm Res .   2020 ; 12 ( 1 ): 45 - 53 . https://doi.org/10.1080/19466315.2019.1647874

Westreich   D , Edwards   JK , Lesko   CR , et al.    Target validity and the hierarchy of study designs . Am J Epidemiol .   2019 ; 188 ( 2 ): 438 - 443 . https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy228

Callaway   B , Sant’Anna   PHC . Difference-in-differences with multiple time periods . J Econom . 2021 ; 225 ( 2 ): 200 - 230 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2020.12.001

Email alerts

Citing articles via, looking for your next opportunity.

• Recommend to your Library

Affiliations

• Online ISSN 1476-6256
• Print ISSN 0002-9262
• Copyright © 2024 Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Capabilities and limitations of Pb, Sr and Fe isotopic analysis of iron-rich slags: a case study on the medieval port at Hoeke (Belgium) †

First published on 10th July 2024

In this work, an analytical approach was developed for Pb, Sr, and Fe isotopic analysis of archaeological samples recovered from an iron work site by using multi-collector inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). The sample types include slag, coal, clay and hammer scales, all obtained from an archaeological site at Hoeke (Belgium). Despite the wide concentration range of the target elements present in the samples and some sample manipulations necessarily performed outside of a clean laboratory facility, the analytical procedure yielded accurate and precise results for QA/QC standards while blank levels were negligible. Preliminary results concerning Pb, Sr and Fe isotope ratio variations in archaeological materials associated with iron working processes are provided. The samples revealed high variability in metal isotopic compositions, with the 208 Pb/ 207 Pb ratio ranging from 2.4261 to 2.4824, the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio from 0.7100 to 0.7220, and δ 56 Fe values from −0.34 to +0.08‰, which was tentatively attributed to the mixing of materials during the iron production process or variability within the source material. Also, contamination introduced by coal and furnace/hearth lining material could have contributed to the wide range of isotopic compositions observed. Because of the absence of information and data for primary ore samples to compare with, the provenance of the materials could not be established. The present study highlights the challenges in interpreting archaeological data, particularly in terms of the isotopic variability observed. It underscores the necessity of integrating analysis data with historical and archaeological knowledge. Further research, involving detailed analysis of these source materials combined with robust historical evidence, is essential to validate hypotheses concerning the origin of iron.

1. Introduction

However, analysis of archaeological metal artefacts can be challenging due to the nature of the material itself (complex and heterogeneous samples) and potential degradation of the material over time. The situation becomes even more complex when so-called secondary metals are mixed within a system. For example, the metal used for manufacturing an artifact could have been obtained by remelting of other damaged objects that were made from metals originating from different ores. Additionally, technological processes such as smelting or roasting can lead to the loss of specific elements (Sb, Zn, As) altering the overall elemental composition, while isotope fractionation accompanying some of these processes could also affect the isotopic composition of some constituting elements. The archaeological samples could have undergone different physicochemical processes ( e.g. , corrosion, post-depositional processes), rendering obtaining reliable information difficult. 3,4 Nevertheless, some studies showed negligible isotope fractionation (within experimental error) for metal objects made of, for instance, Fe, Sn or Pb. 5–7

Different approaches based on the use of (trace) element patterns have been widely used for assessing the provenance of metal artefacts. 8,9 However, interpretation of such elemental fingerprints is often not straightforward, especially when dealing with elements that have different affinities for metal and slag. Elements such as Co and Ni, known as siderophile elements, are absorbed by the metal, while lithophile elements ( e.g. , Ca and Sr) tend to enter in the slag. 10 Therefore, a direct comparison between the composition of a metal artefact with that of the ore source may be very difficult, especially in the case of iron. 11 Also elemental signatures of slag inclusions can be involved in the analysis, but these inclusions can also become altered by contamination and may originate from various sources, such as the surrounding soil, coal ashes, and local building materials. 8,12 Chemical analysis of slag inclusions using laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) has led to a major progress in this context, but limitations associated to elemental fractionation, matrix effects and spectral interferences are still encountered. 13,14

Stable isotopic analysis of metals in different specimens, such as objects, by-products, and ores, via multi-collector (MC) ICP-MS is increasingly used for tracing the geographical origin of artefacts. 15–17 Instrumental advances in MC-ICP-MS allow to address challenging archaeological applications due to improvements in sensitivity, enhanced sample throughput, and simplified sample preparation procedures (especially when using laser ablation). 18 By examining the ratios of stable isotopes of (a) selected target element(s) present in the material, valuable information on the source from which the metals were derived can sometimes be obtained as trace elements are typically not sufficient to resolve a provenance issue. However, different parts of the same sample, as well as ore bodies, may show variation in the isotopic composition of such target element, complicating the task of obtaining representative data that accurately reflect the overall isotopic fingerprint of the specimen. 19,20 In addition, some metals can be present at low concentration in the samples, making precise isotope ratio measurements challenging. 21 The combination of elemental, isotopic and spatially resolved analysis can be a valuable tool for addressing current challenges in archaeological provenancing.

Lead isotope ratios have already been used for providing insight into the provenance (geographical origin) of metal ores used as raw materials, particularly for ancient bronze objects, but its use for iron slag samples is still debated. 22 The advantage of Pb isotopic analysis in an archaeometric context, is that Pb isotopes do not fractionate during high-temperature processes such as roasting or smelting, as a result of which Pb isotope ratios do not undergo significant changes. This allows to trace the provenance of the ore more reliably. 14,23,24 However, when the Pb concentration is low and the matrix contains high levels of other metals, re-evaluation of the sample preparation and isotope ratio measurement protocols is advisable. 25

Strontium isotopic analysis is also a potential tool for tracing the origin of both contemporary and archaeological materials, ranging from ceramics and glass to remains of living species, including humans. While the former applications (ceramics and glass) rely on comparison of the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotope ratio of the objects with that of raw materials of various origin potentially used for their production, the latter is based on the fact that Sr from the geological bedrock gradually moves into soil and groundwater, eventually entering the biosphere and food chain. 18,26,27 However, in the context of the present study, it has to be taken into account that the Sr isotopic composition of a metal artefact can be affected by that of the materials used for building the furnace used for metal production, especially the clay used for the furnace lining. 11

Osmium isotopic analysis has also been suggested as a promising tool for metal provenancing studies. 28,29 However, a substantial amount of sampled material is required for its isotopic analysis, and there is a risk of Os loss due to the strong oxidation conditions during sample digestion, which can affect the reliability of the results. 30

The use of iron isotope ratios for determining the provenance of metal has not been extensively investigated in the past. However, recent studies have begun to explore the application of iron isotopic analysis as a tool for studying the origin of ancient iron objects. These studies have highlighted several advantages of this approach, including the absence of iron isotope fractionation during iron production operations and the requirement of only a small sample size for analysis. However, also some limitations were indicated, such as the natural variability of the iron isotope ratios in some ore bodies, such as those found in bog iron ore deposits. 31,32

Provenance studies predominantly rely on the use of a single isotopic system. However, significant overlap between the signatures for raw materials stemming from various possible locations of origin often occurs. 33 Therefore, the use of multiple isotopic systems can provide a more precise answer as to the provenance of the samples under study. 34 However, analytical development is often needed for such purpose because: (i) the target elements may be present in a wide range of concentrations or at (ultra)trace level only; (ii) the sample matrices are often complex, potentially leading to spectral interferences, while they often display a large degree of heterogeneity. This work aimed to evaluate the use of three isotopic systems, i.e. those of Pb, Sr and Fe, for the provenancing of ancient iron-rich slags, with this manuscript placing particular emphasis on methodological aspects.

The iron-rich slags investigated in this work were obtained from an archaeological site at Hoeke, Belgium. Hoeke was one of the outer harbours of Bruges, located along the Zwin tidal inlet, which, during medieval times, linked the city to other medieval cities in Europe. During a geophysical survey on a 12 hectare area of the former harbour region of Hoeke, conducted using an Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) sensor, strong signals suggested the presence of remnants of iron-working activities. 35 Excavations in 2018 and 2021 confirmed these expectations, and large quantities of iron slags, hammer scales, charged materials (charcoal, coal), and other waste products were found ( Fig. 1 ). Since Hoeke was a harbour town, ships coming and leaving were maintained and repaired at the site, which explains the former occurrence of iron-working activities.

The large number of waste products stemming from the iron production provides a unique opportunity to investigate the local iron production process, which has not been previously addressed. Geochemical analysis of these samples revealed various technological aspects of iron production, including the occurrence of smithy activity. 36 As there is no on-site evidence of ore extraction, the primary hypothesis is that the iron discovered on site was sourced from (an) external region(s). Historical sources indicate that during the high medieval period, goods such as metals, timber and foods were commonly imported from Hanseatic cities, as records indicate that these areas were known for their metal production and trade. 37,38

2. Materials and methods

2.1. samples.

The mineralogical composition of the samples (except for coal) was determined using a Philips PW3710 X-ray diffractometer (current 30 mA, voltage 40 kV), equipped with a cobalt anode X-ray tube and scanned at a 2 θ angle from 3° to 70°. The step size was set at 0.020° with a residence time per step of 2.5 s. Additionally, the mineralogy of the samples was also studied by using reflected light microscopy (Nikon Eclipse Ni-E motorised microscope equipped with a Nikon DS-Ri2 camera). Iron slags from Hoeke mainly consist of quartz, a mixture of iron oxides, such as magnetite Fe 3 O 4 and wüstite FeO, as well as fayalite FeSiO 4 , and iron aluminium oxide. Clay samples are mainly composed of quartz and silicate minerals such as laihunite Fe 2+ Fe 2 3+ (SiO 4 ) 2 and anorthoclase (Na, K)AlSi 3 O 8 . Hammer scales are solely composed of quartz and magnetite. 36

2.2. Reagents

Single-element standard solutions (1000 mg L −1 ) of Ca, Fe, Pb, Sr and Ga used for quantification purposes were acquired from Chem-Lab NV (Belgium) and those of Al and Ti from Inorganic Ventures (the Netherlands).

NIST SRM 987 SrCO 3 isotopic reference material was obtained from the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST, USA) and used in the Sr MC-ICP-MS isotopic analysis.

NIST SRM 981 isotopic reference material was used in the Pb MC-ICP-MS isotopic analysis. NIST SRM 997 Tl isotopic reference material was used as internal standard for correction of instrumental mass discrimination. A previously characterized standard solution of Pb (Inorganic ventures, lot G2-PB03044) was used as an in-house standard for quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) of the Pb isotope ratio measurements.

IRMM-524A isotopic reference material (Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements–IRMM, Belgium) was used in the Fe MC-ICP-MS isotopic analysis. A solution of Ni (Inorganic Ventures) was used as internal standard for correction of instrumental mass discrimination. A standard solution of Fe (Inorganic ventures, lot D2-FE03110) was used as in-house isotopic standard for QA/QC purposes.

The resin used for the isolation of Sr and Pb from the sample matrices was Sr-Spec (Sr_B50-A 100–150 μm from Triskem International, France), while for the isolation of Fe, AG MP-1 anion exchange resin (100–200 μm purchased from Bio-Rad, USA) was used. The resins were stored in polyethylene tubes filled with Milli-Q water prior to use.

2.3. Cleaning protocols and sample manipulation

As a consequence, the samples had to be processed in a common laboratory. A problem arose with one of the target elements (Pb), as its concentration in the samples was very low compared to the concentrations of Sr and, especially, Fe. Following the isolation procedure, a significant contribution of the procedure blank to the Pb concentration was observed, making it impossible to obtain accurate isotope ratio data. As a compromise between the use of a clean laboratory and a common laboratory, an evaporation box (Quimipol, Spain) especially designed for low-level work, manufactured from PMMA and equipped with a PP fan rotating at 3000 rpm and a H14 HEPA filter, located in a common laboratory was installed to minimise contamination. The aim was to mimic the conditions of a clean laboratory to the largest possible extent while working in a common laboratory setting. The entire procedure, including digestion, evaporation to dryness, target element isolation, and sample dilution, was performed within this specially designed evaporation box. Under these conditions, the Pb blank level decreased significantly. The Pb blank level after the first chromatographic separation performed under the fume hood in the common laboratory was ca. 0.7 μg, while following the same procedure but inside the evaporation box, the Pb blank level was reduced by more than two orders of magnitude to 0.004 μg.

Large variation in sample composition and the wide range of the target element concentrations in the objects of study, i.e . from a few ng of Pb to wt% of Fe, also necessitated the use of proper cleaning protocols to avoid potential (cross-)contamination. PFA screwcap beakers (Savillex Corp., USA) used for the digestion procedure were pre-cleaned using the 7-step cleaning procedure outlined in Table 2 . Polypropylene (PP) material was soaked two times for 24 h, first in 1.2 M HCl and subsequently in Milli-Q water at 110 °C. Final dilutions and cleaning of labware were performed in a metal-free class-10 clean lab facility (Picotrace, Germany) at UGent-A&MS.

2.4. Sample pre-treatment

A second approach of sampling consisted of micro-drilling at polished sections of the iron slags using a Dremel 4000 tool equipped with a diamond step drill bit. To avoid mixtures of different materials (such as coal and clay fragments), homogenous parts of slag were selected only. After each sampling, the drill bit was cleaned with a solution of 3% HNO 3 , followed by rinsing with Milli-Q water.

Hammer scales were retrieved from the soil samples, rinsed with Milli-Q water and then grinded to powder in an agate mortar.

Clay samples were subjected to the same sample pre-treatment as used for bulk analysis of iron slags.

Coal pieces were extracted both from the fresh surface of iron slags and taken up from the soil as individual pieces, which were subsequently crushed and powdered in an agate mortar.

The potential presence of matrix elements such as Al, Mg, Ca and Fe in the purified Sr and Pb fractions was monitored by single-collector ICP-MS to ensure sufficient purity. After the first Pb isolation, some of these elements still remain in the Pb fraction such that a two-step isolation protocol was required.

For Fe isolation, an aliquot of the sample digest was first diluted (10 7 -fold) to avoid saturation of the resin. The chromatographic separation was carried out using 2 mL of AG-MP-1 anion exchange resin which was precleaned with 10 mL of 7 M HNO 3 , 10 mL of Milli-Q water, 10 mL of 0.7 M HNO 3 and 10 mL of Milli-Q water and conditioned with 5 mL 8 M HCl + 0.1 mM H 2 O 2 . The sample was loaded onto the column and the matrix was eluted using 3 mL of 8 M HCl + 0.1 mM H 2 O 2 followed by 12 mL of 5 M HCl + 0.1 mM H 2 O 2. Afterwards, Fe was eluted using 10 mL of 0.7 M HCl and collected in a Teflon Savillex® beaker. The Fe fraction was evaporated to dryness at 90 °C and redissolved in 500 μL of 0.28 M HNO 3 .

2.5 Instrumentation and measurements

An acid blank (0.28 M HNO 3 ) and procedural blanks treated in the same way as the samples were measured at the beginning of each measurement sequence to evaluate their contribution to the signal intensities. Three procedural blanks were always included in each batch of samples. Isotope ratio measurements for Pb, Sr and Fe were performed at 10 μg L −1 , 100 μg L −1 and 300 μg L −1 concentration levels, respectively.

Prior to MC-ICP-MS measurements, quantification of the target elements was performed using a Thermo Scientific Element XR (Germany) single-collector sector-field ICP-MS unit, relying on external calibration, with Ga and Tl as internal standards to correct for potential matrix effects and/or instrument instability. Sample introduction was accomplished using a 200 μL min −1 quartz concentric nebulizer mounted onto a cyclonic spray chamber.

For the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio, the correction for instrumental mass discrimination was accomplished using internal correction following Russell's law using an 88 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio of 8.375209 39 and subsequent external correction using isotopic reference material (NIST SRM 987) measured in a sample-standard bracketing (SSB) approach. 40 The intensities for 83 Kr + and 85 Rb + were monitored and used to correct for the contributions of Kr at m / z = 84 and 86, and Rb at m / z = 87 respectively.

For the Pb isotope ratios, the instrumental mass discrimination was corrected for using the method described by Baxter et al. , using spiked Tl as an internal standard. In addition, external correction was applied as well using NIST SRM 981 measured in a SSB approach. 41 The signal of 204 Pb was corrected for interference from 204 Hg based on the signal intensity for 202 Hg.

For the Fe isotope ratios, instrumental mass discrimination was corrected for using the method described by Baxter et al. , using Ni as internal standard and external correction based on IRMM-524A measured in a SSB approach. 41

Data statistical analysis was performed using the Software Package for Statistical Analysis (SPSS) version 29 and Microsoft Excel (Version 2404).

3.1. Method evaluation

As the Pb concentration was very low compared to those of other matrix/target elements, the use of a two-step isolation procedure was required for the efficient removal of matrix elements. After two column passages, the contributions of Al, Sr, Mg, Ca and Fe in the pure Pb fraction were less than 1% of the Pb content in all cases.

To the best of the authors' knowledge, there is no reference material available for this sample type and therefore a geological certified reference material, G-3 granite (United States Geological Survey, USGS), was used instead for method evaluation. The values obtained were 18.387 ± 0.0074 for the 206 Pb/ 204 Pb ratio, 0.8497 ± 0.0001 for the 207 Pb/ 206 Pb ratio and 2.1143 ± 0.0003 for the 208 Pb/ 206 Pb ratio, in good agreement with previously reported data ( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb = 18.390 ± 0.079; 207 Pb/ 206 Pb = 0.850 ± 0.043; 208 Pb/ 206 Pb = 2.113 ± 0.071). 42

The procedural blanks, that were also subjected to the sample digestion and chromatographic isolation protocols, were analysed in the same way as the samples. In each batch of samples consisting of ≈18 samples, three different blanks were always measured at the beginning of the experiment. Blank signals were always negligible compared to the Pb, Sr and Fe intensities obtained for the sample solutions analysed (≤1% in all cases).

The in-house isotopic standard solutions were included in each sequence for QA/QC purposes. Results obtained for the Pb in-house standard were 2.1508 ± 0.0001 for the 208 Pb/ 206 Pb ratio and 0.9037 ± 0.0001 for the 207 Pb/ 206 Pb ratio ( n = 38), in agreement with data reported in previous papers ( 208 Pb/ 206 Pb = 2.15331 ± 0.00003 and 207 Pb/ 206 Pb = 0.90413 ± 0.00002). 43 For Fe, the mean δ 56 Fe value of the in-house standard was 0.47 ± 0.09‰, which was in good agreement with previously reported data ( δ 56 Fe = 0.45 ± 0.04‰). 44

3.2 Pb, Sr and Fe isotopic signatures of iron-rich slags

Lead isotope ratios exhibit large variations and did not cluster together by sample type ( Fig. 3 ). Additionally, there is a significant overlap of the values obtained for the surface of iron slags and for the corresponding bulk samples ( t -test, p > 0.05), although the bulk slag samples show a larger spread. Hammer scales and clay samples showed Pb isotopic signatures similar to those of the iron slags. Coal samples, on the other hand, showed a slightly heavier Pb isotopic signature compared to the other materials, however, this difference was not significant ( t -test p > 0.05).

Similarly to the Pb isotope ratios, also the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotope ratio showed a marked spread. Data for Sr are presented in Fig. 4 and Table S1. † The Sr concentration ranged between 0.008 and 222.9 mg g −1 and the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio between 0.7100 and 0.7220. Iron slags and clay showed a slightly more radiogenic 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotope ratio compared to that of the surface of iron slags, hammer scales, and coal. However, all results fall within the range obtained for the iron slags, indicating a non-distinctive Sr isotopic signature.

To explore the variability within a sample and assess representativeness of the Pb and Sr isotopic signatures of the bulk material, both bulk and micro-drilled specimens were analysed for selected samples. Fig. 5 illustrates isotopic signatures for sub-samples of the same material. As can be observed, significant variations were established, particularly in samples 1.1.A and 1.2.D. In sample 1.2.D, the 208 Pb/ 207 Pb values range from 0.8406 to 0.8711 reflecting a considerable disparity and the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio from 0.7105 to 0.7211. The precisions (SD) obtained for the Pb isotope ratio of the bulk and micro-drilled samples were 0.0014 and 0.0061, respectively and for Sr 0.0006 and 0.0020.

The δ 56 Fe values ranged between 0.08 and −0.34‰ and the δ 57 Fe values between 0.16 and −0.48‰. The Fe three-isotope plot is presented in Fig. 6 . As can be seen, the data plot along the theoretical mass fractionation line.

4. Discussion

However, provenancing not only relies on comparing isotopic data with source material available for analysis, but also relies on the consultation of archaeological and historical records. Considering the late medieval period, the period from which the samples stem, one of the possible scenarios is that during the Hanseatic period in Europe, ore was brought to Flanders from other European locations via trade. The Hanseatic League played a significant role in the trading and shipping of a wide range of goods, including various raw materials and semi-finished products. 38 Numerous products, including cloth, salt, wax, copper, and iron, were exported between Scandinavian countries and the Baltic Sea ports. 47 The port in Lübeck was one of the main markets for trading metals coming from Scandinavia and later, Spain. This was particularly the case for iron during the late Middle Ages. 48 One of the main areas where iron ore was exploited at that time was the Bergslagen region, in south-central Sweden, constituting the largest concentration of base metal and iron ores in northern Europe. 49,50 The iron extracted from this region is referred to as Osmund iron. It is documented that Osmund iron was exported in the form of bars, transported by sea in barrels, and then distributed further to smithies across Western Europe. 37 Unfortunately, to the best of our knowledge, there are no isotopic data available for Osmund iron. There exists, however, information on the isotopic composition of several ore deposits in the Bergslagen region. Within this region, isotopic data for the Långban locality, an area rich in various types of ores, but primarily rich in iron and manganese oxides, reveal a 206 Pb/ 204 Pb ratio of 15.712 ± 0.012, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb ratio of 15.331 ± 0.015 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb ratio of 32.191 ± 0.045. These ratios differ significantly from those obtained for the samples excavated at Hoeke. Although the data collected in the present study differ from that obtained for the Långban locality, we cannot definitively rule out the possibility that the iron originated from the Bergslagen region. Different regions with different geological units tend to have distinct isotopic signatures. It is known that even within a small geographical area, isotopic data can vary significantly due to the underlying geological processes. This variability makes it challenging to precisely pinpoint the provenance of the material examined.

Potential contamination during sampling, sample preparation and isotope ratio measurements was ruled out as the cause of the observed variability in the samples. All labware was thoroughly cleaned, and sample manipulation was performed in an evaporation box, which was demonstrated to provide low blank levels. Additionally, sample pretreatment was conducted with great care to avoid mixing different types of samples, thereby minimizing the risk of cross-contamination. Moreover, for these target elements, ball milling does not introduce any measurable contamination. The use of agate grinding heads, which are commonly employed in sample powder preparation, ensures that the samples are homogenized without detectable contamination. 51–53

The large variation within our data could, therefore, potentially be attributed to the presence of Pb from different sources. Ores may have been extracted from distinct locations and subsequently blended during the iron production process. It is plausible to suggest that the isotopic signature observed in the iron slags from the archaeological site of Hoeke does not represent the isotopic signature of a single deposit, but rather a combination of metals sourced from different iron deposits. This large variation in isotopic data is also visible in Fig. 5 , showing variability even within a single sample ( Fig. 5 ).

In addition, it is possible that the iron ore used in Hoeke was a combination of material from different sources, in addition to the Bergslagen region. It is noteworthy that during the transit of iron to Belgium, there could have been potential intermediary points en route where mixing or transhipment of materials occurred. Although speculative, such scenarios could have contributed even more to the heterogeneity observed in this sample set.

In addition, the large variations in Pb isotope ratios could also be due to changes in the conditions during production. Historical iron production made use of open-air furnaces where emission rates of certain pollutants, such as Pb, and water quality were uncontrolled. As a result, “cross-contamination” between samples cannot be excluded. It is noteworthy that slags are the waste products of metal production and contain a range of impurities from every step of the operational chain. For example, the use of additives like flux can change the final composition of slags. Additionally, some slags might have been remelted by the smiths due to their high metal content, and the addition of other materials used during this process may alter the overall isotopic composition of the slag. These limitations have also been previously reported by various other authors, highlighting significant variation of Pb isotope ratios within a single sample set. Some studies have documented differences in Pb isotopic composition among various ore samples from within the same deposit. 54,55 This variability makes the use of the Pb isotope ratios as a tool for provenancing iron artefacts challenging. For example, Hauptmann et al. emphasized the considerable variability in Pb isotopic composition in certain copper deposits located at Feinan (Jordan), making it difficult to establish a unique fingerprint for a specific location. 56 However, in their study, combining this method with trace element data has proven effective in distinguishing between various mining districts.

Similar investigations have been conducted to determine whether lead from the same single ore deposit exhibits the same isotopic composition. 4 Depending on the mining site, it can be observed that some show isotopic homogeneity, while others exhibit a significant variation in Pb isotope ratios. This variation is typically attributed to the fact that a large deposit may be the result of multiple mineralization processes and stages, leading to isotopic heterogeneities. 57

Interpreting the Fe isotope ratio results poses an even greater challenge, primarily due to the limited amount of data in literature about the Fe isotopic composition of iron ores as a potential proxy for provenance in archaeology. There have been only a few studies so far dedicated to Fe isotopic analysis as a tool for provenancing iron specimens. Milot et al. examined ore, slags and metal samples from the Montagne Noire massif (SW of France) and obtained close-range results, suggesting that the Fe isotopic composition of ore is preserved throughout the iron production process, including smelting and smithing. 31,45 However, there is a lack of data to ascertain whether the Fe isotopic composition undergoes significant changes during the preliminary treatment of iron ore (such as roasting).

The values obtained in this work for δ 56 Fe are spread over 0.4‰. This range is considerably larger than those observed for ores from other locations, such as the Montagne Noir or the Schwarzwald region. 32,45 The iron found at Hoeke can thus represent a wide variety of mineralisation types or provenances. As a result, iron provenancing depending on iron isotope ratio data is not feasible in this case. However, it can assist in narrowing down the number of potential origins for the Fe ore.

The distinctive Fe isotopic variability observed within the collection of materials examined could additionally or alternatively also be attributed to redox processes occurring during mineralisation. For instance, in the case of bog iron ores, the isotopic signal is likely altered during the dissolution of the iron, which led to the intra-deposit variations. 32 It is to note that within the scope of this study, it was not possible to determine whether fractionation occurred at the early stages of iron production process, given the unavailability of an ore sample for this sample set.

The provenance of coal has been previously established both by biostratigraphic analysis and by studying historical written sources, pointing to the Durham-Newcastle coalfield as a possible origin. 46 The variation in 206 Pb/ 207 Pb isotope ratios for coal in this study is relatively small with a variation between 1.17 and 1.18 ( n = 5) only. Comparing these data with the published Pb isotope ratios for coal in selected places in Europe ( Table 5 ), confirms that the Hoeke coal could come from England. However, there is very little variation between coal from various locations in Europe, and ranges for coal from different locations mostly overlap. Despite the relatively narrow range in the Pb isotopic compositions experimentally obtained, identification of the material's source without an adequate context, based on isotopic study only, seemed impossible.

The situation is different for the clay samples in this study, as their origin is expected to be local or from a not so distant location (within Flanders). During the iron production process, craftsmen commonly used local clay for constructing heating structures, such as furnaces and hearths. 64 According to reference data, 65 the coastal area of Belgium is characterized by the presence of Holocene sediments, with a 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio of 0.7092 (which is equal to that of contemporary ocean water). Nevertheless, the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotope ratio for clay excavated at Hoeke falls within the range of 0.713–0.718 which does not overlap with the coastal signal. Moreover, the Sr isotopic composition of clay overlaps with the range found for iron slags ( Fig. 4 ). This isotopic heterogeneity in this sample set could thus be the result of mixing of Sr from various sources or potentially the (bidirectional) migration of Sr between the clay and the slag material.

Similarly, it was initially expected that hammer scales would exhibit a similar isotopic composition as the iron slags since they both originate from the same source – iron. However, this study reveals a significant spread in the isotopic composition of the elements studied for all materials examined. This suggests that during the production of certain objects, fragments of metal from different sources could have been remelted and combined to create a single new item. This process could potentially also explain the isotopic differences between the slag and hammer scales. Moreover, during the iron production process, the incorporation of materials like clay and coal might have introduced isotopic variability, resulting in the heterogeneity observed in the sample set, thereby explaining the observed overlap. 66

The large spread in isotope ratios, which can be the result of the use of raw materials from different provenances and/or mixing of elements from various raw materials (ore, coal and clay) prevents solid conclusions to be drawn. Further investigation, involving the spatial distribution of isotope ratios within the samples, could reduce these limitations and provide a deeper understanding of the processes involved. In any case, it is clear that a combination of geochemical data with studies on the historical context is crucial for reconstructing the material's origin and drawing reliable conclusions.

5. Conclusions

Unfortunately, however, the Pb, Sr and Fe isotopic compositions of iron slags, hammer scales, clay, and coal exhibit variability, yet they cluster within a similar range. This observation suggests that the mixing of different materials during the iron production process could generate a relatively uniform range of isotopic compositions for the different types of materials within the sample set. Furthermore, it cannot be excluded that the use of different ore sources to produce iron might contribute to the isotopic variability as well. Additionally, the observed spread could also have been influenced by natural isotopic variations within ore deposits. The study's findings deepen our insight of medieval iron production and trade networks. The observed isotopic variability suggests expanding specialization, with each workshop focusing on a specific task, such as welding or bloom refining. Moving semi-finished products between these specialized locations could contribute to overall isotopic heterogeneity as the materials picked up impurities from each place. Furthermore, different ores could have been used to obtain the desired properties of the final product, thus demonstrating the progress of metal processing techniques used by medieval craftsmen. Acknowledging these aspects is crucial for interpreting isotope ratio results for the purpose of provenance analysis.

The determination of the provenance of iron from the late medieval port system of Hoeke is still uncertain, mainly due to the lack of primary ore samples. The access to and characterization of the primary ore samples is demonstrated to be of crucial importance to draw meaningful conclusions in this context. For this purpose, ore samples can be retrieved from sites identified by historical sources as potential locations or accessed from museums, which entails the need for destructive sampling of the specimens. Therefore, an interdisciplinary approach is necessary to address the challenges of metal provenance studies. As an additional consideration, establishing a database of isotopic compositions of iron ores from different regions would be valuable to determine the possible provenance of iron.

Data availability

Author contributions, conflicts of interest, acknowledgements.

• A. Hauptmann, Archaeometallurgy – Materials Science Aspects , Springer, Cham, 1st edn, 2021, ch. 11, p. 471  Search PubMed .
• M. F. Charlton, J. Archaeol. Sci. , 2015, 56 , 210–220  CrossRef   CAS .
• A. M. Pollard, P. Bray, A. Cuénod, P. Hommel, Y.-K. Hsu, R. Liu, L. Perucchetti, J. Pouncett and M. Saunders, in Beyond Provenance , Leuven University Press, 2018, pp. 13–40  Search PubMed .
• Z. Goffer, Archaeological Chemistry , John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, New Jersey, 2nd edn, 2007, ch. 11  Search PubMed .
• T. Rose, P. Télouk, J. Fiebig, H. R. Marschall and S. Klein, Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. , 2020, 12 , 1–18  CrossRef .
• W. Snoek, I. R. Plimer and S. Reeves, J. Geochem. Explor. , 1999, 66 , 421–425  CrossRef   CAS .
• D. Nickel, M. Haustein, T. Lampke and E. Pernicka, Archaeometry , 2012, 54 , 167–174  CrossRef   CAS .
• M. F. Charlton, E. Blakelock, M. Martinón-Torres and T. Young, J. Archaeol. Sci. , 2012, 39 , 2280–2293  CrossRef   CAS .
• P. P. Coetzee, F. E. Steffens, R. J. Eiselen, O. P. Augustyn, L. Balcaen and F. Vanhaecke, J. Agric. Food Chem. , 2005, 53 , 5060–5066  CrossRef   CAS .
• R. Schwab, D. Heger, B. Höppner and E. Pernicka, Archaeometry , 2006, 48 , 433–452  CrossRef   CAS .
• M. Brauns, R. Schwab, G. Gassmann, G. Wieland and E. Pernicka, J. Archaeol. Sci. , 2013, 40 , 841–849  CrossRef   CAS .
• J.-K. Park, M.-S. Choi, Y. Song and D.-I. Lim, Ocean Sci. J. , 2017, 52 , 177–192  CrossRef   CAS .
• R. L. Green and R. J. Watling, J. Forensic Sci. , 2007, 52 , 851–859  CrossRef   CAS   PubMed .
• M. S. Lee, Mass Spectrometry Handbook , John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2012, ch. 37  Search PubMed .
• L. Balcaen, L. Moens and F. Vanhaecke, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B , 2010, 65 , 769–786  Search PubMed .
• E. Keegan, S. Richter, I. Kelly, H. Wong, P. Gadd, H. Kuehn and A. Alonso-Munoz, Appl. Geochem. , 2008, 23 , 765–777  CrossRef   CAS .
• S. Baron, C. G. Tamaş and C. Le Carlier, Archaeometry , 2014, 56 , 665–680  CrossRef   CAS .
• A. M. Pollard, C. M. Batt, B. Stern and S. M. M. Young, Analytical Chemistry in Archaeology , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007, pp. 193–194  Search PubMed .
• A. M. Desaulty, C. Mariet, P. Dillmann, J. L. Joron and P. Fluzin, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B , 2008, 63 , 1253–1262  CrossRef .
• P. A. Penanes, M. Costas-Rodríguez, M. Moldovan, J. I. García Alonso and F. Vanhaecke, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. , 2023, 38 , 1611–1617  RSC .
• F. Monna, K. Hamer, J. Lévêque and M. Sauer, J. Geochem. Explor. , 2000, 68 , 201–210  CrossRef   CAS .
• P. Degryse, J. Schneider, N. Kellens, M. Waelkens and P. H. Muchez, Archaeometry , 2007, 49 , 75–86  CrossRef   CAS .
• B. W. Roberts and C. P. Thornton, Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective , Springer, New York, New York, 2014, ch. 8.5  Search PubMed .
• S. Durali-Mueller, G. P. Brey, D. Wigg-Wolf and Y. Lahaye, J. Archaeol. Sci. , 2007, 34 , 1555–1567  CrossRef .
• Z. A. Stos-Gale and N. H. Gale, Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. , 2009, 1 , 195–213  CrossRef .
• J. A. Hoogewerff, C. Reimann, H. Ueckermann, R. Frei, K. M. Frei, T. van Aswegen, C. Stirling, M. Reid, A. Clayton and A. Ladenberger, Sci. Total Environ. , 2019, 672 , 1033–1044  CrossRef   CAS   PubMed .
• J. A. Evans, J. Montgomery, G. Wildman and N. Boulton, J. Geol. Soc. London , 2010, 167 , 1–4  CrossRef   CAS .
• S. A. Junk and E. Pernicka, Archaeometry , 2003, 45 , 313–331  CrossRef   CAS .
• I. Joosten, J. B. H. Jansen and H. Kars, J. Geochem. Explor. , 1998, 62 , 129–137  CrossRef   CAS .
• L. A. Jaffe, B. Peucker-Ehrenbrink and S. T. Petsch, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. , 2002, 198 , 339–353  CrossRef   CAS .
• J. Milot, F. Poitrasson, S. Baron and M. P. Coustures, J. Archaeol. Sci. , 2016, 76 , 9–20  CrossRef   CAS .
• T. Rose, P. Télouk, S. Klein and H. R. Marschall, J. Archaeol. Sci. , 2019, 101 , 52–62  CrossRef   CAS .
• P. Degryse, D. De Muynck, S. Delporte, S. Boyen, L. Jadoul, J. De Winne, T. Ivaneanu and F. Vanhaecke, Anal. Methods , 2012, 4 , 2674–2679  RSC .
• J. R. Robinson, J. Archaeol. Method Theory , 2022, 29 , 831–861  CrossRef .
• J. Trachet, S. Delefortrie, M. Van Meirvenne, B. Hillewaert and W. De Clercq, Archaeol Prospect , 2017, 24 , 101–117  CrossRef .
• P. Biernacka, W. De Clercq, S. Dewaele, F. Vanhaecke and J. De Grave, STAR: Science & Technology of Archaeological Research , 2023, 9 , 2257067  Search PubMed .
• A. Garbacz-Klempka, S. Rzadkosz and I. Suliga, in The Copper Ship, Wydawnictwo Bernardinum, Gdansk , 2014, pp. 301–339  Search PubMed .
• P. Crew, in Jarnet Och Sveriges Medeltida Modernisering (Jernkontorets Bergshistoriska Skriftserie 48), Halmstad , 2015, vol. 1, pp. 151–189  Search PubMed .
• R. H. Steiger and E. Jäger, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. , 1977, 36 , 359–362  CrossRef   CAS .
• M. Horsky, J. Irrgeher and T. Prohaska, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. , 2016, 408 , 351–367  CrossRef   CAS   PubMed .
• D. C. Baxter, I. Rodushkin, E. Engström and D. Malinovsky, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. , 2006, 21 , 427–430  RSC .
• D. Weis, B. Kieffer, C. Maerschalk, J. Barling, J. De Jong, G. A. Williams, D. Hanano, W. Pretorius, N. Mattielli, J. S. Scoates, A. Goolaerts, R. M. Friedman and J. B. Mahoney, Geochem., Geophys., Geosyst. , 2006, 7 , 1–30  CrossRef .
• A. Bazzano, K. Latruwe, M. Grotti and F. Vanhaecke, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. , 2015, 30 , 1322–1328  RSC .
• C. González De Vega, S. M. Chernonozhkin, R. Grigoryan, M. Costas-Rodríguez and F. Vanhaecke, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. , 2020, 35 , 2517–2529  RSC .
• G. Markl, F. von Blanckenburg and T. Wagner, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta , 2006, 70 , 3011–3030  CrossRef   CAS .
• W. De Clercq, J. Trachet, M. Poulain and D. De Ruijsscher, Evaluatie- en waarderingsonderzoeken archeologie (STUA) , 2020, vol. 43  Search PubMed .
• J. Werson, The Copper Ingots from Mönchgut 92, Syddansk Universitet , 2015  Search PubMed .
• J. Söderberg, Scandinavian Economic History Review , 2007, 55 , 128–152  CrossRef .
• R. B. Gordon and T. S. Reynolds, Technol. Cult. , 1986, 27 , 110–117  CrossRef .
• K. Sundblad, Miner. Deposita , 1994, 29 , 170–179  CAS .
• A. Takamasa and S. Nakai, Geochem. J. , 2009, 43 , 389–394  CrossRef   CAS .
• V. Balaram and M. Satyanarayanan, Minerals , 2022, 12 , 999  CrossRef   CAS .
• M. Isaac-Renton, L. Schneider and K. Treydte, Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. , 2016, 30 , 1513–1522  CrossRef   CAS   PubMed .
• C. L. Sugden, J. G. Farmer and A. B. MacKenzie, Environ. Geochem. Health , 1993, 15 , 59–65  CrossRef   CAS   PubMed .
• E. Niederschlag, E. Pernicka, T. Seifert and M. Bartelheim, Archaeometry , 2003, 45 , 61–100  CrossRef   CAS .
• A. Hauptmann, E. Heitkemper, E. Pernicka, S. Schmitt-Strecker and F. Begemann, Archeomaterials , 1992, 6 , 1–33  CAS .
• G. Åberg and G. Charalampides, GFF , 1988, 110 , 329–334  Search PubMed .
• M. Díaz-Somoano, I. Suárez-Ruiz, J. I. G. Alonso, J. Ruiz Encinar, M. A. López-Antón and M. R. Martínez-Tarazona, Int. J. Coal Geol. , 2007, 71 , 28–36  CrossRef .
• M. Mihaljevič, V. Ettler, L. Strnad, O. Šebek, F. Vonásek, P. Drahota and J. Rohovec, Int. J. Coal Geol. , 2009, 78 , 38–46  CrossRef .
• J. G. Farmer, L. J. Eades and M. C. Graham, Environ. Geochem. Health , 1999, 21 , 257–272  CrossRef   CAS .
• N. Walraven, B. J. H. van Os, G. Th. Klaver, J. H. Baker and S. P. Vriend, J. Geochem. Explor. , 1997, 59 , 47–58  CrossRef   CAS .
• M. Chiaradia and F. Cupelin, Atmos. Environ. , 2000, 34 , 959–971  CrossRef   CAS .
• M. Díaz-Somoano, M. E. Kylander, M. A. López-Antón, I. Suárez-Ruiz, M. R. Martínez-Tarazona, M. Ferrat, B. Kober and D. J. Weiss, Environ. Sci. Technol. , 2009, 43 , 1078–1085  CrossRef   PubMed .
• E. N. Mathoho, R. T. Nyamushosho and S. Chirikure, Metals , 2023, 13 , 269  CrossRef   CAS .
• R. Spros, M. Pellegrini, A. Ervynck, H. F. James, P. Claeys, B. Lambert and C. Snoeck, J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. , 2022, 46 , 103680  Search PubMed .
• A. M. Desaulty, P. Dillmann, M. L'Héritiera, C. Mariet, B. Gratuze, J. L. Joron and P. Fluzin, J. Archaeol. Sci. , 2009, 36 , 2445–2462  CrossRef .

Green business process management in a Polish municipal waste treatment plant-regional case study

• REGIONAL CASE STUDY
• Open access
• Published: 10 July 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Renata Brajer-Marczak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3920-2016 1 ,
• Przemysław Seruga   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1210-1063 2 ,
• Małgorzata Agnieszka Jarossova   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2006-8339 3 &
• Małgorzata Krzywonos   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2947-0503 4  

Despite COVID-19, the world economy still contributes to the growth of production and consumption worldwide. Waste disposal, recycling management and energy generation are challenges for many companies in developing economies, including Poland. This article aims to assess the operation of a municipal waste treatment plant (MWTP) from the perspective of green business process management (BMP) solutions. The processes implemented in the MWTP were discussed, with specific consideration of the mechanical waste processing (sorting) process, including the reuse and recycling of materials, composting, energy production (anaerobic process), landfill storage and efficiency parameters of the sorting line. A sustainable waste management system was identified; the cost as well as social and environmental perspectives were analyzed. Also, strategic goals and key performance indicators were considered. The performed analysis included costs, environmental criteria and key environmental indicators. This paper has shown the successful implementation of green BPM, with potential cost and material savings results. The findings of this case study are expected to inspire other waste management companies to adopt green BPM. The presented case study might help raise awareness and promote the implementation of green BPM in municipal plants in Eastern and Southern Europe.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Today’s consumption-oriented society produces vast amounts of waste. The large volume of waste puts considerable pressure on the waste management sector. Moreover, waste management systems include many stakeholders and include socioeconomic, political, environmental and technological considerations [ 1 ]. It is assumed that waste should be treated as a resource and energy source [ 2 ]. The practical implementation and application of sustainable development principles in the waste management system require finding measures, criteria and indicators to evaluate the proposed solution and make measurements that will test its operation in a practical way.

According to Kaur et al. [ 3 ] ‘the long-term success of companies can only be ensured if they adjust their strategic and structural orientation to the changing environmental and technological scenario.

Natural environmental changes and limited access to resources in many industries and sectors require a well-planned reorganization of business processes. For about a decade, companies have been interested in adapting business process management (BPM) to sustainable development [ 4 ].

Sustainable development is now defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It is a stable development, taking into account such processes of change in which the exploitation of resources, the main areas of investment, the direction of technological development and institutional changes remain in a harmonious relationship, allowing meeting current needs as well as needs and aspirations in the future [ 4 ]. As suggested by Smith et al. [ 5 ], companies interpret sustainability as “meeting the local community’s needs”. Sustainable development has four dimensions: society, the environment, culture and the economy, while these four dimensions are not separate but interdependent [ 6 ].

Today companies, while improving their business processes, focus mainly on economic criteria: time, costs, efficiency and flexibility [ 7 ]. Many recognize the needs related to the climate and natural environment while they try to base their business model on the values of the social dimension of their activities, responsibility for the natural environment and the orientation of their activities towards sustainable development. Researchers are increasingly advocating for extending the scope of conventional business process management [ 8 ] and the dimension of environmental sustainability [ 9 ]. In the case of solid waste management, sustainability is practically established and based on the 3Rs principle: reduce, reuse and recycle [ 10 ]. Although prevention and recycling are identified as the best strategies, landfill disposal will not be eliminated; it still plays an essential role because a complete zero-waste scenario is impossible [ 11 ]. As suggested by Amato et al. [ 11 ] it is worth emphasizing that wrong decisions might negatively affect the environmental, economic, and social spheres.

Due to the energy crisis, research on municipal solid waste as an energy source is increasingly popular, and the approach might change the potential direction of environmental and energy management [ 12 ]. However, waste management in Eastern/Central European countries focuses on low-cost solutions, and the most important obstacle is the lack of cooperation between different lawyers of multi-governance in waste management [ 13 ].

It is observed trend in combining sustainable development with corporate strategy and implementing it in business activities. However, the main challenge to implementing sustainability in the organization is the technical and organizational integration; mainly, this intensive dialogue across management levels depends on management control practices [ 14 ].

Therefore, the concept of green BPM appeared. In addition to the classic criteria for evaluating the efficiency of processes, it also considers environmental issues and promotes the balance between individual criteria. Green BPM can therefore be seen as the evolution of classic BPM toward environmental and social issues. Consequently, the modeling and implementation of processes were enriched with an environmental dimension. Although the authors define the term green BPM differently [ 15 ], there is agreement that this concept relates to supporting the sustainable improvement of business processes and increasing the importance of a new approach. It has been assumed that each business process has a particular impact on the natural environment; therefore, business process management (BPM) should also be oriented toward the environmental perspective. Managers are required to use methods, techniques and indicators for assessing the implementation of business processes [ 15 ], which are aimed at environmental protection, recycling, reducing resource consumption, reducing CO 2 emissions and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. An important issue in this approach is the care for the well-being of employees, which is in line with Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), involving various stakeholders in the company. In order to ensure a compromise between the economic and environmental objectives under green BPM, it is proposed to extend the classic Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) with environmental indicators (KEIs, Key Environmental Indicators). It becomes crucial to define them concerning the organization’s strategic goals, identify and select methods for their measurement, obtain information about the impact of the processes being carried out on the environment and indicate the possibilities for improvement.

Couckuyt and van Looy [ 15 ] and Gohar and Indulska [ 16 ] indicated the need to use KEIs. Elkington [ 17 ] stated that organizations, to be successful in the long run, should focus on all three interdependent dimensions, i.e., economic, social and environmental. It is a relatively new approach to process management and an emerging research discipline [ 15 ]. There is little research on this subject, but efforts have been made to identify the key factors influencing the implementation of green BPM. The most frequently mentioned factors are the sector, organization size and market competition [ 15 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ].

Levina [ 22 ] showed that green BPM is used to achieve resource efficiency, which is expected to lead to more sustainable company operations. It becomes more and more important if the adoption of a "green" strategy is supported by top management. Loepp and Betz [ 23 ] came to the same conclusion when investigating German companies. According to Bossle et al. [ 24 ] companies operating in sectors such as health, finance and insurance are likely to face more difficulties with implementing green BPM compared to sectors where environmental policy and the reduction of harmful emissions are inherent. Bossle et al. [ 24 ] results are consistent with those obtained by Couckuyt and van Looy [ 15 ]. Other researchers stated that organizations that operate in a less competitive market would have less incentive to adopt green BPM [ 25 , 26 ]. Additionally, smaller companies lacking organizational resources may be less interested in green BPM solutions [ 27 ]. According to Couckuyt and van Looy [ 15 ], future research in this area should focus more on case studies to supplement existing results.

Therefore, in this article, practical experiences related to implementing green Business Process Management in the Polish municipal waste treatment plant (MWTP), named ZGO will be considered a case study because, nowadays, avoiding and reducing waste is crucial. However, improving plant processing is also a current topic, confirmed by the growing requirements regarding the levels of recovery and recycling. In recent years, the issue of waste management has become a global problem. Waste disposal, recycling management and energy generation are challenges for many companies in developing economies, including Poland.

According to the World Bank report "What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050" [ 28 ], approximately 2 billion tons of solid waste is generated yearly. Experts predict that in 30 years, we can expect annual waste at 3.4 billion tons. Poland is one of the largest European Union countries in terms of population (4th place) and area (5th place) [ 29 ], which means that the waste problem is also regional. In Poland, the amount of collected municipal waste is increasing year by year [ 30 ]. Most came from households and amounted to 11.7 million tons, which is 85.5% of all waste generated [ 30 ]. The waste amount is inseparably linked to very high consumption.

Regarding waste generated per capita, Poland occupies a very high position in Europe. In 2021, out of 13.7 million tons of municipal waste, 5.4 million tons were collected selectively. Despite significant progress in the quality and quantity of selective collection, the result is far from satisfactory. According to the European Union law requirements, in 2025, 55% of municipal waste in Poland should be reused and recycled. However, in 2022, 26.9% of municipal waste was recycled, which is only 0.2 percentage points more than in 2021 [ 30 ].

The green BPM method is a relatively new approach to process management. It is more often described in the conceptual layer. There are relatively few examples of its use and there is still a lack of practical knowledge on this subject. It is also difficult to describe the use in waste treatment plants. The ZGO case study is the first example to be published when it comes to implementing the green BPM concept in a waste processing plant. The scarcity of the description of the use of this type of plant has been found. This research gap was why the authors referred to examples other than waste treatment plants. According to the authors, this is the value of this study, as well as its novelty and originality.

This article aims to evaluate the green BPM solutions in the functioning municipal waste treatment plant. The processes implemented in the MWTP were discussed, with the specific consideration of the process of mechanical waste processing (sorting), including the reuse and recycling of materials, energy consumption, landfilling and the efficiency parameters of the sorting line. Then a sustainable waste management system was identified, considering the cost as well as social and environmental perspectives. In this approach, strategic goals, KPIs and KEIs were considered.

The following research questions were formulated:

RQ 1: To what extent does the presented company consider green BPM’s aspects (social, economic and environmental) when implementing the processes?

RQ 2: What is the relationship between the economic efficiency of the processes implemented and the environmental efficiency?

RQ 3: What environmental performance indicators reflect the effects of improvement obtained?

RQ 4: What should be the company’s further improvement directions to minimize the negative environmental impact?

The rest of the article is divided into four sections: Sect. Background and definitions describes the relevant literature on green BMP. The methodology of research is described in Sect. Methodology . Section Results highlights the results and discussions. Finally, the article concludes in Sect. Discission , stating the present study’s impacts, limitations and future research directions.

Background and definitions

Based on the systematic review of the literature, Couckuyt and van Looy [ 15 ] stated that there is no uniformity in defining green BPM, a relatively new approach to process management. Green BPM can be seen as a general approach to management [ 31 ] that extends the existing BPM [ 8 ] and in which not only technical but also management aspects play an essential role.

Regarding green BPM to the classic project management methodology (BPM Project Framework), the authors referred consideration formulated by Jenston and Nelis [ 32 ]. It presupposes identifying, modeling, controlling, measuring and optimizing business processes; it considers the implemented strategy. As a result, the entire organization’s efficiency increases [ 32 ]. Organizations should take into account the demonstrated aspects in the implementation of process management in the following areas: social, economic and environmental, which include: leadership and appropriate process competencies, favorable organizational culture; appropriate law and order, which means governance, using a design approach and appropriate technological solutions.

One of the first articles on this subject was published in 2009 in the Australasian Journal of Information Systems [ 33 ]. Therefore, there are still attempts to define green BPM. It is combined with IT solutions to minimize the company’s negative impact on the natural environment [ 16 , 34 ]. However, it is not only about introducing technological changes but also about reconfiguring processes and considering the expectations of many stakeholders [ 15 ]. In this approach, green BPM is defined as the sum of all management activities supported by IT systems that help to monitor and reduce the negative impact of business processes on the natural environment; at the stage of design, improvement, implementation or operation, as well as leading to cultural changes of process contractors [ 34 ]. The concept focuses mainly on changes in the implementation of processes that go beyond IT and relate to reducing the negative impact on the environment, using fewer resources, reducing CO 2 and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as caring for the well-being of employees and other interested parties. Not only technical aspects but also management and those related to organizational culture play an essential role here. It requires an integrated approach and the introduction of significant changes of different natures.

The implementation of the company’s business processes plays a vital role in contributing to the carbon footprint that the organization leaves in the environment [ 35 ]. Today, the challenge is the implementation of processes that reconcile the conflict between human activity as well as the natural and social environment. Therefore, BPM is environmentally sustainable and focuses on understanding and improving the company’s business processes [ 36 ]. In green BPM, more attention is paid to the environmental effects of business processes [ 9 ] and their optimization considering the ecological dimension and striving to support environmental goals [ 8 ].

According to Seidel et al. [ 9 ], companies’ sustainable development can be perceived as a goal of action and a tool for managing changes within the implemented business processes. It concerns understanding, documenting, modeling, analysis, simulation, implementing and introducing continuous changes in business processes, with particular emphasis on the environmental consequences of process implementation. Murugesan [ 37 ] proposes a comprehensive approach that follows four complementary pathways: use of green resources, green disposal, green design, and green production. In practice, it covers environmental sustainability projects and strategies, including data center design and location; energy-efficient processing, such as energy management and virtualization; responsible and regulatory-compliant disposal, recycling, and pollution prevention practices; and the use of green metrics, assessment tools, and methodologies like the ISO 14001 standard for efficient practice. However, Sohns et al. [ 41 ] indicated that while many organizations have put considerable effort into reducing the environmental impact of their business processes, the operational aspects of green BPM are poorly developed. The dominant barriers are limited availability of time, lack of resources, expertise, and knowledge, high implementation costs, and bureaucracy, and resource consumption and emissions are measured, monitored, and utilized by only a limited number of SMEs.

Bocken et al. [ 38 ] define green BPM as “a sustainable business model of innovations with a significant positive environmental impact.” In turn, Maciel [ 39 ] describes green BPM as the result of combining the concept of sustainable development and BPM. Therefore, it defines them as BPM that generates business value with minimal impact on the environment and therefore does not violate the availability of environmental resources for future generations [ 40 ]. Hernández-González et al. [ 40 ] stated that implementing the green BPM concept is usually associated with achieving two goals: reducing the negative impact on the natural environment and introducing cultural changes that promote specific values and attitudes among members of the organization.

Couckuyt and Van Looy [ 15 ] extensively reviewed the definition of green BPM concerning information systems and sustainable BPM. The same authors also propose their definition of green BPM and stated that it “extends the optimization of cost, quality, time, and flexibility of business processes with an environmental sustainability dimension.” Green BPM is concerned with modeling, implementing, optimizing and managing business processes with particular attention to their environmental implications while not overlooking organizational capabilities such as culture and structure.

Assuming that every business process has an environmental impact to some extent and can be considered in terms of energy consumption, water use of other resources, greenhouse gas emissions, carbon footprint and waste production, etc., a new approach to business process management has been proposed. As a result, while improving processes, such solutions are implemented, which, on the one hand, will contribute to economic success, but on the other hand, will take into account the ecological and social aspects, balancing the perspective of economic efficiency and environmental considerations. The environmental friendliness of a business process is the degree in which the process is carried out in terms of environmental impact, energy consumption, use of resources and/or recycled, the allocation of the required amount of resources and their use, greenhouse gas emissions and waste production and destination. Transitioning to green BPM and institutionalizing it in the long term requires a set of specific management mechanisms and the definition of new roles, duties, competence and responsibility. It can be introduced following the plan-do-check-act cycle in connection with management activities and cultural changes promoting specific values, thinking, and attitudes among process managers and contractors.”

Wrong choices can negatively affect the environmental, economic, and social spheres [ 11 ]. Sohns et al. [ 41 ] identified barriers that hinder the implementation of green BPM in SMEs, the main ones being limited time availability, lack of resources, knowledge and experience, high implementation costs and bureaucracy. In the case of ZGO, implementation was forced by external factors such as changes in law regulations, as well as knowledge and experience.

As pointed by Shibamoto [ 42 ], companies are focused on managing day-to-day cash flow and less long-term profits or solving social problems. ZGO is a not-for-profit organization that should serve the local community.

Taking into account the critical success factors of BPM, such as strategic management, applied methods, information technology, people and organizational culture [ 39 ], the critical capabilities required in green BPM can be identified. They can help design improvements in business processes from the perspective of reducing the negative impact on the natural environment.

In order to ensure a compromise between economic and environmental objectives, green BPM proposes to extend the classic KPIs with ecological indicators (KEI). It becomes crucial to define them concerning the strategic goals of the organization, identification and selection of methods of their measurement, obtain information about the impact of the processes being carried out on the environment and society as well as indicate the possibilities for improvement.

The key capabilities required in green BPM can be indicated. They can help design improvements in business processes from the perspective of reducing the negative impact on the natural environment. Various researchers point out the need to use KEI [ 8 , 15 , 16 , 33 ]. The priority here is to define new strategic goals for the company, adjust new indicators and plan new measurement methods and aggregation of KPI and KEI.

Table 1 presents the perspective of BPM elements from the green BPM. They can help design improvements in business processes from the perspective of reducing the negative impact on the natural environment.

Methodology

This study employs a case-based research methodology [ 43 , 44 , 45 ]. One of the main advantages of case studies over other methods is collecting evidence from multiple sources (triangulation) [ 46 ]. Most remarkable characteristics of case studies is that they study phenomena in their natural environment in the real environment [ 43 ]. Due to case studies, both complex and rich, detailed social processes can be studied from a holistic perspective [ 47 ].

To understand the researched phenomenon as well as possible, which currently exhibits dynamics different from the conditions mentioned above and is very up-to-date, the article adopts the method of a single case study. The main research intention was to recognize the current phenomenon in real conditions at an early stage of knowledge in a given research area [ 48 ]. The pragmatic criterion of data availability dictated the purposeful selection of the case. The criterion related to ensuring data reliability, the possibility of conducting research in the enterprise with data triangulation and maintaining scientific independence were considered. Following the statement that a process implemented by an enterprise can be a research object [ 49 ], attention was paid to improving processes following the green BPI approach. The study was intended to describe a specific situation and the mode of action and to identify key, distinctive problems that a given case highlights [ 48 ]. The study was descriptive. The "gaps and holes" approach was adopted, in which theory is the starting point for research design [ 50 ]. According to Yin [ 48 ] the adopted framework determined by theory defines the research question, the direction of the data search and the analysis method. It is worth emphasizing that variables and the research question "how and why" can be modified during the work. According to Ridder [ 50 ], gaps and holes were revealed and after identification within the existing theory, are "filled" with empirical data. This approach can be used both to develop the theory and test it. Theory development refers to phenomena that are already partially described and understood.

The source of information was semi-structured interviews with senior executives and other board members from the company’s management, based on open-ended leading questions and documents about the company. Interviews with respondents lasted about 60 min and included detailed notes. The interviews took place from December 2021 to May 2022 and concerned all areas of activity of the analyzed company. The interview began with collecting data about each of the respondents, i.e., their position, length of service in a given organization, how many years they have been working in a given position and their responsibilities.

Respondents were asked to present the audited entity’s characteristics to obtain basic information such as the subject of activity, the scope of activity, legal and organizational form, time of operation on the market, source of capital, number of employees and applied management concepts and methods. Respondents shared their organization’s experience in business process improvement (scope of business process improvement, implementation/ participation in process improvement projects). They were also asked about the implementation of business process improvement. In this case, the emphasis was placed on the premises for improving business processes (environmental, economic and social); methods used to improve business processes (what technological changes); planning activities to improve business processes (such as projects, investments, optimization, modernization); selection of processes for improvement (RDF, composting, digestion and which processes are most important and why). Questions were asked about the implementation of business process improvement (decision on the project initiation and realization; source of the finance for the projects, feasibility study, a study on conditionality) and then about the assessment of the benefits obtained from the point of view of the three pillars: environmental, economic and social. The study considered the perspective of one selected company. Finally, the respondents were asked to identify problems that hinder the improvement of processes (e.g., still large amounts of waste sent to the landfill, the exhausting capacity of the environment, energy purchase costs, RDF fees, increase in environmental fees, low effectiveness of educational activities, low social awareness in sorting). Respondents were also asked to list the factors that favor and hinder the improvement of business processes. Ten people from different levels of company management (top, middle and lower) were interviewed. The top management was represented by the Plant Director, who provided general information on the projects underway and the company’s ownership structure. The Mechanical Waste Processing Department manager and his deputy represented the middle management level, who provided data on the sorting plant and the RDF line. The landfill manager was also part of this group. Information on the electricity balance and historical data, i.e., before 2015, was obtained from him. The Head of the Biological Waste Processing Department provided information on the functioning of the fermentation department and composting plant, including electricity production since 2015. The Sales Manager was also interviewed, which provided data on the sale of raw materials. The lower level was represented by the Sorting Foremen (2 persons) (information on the Sorting Cabinet and the RDF line); records and reporting specialists (2 persons) (amounts of accepted and processed waste).

In addition, data from the company’s internal reports, electricity invoices, project implementation reports, data on waste data records, as well as sales statements were analyzed.

The questions asked provided information on:

the amount of waste generated in the region where the company is found,

projects (activities) aimed at expanding the company’s existing infrastructure and introducing new innovative technologies to better manage the current waste in the period from 2000 to 2022,

implementation of new technology in the company enabling the management of new waste (expansion of the enterprise’s activity),

defining the company’s strategic goals on the environment, economic and social aspects,

defining indicators related to the environment, economic and social aspects that help achieve the strategic goals of the company related to functioning as a green BMP,

establishing KPIs and methods of measuring them to verify the achievement of the planned goals,

comparison of the values of indicators (environmental, economic, social) before the introduction of improvements in the described enterprise, also after the implementation of the first, second and third projects,

The purpose and legitimacy of conducting the information and educational campaign as part of the project.

Consequently, retroactive data were collected in real-time to ensure the validity of external and internal data [ 51 ]. However, the information about the number of sorting personnel, the layouts of the processing lines, the composition of MSW and recyclable materials, the specifications of the equipment, the process mass balance and financial details, e.g. maintenance costs, income, revenue, etc. were classified as internal/confidential data, thus it could not be presented in the study.

The respondents explained uncompleted questions via email and telephone. Case studies are rich empirical descriptions of specific phenomena based on various data sources [ 52 ]. To gain additional insights and improve the accuracy of the conclusions, the authors analyzed the company website and reports on the completed projects.

The presented municipal waste treatment plant, ZGO, is in Lower Silesia (NUTS2), Poland.

The owner of the MWPT is the local government (NUT5 region), co-owners are three partners: 1. Ecological Association of Municipal Waste Management "EKOGOK"; 2) Ślęza-Oława Inter-Commune Association, 3) Jelcz-Laskowice [ 53 ]. It serves approximately 260,000 inhabitants from 17 communes (NUTS5): cities: Oława, Brzeg; communes: Oława, Lubsza, Skarbimierz, Żórawina, Domaniów, Czernica, Cieplowody, Przeworno, Borów; urban–rural communes (Jelcz-Laskowice, Siechnice; Bierutów, Strzelin, Wiązów, Ziębice) [ 54 ].

It is not a commercial entity, a not-for-profit organization, meaning it does not earn profit for its owners. The owners care about keeping the price as low as possible for residents, and all money earned through pursuing business activities or donations goes back into running the organization and only covers operating costs.

ZGO has all the necessary decisions and permits to operate [ 55 ]. The level of decision-making in communes was delegated from the central to the local government. That means that decisions in the entity are made on local levels by local government.

The main responsibilities of ZGO is the management of waste other than hazardous and inert, production of electricity and heat from biodegradable waste, waste sorting (selective collection and municipal waste), recovery of bulky waste, transfer of separated waste for recovery and recycling, neutralization of waste by depositing it in a landfill, sale of secondary raw materials: paper (newspaper mix); cardboard; plastic packaging (PET) by color: colorless, blue, green, mix; household chemicals; mixed foil; mixed glass packaging; aluminum can; steel can; combustible waste (RDF alternative fuel); batteries [ 53 ].

Regulations for the provision of waste acceptance and management services are clearly defined [ 55 ]: the service price lists [ 56 ], general conditions of sale of raw materials [ 57 ].

In 2020, Lower Silesia region has the highest indicator of the amount of municipal waste generated per capita in Poland (400 kg/capita with the national average being 342 kg/capita) [ 30 ]. MWTP has been operating since 1999. It serves a region inhabited by more than 250 thousand people, although it should be emphasized, that there is currently no regionalization of waste management in Poland.

The enterprise operates following the applicable provisions of Polish law, including the Act of Waste (14.12.2012), on waste and the relevant ordinances of the Minister of Climate and Environment (formerly the Minister of Environment), European Union directives, assumptions of the National Waste Management Plan, and Provincial Management Plan Waste. However, the latter is planning, not decision-making, for implementation process changes. They specify the necessary infrastructure for municipal waste and the processing capacity to prevent and manage this waste, ensuring the achievement of the objectives set out in the regulations.

From the beginning, the company has been consistently developing the waste treatment process and systematically introducing improvements to the processes.

During 2000–2002, the plant was expanded, a waste sorting line was launched and a composting facility was made available. Behind that decision were law regulations changes [Environmental Protection Law; (OJ L, 62, item 627, 20.06.2001); Act on Waste (OJ L, 62, Item 628, 27.04.2001]..

In 2008 Directive 2008/98/EC on waste and repealing certain Directives (OJ L 312, 22.11.2008, pp. 3–30) and the company needed to adjust to this regulation. In December 2008, the Ślęza-Oława Inter-Commune Association (owner then) commissioned the development of full documentation for extension and modernization. In June 2009, the General Meeting of Shareholders of the Company decided to accept the extension and modernization for implementation. Waste management system Ślęza – Oława”, co-financed from the Cohesion Fund under the Operational Program Infrastructure and Environment and by the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management, project value was PLN 129,598,908 (gross). The value of the co-financing was PLN 61,707,457 [ 58 ].

The planned investment included: an installation for processing biological waste in fermentation and oxygen stabilization, a modern sorting line and an alternative fuel production line (refuse-derived fuel, RDF). In 2009 ZGO was the first plant in Poland that used two optopneumatic separators to sort plastic and paper waste. In the second half of 2011, the General Meeting of Shareholders of the Company decided to carry out construction and installation works for individual installations as part of the expansion of the mechanical and biological parts of the plant.

In June 2012, the Lower Silesian Voivodeship authorities adopted a resolution on the implementation of the Voivodeship Waste Management Plan [ 58 ], in which the ZGO installation was recognized as the Regional Municipal Waste Processing Installation for the eastern region of the Voivodeship Waste Management Plan for the Lower Silesian Voivodship, inhabited by over 250,000 residents.

Later on, still changes in law requirements appeared. For example, the Waste Act has been amended and the Ordinance of the Minister for the Environment of 29th December 2016 on the detailed method of selective collection of selected waste fractions has been implemented. This regulation was the reason for further expansion of the entity.

As a consequence, in 2017–2019, the company implemented a project co-financed by the EU funds called "Optimizing processes and adjusting the plant to operate in a circular economy." under Priority Axis No. 4 "Environment and resources" Measure No. 4.1 "Waste management" of the Regional Operational Program for the Lower Silesian Voivodeship 2014–2020 Project value was PLN 25,667,214.09 (gross). Co-financing value amounted to PLN 16,978,839.38 [ 59 ].

The National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management [ 60 ], was responsible for both projects implementation and monitoring (the national level of governance).

As part of the project, modern equipment was purchased for the sorting process and a refuse-derived fuel – RDF production line with fuel-drying equipment was equipped with new machines. The construction of a bulk waste warehouse with a recovery segment and a warehouse for waste recovery and selectively collected waste was also started. A line was launched for the thorough cleaning of selectively collected biowaste. An information and educational campaign were also carried out, addressed to residents of the municipalities from which the waste processed by the MWTP originates. The MWTP’s expansion aimed to adjust the waste treatment process to changes in the waste morphology and introduce a large-scale separate collection system.

Considering Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2018/1147 (10.08.2018) establishing best available techniques (BAT) conclusions for waste treatment, under Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council (OJ L, 208/38); in 2020, an EU project called “Implementation of new waste treatment and recovery processes to increase the levels of recycling” meets the environment’s needs, such as the need to combat climate change and adapt to the best available techniques (BAT) conclusions. Plant development project POIS.02.02.00–00-0036/18–00 under Measure 2.2 Municipal waste management priority axis II Environmental protection, including adaptation to climate change of the Operational Program Infrastructure and Environment 2014–2020. The total cost of the Project PLN 85,070,928.13 gross, co-financing value of PLN 47,243,141.42 [ 61 ].

The project involved the modernization and expansion of the installations and facilities on the enterprise’s premises. It is expected that as a result of the project, the amount of landfilled municipal waste should be reduced, and the amount of waste processed and recycled is to increase.

As a result, a complex mechanical and biological waste treatment plant was established, for which a schematic diagram of the management of unsorted (mixed) municipal solid waste (MSW) is presented in Fig.  1 .

Schematic diagram of mixed municipal waste management in the analyzed plant

It was also assumed that project implementation would improve the natural environment condition in the region and beyond, mainly through:

Increasing the recovery and recycling of waste,

Production of compost from biodegradable waste, which should reduce the use of artificial fertilizers,

Reducing the use of natural energy resources through the production of electricity and heat from biogas,

Increasing awareness of the local society through educational campaigns and activities to prevent waste generation.

An essential element of this project was to conduct educational and information workshops in educational institutions and prepare a waste management guide. The implementation of the project goals defined in this way relates to all installations used in the enterprise for waste processing. In connection with all of the above, it was planned, among other things, the expansion of the sorting plant with a second reception hall and a sorting line for collected source waste.

Before process investment (Fig.  1 ) in 1999, when the whole amount of municipal solid waste collected by ZGO after manually sorting valuable raw materials was sent to a landfill.

In the next stage of Green BPM improvement (Goal 1, Fig.  1 ), a sorting facility with two optopneumatic separators was introduced into the process, which allowed for higher recovery of valuable materials (from 2 to 5%) and a caloric fraction (5%). However, most of the waste was still sent to the landfill. Compost and the rest fraction were more than 75% of the treated waste.

The MWTP was expanded to process more efficiently with the introduction of waste collection at the source (Goal 2). This process improvement caused the reduction of the landfilled waste amount. The process development included (1) increasing the number of optopneumatic separators to five; (2) building an RDF production hall and (3) an anaerobic digestion facility (dry, continuous digestion in thermophilic conditions with yearly capacity 32,000 Mg). This improvement aimed to obtain the level of landfilled rest fraction after waste sorting to be no more than 35% (Goal 2). As a result, OFMSW and rest fraction amount decreased and caloric fraction increased to 10%. However, the process still needed to be improved because of the amount of landfilled waste.

Produced RDF was characterized by its low quality because of its very high water content. The low quality of RDF fuel caused problems with selling it; the selling price was too low compared to the production costs. This poor quality was the reason behind the business operator’s decision to purchase the drying RDF. Introducing the drying process of RDF also reduced the waste volume sent to the landfill (e.g., sorting ballast or bulky waste) by using them as components for RDF.

During the most recent expansion of the plant (Target, Fig.  1 ), a sixth optopneumatic separator for separating PET bottles into colors was installed and a ballast sorting line was constructed and introduced into the process to reduce the amount of landfilled rest fraction to less than 27% together with caloric fraction increase to 15%.

It can be seen that the sorting effect of the sorting line is not easily improved. However, it was observed that the total and processing capacity had been improved (Fig.  1 ). Also, when we assume that the efficiency of the sorting line is the amount of the recovered secondary raw materials which was sold,and it is increasing (Table  2 ). What is more, comparing data on the volume of sold raw materials before (2011) and after (2020) process improvement, it was more than 220%.

Changing the sorting method by residents (at source) was forced by law regulations (Regulation of the Minister of the Environment, 29.12.2016 on the precise method of selective collection of selected waste fractions (OJL of 2016, item 19), in which it was indicated. that municipal waste is subject to separate collection and that it is collected separately: glass. paper. metals. plastics and biodegradable waste. with particular emphasis on bio-waste. Its last update took place in May 2021: Regulation of the Minister of Climate and Environment (10.05.2021) on the method of selective collection of selected waste fractions (OJ L 2021, item 906), which provides for the selective collection of fractions: paper, glass, metals, plastics, multi-material packaging (these three can be collected together) and biowaste.

The regulations mentioned above caused the introduceda separate waste collection system. For example, "door-to-door" in the case of rural and single-family housing and assuming disposal in various standard bins regarding multi-family housing is bringing the expected results. It should also be noted that ZGO organized informative campaigns about separate waste collection, with each development addressed mainly to children and adolescents.

Process improvement of effected on electricity consumption and production and recovered secondary raw materials during process development in ZGO is presented in Table  2 . In terms of energy, it has been observed that process improvement needs more energy (an increase of 364.21% when comparing 2011 versus 2020). The increased demand for energy was related to new equipment and facilities in the whole treatment process, e.g., the number of conveyors increased from about 10 to about 100 in this time; furthermore, the RDF production line and RDF drying line which require much energy were installed. On the other side, introducing anaerobic digestion into the process and better separating the waste biodegraded generated more energy and less was purchased. Additionally, there was a decrease in the maximum adsorbed power during the analyzed period.

Furthermore, the introduction of the RDF drying process allowed for improved fuel quality and enhanced cooperation conditions with the cement plant. The parameters of wet and dried RDF were presented in Table  3 .

Considering changes in electricity consumption it can be assumed that the company development was mainly possible thanks to the AD facility and its own electricity and heat generation. In addition, the last analyzed development was also aimed at increasing the biogas yield by introducing biowaste (from approx. 105m 3 to 111 m 3 per ton) and its losses reduction (e.g., additional biogas storage tank).

In order to present the activities undertaken by the analyzed company, it should be looked at from the economic, environmental and social perspectives (Table  4 ). We rely on the model proposed by Zaman [ 62 ].

The MWTP focus on environmental aspects and implementing the described projects caused specific effects. Their interpretation is based on the adopted strategic goals, KPIs and measurement methods presented in Table  4 . The goals achieved are compared to the base value before the investment process. It can be seen that the strategic goal, which was to improve the technological process by increasing investments in waste processing technologies, was achieved to the highest degree. There is a significant improvement in the recycled materials used and a visible increase in revenues related to the dimensions of sustainable development.

Furthermore, a 50% reduction in CO 2 produced was reached compared to the baseline value, which entailed an improvement in the use of renewable sources. However, the low return on investment is due to the local government ownership of the waste management plant, which is not-profit-oriented and only covers operating costs. Social goals, such as establishing relationships with stakeholders, increasing employee satisfaction and introducing social marketing policy, are also partially or not entirely achieved. Obtained values of social indicators mean that the social area should be focused on managing in MWTP. Social indicators might also be an interesting area for future research in other case studies.

The article assessed the operation of a municipal waste treatment plant (MWTP) from the perspective of green business process management (Green BMP) solutions. It discusses the processes implemented at the MWTP, with particular emphasis on the process of mechanical processing (sorting) of waste, including the reuse and recycling of materials, composting, and energy production via anaerobic digestion, landfill storage, and efficiency parameters of the sorting line.

As for research question RQ1, it was observed that in the analyzed municipal waste treatment plant, the share of renewable energy grew with each completed investment project. Before the anaerobic digestion facility construction, all electricity was purchased, which in Poland is practically from burning coal. The biogas recovery in CHP units allowed MWTP to produce a significant part of electricity demand through renewable sources (Tab. 2 ). The waste management improvement and resource recovery have fostered technological developments.

The introduced changes resulted mainly from the changing external conditions of MWTP’s operation, such as changes in legal regulations, development of technology, and increased public awareness of climate change. The literature recognizes the relationship between many external factors and waste management development [ 63 ]. These factors include waste legislation and infrastructure (e.g., landfill taxes, local duty rates, waste management efficiency, and strict waste policies). However, it should be noted that the efficient operation of waste management systems requires enormous investment and labor. Therefore, when designing waste disposal technology, economic benefits are most often put in the first place [ 62 ], which can be considered an obstacle to Green BPM.

Sohns et al. [ 41 ] identified barriers that hinder the implementation of Green BPM in SMEs, i.e., limited time availability, lack of resources, knowledge and experience, high implementation costs, and bureaucracy. In the case of ZGO, implementation was forced by external factors such as changes in law regulations, as well as knowledge and experience.

As pointed out by Shibamoto [ 42 ], companies are focused on managing day-to-day cash flow and less long-term profits or solving social problems. ZGO is a not-for-profit organization that should serve the local community.

As for the research question RQ2, the processes implemented at the MWTP were analyzed, with particular emphasis on the process of mechanical processing (sorting) of waste, including the reuse and recycling of materials, composting, incineration and energy production, landfill storage and efficiency parameters of the sorting line. An attempt was made to assess the waste management system’s sustainable dimension, considering the costs incurred, the results obtained, and the social and environmental perspectives. It corresponds to the statement that a comprehensive view of business is impossible without omitting social and environmental aspects, and emphasizing only the economic aspect does not reflect the diversity of processes in the company.

The results show the relationship between the economic efficiency of the implemented processes and environmental efficiency. Before the construction of the biogas plant, all electricity, which in Poland comes from burning coal, was purchased. The structure of the biogas facility allowed to cover the demand for electricity from renewable sources. Generating own electricity and heat resulted in savings. At the same time, sorting line development affected an increment in the volume of raw materials and the company’s revenue.

Regarding research question RQ3, the analysis included costs, environmental criteria, and key environmental indicators. It has been noticed that despite progressing development and investment in MWTP, some indicators are not monitored, especially social factors. It is worth mentioning that factors such as population, amount of waste generated, human behavior, local waste management practices and urbanization are crucial to designing waste management systems [ 62 ]. It can be said that the higher the ecological awareness of the society, the more pro-ecological activities can be expected from people and institutions generating waste. Undoubtedly, regulations enforcing specific waste segregation methods and implementing business processes by waste disposal plants may play a primary role in this regard. The need to consider environmental indicators in the decision-making system of companies dealing with waste management and implementing green processes seems indisputable. Elements of environmental management should be included in all stages of business process management, such as planning, measurement and improvement. These are indicators relating to process inputs (e.g., rational use of raw materials, materials, energy) and those relating to outputs (reduction of waste and emissions) while maximizing the reuse of waste [ 64 ]. At the same time, it can be noted that there is still very little analytical data available on the interdependence of social, economic and environmental requirements for waste management systems [ 62 ]. In the analyzed MWTP, indicators verifying progress in this area could be used to a greater extent: the degree of energy recovery, recycling and reuse of materials, implementation of policies similar to reducing the emission of harmful substances or landscape design, including tree planting. These indicators should help measure progress toward sustainable development and show environmental, social and economic impacts.

Introducing indicators other than financial ones is not easy to implement. Rajnoha et al. [ 65 ] conducted a sample analysis of all relevant sectors (164 companies). They showed that only traditional financial indicators influence the overall results. While the use of the balanced scorecard method was envisaged, the system initially focused solely on economic indicators based on accounting data from previous years. While enterprises do not operate in a closed system of relationships but in a dynamically changing environment, it is necessary to look at the functioning of business differently and consider its nature. Attention was paid to non-financial indicators and more complex systems supporting business results, emphasizing the strategy and business goals (concerning technological innovation, environment, social aspects, and IT). However, some limitations remain, especially in combining economic, environmental and social outcomes.

Regarding research question RQ4, it should be emphasized that waste disposal, recycling management and energy generation are challenges for many companies in developing economies, including Poland. Despite the perceived depletion of natural resources, the decline in biodiversity and observed climate change, the global economy continues to contribute to increased production and consumption worldwide. In this situation, economic, social and environmental factors significantly impact the development of waste management [ 62 ]. Waste management is a complex system with different impact aspects, and its functions are also dynamic and interdependent. Recovery of resources from waste is one of the primary goals of waste management systems in developed countries. The development of the presented MWTP should also go in this direction. Many companies today focus on waste-to-energy technology, but for Eastern/Central European countries, the priority is low-cost options. However, advanced waste management systems are associated with various environmental and socio-economic problems. Due to the development of awareness about environmental pollution and the various consequences of climate change, a sustainable waste management system is required, which is relatively difficult to achieve.

To further enhance its environmental impact, the MWTP could consider expanding the waste-to-energy technology to increase the efficiency of energy generation from waste, thereby reducing reliance on fossil fuels and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Implementing advanced composting methods can improve the quality and efficiency of compost production, enhancing soil health and reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. Increasing the recovery of valuable materials from waste, such as metals and plastics, through improved sorting and recycling technologies can reduce the extraction of raw materials and promote a circular economy. Adopting and rigorously applying ISO 14001 standards for environmental management can systematically mitigate environmental impacts, ensure regulatory compliance, and improve overall sustainability practices. Enhancing community outreach programs to educate the public on waste reduction, recycling, and the benefits of composting can lead to better waste segregation at the source and higher-quality recyclable materials. Establishing a robust system for monitoring and reporting environmental performance, including regular assessments of energy use, emissions, and resource recovery rates, can inform continuous improvement efforts.

By focusing on these areas, the MWTP can further its commitment to green BPM, resulting in positive environmental changes such as reduced emissions, improved resource efficiency, and increased community engagement in sustainable waste management practices. These targeted improvements will help the MWTP meet regulatory requirements and contribute significantly to the broader goals of environmental sustainability and climate change mitigation.

Future improvement directions should include educating households about the importance of reducing waste, increasing recycling rates, and composting. Public education that raises ecological awareness directly impacts the minimization of MWTP’s negative environmental effects. Research conducted by SEC [ 66 ] indicates that in 2022, Poland saw a significant increase in public awareness related to the value of sustainable development (ESG), but it still remains significantly below the global average. A well-planned advertising campaign can also play a significant role, as its message can influence the attitudes and behaviors of the local community regarding waste generation and segregation methods. The potential of social marketing to shape desired social behaviors is very large. Research shows [ 67 ] that the high awareness of the importance of separating waste could further be strengthened through the tools of social marketing as a factor for social change. Changing people’s attitudes, mindset, and behaviors is the way to positively impact the environment, Changing people’s attitudes, mindset, and behaviors is crucial to positively impact the environment [ 68 ]. This applies not only to promoting individual environmentally-friendly lifestyles, but also in the context of building support for systemic changes so that each entity (e.g., at the individual and business level) behaves in accordance with ecological values [ 69 ].

The development of green BPM can take place in stages. Such transformation should be planned and structured, considering the needs of various stakeholders, including the local community. The change towards green BPM requires that all process improvement initiatives align with the organization’s strategic goals, considering the process architecture and the operational plane (implementation of changes). There is a close relationship between process architecture, process management across the organization, redesigning business processes in a "green" direction and adapting technological changes. Sustainable development issues usually involve a combination of three pillars: economic, social and environmental [ 70 ]; the decision-making approach should consider and integrate all three. These aspects may lack relevant data, have multiple (sometimes controversial) goals, or have different stakeholders responsible and interested in achieving those goals. It is also difficult to talk about the advantage of one group over the other.

The approach to gain empirical insights into how Green BPM is implemented at different maturity levels in manufacturing SMEs was applied. The business sustainability practices of waste management in Eastern/Central European countries focus on low-cost options. There are vast discrepancies in waste management performance across different regions.

Different factors influence whether companies integrate economic, social and environmental indicators into their performance management system. Larger companies and companies in environmentally low-impact industries generally integrated more sustainability indicators into their performance management systems, especially if sustainability managers considered them important to performance. Large companies and companies from environmentally high-impact industries integrated social, but generally not environmental indicators into their performance management systems. Conspicuously, whether or not an indicator was included in corporate sustainability reports did not influence its integration into a company’s performance management system. The results thus highlight the lack of synergy between external corporate sustainability reports and internal sustainability performance management, which organizations need to address to become more sustainable.

Furthermore, it is imperative to acknowledge the limitations within the research, which can impact the extent to which these findings can be generalized. The study primarily shows the perspective of a single selected company, which naturally restricts the broader implications of the introduced changes across the entire network of connections. An intriguing avenue for future research lies in exploring the comprehensive effects of these alterations, including a thorough assessment of the CO 2 emissions associated with utilizing the produced RDF throughout various sectors. Regrettably, due to the case study design, it was confined to the examination of a solitary company. As a result, the authors could not provide information regarding the specific CO 2 emissions resulting from using RDF as a fuel in cement plants.

Moreover, the study encountered constraints stemming from the unavailability of specific data. The company deemed some data confidential and proprietary, precluding their inclusion in this research. These classified data were, therefore, omitted from the study, limiting our ability to present a complete and comprehensive analysis.

Conclusions

The MWTP’s performance has been monitored for 12 years while the financial and environmental impact of the implementation of green BPM has been studied. This paper has shown a successful implementation of BPM, with promising results when it comes to costs and material savings. The study also shows how implementing green BPM makes the municipal waste treatment company environmentally aware and economically feasible. These results must be interpreted cautiously because this case study deals only with the Polish municipal waste treatment plant. The authors are aware that their case study is limited and may not represent Polish waste treatment plants and that the conclusions may not be transferable to other settings due to the difficulty of replicating the results. The case study’s findings are expected to inspire other waste treatment plants to adopt green BPM. Perhaps the following case study will help raise awareness and promote the implementation of green BPM in municipal plants in Eastern and Southern Europe. Future research is needed to confirm statements among other companies to get more representative results. It is extremely important to verify the implementation of green BPM because of a lack of practical knowledge on this subject. Our research fulfills the gap in practical studies in implementing green BPM. Various factors drive the trends in the development of waste treatment technology. Their identification is essential to understanding and planning the design of a new system in the waste management sector. However, the development of waste technology also involves other issues, such as changing personal and social viewpoints. Therefore, the MWTP still needs to develop the green BPM approach; it still does not implement such strategic goals as increasing social awareness, the impact of human behavior, local management practices and the introduction of social marketing. To further minimize its negative environmental impact, the MWTP should consider several specific directions for improvement. First, expanding waste-to-energy technology can increase the efficiency of energy generation from waste. Second, implementing advanced composting techniques can enhance the quality and efficiency of compost production. Third, increasing the recovery of valuable materials from waste through improved sorting and recycling technologies can foster a circular economy. Adopting ISO 14001 standards can reduce environmental impacts, ensure regulatory compliance, and enhance sustainability practices. Enhancing community outreach programs can lead to better waste segregation and higher-quality recyclable materials. Finally, establishing a robust monitoring and reporting system for environmental performance can support continuous improvement efforts.

These targeted improvements will help the MWTP meet regulatory requirements and significantly contribute to broader environmental sustainability and climate change mitigation goals. The positive outcomes of these efforts include reduced emissions, improved resource efficiency, and increased community engagement in sustainable waste management practices.

References:

Zaman AU, Lehmann S (2013) The zero waste index: a performance measurement tool for waste management systems in a ‘zero waste city.’ J Clean Prod 50:123–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.11.041

Article   Google Scholar  

Ham GY, Matsuto T (2021) Comparison of energy recovery system from municipal solid waste in terms of energy balance and life cycle CO2 emission. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 23:1751–1764. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10163-021-01212-9/FIGURES/6

Kaur S, Gupta S, Singh SK, Perano M (2019) Organizational ambidexterity through global strategic partnerships: a cognitive computing perspective. Technol Forecast Soc Change 145:43–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.04.027

UN General Assembly (2015) Transforming Our World: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. 21 October 2015, A/RES/70/1

Smith H, Discetti R, Bellucci M, Acuti D (2022) SMEs engagement with the sustainable development goals: a power perspective. J Bus Res 149:112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JBUSRES.2022.05.021

Tare M (2020) Education for sustainable development. Technol Innov 21:1–3

Reijers HA, Liman Mansar S (2005) Best practices in business process redesign: an overview and qualitative evaluation of successful redesign heuristics. Omega (Westport) 33:283–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omega.2004.04.012

Nowak A, Leymann F, Schumm D (2011) The differences and commonalities between green and conventional business process management. 2011 IEEE ninth International conference on dependable, autonomic and secure computing. IEEE, pp 569–576

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Seidel S, Recker J (2011) Green business process management and a call the role of business process management in green initiatives. Bus Inf Syst Eng 3:245–252

Google Scholar  

Das S, Lee SH, Kumar P et al (2019) Solid waste management: Scope and the challenge of sustainability. J Clean Prod 228:658–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2019.04.323

Amato A, Magi Galluzzi L, Beolchini F (2022) Effect of MBT on landfill behavior: an Italian case study. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 24:2569–2581. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10163-022-01501-X/TABLES/1

Kumar A, Singh E, Mishra R et al (2023) Global trends in municipal solid waste treatment technologies through the lens of sustainable energy development opportunity. Energy 275:127471. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENERGY.2023.127471

Malinauskaite J, Jouhara H, Czajczyńska D et al (2017) Municipal solid waste management and waste-to-energy in the context of a circular economy and energy recycling in Europe. Energy 141:2013–2044. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENERGY.2017.11.128

Beusch P, Frisk JE, Rosén M, Dilla W (2022) Management control for sustainability: towards integrated systems. Manag Account Res 54:100777. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MAR.2021.100777

Couckuyt D, van Looy A (2020) A systematic review of Green Business Process Management. Bus Process Manag J 26:421–446

Gohar SR, Indulska M (2020) Environmental Sustainability through Green Business Process Management. Australas J Inf Syst 24:1–30. https://doi.org/10.3127/AJIS.V24I0.2057

Elkington J (1999) Cannibals with forks: the triple bottom line of 21st century business. Choice Rev Online. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.36-3997

Dustdar S, Fiadeiro JL, Sheth A (2008) Business process management. Data Knowl Eng 64:1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.datak.2007.06.004

Ortbach K, Plattfaut R, Poppelbuß J, Niehaves B (2012) A dynamic capability-based framework for business process management: theorizing and empirical application. 45th Hawaii International conference on system sciences. IEEE, pp 4287–4296

Niehaves B, Poeppelbuss J, Plattfaut R, Becker J (2014) BPM capability development—a matter of contingencies. Bus Process Manag J 20:90–106. https://doi.org/10.1108/BPMJ-07-2012-0068

Weitlaner D, Kohlbacher M (2015) Process management practices: organizational (dis-)similarities. Serv Ind J 35:44–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2014.979402

Levina O (2015) Exploring the Role of Business Process Management in Sustainability Initiatives. In: MCIS 2015 Proceedings. p 35

Loepp F, Betz S (2015) Sustainability practices in companies : strategies business process management ICT. In: SIG Green Workshop. pp 1–10

Bossle MB, Dutra de Barcellos M, Vieira LM, Sauvée L (2016) The drivers for adoption of eco-innovation. J Clean Prod 113:861–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.033

Eiadat Y, Kelly A, Roche F, Eyadat H (2008) Green and competitive? An empirical test of the mediating role of environmental innovation strategy. J World Bus 43:131–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2007.11.012

Masoumik SM, Abdul-Rashid SH, Olugu EU (2015) Importance-performance analysis of green strategy adoption within the Malaysian manufacturing industry. Procedia CIRP. Elsevier, pp 646–652

Kumar Piaralal S, Nair SR, Yahya N, Karim JA (2015) An integrated model of the likelihood and extent of adoption of green practices in small and medium sized logistics firms. Am J Econ 5:251–258

Kaza S, Yao LC, Bhada-Tata P, Van Woerden F (2018) What a waste 2.0. What a waste 20: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Publications

Book   Google Scholar  

Eurostat (2023) Eurostat Report

Statistics Poland (2022) Environment. Warsaw

Kuppusamy M, Gharleghi B (2015) “Green business process management” in manufacturing firms: examining the role of upstream and downstream suppliers. Int J Appl Bus Econ Res 13:259–271

Jeston J (2014) Business process management : practical Guidelines to successful implementations. Routledge

Zeise N, Link M, Ortner E (2012) Measurement systems for sustainability evaluation and extension of common measurement systems with regard to sustainability. In: vom Brocke J, Seidel S, Recker J (eds) Green business process management. Towards the sustainable enterprise, 127th edn. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 131–146

Opitz N, Krüp H, Kolbe LM (2014) Green business process management–A definition and research framework. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International conference on system sciences. IEEE, pp 3808–3817

Lan Y-C (2011) Reengineering a green business. Int J Green Computing 2:1–11. https://doi.org/10.4018/jgc.2011010101

Hoesch-Klohe K, Ghose A, Lê LS (2010) Towards green business process management. Proceedings–2010 IEEE 7th International Conference on services computing. IEEE, pp 386–393

Murugesan S (2008) Harnessing green IT: principles and practices. IT Prof 10:24–33. https://doi.org/10.1109/MITP.2008.10

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Bocken NMP, Short SW, Rana P, Evans S (2014) A literature and practice review to develop sustainable business model archetypes. J Clean Prod 65:42–56

Maciel JC (2017) The Core Capabilities of Green Business Process Management – A Literature Review. In: International Conference on Wirtschatsinformatik. pp 1526–1537

Hernández González A, Calero C, Pérez Parra D, Mancebo J (2019) Approaching green BPM characterisation. J Softw: Evol Process 31:e2145

Sohns TM, Aysolmaz B, Figge L, Joshi A (2023) Green business process management for business sustainability: a case study of manufacturing small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) from Germany. J Clean Prod 401:136667. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2023.136667

Shibamoto M (2022) Environmental Awareness and Green Business Practices in the Small Business Sector: Empirical Evidence Using a Small and Medium-sized Enterprises Survey in Japan. Discussion Paper Series

Martinsuo M, Huemann M (2021) Designing case study research. Int J Project Manage 39:417–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2021.06.007

Martinsuo M, Huemann M (2021) Reporting case studies for making an impact. Int J Project Manage 39:827–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2021.11.005

Lindgreen A, di Benedetto CA, Beverland MB (2021) How to write up case-study methodology sections. Ind Mark Manage 96:A7–A10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2020.04.012

Rowley J (2002) Using case studies in research. Manag Res News 25:16–27. https://doi.org/10.1108/01409170210782990

Vrontis D, Siachou E, Sakka G et al (2022) Societal effects of social media in organizations: Reflective points deriving from a systematic literature review and a bibliometric meta-analysis. Eur Manag J 40:151–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2022.01.007

Yin RK (2014) Case study research design and methods. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA

Dyer JH, Nobeoka K (2000) Creating and managing a high-performance knowledge-sharing network: the Toyota case. Strateg Manag J 21:345–367

Ridder HG (2017) The theory contribution of case study research designs. Bus Res 10:281–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/S40685-017-0045-Z/TABLES/2

Eisenhardt KM, Graebner ME (2007) Theory building from cases: opportunities and challenges. Acad Manag J 50:25–32. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2007.24160888

Ebneyamini S, Sadeghi Moghadam MR (2018) Toward developing a framework for conducting case study research. Int J Qual Methods 17:160940691881795. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406918817954

Profil działalności ZGO Gać | Zakład Gospodarowania Odpadami Gać Sp.z o.o. https://zgo.org.pl/o-firmie/profil-dzialalnosci.html . Accessed 28 Apr 2023

Mapa Zakład Gospodarowania Odpadami Gać Sp.z o.o. https://zgo.org.pl/kontakt/mapa-dojazdu.html . Accessed 28 Apr 2023

Podstawy działalności - Decyzje, pozwolenia | Zakład Gospodarowania Odpadami Gać Sp.z o.o. https://zgo.org.pl/podstawy-dzialalnosci/decyzje-pozwolenia.html . Accessed 28 Apr 2023

Podstawy działalności - Cennik | Zakład Gospodarowania Odpadami Gać Sp.z o.o. https://zgo.org.pl/podstawy-dzialalnosci/cennik-uslug.html . Accessed 28 Apr 2023

Podstawy działalności - Ogólne warunki sprzedaży surowców | Zakład Gospodarowania Odpadami Gać Sp.z o.o. https://zgo.org.pl/podstawy-dzialalnosci/ogolne-warunki-sprzedazy-surowcow.html . Accessed 28 Apr 2023

Projekty UE - “System gospodarki odpadami Ślęza-Oława” | Zakład Gospodarowania Odpadami Gać Sp.z o.o. https://zgo.org.pl/projekty-unijne-/system-gospodarki-odpadami-sleza-olawa.html . Accessed 28 Apr 2023

Projekty UE - “Optymalizacja procesów...” | Zakład Gospodarowania Odpadami Gać Sp.z o.o. https://zgo.org.pl/projekty-unijne-/optymalizacja-procesow.html . Accessed 28 Apr 2023

(2023) Narodowy Fundusz Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej. https://www.gov.pl/web/nfosigw/narodowy-fundusz-ochrony-srodowiska-i-gospodarki-wodnej . Accessed 28 Apr 2023

Aktualny projekt | Zakład Gospodarowania Odpadami Gać Sp.z o.o. https://zgo.org.pl/aktualny-projekt.html . Accessed 28 Apr 2023

Zaman AU (2013) Identification of waste management development drivers and potential emerging waste treatment technologies. Int J Environ Sci Technol 10:455–464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-013-0187-2

Cainelli G, D’Amato A, Mazzanti M (2015) Adoption of waste-reducing technology in manufacturing: regional factors and policy issues. Resour Energy Econ 39:53–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reseneeco.2014.11.004

Kralj D (2010) Environmental waste management in constructions. In: Sarkar SK (ed) Environmental management. Sciyo, pp 35–68

Rajnoha R, Lesníková P, Krajčík V (2017) Influence of business performance measurement systems and corporate sustainability concept to overal business performance: “save the planet and keep your performance.” Ekonomie a Management 20:111–128. https://doi.org/10.15240/tul/001/2017-1-008

Poland Report 2023-Reports-ESG Monitor|SEC Newgate. https://secnewgate.com/esg-monitor/reports/poland-report-2023/ . Accessed 12 Jun 2024

Faganel A, Streicher A (2022) Social marketing as a tool for a sustainable municipal waste management. Econ Cult 19:87–97. https://doi.org/10.2478/JEC-2022-0008

Esmaeilian B, Wang B, Lewis K et al (2018) The future of waste management in smart and sustainable cities: a review and concept paper. Waste Manage 81:177–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WASMAN.2018.09.047

Chomsky N, Pollin R, Polychroniou CJ (2020) Climate crisis and the global green new deal: the political economy of saving the planet. Verso Books

Gholami R, Watson RT, Molla A et al (2016) Information systems solutions for environmental sustainability: how can we do more? J Assoc Inf Syst 17:521–536. https://doi.org/10.17705/1jais.00435

Download references

Acknowledgements

Małgorzata Agnieszka Jarossova acknowledges support provided by project VEGA no. 1/0398/22 “The current status and perspectives of the development of the market of healthy, environmentally friendly and carbon-neutral products in Slovakia and the European Union.” funded by The Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic.

Renata Brajer-Marczak, Przemysław Seruga and Małgorzata Krzywonos declare that there was no funding for this study.

Agentúra Ministerstva Školstva,Vedy,Výskumu a Športu SR,1/0398/22,Małgorzata Agnieszka Jarossova

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Economics and Organization of Enterprises, Faculty of Management, Wroclaw University of Economics and Business, 118/120, 53-345, KomandorskaWroclaw, Poland

Renata Brajer-Marczak

Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Faculty of Production Engineering, Wroclaw University of Economics and Business, 118/120, 53-345, KomandorskaWroclaw, Poland

Przemysław Seruga

Department of Marketing, Faculty of Commerce, University of Economics in Bratislava, Dolnozemská Cesta 1, 852 35, Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Małgorzata Agnieszka Jarossova

Department of Process Management, Wroclaw University of Economics and Business, Komandorska 118/120, 53-345, Wroclaw, Poland

Małgorzata Krzywonos

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All of the authors have worked together on the concept of the manuscript and methodology. All of the authors were involved in the investigations, data collection, original draft preparation, review and editing. All of the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Renata Brajer-Marczak .

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Brajer-Marczak, R., Seruga, P., Jarossova, M.A. et al. Green business process management in a Polish municipal waste treatment plant-regional case study. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-024-02025-2

Download citation

Received : 05 February 2023

Accepted : 25 June 2024

Published : 10 July 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-024-02025-2

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Green business process management
• Key performance indicators
• Key environmental indicators
• Municipal waste management
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Screen Rant

Criminal minds: evolution season 2 episode 7 ending explained.

Your changes have been saved

Email Is sent

Please verify your email address.

You’ve reached your account maximum for followed topics.

Criminal Minds: Evolution's Joe Mantegna & Felicity Huffman On David Rossi's PTSD And History Of The BAU

Criminal minds: 15 most memorable unsubs, ranked, american horror story asylum: the true story that inspired season 2.

This article contains discussion of death during childbirth, infant death, and the Holocaust.

Warning! This article contains SPOILERS for Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7.

• Criminal Minds: Evolution episode 7 delved into a disturbing case unrelated to "Gold Star" with a shocking plot twist and an unsettling unsub.
• Voit's mysterious actions behind bars unveil major trouble for the BAU, hinting at a chest with unknown contents and a grand return of Damien, Jade, and others.
• Jill Gideon's involvement in the "Gold Star" case highlights Rossi's past affair, while the case unfolds with a heartbreaking twist.

Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 continued its trend of disturbing episodes with a new case unrelated to “Gold Star,” while Emily reached out to an old friend with a unique connection to the BAU. Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 6 was one of the most chilling episodes of the season thus far thanks to Rossi’s dream about Emily and Voit. Yet, season 2, episode 7 managed to raise the level of Criminal Minds: Evolution’s creep factor with its unsub and a shocking plot twist.

The show has a long history with unsettling unsubs, as evidenced by the mention of Tommy Yates in Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2 , episode 6. The series often takes inspiration from real-life cases, and some episodes may keep viewers up at night. Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 reminded viewers of some of the best Criminal Minds episodes by somewhat pushing the “Gold Star” storyline to the background to focus on a single-episode case that will stick with viewers and the BAU team.

20 Criminal Minds Episodes Based On Real Cases

There are Criminal Minds episodes that are both reasonably straight copies of real killers as well as episodes using real-life cases as a reference.

What Is Voit Doing With Damien In Criminal: Minds Evolution Season 2?

Voit had his lawyer uncover a chest for damien at the end of criminal minds: evolution season 2.

As aforementioned, unlike previous episodes of Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, the spotlight wasn’t on the “Gold Star” case. Thus, there wasn’t much to do with Voit in Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7. He appeared in just a few scenes, but his final scene could spell major trouble for the BAU in the upcoming episodes. In Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 5 , Voit secretly meets up with Damien about “North Star,” which Rossi later discovered was the BAU.

Yet, Rossi and the team still don’t know about the meeting between the serial killers. It’s clear that Voit has been playing the team, and the end of Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 revealed just how much power he still has behind bars. Voit convinced his lawyer to dig up a chest, not knowing what he was digging up or what was in it.

Damien, Jade, and "Gold Star" team members haven't appeared since Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 5, suggesting a grand return in the next episode.

Voit told him the chest needed to be delivered to Damien, and he wasn’t supposed to look inside. However, Voit also gave his lawyer the code (4-0-0-8), and as soon as their phone call ended, the lawyer opened it. Voit likely gave the warning as a test, knowing his lawyer would be too tempted to leave it locked, but Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 didn’t show the chest’s contents. It’s been hinted that it contains Gideon and Rossi’s “White Paper,” but Voit has shown viewers must expect the unexpected.

What Epigenetics Is & Its Role In The Gold Star Case Explained

The gold star program was created by an epigenetic study.

Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 was directed by Aisha Tyler, who has played Dr. Tara Lewis since Criminal Minds season 11 . This is the fourth Criminal Minds episode Tyler directed, the first being the memorable season 13 episode, “The Bunker.” Thus, it wasn’t surprising that Tara played a smaller role in Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7, with all her scenes taking place at Quantico.

Criminal Minds: Every Episode Matthew Gray Gubler Directed, Ranked

Matthew Gray Gubler hasn't returned for the Criminal Minds reboot. However, fans can still appreciate the several episodes he directed.

This doesn’t mean her role wasn’t important, as she broke down important parts of the “White Paper” and how epigenetics is connected to the “Gold Star” case. As Tara explained, the epigenetics field revolves around the question of how environmental factors affect genes, which gets “ bananas ” regarding mental illness. Whoever created the “Gold Star” program did it as an epigenetic study.

The “White Paper,” which was never meant to be published, included a hypothetical scenario as to how serial killers can be created by their environment from a young age. Whoever found the papers and created “Gold Star” wanted to see what would happen if you could identify “ emerging psychopathy in kids , then promote it, direct it, and control it .” Understanding epigenetics could be the key to unlocking the “Gold Star” case and profiling Damien, Jade, and the other unsubs.

Why Emily Ignores Rossi’s Order In Criminal Minds: Evolution Season 2 Episode 7

Rossi forbids emily from contacting jill gideon.

Emily brings up consulting Jill Gideon (Felicity Huffman), original BAU founding member Jason Gideon’s ex-wife. Jill is a doctor whose focus is epigenetics, so she’d be a perfect consultant for the “Gold Star” case, but Rossi didn’t want her help. Rossi tells Emily he’d never said such a thing to Emily in the past, but he was “ forbidding ” her from contacting Jill. Of course, Emily is the BAU’s Unit Chief, not Rossi, so she has no real obligation to Rossi’s orders.

Criminal Minds: Evolution Season 2's New Actor Sets Up An Original Character Return After 17 Years

The latest Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2 casting update paves the way for the return of an original cast member 17 years since they left.

As such, she has no issue ignoring Rossi, despite her respect for him, and reaching out to Jill herself. Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 reveals that Jill was instrumental in creating the BAU, but they hid her role because Gideon was afraid it would put her in danger. This was understandable given Gideon was killed off in Criminal Minds season 10 by an unsub from an old unsolved case , years after Mandy Patinkin’s exit in Criminal Minds season 2 .

Given Jill’s background and her potential role in helping write the “White Paper,” Emily knew having her as a consultant would be invaluable to their case. Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 also revealed that Jill knew the BAU agents, or at least those who have been around since the show’s earlier seasons. In a sweet moment, Jill tells Emily that Gideon loved Emily back, which she says means a lot to her. Gideon and Emily didn’t work together long, but it was a nice reminder of how important he was and still is to the BAU.

Rossi’s History With Jill Gideon In Criminal Minds Explained

Rossi & jill gideon had an affair before rossi left the bau.

Emily pulls out all the stops when she meets up with Jill in Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 to convince her to help them with the “Gold Star” case. Jill didn’t want to return to Quantico, claiming it was too painful. Emily assumes this is because of Gideon’s untimely death, but Jill says it’s been 9 years–which comes as a bit of a reality check for Criminal Minds viewers as to how much time has passed–and she’s already grieved him.

Instead, Jill doesn’t want to come back to Quantico and work with the BAU team because of Rossi. It’s revealed that Rossi once had an affair with Jill, emotional or physical, that led to his leaving the BAU in 1997. Rossi had told Emily and others he left because he was tired of FBI bureaucracy and wanted to write books, but Jill reveals it was because she broke his heart.

Joe Mantegna and Felicity Huffman discuss exploring the history of the BAU in Criminal Minds: Evolution, Gideon's legacy, and connection to Gold Star.

Though this may come as a surprise and change Gideon and Rossi’s relationship in Criminal Minds , it fits in with Rossi’s history. Rossi was married three times before settling down with Krystall, with the couple remarrying at the end of Criminal Minds season 14. Sadly, Krystall dies in the time jump between Criminal Minds and Criminal Minds: Evolution . Hopefully, Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2 doesn’t try to rekindle Jill and Rossi’s romance , as it would do a disservice to Gideon’s memory.

What Happened To Emma In Criminal Minds: Evolution Season 2 Episode 7's Ending

Emma & the baby died during birth in criminal minds: evolution.

Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 opened with a gruesome, haunting scene that introduced viewers to the unsub and his unique torture and killing method. The unsub, Roger Song, was played brilliantly by guest star Aaron Yoo, who is known for horror films Disturbia and Friday the 13th . Roger would kidnap men, lock them in a glass case, and interrogate them. If he didn’t get the answers he wanted, which he never did, he’d trigger a shower head to rain down a burning mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide, dissolving their bodies.

At first, it appears as though Roger is killing these men because they raped and impregnated his wife, Emma, who has postpartum depression and complications from a home birth. He is calm and composed with the victims, but he frantically tries to balance these killings, taking care of a newborn baby by himself, and tending to his wife. It also seems like she’s in on the plan and wants Roger to kill the men so she can finally “ pretend ” to be “ the perfect mom .”

Through 15 seasons, Criminal Minds created some of the most unsettling unsubs.

As if things weren’t twisted enough, it’s revealed that Roger is having a psychotic break and the men weren’t rapists but potential sperm donors. After his wife starts hemorrhaging, he kidnaps the doctor who had helped them with IVF and warned them against a home birth. The slow realization that Emma and the baby weren't crying for help is chilling and heartbreaking, as Roger had been tending to their decomposing bodies since they died during the birth. Even when apprehended, he asks Luke and JJ to take care of them, still unable to process their deaths.

The Real Meaning Of Tyler's Comparison Between The Gold Star Program's Creator & Dr. Mengele

Dr. mengele was known as the angel of death.

When discussing epigenetics with Tara and Emily, Tyler compares whoever created the “Gold Star Program” to Dr. Mengele. Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7 doesn’t further elaborate on the reference, requiring viewers to know about Josef Mengele, who was nicknamed the “Angel of Death.” He was a German Schutzstaffel (SS) officer and doctor during World War II who performed deadly experiments on prisoners at the Auschwitz II (Birkenau) concentration camp.

One of Dr. Mengele’s roles was selecting victims to be murdered in the gas chambers. He was also one of the doctors who administered the deadly gas. Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7, in perhaps a cruel twist of irony, references the historical doctor in an episode where the unsub locks victims in an enclosed space and kills them via an acidic shower. Yet, the Dr. Mengele reference was more specific to the “Gold Star Program” creator.

American Horror Story: Asylum is inspired by several real people and places. From institutions to killers, to aliens, Asylum is chillingly true.

Dr. Mengele, who also conducted harmful, deadly genetic research on twins, selected people to be killed, while the "Gold Star Program" creator selected children to become killers. After World War II, the doctor fled to Argentina and spent the rest of his years on the run from Nazi hunters and governments. He drowned in 1979 after a heart attack while swimming and was buried under a false name. Though it’s a quick reference in Criminal Minds: Evolution season 2, episode 7, Dr. Mengele’s fate could suggest that the “Gold Star Program” creator will also evade justice.

Source: Holocaust Encylopedia

Criminal Minds: Evolution

In Criminal Minds: Evolution , the FBI’s elite team of criminal profilers come up against their greatest threat yet, an UnSub who has used the pandemic to build a network of other serial killers. As the world opens back up and the network goes operational, the team must hunt them down, one murder at a time. Original cast members continuing their roles include Joe Mantegna, A.J. Cook, Kirsten Vangsness, Aisha Tyler, Adam Rodriguez and Paget Brewster. Zach Gilford joins the dynamic cast as a recurring guest star in a season-long arc.

AISI Applauds Introduction of “PROVE IT” Act in House

WASHINGTON, D.C. – Kevin Dempsey, president and CEO of the American Iron and Steel Institute, today applauded the introduction of the “Providing Reliable, Objective, Verifiable Emissions Intensity and Transparency (PROVE IT) Act,” sponsored by Reps. John Curtis (R-UT) and Scott Peters (D-CA). The bill authorizes a comprehensive Energy Department study to compare the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity of certain goods, including steel, produced in the U.S. to the emissions intensity of those same goods produced in other countries.

“American steel is the cleanest in the world and American steel producers are investing significant dollars to further reduce emissions. But these investments will be put at risk if American steel is undercut by dumped imports from countries with much higher emissions. Trade-distorting policies in many countries continue to contribute to massive global overcapacity in steel — much of which is from countries that are producing steel that is much more carbon emissions-intensive than American steel, including China, India, Indonesia and other Southeast Asian nations,” Dempsey said. “We need policies to demonstrate this current imbalance in emissions and hold the high emitting producers from overseas accountable for their much higher carbon emissions. The PROVE IT Act would do as its name implies by creating an official source to verify the superior carbon efficiency of vital American industries, like steel, and give policymakers the data needed to make the case for action. We applaud Reps. Curtis and Peters for introducing this critical bipartisan bill, and for their commitment to improving the accountability of the most GHG-intensive global producers.”

Dempsey said the bill also includes industry-supported provisions to clarify that the legislation will not be used to establish a fee or greater regulation of domestic GHG emissions. A similar Senate version of the PROVE IT Act legislation passed the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee by a vote of 14-5 in January.

Contact: Lisa Harrison

202.452.7115 /  [email protected]

AISI serves as the voice of the American steel industry in the public policy arena and advances the case for steel in the marketplace as the preferred material of choice. AISI’s membership is  comprised  of integrated and electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmakers reflecting the production of both carbon and stainless steels which are critical to the everyday lives of all Americans — including national security, roads and bridges, the electrical grid, clean energy technologies and the automotive market. AISI also  represents   nearly 80  associate members who are suppliers to or customers of the steel industry. For more news about steel and its applications, view AISI’s website at  www.steel.org . Follow AISI on  Facebook ,  LinkedIn ,  Twitter  (@AISISteel) or  Instagram .  

Economic Impact Study

Steel industry news, aisi releases june sima imports data, steel industry, union rally on capitol hill for bill to stop unfair trade, aisi statement on melt and pour rule for steel imports from mexico, may steel shipments up 1.0 percent from prior month, new aisi op-ed in steel market update, steel imports up 1.7% in may vs. april, aisi releases may sima imports data.

More News »