case study research qualitative

• Privacy Policy

Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Quasi-Experimental Research Design – Types...

One-to-One Interview – Methods and Guide

Questionnaire – Definition, Types, and Examples

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types...

Triangulation in Research – Types, Methods and...

Basic Research – Types, Methods and Examples

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

Whatever field you're in, ATLAS.ti puts your data to work for you

Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti to turn your data into insights.

Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

Ready to jumpstart your research with ATLAS.ti?

Conceptualize your research project with our intuitive data analysis interface. Download a free trial today.

Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

Ready to analyze your data with ATLAS.ti?

See how our intuitive software can draw key insights from your data with a free trial today.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved July 8, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Neurol Res Pract

How to use and assess qualitative research methods

Loraine busetto.

1 Department of Neurology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany

Wolfgang Wick

2 Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuro-Oncology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany

Christoph Gumbinger

Associated data.

Not applicable.

This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions, and focussing on intervention improvement. The most common methods of data collection are document study, (non-) participant observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups. For data analysis, field-notes and audio-recordings are transcribed into protocols and transcripts, and coded using qualitative data management software. Criteria such as checklists, reflexivity, sampling strategies, piloting, co-coding, member-checking and stakeholder involvement can be used to enhance and assess the quality of the research conducted. Using qualitative in addition to quantitative designs will equip us with better tools to address a greater range of research problems, and to fill in blind spots in current neurological research and practice.

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of qualitative research methods, including hands-on information on how they can be used, reported and assessed. This article is intended for beginning qualitative researchers in the health sciences as well as experienced quantitative researchers who wish to broaden their understanding of qualitative research.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as “the study of the nature of phenomena”, including “their quality, different manifestations, the context in which they appear or the perspectives from which they can be perceived” , but excluding “their range, frequency and place in an objectively determined chain of cause and effect” [ 1 ]. This formal definition can be complemented with a more pragmatic rule of thumb: qualitative research generally includes data in form of words rather than numbers [ 2 ].

Why conduct qualitative research?

Because some research questions cannot be answered using (only) quantitative methods. For example, one Australian study addressed the issue of why patients from Aboriginal communities often present late or not at all to specialist services offered by tertiary care hospitals. Using qualitative interviews with patients and staff, it found one of the most significant access barriers to be transportation problems, including some towns and communities simply not having a bus service to the hospital [ 3 ]. A quantitative study could have measured the number of patients over time or even looked at possible explanatory factors – but only those previously known or suspected to be of relevance. To discover reasons for observed patterns, especially the invisible or surprising ones, qualitative designs are needed.

While qualitative research is common in other fields, it is still relatively underrepresented in health services research. The latter field is more traditionally rooted in the evidence-based-medicine paradigm, as seen in " research that involves testing the effectiveness of various strategies to achieve changes in clinical practice, preferably applying randomised controlled trial study designs (...) " [ 4 ]. This focus on quantitative research and specifically randomised controlled trials (RCT) is visible in the idea of a hierarchy of research evidence which assumes that some research designs are objectively better than others, and that choosing a "lesser" design is only acceptable when the better ones are not practically or ethically feasible [ 5 , 6 ]. Others, however, argue that an objective hierarchy does not exist, and that, instead, the research design and methods should be chosen to fit the specific research question at hand – "questions before methods" [ 2 , 7 – 9 ]. This means that even when an RCT is possible, some research problems require a different design that is better suited to addressing them. Arguing in JAMA, Berwick uses the example of rapid response teams in hospitals, which he describes as " a complex, multicomponent intervention – essentially a process of social change" susceptible to a range of different context factors including leadership or organisation history. According to him, "[in] such complex terrain, the RCT is an impoverished way to learn. Critics who use it as a truth standard in this context are incorrect" [ 8 ] . Instead of limiting oneself to RCTs, Berwick recommends embracing a wider range of methods , including qualitative ones, which for "these specific applications, (...) are not compromises in learning how to improve; they are superior" [ 8 ].

Research problems that can be approached particularly well using qualitative methods include assessing complex multi-component interventions or systems (of change), addressing questions beyond “what works”, towards “what works for whom when, how and why”, and focussing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation [ 7 , 9 – 12 ]. Using qualitative methods can also help shed light on the “softer” side of medical treatment. For example, while quantitative trials can measure the costs and benefits of neuro-oncological treatment in terms of survival rates or adverse effects, qualitative research can help provide a better understanding of patient or caregiver stress, visibility of illness or out-of-pocket expenses.

How to conduct qualitative research?

Given that qualitative research is characterised by flexibility, openness and responsivity to context, the steps of data collection and analysis are not as separate and consecutive as they tend to be in quantitative research [ 13 , 14 ]. As Fossey puts it : “sampling, data collection, analysis and interpretation are related to each other in a cyclical (iterative) manner, rather than following one after another in a stepwise approach” [ 15 ]. The researcher can make educated decisions with regard to the choice of method, how they are implemented, and to which and how many units they are applied [ 13 ]. As shown in Fig.  1 , this can involve several back-and-forth steps between data collection and analysis where new insights and experiences can lead to adaption and expansion of the original plan. Some insights may also necessitate a revision of the research question and/or the research design as a whole. The process ends when saturation is achieved, i.e. when no relevant new information can be found (see also below: sampling and saturation). For reasons of transparency, it is essential for all decisions as well as the underlying reasoning to be well-documented.

Iterative research process

While it is not always explicitly addressed, qualitative methods reflect a different underlying research paradigm than quantitative research (e.g. constructivism or interpretivism as opposed to positivism). The choice of methods can be based on the respective underlying substantive theory or theoretical framework used by the researcher [ 2 ].

Data collection

The methods of qualitative data collection most commonly used in health research are document study, observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups [ 1 , 14 , 16 , 17 ].

Document study

Document study (also called document analysis) refers to the review by the researcher of written materials [ 14 ]. These can include personal and non-personal documents such as archives, annual reports, guidelines, policy documents, diaries or letters.

Observations

Observations are particularly useful to gain insights into a certain setting and actual behaviour – as opposed to reported behaviour or opinions [ 13 ]. Qualitative observations can be either participant or non-participant in nature. In participant observations, the observer is part of the observed setting, for example a nurse working in an intensive care unit [ 18 ]. In non-participant observations, the observer is “on the outside looking in”, i.e. present in but not part of the situation, trying not to influence the setting by their presence. Observations can be planned (e.g. for 3 h during the day or night shift) or ad hoc (e.g. as soon as a stroke patient arrives at the emergency room). During the observation, the observer takes notes on everything or certain pre-determined parts of what is happening around them, for example focusing on physician-patient interactions or communication between different professional groups. Written notes can be taken during or after the observations, depending on feasibility (which is usually lower during participant observations) and acceptability (e.g. when the observer is perceived to be judging the observed). Afterwards, these field notes are transcribed into observation protocols. If more than one observer was involved, field notes are taken independently, but notes can be consolidated into one protocol after discussions. Advantages of conducting observations include minimising the distance between the researcher and the researched, the potential discovery of topics that the researcher did not realise were relevant and gaining deeper insights into the real-world dimensions of the research problem at hand [ 18 ].

Semi-structured interviews

Hijmans & Kuyper describe qualitative interviews as “an exchange with an informal character, a conversation with a goal” [ 19 ]. Interviews are used to gain insights into a person’s subjective experiences, opinions and motivations – as opposed to facts or behaviours [ 13 ]. Interviews can be distinguished by the degree to which they are structured (i.e. a questionnaire), open (e.g. free conversation or autobiographical interviews) or semi-structured [ 2 , 13 ]. Semi-structured interviews are characterized by open-ended questions and the use of an interview guide (or topic guide/list) in which the broad areas of interest, sometimes including sub-questions, are defined [ 19 ]. The pre-defined topics in the interview guide can be derived from the literature, previous research or a preliminary method of data collection, e.g. document study or observations. The topic list is usually adapted and improved at the start of the data collection process as the interviewer learns more about the field [ 20 ]. Across interviews the focus on the different (blocks of) questions may differ and some questions may be skipped altogether (e.g. if the interviewee is not able or willing to answer the questions or for concerns about the total length of the interview) [ 20 ]. Qualitative interviews are usually not conducted in written format as it impedes on the interactive component of the method [ 20 ]. In comparison to written surveys, qualitative interviews have the advantage of being interactive and allowing for unexpected topics to emerge and to be taken up by the researcher. This can also help overcome a provider or researcher-centred bias often found in written surveys, which by nature, can only measure what is already known or expected to be of relevance to the researcher. Interviews can be audio- or video-taped; but sometimes it is only feasible or acceptable for the interviewer to take written notes [ 14 , 16 , 20 ].

Focus groups

Focus groups are group interviews to explore participants’ expertise and experiences, including explorations of how and why people behave in certain ways [ 1 ]. Focus groups usually consist of 6–8 people and are led by an experienced moderator following a topic guide or “script” [ 21 ]. They can involve an observer who takes note of the non-verbal aspects of the situation, possibly using an observation guide [ 21 ]. Depending on researchers’ and participants’ preferences, the discussions can be audio- or video-taped and transcribed afterwards [ 21 ]. Focus groups are useful for bringing together homogeneous (to a lesser extent heterogeneous) groups of participants with relevant expertise and experience on a given topic on which they can share detailed information [ 21 ]. Focus groups are a relatively easy, fast and inexpensive method to gain access to information on interactions in a given group, i.e. “the sharing and comparing” among participants [ 21 ]. Disadvantages include less control over the process and a lesser extent to which each individual may participate. Moreover, focus group moderators need experience, as do those tasked with the analysis of the resulting data. Focus groups can be less appropriate for discussing sensitive topics that participants might be reluctant to disclose in a group setting [ 13 ]. Moreover, attention must be paid to the emergence of “groupthink” as well as possible power dynamics within the group, e.g. when patients are awed or intimidated by health professionals.

Choosing the “right” method

As explained above, the school of thought underlying qualitative research assumes no objective hierarchy of evidence and methods. This means that each choice of single or combined methods has to be based on the research question that needs to be answered and a critical assessment with regard to whether or to what extent the chosen method can accomplish this – i.e. the “fit” between question and method [ 14 ]. It is necessary for these decisions to be documented when they are being made, and to be critically discussed when reporting methods and results.

Let us assume that our research aim is to examine the (clinical) processes around acute endovascular treatment (EVT), from the patient’s arrival at the emergency room to recanalization, with the aim to identify possible causes for delay and/or other causes for sub-optimal treatment outcome. As a first step, we could conduct a document study of the relevant standard operating procedures (SOPs) for this phase of care – are they up-to-date and in line with current guidelines? Do they contain any mistakes, irregularities or uncertainties that could cause delays or other problems? Regardless of the answers to these questions, the results have to be interpreted based on what they are: a written outline of what care processes in this hospital should look like. If we want to know what they actually look like in practice, we can conduct observations of the processes described in the SOPs. These results can (and should) be analysed in themselves, but also in comparison to the results of the document analysis, especially as regards relevant discrepancies. Do the SOPs outline specific tests for which no equipment can be observed or tasks to be performed by specialized nurses who are not present during the observation? It might also be possible that the written SOP is outdated, but the actual care provided is in line with current best practice. In order to find out why these discrepancies exist, it can be useful to conduct interviews. Are the physicians simply not aware of the SOPs (because their existence is limited to the hospital’s intranet) or do they actively disagree with them or does the infrastructure make it impossible to provide the care as described? Another rationale for adding interviews is that some situations (or all of their possible variations for different patient groups or the day, night or weekend shift) cannot practically or ethically be observed. In this case, it is possible to ask those involved to report on their actions – being aware that this is not the same as the actual observation. A senior physician’s or hospital manager’s description of certain situations might differ from a nurse’s or junior physician’s one, maybe because they intentionally misrepresent facts or maybe because different aspects of the process are visible or important to them. In some cases, it can also be relevant to consider to whom the interviewee is disclosing this information – someone they trust, someone they are otherwise not connected to, or someone they suspect or are aware of being in a potentially “dangerous” power relationship to them. Lastly, a focus group could be conducted with representatives of the relevant professional groups to explore how and why exactly they provide care around EVT. The discussion might reveal discrepancies (between SOPs and actual care or between different physicians) and motivations to the researchers as well as to the focus group members that they might not have been aware of themselves. For the focus group to deliver relevant information, attention has to be paid to its composition and conduct, for example, to make sure that all participants feel safe to disclose sensitive or potentially problematic information or that the discussion is not dominated by (senior) physicians only. The resulting combination of data collection methods is shown in Fig.  2 .

Possible combination of data collection methods

Attributions for icons: “Book” by Serhii Smirnov, “Interview” by Adrien Coquet, FR, “Magnifying Glass” by anggun, ID, “Business communication” by Vectors Market; all from the Noun Project

The combination of multiple data source as described for this example can be referred to as “triangulation”, in which multiple measurements are carried out from different angles to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study [ 22 , 23 ].

Data analysis

To analyse the data collected through observations, interviews and focus groups these need to be transcribed into protocols and transcripts (see Fig.  3 ). Interviews and focus groups can be transcribed verbatim , with or without annotations for behaviour (e.g. laughing, crying, pausing) and with or without phonetic transcription of dialects and filler words, depending on what is expected or known to be relevant for the analysis. In the next step, the protocols and transcripts are coded , that is, marked (or tagged, labelled) with one or more short descriptors of the content of a sentence or paragraph [ 2 , 15 , 23 ]. Jansen describes coding as “connecting the raw data with “theoretical” terms” [ 20 ]. In a more practical sense, coding makes raw data sortable. This makes it possible to extract and examine all segments describing, say, a tele-neurology consultation from multiple data sources (e.g. SOPs, emergency room observations, staff and patient interview). In a process of synthesis and abstraction, the codes are then grouped, summarised and/or categorised [ 15 , 20 ]. The end product of the coding or analysis process is a descriptive theory of the behavioural pattern under investigation [ 20 ]. The coding process is performed using qualitative data management software, the most common ones being InVivo, MaxQDA and Atlas.ti. It should be noted that these are data management tools which support the analysis performed by the researcher(s) [ 14 ].

From data collection to data analysis

Attributions for icons: see Fig. ​ Fig.2, 2 , also “Speech to text” by Trevor Dsouza, “Field Notes” by Mike O’Brien, US, “Voice Record” by ProSymbols, US, “Inspection” by Made, AU, and “Cloud” by Graphic Tigers; all from the Noun Project

How to report qualitative research?

Protocols of qualitative research can be published separately and in advance of the study results. However, the aim is not the same as in RCT protocols, i.e. to pre-define and set in stone the research questions and primary or secondary endpoints. Rather, it is a way to describe the research methods in detail, which might not be possible in the results paper given journals’ word limits. Qualitative research papers are usually longer than their quantitative counterparts to allow for deep understanding and so-called “thick description”. In the methods section, the focus is on transparency of the methods used, including why, how and by whom they were implemented in the specific study setting, so as to enable a discussion of whether and how this may have influenced data collection, analysis and interpretation. The results section usually starts with a paragraph outlining the main findings, followed by more detailed descriptions of, for example, the commonalities, discrepancies or exceptions per category [ 20 ]. Here it is important to support main findings by relevant quotations, which may add information, context, emphasis or real-life examples [ 20 , 23 ]. It is subject to debate in the field whether it is relevant to state the exact number or percentage of respondents supporting a certain statement (e.g. “Five interviewees expressed negative feelings towards XYZ”) [ 21 ].

How to combine qualitative with quantitative research?

Qualitative methods can be combined with other methods in multi- or mixed methods designs, which “[employ] two or more different methods [ …] within the same study or research program rather than confining the research to one single method” [ 24 ]. Reasons for combining methods can be diverse, including triangulation for corroboration of findings, complementarity for illustration and clarification of results, expansion to extend the breadth and range of the study, explanation of (unexpected) results generated with one method with the help of another, or offsetting the weakness of one method with the strength of another [ 1 , 17 , 24 – 26 ]. The resulting designs can be classified according to when, why and how the different quantitative and/or qualitative data strands are combined. The three most common types of mixed method designs are the convergent parallel design , the explanatory sequential design and the exploratory sequential design. The designs with examples are shown in Fig.  4 .

Three common mixed methods designs

In the convergent parallel design, a qualitative study is conducted in parallel to and independently of a quantitative study, and the results of both studies are compared and combined at the stage of interpretation of results. Using the above example of EVT provision, this could entail setting up a quantitative EVT registry to measure process times and patient outcomes in parallel to conducting the qualitative research outlined above, and then comparing results. Amongst other things, this would make it possible to assess whether interview respondents’ subjective impressions of patients receiving good care match modified Rankin Scores at follow-up, or whether observed delays in care provision are exceptions or the rule when compared to door-to-needle times as documented in the registry. In the explanatory sequential design, a quantitative study is carried out first, followed by a qualitative study to help explain the results from the quantitative study. This would be an appropriate design if the registry alone had revealed relevant delays in door-to-needle times and the qualitative study would be used to understand where and why these occurred, and how they could be improved. In the exploratory design, the qualitative study is carried out first and its results help informing and building the quantitative study in the next step [ 26 ]. If the qualitative study around EVT provision had shown a high level of dissatisfaction among the staff members involved, a quantitative questionnaire investigating staff satisfaction could be set up in the next step, informed by the qualitative study on which topics dissatisfaction had been expressed. Amongst other things, the questionnaire design would make it possible to widen the reach of the research to more respondents from different (types of) hospitals, regions, countries or settings, and to conduct sub-group analyses for different professional groups.

How to assess qualitative research?

A variety of assessment criteria and lists have been developed for qualitative research, ranging in their focus and comprehensiveness [ 14 , 17 , 27 ]. However, none of these has been elevated to the “gold standard” in the field. In the following, we therefore focus on a set of commonly used assessment criteria that, from a practical standpoint, a researcher can look for when assessing a qualitative research report or paper.

Assessors should check the authors’ use of and adherence to the relevant reporting checklists (e.g. Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR)) to make sure all items that are relevant for this type of research are addressed [ 23 , 28 ]. Discussions of quantitative measures in addition to or instead of these qualitative measures can be a sign of lower quality of the research (paper). Providing and adhering to a checklist for qualitative research contributes to an important quality criterion for qualitative research, namely transparency [ 15 , 17 , 23 ].

Reflexivity

While methodological transparency and complete reporting is relevant for all types of research, some additional criteria must be taken into account for qualitative research. This includes what is called reflexivity, i.e. sensitivity to the relationship between the researcher and the researched, including how contact was established and maintained, or the background and experience of the researcher(s) involved in data collection and analysis. Depending on the research question and population to be researched this can be limited to professional experience, but it may also include gender, age or ethnicity [ 17 , 27 ]. These details are relevant because in qualitative research, as opposed to quantitative research, the researcher as a person cannot be isolated from the research process [ 23 ]. It may influence the conversation when an interviewed patient speaks to an interviewer who is a physician, or when an interviewee is asked to discuss a gynaecological procedure with a male interviewer, and therefore the reader must be made aware of these details [ 19 ].

Sampling and saturation

The aim of qualitative sampling is for all variants of the objects of observation that are deemed relevant for the study to be present in the sample “ to see the issue and its meanings from as many angles as possible” [ 1 , 16 , 19 , 20 , 27 ] , and to ensure “information-richness [ 15 ]. An iterative sampling approach is advised, in which data collection (e.g. five interviews) is followed by data analysis, followed by more data collection to find variants that are lacking in the current sample. This process continues until no new (relevant) information can be found and further sampling becomes redundant – which is called saturation [ 1 , 15 ] . In other words: qualitative data collection finds its end point not a priori , but when the research team determines that saturation has been reached [ 29 , 30 ].

This is also the reason why most qualitative studies use deliberate instead of random sampling strategies. This is generally referred to as “ purposive sampling” , in which researchers pre-define which types of participants or cases they need to include so as to cover all variations that are expected to be of relevance, based on the literature, previous experience or theory (i.e. theoretical sampling) [ 14 , 20 ]. Other types of purposive sampling include (but are not limited to) maximum variation sampling, critical case sampling or extreme or deviant case sampling [ 2 ]. In the above EVT example, a purposive sample could include all relevant professional groups and/or all relevant stakeholders (patients, relatives) and/or all relevant times of observation (day, night and weekend shift).

Assessors of qualitative research should check whether the considerations underlying the sampling strategy were sound and whether or how researchers tried to adapt and improve their strategies in stepwise or cyclical approaches between data collection and analysis to achieve saturation [ 14 ].

Good qualitative research is iterative in nature, i.e. it goes back and forth between data collection and analysis, revising and improving the approach where necessary. One example of this are pilot interviews, where different aspects of the interview (especially the interview guide, but also, for example, the site of the interview or whether the interview can be audio-recorded) are tested with a small number of respondents, evaluated and revised [ 19 ]. In doing so, the interviewer learns which wording or types of questions work best, or which is the best length of an interview with patients who have trouble concentrating for an extended time. Of course, the same reasoning applies to observations or focus groups which can also be piloted.

Ideally, coding should be performed by at least two researchers, especially at the beginning of the coding process when a common approach must be defined, including the establishment of a useful coding list (or tree), and when a common meaning of individual codes must be established [ 23 ]. An initial sub-set or all transcripts can be coded independently by the coders and then compared and consolidated after regular discussions in the research team. This is to make sure that codes are applied consistently to the research data.

Member checking

Member checking, also called respondent validation , refers to the practice of checking back with study respondents to see if the research is in line with their views [ 14 , 27 ]. This can happen after data collection or analysis or when first results are available [ 23 ]. For example, interviewees can be provided with (summaries of) their transcripts and asked whether they believe this to be a complete representation of their views or whether they would like to clarify or elaborate on their responses [ 17 ]. Respondents’ feedback on these issues then becomes part of the data collection and analysis [ 27 ].

Stakeholder involvement

In those niches where qualitative approaches have been able to evolve and grow, a new trend has seen the inclusion of patients and their representatives not only as study participants (i.e. “members”, see above) but as consultants to and active participants in the broader research process [ 31 – 33 ]. The underlying assumption is that patients and other stakeholders hold unique perspectives and experiences that add value beyond their own single story, making the research more relevant and beneficial to researchers, study participants and (future) patients alike [ 34 , 35 ]. Using the example of patients on or nearing dialysis, a recent scoping review found that 80% of clinical research did not address the top 10 research priorities identified by patients and caregivers [ 32 , 36 ]. In this sense, the involvement of the relevant stakeholders, especially patients and relatives, is increasingly being seen as a quality indicator in and of itself.

How not to assess qualitative research

The above overview does not include certain items that are routine in assessments of quantitative research. What follows is a non-exhaustive, non-representative, experience-based list of the quantitative criteria often applied to the assessment of qualitative research, as well as an explanation of the limited usefulness of these endeavours.

Protocol adherence

Given the openness and flexibility of qualitative research, it should not be assessed by how well it adheres to pre-determined and fixed strategies – in other words: its rigidity. Instead, the assessor should look for signs of adaptation and refinement based on lessons learned from earlier steps in the research process.

Sample size

For the reasons explained above, qualitative research does not require specific sample sizes, nor does it require that the sample size be determined a priori [ 1 , 14 , 27 , 37 – 39 ]. Sample size can only be a useful quality indicator when related to the research purpose, the chosen methodology and the composition of the sample, i.e. who was included and why.

Randomisation

While some authors argue that randomisation can be used in qualitative research, this is not commonly the case, as neither its feasibility nor its necessity or usefulness has been convincingly established for qualitative research [ 13 , 27 ]. Relevant disadvantages include the negative impact of a too large sample size as well as the possibility (or probability) of selecting “ quiet, uncooperative or inarticulate individuals ” [ 17 ]. Qualitative studies do not use control groups, either.

Interrater reliability, variability and other “objectivity checks”

The concept of “interrater reliability” is sometimes used in qualitative research to assess to which extent the coding approach overlaps between the two co-coders. However, it is not clear what this measure tells us about the quality of the analysis [ 23 ]. This means that these scores can be included in qualitative research reports, preferably with some additional information on what the score means for the analysis, but it is not a requirement. Relatedly, it is not relevant for the quality or “objectivity” of qualitative research to separate those who recruited the study participants and collected and analysed the data. Experiences even show that it might be better to have the same person or team perform all of these tasks [ 20 ]. First, when researchers introduce themselves during recruitment this can enhance trust when the interview takes place days or weeks later with the same researcher. Second, when the audio-recording is transcribed for analysis, the researcher conducting the interviews will usually remember the interviewee and the specific interview situation during data analysis. This might be helpful in providing additional context information for interpretation of data, e.g. on whether something might have been meant as a joke [ 18 ].

Not being quantitative research

Being qualitative research instead of quantitative research should not be used as an assessment criterion if it is used irrespectively of the research problem at hand. Similarly, qualitative research should not be required to be combined with quantitative research per se – unless mixed methods research is judged as inherently better than single-method research. In this case, the same criterion should be applied for quantitative studies without a qualitative component.

The main take-away points of this paper are summarised in Table ​ Table1. 1 . We aimed to show that, if conducted well, qualitative research can answer specific research questions that cannot to be adequately answered using (only) quantitative designs. Seeing qualitative and quantitative methods as equal will help us become more aware and critical of the “fit” between the research problem and our chosen methods: I can conduct an RCT to determine the reasons for transportation delays of acute stroke patients – but should I? It also provides us with a greater range of tools to tackle a greater range of research problems more appropriately and successfully, filling in the blind spots on one half of the methodological spectrum to better address the whole complexity of neurological research and practice.

Take-away-points

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations.

Authors’ contributions

LB drafted the manuscript; WW and CG revised the manuscript; all authors approved the final versions.

no external funding.

Availability of data and materials

Ethics approval and consent to participate, consent for publication, competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Qualitative study design: Case Studies

• Qualitative study design
• Phenomenology
• Grounded theory
• Ethnography
• Narrative inquiry
• Action research

Case Studies

• Field research
• Focus groups
• Observation
• Surveys & questionnaires
• Study Designs Home

In depth description of the experience of a single person, a family, a group, a community or an organisation.

An example of a qualitative case study is a life history which is the story of one specific person.  A case study may be done to highlight a specific issue by telling a story of one person or one group. 

• Oral recording

Ability to explore and describe, in depth, an issue or event. 

Develop an understanding of health, illness and health care in context. 

Single case can be used to develop or disprove a theory. 

Can be used as a model or prototype .  

Limitations

Labour intensive and generates large diverse data sets which can be hard to manage. 

Case studies are seen by many as a weak methodology because they only look at one person or one specific group and aren’t as broad in their participant selection as other methodologies. 

Example questions

This methodology can be used to ask questions about a specific drug or treatment and its effects on an individual.

• Does thalidomide cause birth defects?
• Does exposure to a pesticide lead to cancer?

Example studies

• Choi, T. S. T., Walker, K. Z., & Palermo, C. (2018). Diabetes management in a foreign land: A case study on Chinese Australians. Health & Social Care in the Community, 26(2), e225-e232. 
• Reade, I., Rodgers, W., & Spriggs, K. (2008). New Ideas for High Performance Coaches: A Case Study of Knowledge Transfer in Sport Science.  International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching , 3(3), 335-354. 
• Wingrove, K., Barbour, L., & Palermo, C. (2017). Exploring nutrition capacity in Australia's charitable food sector.  Nutrition & Dietetics , 74(5), 495-501. 
• Green, J., & Thorogood, N. (2018). Qualitative methods for health research (4th ed.). London: SAGE. 
• University of Missouri-St. Louis. Qualitative Research Designs. Retrieved from http://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/qualdsgn.html     
• << Previous: Action research
• Next: Field research >>
• Last Updated: Jul 3, 2024 11:46 AM
• URL: https://deakin.libguides.com/qualitative-study-designs

Qualitative Research: Case Studies

• Getting Started
• Focus Groups
• Observation
• Case Studies
• Data Collection
• Cleaning Text
• Analysis Tools
• Institutional Review

Help with case studies

Photo: https://www.professays.com

How To Write a Case Study

How to undertake case study research

From: http://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/products/case_studies/index.htm

What is a case study?

• Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying a single case example.
• Focuses on an individual person, an event, a group, or an institution.
• Allows for in-depth examination by prolonged engagement or cultural immersion
• Explores processes and outcomes
• Investigates the context and setting of a situation
• Can involve a number of data gathering methods

Duke Resources

• Philanthropy Central from Sanford School of Public Policy Case Study Database Provides real-life case studies of philanthropic initiatives. There are currently more than 600 case studies linked to in the Database.

Suggested Readings

• McNabb, D. (2010).  Case reseach in public management.  NY: M.E.Sharpe.
• Samuels, D. (2013).  Case studies in comparative politics .  NY: Pearson Education.
• Stark, R. (1995). The  art of case study research, Thousand Oaks: Sage.
• Yin, R.K. (2009) Case study research: Design and methods. Los Angeles: Sage.
• << Previous: Observation
• Next: Data Collection >>
• Last Updated: Mar 1, 2024 10:13 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.duke.edu/qualitative-research

Services for...

• Faculty & Instructors
• Graduate Students
• Undergraduate Students
• International Students
• Patrons with Disabilities

• Harmful Language Statement
• Re-use & Attribution / Privacy
• Support the Libraries

• Open access
• Published: 27 June 2011

The case study approach

• Sarah Crowe 1 ,
• Kathrin Cresswell 2 ,
• Ann Robertson 2 ,
• Guro Huby 3 ,
• Anthony Avery 1 &
• Aziz Sheikh 2  

BMC Medical Research Methodology volume  11 , Article number:  100 ( 2011 ) Cite this article

789k Accesses

40 Altmetric

Metrics details

The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach. The paper concludes with key pointers to aid those designing and appraising proposals for conducting case study research, and a checklist to help readers assess the quality of case study reports.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Our aim in writing this piece is to provide insights into when to consider employing this approach and an overview of key methodological considerations in relation to the design, planning, analysis, interpretation and reporting of case studies.

The illustrative 'grand round', 'case report' and 'case series' have a long tradition in clinical practice and research. Presenting detailed critiques, typically of one or more patients, aims to provide insights into aspects of the clinical case and, in doing so, illustrate broader lessons that may be learnt. In research, the conceptually-related case study approach can be used, for example, to describe in detail a patient's episode of care, explore professional attitudes to and experiences of a new policy initiative or service development or more generally to 'investigate contemporary phenomena within its real-life context' [ 1 ]. Based on our experiences of conducting a range of case studies, we reflect on when to consider using this approach, discuss the key steps involved and illustrate, with examples, some of the practical challenges of attaining an in-depth understanding of a 'case' as an integrated whole. In keeping with previously published work, we acknowledge the importance of theory to underpin the design, selection, conduct and interpretation of case studies[ 2 ]. In so doing, we make passing reference to the different epistemological approaches used in case study research by key theoreticians and methodologists in this field of enquiry.

This paper is structured around the following main questions: What is a case study? What are case studies used for? How are case studies conducted? What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided? We draw in particular on four of our own recently published examples of case studies (see Tables 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 ) and those of others to illustrate our discussion[ 3 – 7 ].

What is a case study?

A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table 5 ), the central tenet being the need to explore an event or phenomenon in depth and in its natural context. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as a "naturalistic" design; this is in contrast to an "experimental" design (such as a randomised controlled trial) in which the investigator seeks to exert control over and manipulate the variable(s) of interest.

Stake's work has been particularly influential in defining the case study approach to scientific enquiry. He has helpfully characterised three main types of case study: intrinsic , instrumental and collective [ 8 ]. An intrinsic case study is typically undertaken to learn about a unique phenomenon. The researcher should define the uniqueness of the phenomenon, which distinguishes it from all others. In contrast, the instrumental case study uses a particular case (some of which may be better than others) to gain a broader appreciation of an issue or phenomenon. The collective case study involves studying multiple cases simultaneously or sequentially in an attempt to generate a still broader appreciation of a particular issue.

These are however not necessarily mutually exclusive categories. In the first of our examples (Table 1 ), we undertook an intrinsic case study to investigate the issue of recruitment of minority ethnic people into the specific context of asthma research studies, but it developed into a instrumental case study through seeking to understand the issue of recruitment of these marginalised populations more generally, generating a number of the findings that are potentially transferable to other disease contexts[ 3 ]. In contrast, the other three examples (see Tables 2 , 3 and 4 ) employed collective case study designs to study the introduction of workforce reconfiguration in primary care, the implementation of electronic health records into hospitals, and to understand the ways in which healthcare students learn about patient safety considerations[ 4 – 6 ]. Although our study focusing on the introduction of General Practitioners with Specialist Interests (Table 2 ) was explicitly collective in design (four contrasting primary care organisations were studied), is was also instrumental in that this particular professional group was studied as an exemplar of the more general phenomenon of workforce redesign[ 4 ].

What are case studies used for?

According to Yin, case studies can be used to explain, describe or explore events or phenomena in the everyday contexts in which they occur[ 1 ]. These can, for example, help to understand and explain causal links and pathways resulting from a new policy initiative or service development (see Tables 2 and 3 , for example)[ 1 ]. In contrast to experimental designs, which seek to test a specific hypothesis through deliberately manipulating the environment (like, for example, in a randomised controlled trial giving a new drug to randomly selected individuals and then comparing outcomes with controls),[ 9 ] the case study approach lends itself well to capturing information on more explanatory ' how ', 'what' and ' why ' questions, such as ' how is the intervention being implemented and received on the ground?'. The case study approach can offer additional insights into what gaps exist in its delivery or why one implementation strategy might be chosen over another. This in turn can help develop or refine theory, as shown in our study of the teaching of patient safety in undergraduate curricula (Table 4 )[ 6 , 10 ]. Key questions to consider when selecting the most appropriate study design are whether it is desirable or indeed possible to undertake a formal experimental investigation in which individuals and/or organisations are allocated to an intervention or control arm? Or whether the wish is to obtain a more naturalistic understanding of an issue? The former is ideally studied using a controlled experimental design, whereas the latter is more appropriately studied using a case study design.

Case studies may be approached in different ways depending on the epistemological standpoint of the researcher, that is, whether they take a critical (questioning one's own and others' assumptions), interpretivist (trying to understand individual and shared social meanings) or positivist approach (orientating towards the criteria of natural sciences, such as focusing on generalisability considerations) (Table 6 ). Whilst such a schema can be conceptually helpful, it may be appropriate to draw on more than one approach in any case study, particularly in the context of conducting health services research. Doolin has, for example, noted that in the context of undertaking interpretative case studies, researchers can usefully draw on a critical, reflective perspective which seeks to take into account the wider social and political environment that has shaped the case[ 11 ].

How are case studies conducted?

Here, we focus on the main stages of research activity when planning and undertaking a case study; the crucial stages are: defining the case; selecting the case(s); collecting and analysing the data; interpreting data; and reporting the findings.

Defining the case

Carefully formulated research question(s), informed by the existing literature and a prior appreciation of the theoretical issues and setting(s), are all important in appropriately and succinctly defining the case[ 8 , 12 ]. Crucially, each case should have a pre-defined boundary which clarifies the nature and time period covered by the case study (i.e. its scope, beginning and end), the relevant social group, organisation or geographical area of interest to the investigator, the types of evidence to be collected, and the priorities for data collection and analysis (see Table 7 )[ 1 ]. A theory driven approach to defining the case may help generate knowledge that is potentially transferable to a range of clinical contexts and behaviours; using theory is also likely to result in a more informed appreciation of, for example, how and why interventions have succeeded or failed[ 13 ].

For example, in our evaluation of the introduction of electronic health records in English hospitals (Table 3 ), we defined our cases as the NHS Trusts that were receiving the new technology[ 5 ]. Our focus was on how the technology was being implemented. However, if the primary research interest had been on the social and organisational dimensions of implementation, we might have defined our case differently as a grouping of healthcare professionals (e.g. doctors and/or nurses). The precise beginning and end of the case may however prove difficult to define. Pursuing this same example, when does the process of implementation and adoption of an electronic health record system really begin or end? Such judgements will inevitably be influenced by a range of factors, including the research question, theory of interest, the scope and richness of the gathered data and the resources available to the research team.

Selecting the case(s)

The decision on how to select the case(s) to study is a very important one that merits some reflection. In an intrinsic case study, the case is selected on its own merits[ 8 ]. The case is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because of its uniqueness, which is of genuine interest to the researchers. This was, for example, the case in our study of the recruitment of minority ethnic participants into asthma research (Table 1 ) as our earlier work had demonstrated the marginalisation of minority ethnic people with asthma, despite evidence of disproportionate asthma morbidity[ 14 , 15 ]. In another example of an intrinsic case study, Hellstrom et al.[ 16 ] studied an elderly married couple living with dementia to explore how dementia had impacted on their understanding of home, their everyday life and their relationships.

For an instrumental case study, selecting a "typical" case can work well[ 8 ]. In contrast to the intrinsic case study, the particular case which is chosen is of less importance than selecting a case that allows the researcher to investigate an issue or phenomenon. For example, in order to gain an understanding of doctors' responses to health policy initiatives, Som undertook an instrumental case study interviewing clinicians who had a range of responsibilities for clinical governance in one NHS acute hospital trust[ 17 ]. Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical" case may however prove even more informative, potentially enabling the researcher to identify causal processes, generate hypotheses and develop theory.

In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are carefully selected. This offers the advantage of allowing comparisons to be made across several cases and/or replication. Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be generalised to theory (i.e. analytical generalisation) or to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or even a third case (i.e. replication logic)[ 1 ]. Yin suggests two or three literal replications (i.e. predicting similar results) if the theory is straightforward and five or more if the theory is more subtle. However, critics might argue that selecting 'cases' in this way is insufficiently reflexive and ill-suited to the complexities of contemporary healthcare organisations.

The selected case study site(s) should allow the research team access to the group of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the researcher needs to come to know the case study site(s) well and to work cooperatively with them. Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry [ 8 ] if they are to be informative and answer the research question(s). Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being influenced by key stakeholders. For example, our selection of case study sites in the evaluation of the implementation and adoption of electronic health record systems (see Table 3 ) was heavily influenced by NHS Connecting for Health, the government agency that was responsible for overseeing the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT)[ 5 ]. This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites (through a competitive bidding process) to be early adopters of the electronic health record systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines.

It is also important to consider in advance the likely burden and risks associated with participation for those who (or the site(s) which) comprise the case study. Of particular importance is the obligation for the researcher to think through the ethical implications of the study (e.g. the risk of inadvertently breaching anonymity or confidentiality) and to ensure that potential participants/participating sites are provided with sufficient information to make an informed choice about joining the study. The outcome of providing this information might be that the emotive burden associated with participation, or the organisational disruption associated with supporting the fieldwork, is considered so high that the individuals or sites decide against participation.

In our example of evaluating implementations of electronic health record systems, given the restricted number of early adopter sites available to us, we sought purposively to select a diverse range of implementation cases among those that were available[ 5 ]. We chose a mixture of teaching, non-teaching and Foundation Trust hospitals, and examples of each of the three electronic health record systems procured centrally by the NPfIT. At one recruited site, it quickly became apparent that access was problematic because of competing demands on that organisation. Recognising the importance of full access and co-operative working for generating rich data, the research team decided not to pursue work at that site and instead to focus on other recruited sites.

Collecting the data

In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative (e.g. questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data) and more commonly qualitative techniques (e.g. interviews, focus groups and observations). The use of multiple sources of data (data triangulation) has been advocated as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study (i.e. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the research question)[ 8 , 18 – 21 ]. An underlying assumption is that data collected in different ways should lead to similar conclusions, and approaching the same issue from different angles can help develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon (Table 2 )[ 4 ].

Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care programme[ 22 ]. Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results. Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been obtained from quantitative methods alone.

In collective or multiple case studies, data collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case to be developed (e.g. the nature of different cancer care programmes), before considering the emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons (e.g. to explore why one programme is more effective than another). It is important that data sources from different cases are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature and depth.

Analysing, interpreting and reporting case studies

Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data (whether qualitative alone or together with quantitative) is far from straightforward. Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are integral to the process of analysis. In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases. Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes[ 23 ]. Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily retrieved at a later stage. An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software package.

The Framework approach is a practical approach, comprising of five stages (familiarisation; identifying a thematic framework; indexing; charting; mapping and interpretation) , to managing and analysing large datasets particularly if time is limited, as was the case in our study of recruitment of South Asians into asthma research (Table 1 )[ 3 , 24 ]. Theoretical frameworks may also play an important role in integrating different sources of data and examining emerging themes. For example, we drew on a socio-technical framework to help explain the connections between different elements - technology; people; and the organisational settings within which they worked - in our study of the introduction of electronic health record systems (Table 3 )[ 5 ]. Our study of patient safety in undergraduate curricula drew on an evaluation-based approach to design and analysis, which emphasised the importance of the academic, organisational and practice contexts through which students learn (Table 4 )[ 6 ].

Case study findings can have implications both for theory development and theory testing. They may establish, strengthen or weaken historical explanations of a case and, in certain circumstances, allow theoretical (as opposed to statistical) generalisation beyond the particular cases studied[ 12 ]. These theoretical lenses should not, however, constitute a strait-jacket and the cases should not be "forced to fit" the particular theoretical framework that is being employed.

When reporting findings, it is important to provide the reader with enough contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and how the conclusions were reached. In a collective case study, researchers may choose to present the findings from individual cases separately before amalgamating across cases. Care must be taken to ensure the anonymity of both case sites and individual participants (if agreed in advance) by allocating appropriate codes or withholding descriptors. In the example given in Table 3 , we decided against providing detailed information on the NHS sites and individual participants in order to avoid the risk of inadvertent disclosure of identities[ 5 , 25 ].

What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided?

The case study approach is, as with all research, not without its limitations. When investigating the formal and informal ways undergraduate students learn about patient safety (Table 4 ), for example, we rapidly accumulated a large quantity of data. The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources. This highlights a more general point of the importance of avoiding the temptation to collect as much data as possible; adequate time also needs to be set aside for data analysis and interpretation of what are often highly complex datasets.

Case study research has sometimes been criticised for lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalisation (i.e. producing findings that may be transferable to other settings)[ 1 ]. There are several ways to address these concerns, including: the use of theoretical sampling (i.e. drawing on a particular conceptual framework); respondent validation (i.e. participants checking emerging findings and the researcher's interpretation, and providing an opinion as to whether they feel these are accurate); and transparency throughout the research process (see Table 8 )[ 8 , 18 – 21 , 23 , 26 ]. Transparency can be achieved by describing in detail the steps involved in case selection, data collection, the reasons for the particular methods chosen, and the researcher's background and level of involvement (i.e. being explicit about how the researcher has influenced data collection and interpretation). Seeking potential, alternative explanations, and being explicit about how interpretations and conclusions were reached, help readers to judge the trustworthiness of the case study report. Stake provides a critique checklist for a case study report (Table 9 )[ 8 ].

Conclusions

The case study approach allows, amongst other things, critical events, interventions, policy developments and programme-based service reforms to be studied in detail in a real-life context. It should therefore be considered when an experimental design is either inappropriate to answer the research questions posed or impossible to undertake. Considering the frequency with which implementations of innovations are now taking place in healthcare settings and how well the case study approach lends itself to in-depth, complex health service research, we believe this approach should be more widely considered by researchers. Though inherently challenging, the research case study can, if carefully conceptualised and thoughtfully undertaken and reported, yield powerful insights into many important aspects of health and healthcare delivery.

Yin RK: Case study research, design and method. 2009, London: Sage Publications Ltd., 4

Google Scholar  

Keen J, Packwood T: Qualitative research; case study evaluation. BMJ. 1995, 311: 444-446.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Sheikh A, Halani L, Bhopal R, Netuveli G, Partridge M, Car J, et al: Facilitating the Recruitment of Minority Ethnic People into Research: Qualitative Case Study of South Asians and Asthma. PLoS Med. 2009, 6 (10): 1-11.

Article   Google Scholar  

Pinnock H, Huby G, Powell A, Kielmann T, Price D, Williams S, et al: The process of planning, development and implementation of a General Practitioner with a Special Interest service in Primary Care Organisations in England and Wales: a comparative prospective case study. Report for the National Co-ordinating Centre for NHS Service Delivery and Organisation R&D (NCCSDO). 2008, [ http://www.sdo.nihr.ac.uk/files/project/99-final-report.pdf ]

Robertson A, Cresswell K, Takian A, Petrakaki D, Crowe S, Cornford T, et al: Prospective evaluation of the implementation and adoption of NHS Connecting for Health's national electronic health record in secondary care in England: interim findings. BMJ. 2010, 41: c4564-

Pearson P, Steven A, Howe A, Sheikh A, Ashcroft D, Smith P, the Patient Safety Education Study Group: Learning about patient safety: organisational context and culture in the education of healthcare professionals. J Health Serv Res Policy. 2010, 15: 4-10. 10.1258/jhsrp.2009.009052.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

van Harten WH, Casparie TF, Fisscher OA: The evaluation of the introduction of a quality management system: a process-oriented case study in a large rehabilitation hospital. Health Policy. 2002, 60 (1): 17-37. 10.1016/S0168-8510(01)00187-7.

Stake RE: The art of case study research. 1995, London: Sage Publications Ltd.

Sheikh A, Smeeth L, Ashcroft R: Randomised controlled trials in primary care: scope and application. Br J Gen Pract. 2002, 52 (482): 746-51.

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

King G, Keohane R, Verba S: Designing Social Inquiry. 1996, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Doolin B: Information technology as disciplinary technology: being critical in interpretative research on information systems. Journal of Information Technology. 1998, 13: 301-311. 10.1057/jit.1998.8.

George AL, Bennett A: Case studies and theory development in the social sciences. 2005, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

Eccles M, the Improved Clinical Effectiveness through Behavioural Research Group (ICEBeRG): Designing theoretically-informed implementation interventions. Implementation Science. 2006, 1: 1-8. 10.1186/1748-5908-1-1.

Article   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Netuveli G, Hurwitz B, Levy M, Fletcher M, Barnes G, Durham SR, Sheikh A: Ethnic variations in UK asthma frequency, morbidity, and health-service use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2005, 365 (9456): 312-7.

Sheikh A, Panesar SS, Lasserson T, Netuveli G: Recruitment of ethnic minorities to asthma studies. Thorax. 2004, 59 (7): 634-

CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Hellström I, Nolan M, Lundh U: 'We do things together': A case study of 'couplehood' in dementia. Dementia. 2005, 4: 7-22. 10.1177/1471301205049188.

Som CV: Nothing seems to have changed, nothing seems to be changing and perhaps nothing will change in the NHS: doctors' response to clinical governance. International Journal of Public Sector Management. 2005, 18: 463-477. 10.1108/09513550510608903.

Lincoln Y, Guba E: Naturalistic inquiry. 1985, Newbury Park: Sage Publications

Barbour RS: Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?. BMJ. 2001, 322: 1115-1117. 10.1136/bmj.322.7294.1115.

Mays N, Pope C: Qualitative research in health care: Assessing quality in qualitative research. BMJ. 2000, 320: 50-52. 10.1136/bmj.320.7226.50.

Mason J: Qualitative researching. 2002, London: Sage

Brazier A, Cooke K, Moravan V: Using Mixed Methods for Evaluating an Integrative Approach to Cancer Care: A Case Study. Integr Cancer Ther. 2008, 7: 5-17. 10.1177/1534735407313395.

Miles MB, Huberman M: Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. 1994, CA: Sage Publications Inc., 2

Pope C, Ziebland S, Mays N: Analysing qualitative data. Qualitative research in health care. BMJ. 2000, 320: 114-116. 10.1136/bmj.320.7227.114.

Cresswell KM, Worth A, Sheikh A: Actor-Network Theory and its role in understanding the implementation of information technology developments in healthcare. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. 2010, 10 (1): 67-10.1186/1472-6947-10-67.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Malterud K: Qualitative research: standards, challenges, and guidelines. Lancet. 2001, 358: 483-488. 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05627-6.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Yin R: Case study research: design and methods. 1994, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing, 2

Yin R: Enhancing the quality of case studies in health services research. Health Serv Res. 1999, 34: 1209-1224.

Green J, Thorogood N: Qualitative methods for health research. 2009, Los Angeles: Sage, 2

Howcroft D, Trauth E: Handbook of Critical Information Systems Research, Theory and Application. 2005, Cheltenham, UK: Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar

Book   Google Scholar  

Blakie N: Approaches to Social Enquiry. 1993, Cambridge: Polity Press

Doolin B: Power and resistance in the implementation of a medical management information system. Info Systems J. 2004, 14: 343-362. 10.1111/j.1365-2575.2004.00176.x.

Bloomfield BP, Best A: Management consultants: systems development, power and the translation of problems. Sociological Review. 1992, 40: 533-560.

Shanks G, Parr A: Positivist, single case study research in information systems: A critical analysis. Proceedings of the European Conference on Information Systems. 2003, Naples

Pre-publication history

The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2288/11/100/prepub

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the participants and colleagues who contributed to the individual case studies that we have drawn on. This work received no direct funding, but it has been informed by projects funded by Asthma UK, the NHS Service Delivery Organisation, NHS Connecting for Health Evaluation Programme, and Patient Safety Research Portfolio. We would also like to thank the expert reviewers for their insightful and constructive feedback. Our thanks are also due to Dr. Allison Worth who commented on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Division of Primary Care, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Sarah Crowe & Anthony Avery

Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Kathrin Cresswell, Ann Robertson & Aziz Sheikh

School of Health in Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah Crowe .

Additional information

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

AS conceived this article. SC, KC and AR wrote this paper with GH, AA and AS all commenting on various drafts. SC and AS are guarantors.

Rights and permissions

This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A. et al. The case study approach. BMC Med Res Methodol 11 , 100 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Download citation

Received : 29 November 2010

Accepted : 27 June 2011

Published : 27 June 2011

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Case Study Approach
• Electronic Health Record System
• Case Study Design
• Case Study Site
• Case Study Report

BMC Medical Research Methodology

ISSN: 1471-2288

• General enquiries: [email protected]

Root out friction in every digital experience, super-charge conversion rates, and optimize digital self-service

Uncover insights from any interaction, deliver AI-powered agent coaching, and reduce cost to serve

Increase revenue and loyalty with real-time insights and recommendations delivered to teams on the ground

Know how your people feel and empower managers to improve employee engagement, productivity, and retention

Take action in the moments that matter most along the employee journey and drive bottom line growth

Whatever they’re are saying, wherever they’re saying it, know exactly what’s going on with your people

Get faster, richer insights with qual and quant tools that make powerful market research available to everyone

Run concept tests, pricing studies, prototyping + more with fast, powerful studies designed by UX research experts

Track your brand performance 24/7 and act quickly to respond to opportunities and challenges in your market

Explore the platform powering Experience Management

• Free Account
• Product Demos
• For Digital
• For Customer Care
• For Human Resources
• For Researchers
• Financial Services
• All Industries

Popular Use Cases

• Customer Experience
• Employee Experience
• Employee Exit Interviews
• Net Promoter Score
• Voice of Customer
• Customer Success Hub
• Product Documentation
• Training & Certification
• XM Institute
• Popular Resources
• Customer Stories
• Artificial Intelligence

Market Research

• Partnerships
• Marketplace

The annual gathering of the experience leaders at the world’s iconic brands building breakthrough business results, live in Sydney.

• English/AU & NZ
• Español/Europa
• Español/América Latina
• Português Brasileiro
• REQUEST DEMO
• Experience Management
• The Ultimate Guide to Market Research
• Business Research Methods

Try Qualtrics for free

Business research methods.

12 min read Business research is a well-established way to get an edge in your market. In this article, we’ll cover some of the most valuable business research methods.

Business research is a well-established way to gain an edge in your target market . But less than 40% of US marketers use consumer research to make decisions, according to data from Google. Could the huge range of methodologies and techniques be preventing business research takeup?

In this article, we’ll lay out some of the most popular and valuable business research methods, from general approaches to industry-specific techniques, to help you decide which business research process is the best fit for you and your company.

Free eBook: The ultimate guide to conducting market research

Business research includes customer research and market research

There are two primary areas of business research – understanding the market in which you’re operating, including the target consumers out there who don’t yet buy from you, and understanding your existing customers.

Market research

Market research is an umbrella term covering a wide variety of business research techniques which are used to help a business understand its target customer’s preferences.

This arm of business research often involves techniques like the focus group, where a moderated discussion helps companies understand their target audience, and survey research, including online surveys.

Customer feedback is an important part of any business intelligence process. This might come in the form of direct feedback, where a customer provides their opinion to a business either spontaneously or in response to a survey invitation or feedback form, or through indirect methods like social media listening .

As well as being able to assess customer satisfaction , this allows businesses to discover the unmet needs of their current customers. This kind of business research helps seed new product development, among other improvements.

Qualitative research methods for business

Qualitative business research techniques are all about the ‘why’ of what’s happening in your business. Rather than relying on data and statistics, they use description and human interpretation to investigate situations and events.

Qualitative research can be quite time-consuming and historically it has been harder to automate than quantitative methods, although nowadays tools are available to scale up qualitative data collection.

Even without these tools, qualitative research can be done with smaller sample sizes and still provides rich information that can offer lasting value.

Focus groups

Focus groups are a business research mainstay. They can help companies understand their current customers or target customers in a deep and authentic way using the power of conversation and connection. Focus groups can be valuable for nuanced topics, as well as controversial ones, since you can use the format to bring in multiple points of view from within your target audience.

As a form of qualitative research, focus groups are well-established with plenty of best practice advice and techniques available. They are also relatively familiar to the general public, which means low effort is required to on-board your participants.

At the height of COVID-19, Jittrapirom et al. (2021) used remote focus groups to study perceptions of car-sharing services in Bangkok, Thailand as a way of improving transport planning. They found that the ‘mental models’ of different stakeholder groups were significantly different depending on their understanding of the car-sharing concept. Working with the focus group, the researchers were able to collaboratively build a diagrammatic representation of how car-sharing works, which could then be used to help roll it out as a more sustainable means of transport in developing countries.

Ethnographic research

In ethnographic research, you study people in a naturally occurring setting. Rather than bringing them into your offices or restricting your data collection to a survey, you’re looking at the person and their environment as a whole.

In this sense, ethnographic research is all about understanding the context. You might be observing customers in a store, or interviewing them as they interact with your products and services. Ethnographic research in contexts like shopping malls, online discussion boards or social media can help you understand your target consumer too. Business research of this kind can be especially valuable in consultancy and B2B settings, where one business is looking to gain a deep understanding of another in order to help them improve.

Autmaring et al. (2018) studied SMEs working in B2B to investigate the potential for ethnographic research to improve product development. They found that although SME-level businesses had good access to their customers, their uptake of ethnographic research was low because of a lack of familiarity and concerns about expense. The B2B SMEs studied had low awareness of the benefits of ethnographic research and did not recognise that they were in a strong position to carry it out. This suggests that ethnographic research is an underused technique in business, and one that could offer significant advantages for SMEs especially.

Quantitative research methods for business

Like qualitative research methods, quantitative research methods help you understand your customer and your market better. Quantitative research can also be used to make forecasts and predictions about what might happen in the future. You can develop an in depth knowledge of your customers using existing data, or you can carry out business research to find out more about a specific research question.

Experimental research

In experimental research, you start out with a hypothesis about something happening in your business, and test it by manipulating an independent variable – or multiple independent variables – to find out the effect on a dependent variable. Strictly speaking, experimental research should follow rigorous scientific principles, but in business it’s more likely you will adopt a quasi-experimental approach with less emphasis on method and more on results.

One of the most popular applications of experimental research in business is A/B testing. A/B testing pits two or more variations of something against one another to find out which is more successful. It’s commonly used in marketing management when developing ads or marketing campaigns. In A/B testing, the hypothesis you’re testing is that both or all variations are equally successful. You’ll disprove this if one of the variants gets better results.

One of the benefits of A/B testing is that you can test multiple variants simultaneously by segmenting your audience.

For example, Kornitzer et. al (2020) used A/B testing in a healthcare setting to compare 9 patient messaging options to see which were more effective at preventing hospital appointment no-shows. The options each used a behavioural ‘nudge’ to encourage patients not to skip their appointments. By randomly assigning patients with upcoming appointments into groups, the researchers were able to test all 9 messaging approaches simultaneously. They determined that the most successful messages were those reminding people that skipping their appointment negatively impacted other patients who needed care.

Correlational research

Unlike causal research and experimental research, which look at relationships between a dependent variable and the independent variables acting on it, correlational research doesn’t deal with cause and effect. Instead it looks at phenomena that occur in proportion to one another, without one necessarily having to act on the other.

This kind of business research is helpful because it acts as a starting-point for further research. It can provide promising hypotheses that are worth investing in, as opposed to just guessing which variables might be related causally. Correlational research can also be used to bust myths and remove unhelpful assumptions.

For example, a correlational study by Stanley (2011) explored the relationship between corporate social responsibility and financial performance, using quantitative data to challenge assumptions that socially responsible behaviour is negatively associated with financial success in business.

Combined qualitative and quantitative research methods

Mixed mode research.

Mixed mode is a form of business research that combines quantitative and qualitative research methods in a single research project. Qualitative business research can be used in an exploratory way to uncover the questions that should be addressed more deeply. Quantitative research is used to investigate specific research questions arising from the qualitative study. Then, a second round of qualitative research might be used to add depth and nuance to the quantitative verdict, bringing the insights to life.

Survey research

Surveys are a staple among business research methods, as well as being to collect data in other forms of research such as academic studies. A survey can generate both qualitative and quantitative data, depending on the question formats used. It’s a familiar format for most people, and can be taken in a variety of formats from online surveys to telephone surveys. This makes it a very inclusive method, giving you maximum access to your target audience. Survey business research can be used for everything from customer satisfaction to concept testing.

Today’s technology means that surveys can be integrated right into the experiences they’re measuring. This helps offset some of the weaknesses of the survey method, such as participants misremembering or generalising their experiences, or forgetting details because of the time lag between the events being studied and the participant taking the survey.

For example, Virgin Media used on page surveys to gather user feedback from website customers who had abandoned their carts. These in-the-moment insights helped them not only to understand the customer pain points , but to put them right quickly and efficiently.

Case study research

In case study research, the emphasis is on depth rather than breadth. Researchers explore a particular phenomenon in situ, looking at how a group or organisation behaved in a specific time and place, and what happened as a result. It is both a quantitative research method and a qualitative research method, as the research involves both types of data.

Case study research can be very helpful in business, as it offers an opportunity to learn how other companies approached a challenge you might be facing, and to learn from the solutions they devised and the obstacles they faced. However, this research method does require care and attention on the part of the researcher to make sure the research involves relevant cases. They must fully understand the similarities and differences between their own business goals and the situation being explored, in order to avoid incorrectly assuming equivalence and coming to faulty conclusions.

Case study research really comes into its own in emerging areas where best practice approaches are not yet firmly established.

For example, Urbaniti et al. (2020) conducted case study research on circular economy practices in multiple European manufacturing businesses. They noted different managers’ peculiar and innovative approaches to achieving the circular economy business model, taking into account environmental factors like legislation which helped shape the approaches.

The ultimate guide to conducting market research

Related resources

Ethnographic research 11 min read, business research 10 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, video in qualitative research 10 min read, correlation research 11 min read, market intelligence tools 10 min read, request demo.

Ready to learn more about Qualtrics?

Examining the experiences related to the psychological needs and future perceptions of Turkish adolescents on the basis of reality therapy: a qualitative study

• Open access
• Published: 08 July 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Asiye Dursun   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4033-0034 1 &
• Nergis Canbulat   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1599-3856 2  

This qualitative study investigates adolescents’ perceptions and psychological needs regarding the future in the perspective of reality therapy. Employing a case study design as a qualitative research method, the study reached a total of 181 adolescent participants, including 125 (69.1%) girls and 56 (39.1%) boys. The data obtained from participants were analyzed using thematic analysis by the researchers. As a result of the analysis, their perceptions of the future were categorized into two themes: “Future Perception” and “Future-Oriented WDEP System.” Additionally, it is observed that they formulated various metaphors related to psychological needs. Adolescents’ perceptions of the future encompass both positive emotions, thoughts, and actions, as well as negative expressions. The findings of this research provide insights for developmental experts and mental health professionals in understanding the psychological needs and future perceptions of individuals during the crucial stage of adolescence.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

The importance of perception for the future has been emphasized years ago and is considered a phenomenon that needs to be examined. Indeed, without perception, the future cannot be envisaged, and how to behave in the present also remains unknown. In short, when there is no perception and the future cannot be perceived, the world can become a labyrinth where inhabitants lose their sense of direction (Von Foerster, 1972 ). Evaluating the cognitive developments during the transition from childhood to adolescence and the formation of identity, individuals are observed to develop a multi-dimensional time perception that encompasses the past, present, and future (Mello & Worrell, 2014 ). However, adolescents tend to form perceptions more towards the future than the past and the present. Additionally, it is indicated that the perception of the future is an effective structure in different developmental stages (Allemand et al., 2022 ). In adolescence, perceptions of whether there is one or more paths or opportunities for the future differentiate. Therefore, examining future expectations during adolescence becomes crucial for understanding individuals, as research highlights the association of future perception with identity development, hope, and depression during this period (Allemand et al., 2022 ).

Psychological needs are expressed in different ways in different theoretical contexts. However, the satisfaction of psychological needs, emphasized in every developmental stage, increases the likelihood of healthy development and leading a fulfilling life; failure to meet these needs can lead to maladaptive functioning and pathological conditions. Similarly, it is emphasized that psychological needs have individual differences and are related to motivation and self (Deci & Ryan, 2011 ). Moreover, individuals who satisfy their needs are seen to exhibit high levels of self-regulation, perseverance, academic performance, and positive emotions, while controlling their levels of anxiety and achievement-focused success (Vansteenkiste et al., 2004 ). Considering that issues such as self, motivation, healthy development, anxiety, achievement, maladaptive functioning, and satisfaction frequently emerge during adolescence, addressing psychological needs during this period becomes crucial. Therefore, in this study, metaphors are used to explore adolescents’ perceptions regarding the satisfaction and hindrance of psychological needs and what they mean. Different perspectives are presented in detail to shed light on these perceptions.

Future perceptions of adolescents

The adolescent period can be characterized as a transitional phase preparing for adult roles. During this period, adolescents not only prepare for higher education but also make decisions about their future careers. At this juncture, adolescents, faced with tasks such as planning for the future, making choices, and decision-making, are essentially structuring their future expectations. It is observed that the most common future expectation encountered during adolescence tends to focus on career outcomes and educational success (McCabe & Barnett, 2000 ), emphasizing its significance as a crucial construct that needs to be addressed (Turcios Cotto & Milan, 2013 ). Adolescents, while preparing for higher education, are also making decisions about their future careers. At this point, adolescents facing tasks such as future planning, making choices, and decision-making are actually structuring their future expectations. Future expectations, which are expressed as cognitive maps that encompass individuals’ views, interests, and concerns about the future (Yam et al., 2018 ), are also related to emotional states such as self-concept, locus of control, coping strategies, and well-being (Şimşek, 2012 ). Another aspect of future expectations is future perception. Individuals’ perceptions of the future are expressed as the images they create in their consciousness about the future based on their perceptions of the present moment (Yam et al., 2018 ).

The fact that adolescents exhibit a greater orientation towards and engage in more future planning than adults (Prenda & Lachman, 2001 ) suggests the importance of addressing the concept during this developmental period in shaping future developmental stages. Furthermore, the significance of the concept of the future is evident in its impact on adolescents’ behavior, attitudes, and personality formation. Therefore, the examination of concepts such as future perception, anxiety, and expectations that influence individuals’ motivation is emphasized (Aytar & Soylu, 2019 ). In light of all these explanations, understanding how adolescents shape their perceptions of the future can provide insights for professionals working with individuals during this period. The evaluation of future perception and psychological needs is approached within different theoretical frameworks (Daltrey & Langer, 1984 ; Ryan, 1995 ). This study aims to assess adolescents’ perceptions of the future and psychological needs through the perspective of reality therapy.

The relationship between reality therapy, future perception, and psychological needs

When evaluating future perceptions, one can draw upon various theoretical frameworks, and it can be argued that insights from reality therapy’s theoretical explanations can also be beneficial. Glasser ( 2014 ) emphasizes that individuals can control their behaviors, choose for themselves, and underscores the importance of internal control. Furthermore, he anticipates success and happiness in the future when interpersonal relationships are healthy. Glasser also highlights the importance of focusing on the present and the future rather than the past, indicating that using the WDEP system to focus on individuals’ desires and behaviors and planning based on necessary evaluations would be functional. In this process, it is essential to focus on the client’s perceptions. Indeed, perception is a necessary element to plan for the future and evaluate the present (Von Foerster, 1972 ). Therefore, it can be considered that reality therapy provides a theoretical framework to navigate when assessing perceptions of the future.

Moreover, although reality therapy is applicable for professionals working with adolescents in psychology, social work, counseling, classroom teaching, administration, and other disciplines, more research is needed (Wubbolding, 2015 ). Given the known impact of reality therapy on increasing adolescents’ self-efficacy, responsibility, mental well-being, and mental health while reducing anxiety (Jamalabadi et al., 2022 ), it is believed to provide guidance in framing adolescents’ perceptions of the future.

Another focus of the study is adolescents’ perceptions of the four fundamental psychological needs defined within the context of reality therapy (belongingness, power, freedom, and fun). Evaluating the impact of adolescents shaping their future perceptions based on these psychological needs, as well as considering cultural structures reflecting differences in socio-cultural values, underscores the importance of examining psychological needs in the Turkish adolescent sample. Although adolescents’ needs in different cultures are often evaluated in the context of three fundamental psychological needs—autonomy, relatedness, and competence (González-Cutre et al., 2020 ; Fraguela-Vale et al., 2020 ; Liu et al., 2023 ; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020 )—there are few studies that specifically address the dimensions of love-belonging, power, freedom, and fun (Dursun, 2022 ; Harvey & Retter, 2002 ). It is emphasized that psychological needs should be addressed in these four dimensions (Harvey & Retter, 2002 ).

The importance of qualitative assessment of future perception and psychological needs

While there are various quantitative studies examining future perception and psychological needs (Allemand et al., 2022 ; Thomas et al., 2017 ), qualitative research on these topics is rarely encountered (Dursun, 2022 ). However, no study has been found that evaluates the concept of future perception, thought to be related to concepts such as responsibility, decision-making, control focus, psychological needs, and total behavior, within the context of reality therapy. Examining adolescents’ future perceptions in-depth through qualitative research methods is likely to facilitate a better understanding of their emotions, thoughts, and expectations regarding the future. Similarly, exploring their psychological needs can contribute to guiding them towards healthy directions. As a matter of fact, the basic concepts of reality therapy such as making choices, taking responsibility, evaluating the functionality of their own behaviors, making plans and implementing them (Banks, 2009 ) enable adolescents to continue to be successful. It also motivates adolescents to continue making choices that will enable them to take personal responsibility for their future behavior (Mabeus & Rowland, 2016 ). In addition, reality therapy helps adolescents increase their self-confidence and express their own needs without hesitation (Wahyuningsih, 2018 ), and reduces the risk of experiencing hopelessness and identity crisis (Mahmoodi et al., 2013 ). In light of all these explanations, it is thought that it would be appropriate to examine concepts that may be related to adolescents’ future perceptions and psychological needs with the concepts of reality therapy. Because it can be said that experiencing an identity crisis, having a sense of hope and being motivated in future-oriented behaviors will shape the perception of the future. Similarly, it is emphasized that meeting psychological needs is very important for adolescents (Dursun, 2022 ). As stated, one of the important concepts of reality therapy is psychological needs. Consequently, this study is considered important as the first research to investigate adolescents’ future perceptions in the light of reality therapy, focusing on adolescents’ psychological needs in conjunction with evolving and changing life conditions, and utilizing qualitative research methods. Additionally, it is expected that the findings of this study will serve as a foundation and provide data for future research on adolescents’ future perceptions and reality therapy. Lastly, it is believed that the results of this research will offer insights into psychological counseling and guidance services provided to adolescents in schools, particularly in terms of planning their futures and addressing important topics such as psychological needs, responsibility, and control.

Methodology

Participants.

In the research, a convenient sampling method, which is one of the sampling methods in qualitative research, has been used. Convenient or accessible sampling relies on readily available, easily accessible elements (Patton, 2005 ). However, adolescents who are still in the adolescence period, attending formal education, and willingly informed their families about the research, participated in the study. In this context, interviews were conducted with a total of 181 adolescents, with an average age of 15.36, including 125 (69.1%) girls and 56 (39.1%) boys. Care was taken to interview participants from each grade level. Among the participants, 55 (30.4%) were in the 9th grade, 77 (42.5%) in the 10th grade, 26 (14.4%) in the 11th grade, and 23 (12.7%) in the 12th grade. Additionally, an effort was made to reach participants from different types of schools. Indeed, 157 participants (86.7%) attend Anatolian High Schools, 13 (7.2%) attend Social Sciences High Schools, 7 (3.9%) attend Anatolian Imam Hatip High Schools, and 4 (2.2%) attend Vocational High Schools. Their academic averages vary between 41 and 88, with an average of 73.74. Although this study was planned in a qualitative pattern, the reason for the large number of participants is that it was tried to explain the future perceptions and psychological needs of adolescents in the context of maximum diversity sampling. In this way, different situations can be represented and situations can be fully described from multiple perspectives (Henwood, 2014 ). In this study, adolescents of different genders, different grade levels, different school types, and parents with different education levels were included in the study to ensure maximum diversity. Thus, this research, planned in a qualitative pattern, will provide repeatable and convincing results, and the sample will be included in the universe. It has been supported to include all its elements (Creswell, 2013 ).

In the research, ethical approval for the study Scientific Research Publication Ethics Committee. This study was approved by The Humanitarian Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee on 04.04.2022 (ReferenceNo: 2022/11 − 05). The author declare that they have no conflict of interest. Furthermore, an informed consent form and parental consent form were added to the online interview questionnaire. The reason for choosing the online environment to collect data through in-depth interviews in the study is cost and time efficiency (Abidin & de Seta, 2020 ). Adolescents willing to participate in the interviews were informed about the research and provided with a link to the interview questionnaire. Responding to the interview questions in the online environment took an average of 20 min, and the interview data were collected between May and November 2022. Participants no incentives (money, food, gifts, etc.) were provided for participating in the interviews. Due to the large number of participants, numerical ordering was used instead of names.

Validity and reliability studies

In order to enhance the validity and reliability of the research, several measures were taken. To improve validity, the research process and participants (gender, grade level, academic average) were described in detail. Additionally, in the findings section, participant sentences that could serve as examples for codes were presented in detail, including the participant’s gender and grade level information. To ensure reliability in the research, participants were provided with detailed information about the scope of the study, and their voluntary participation was encouraged. Furthermore, the roles of the researchers were predefined, and the process was systematically carried out.

Throughout the research process, including question formulation and analysis, literature-supported procedures were followed, and the research method was thoroughly described. Moreover, one of the measures taken to enhance reliability was seeking expert opinions, as suggested by Creswell ( 2013 ). In this study, opinions were obtained from two experts. Finally, in accordance with Miles and Huberman’s ( 1994 ) formulation, inter-rater reliability is expected to exceed 70%. In this study, reliability was calculated as 86%.

The interview questions included in the interview form prepared by the researchers were grounded in the theoretical foundation of reality therapy. The form underwent modifications after three expert reviews who were knowledgeable about reality therapy and had experience in qualitative question formulation. The questions were designed to delve into adolescents’ future perceptions, starting more broadly and aiming to access both positive and negative aspects of adolescents’ future perceptions. The questions include: (i) How do you imagine your future life? (ii) What are you doing today to achieve your future life? (What are the obstacles, resources, and strengths? ) (iii) When you evaluate what you are doing/not doing today to achieve your future life, what comes to mind? (iv) When you evaluate what you are doing/not doing today to achieve your future life, what advice would you give to yourself? (v) What are your thoughts about the future? (vi) What are your feelings about the future? (vii) What are your beliefs about the future? (viii) How do you meet your psychological needs (love, power, freedom, fun)?.

Coding and analysis

The data analysis in the study employed theoretical thematic analysis to thoroughly organize and describe the data. The process began with the researcher deciphering and repeatedly reading the data, followed by the creation of initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing and creating a thematic map of the themes, and finally, naming and reporting the themes (Braun & Clarke, 2006 ).

In this context, after collecting data from the AD and NC researchers, the process involved rereading the data set multiple times, eliminating unanswered or tangentially answered, and incomplete interview forms from the data mass to reach the final data set for analysis. Subsequently, two researchers simultaneously focused on key terms related to the concepts of reality therapy to perform initial coding. The codes were then categorized and a map was created by AD, which was presented to NC. NC examined the data set in the context of her own code categories, and the process continued with several iterations. Throughout this process, the fundamental concepts of reality therapy were taken into consideration.

Finally, after obtaining the themes, the researchers presented them to experts for their feedback. Following feedback from two experts knowledgeable in reality therapy and qualitative research, the findings were finalized and compiled into a report. The themes, codes, and categories related to adolescents’ future perceptions are presented in Table  1 , while metaphors related to their psychological needs are provided in Table  2 .

Adolescents’ views on future perception

The findings related to adolescents’ future perceptions are presented in Table  1 . These are organized into two main themes: ‘Future Perception’ and ‘Future-Oriented WDEP System.’ Under the theme of Future Perception, six categories were identified, including psychological needs, control, quality world, total behavior, responsibility, and identity formation.

• Psychological needs

The adolescents who participated in the research mentioned their needs for love-belongingness (f = 162) , fun (f = 157) , freedom (f = 110) , and power (f = 90). Adolescents who perceived the need for love-belongingness as essential, healing, and fundamental expressed meeting this need through environmental resources such as social support and hobbies. They fulfill this need by showing love, feeling valued, meeting the power need through physical, spiritual, verbal, and internal contact. Similarly, the need for fun is met through social contacts and support, hobbies, technology use, showing love, and using humor. Adolescents believe that unhealthy coping mechanisms and lack of awareness or fulfillment hinder meeting the need for fun. Regarding the need for freedom, adolescents meet it through hobbies, taking responsibility, self-control, expression, questioning, and relaxation. However, they find it challenging to satisfy the need for freedom due to reasons such as avoiding responsibility and lack of awareness. Adolescents meet the need for power through hobbies, social support, sports activities, academic efforts, personal development, internal motivation, and taking responsibility. The difficulty in recognizing and defining the need for power makes it challenging for adolescents to satisfy this need. The findings indicate that adolescents engage in different actions to satisfy various psychological needs.

These results highlight the exploration of situations where adolescents cannot meet and satisfy their needs and the need for necessary interventions. Some examples of expressions related to adolescents’ struggles in meeting or satisfying their psychological needs are presented below:

The need for love is important to me. Many things in life pass through love and beauty. I meet my need for love by spending time with my friends and family. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] Fun plays a small part in my life. I spend time with my friends during school breaks, I spend some time on the phone at home, but I love spending time with my mother, going out… [Girl, 9th Grade, Anatolian High School]. In my opinion, freedom is a feature that only exists in birds. There is no freedom in the family; clothing, traveling, reading… And if we are women, of course. The reason for this is the trust between them. [Girl, 12th Grade, Anatolian High School] Power is the meaning of life for me, and I provide the power I need by acting without delay, aware of my position in society, my rank, and what I can do. [Male, 12th Grade, Anatolian High School] The need for love is my raison d’être. It is the best help to start something, I meet my needs in a completely different world by reading books. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] In my opinion, love is necessary for every human being and this need arises from loneliness. I meet my need for love by motivating myself. [Girl, 11th Grade, Anatolian High School] It’s like a painkiller. With hugging… [Girl, 11th Grade, Anatolian High School].

As a result, as can be seen from the statements of the research participants, the psychological needs (Love-belonging, Power, Freedom, Fun) that are fundamental to reality therapy are also effective on their lives. It is particularly noteworthy that their efforts to meet Love-Belongingness and Fun needs are intense. This is clearly seen in the metaphors in which they express their perception of need. Adolescents often compare their Love, Belonging and Fun needs to vital needs such as eating and breathing. In this regard, it can be considered important to focus on meeting these needs and how they are met in preventive and therapeutic studies with adolescents.

Under the category of control, the desire to satisfy psychological needs (f = 84) , effort/dream to achieve goals (f = 74) , positive perception of the future (f = 17) , and negative perceptionsof the future (f = 21) emerged. Adolescents express a desire to control and satisfy their psychological needs, such as being happy and strong in the future, gaining economic power, and meeting the needs for fun and freedom. Additionally, efforts to achieve future goals, such as acquiring a profession, being goal-oriented, and exhibiting perfectionism, indicate a sense of control. Moreover, it is observed that adolescents may have negative perceptions of the future based on a lack of awareness, loneliness, and hopelessness, leading to a feeling of lack of control in this regard. According to reality therapy, gaining internal control is crucial for adolescents. These findings suggest the need to focus on adolescents’ negative perceptions of control and situations where they do not feel in control. In this study examined from the perspective of Reality therapy, the efforts of the participants to gain control over their lives in their statements about the future draw attention. In this respect, it can be said that it is important to provide opportunities for adolescents to feel in control in their future planning and studies on this subject. Some statements expressing adolescents’ feelings related to the control category are provided below:

My biggest dream is that I can express my thoughts freely, that people accept me as I am, and that my thoughts and decisions I make are respected. [Girl, 11th Grade, Vocational High School] It’s like seeing cheerful faces every day, my career being as I expected, and a peaceful life. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] Going to another city or even country for university. [Male, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] Living a perfect life with family or alone. [Male, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School]

World of quality

In this category, adolescents mentioned positive motivation for the future (f = 100) and negative motivation for the future (f = 39). The quality world is a structure that includes situations, events, people, and perceptions that individuals value. It is effective in meeting and motivating individuals to take action to satisfy their psychological needs. In this context, positive motivation for the future that facilitates adolescents in taking action and satisfying their needs includes positive beliefs about themselves, beliefs about goals, positive beliefs about the environment, spiritual beliefs, and hope. Additionally, it has been found that some adolescents have negative beliefs about themselves and the environment in their quality world. This situation may negatively impact adolescents’ perceptions of the future and lead to a lack of motivation in satisfying their psychological needs. Therefore, there may be a need for interventions addressing the negative perceptions in adolescents’ quality world. Some statements expressing adolescents’ feelings related to the quality world category are provided below:

We will be a happy country, we will leave the difficult days behind. [Girl, 11th Grade, Anatolian High School] I believe that I will be rewarded for my efforts in the future. [Girl, 9th Grade, Vocational High School] Even though I want to be successful, I believe that I will fail when I see my grades. [Girl, 11th Grade, Anatolian High School]

Total behavior pattern

Adolescents’ efforts to achieve future-oriented goals (f = 158) , their emotions about the future (f = 209) , and thoughts about satisfying their psychological needs (f = 32) are evaluated within the pattern of total behavior. Total behavior assesses individuals’ emotions, thoughts, actions, and physiology. In this context, adolescents believe that to reach the lives they envision in the future, they need to be goal-oriented, set goals, be organized, be determined, and have internal control. Additionally, adolescents experiencing hopelessness, feelings of insecurity, and future anxiety believe that meeting economic, motivational, entertainment, power, and time needs is crucial when planning their futures. It is noteworthy that adolescents generally express negative emotions about the future. Adolescents mentioned positive emotions (f = 75), negative emotions (f = 107), and neutral emotions (f = 27) when talking about their future feelings. In positive emotions, they feel happy, hopeful, proud, and peaceful, while in negative emotions, they feel stressed, hopeless, unhappy, excited, sad, anxious, worried, and uneasy. Some adolescents also had difficulty describing and naming their emotions. These findings suggest the importance of paying attention to negative emotions related to future perceptions when working with adolescents. Below are some statements expressing adolescents’ feelings in the total behavior category:

I worked very hard and got the job I wanted… [Girl, 9th Grade, Anatolian High School]. I recommend doing what I want, when I want, without stressing myself too much, so I can be more productive. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] I should take better care of myself, I should plan better… [Girl, 12th Grade, Anatolian High School]. No one can guarantee that they will be with us in 5 years, so we need to chart and evaluate our path accordingly. [Male, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] Spending more time watching movies and TV series and not worrying so much about the future… [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School]. I dream motivating dreams for myself and my only wish is to pass the class this year, and if I pass, I want to shine as a different person from everything and everyone for the next 2 years. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] I would say use your time wisely because these times will never come again. Even if you become a very successful and rich person in the future, the only thing you cannot buy is time. [Girl, 12th Grade, Anatolian High School]

Responsibility

Adolescents also mentioned the concept of responsibility for the future in their statements. They stated that there are internal sources (f = 136) and external sources (f = 6) regarding responsibility. While talking about internal resources such as economic, academic, personal development efforts and personal power source, they also stated the importance of external resources such as academic support and social support resources. Responsibility is a very important concept for reality therapy. Similarly, it is very important to be able to take responsibility in terms of both developmental tasks and the career decision-making process during adolescence. It is noteworthy that the participants frequently expressed internal resources. It is thought that it will make it easier to take responsibility since the continuity of internal resources is under the individual’s control compared to external resources.

I’m working too hard. I try new things to discover myself. [Girl, 11th Grade, Anatolian High School] I don’t have a disability, it can’t happen. I am a patient person, my diction is good. I’ll do whatever it takes to get what I want. [Girl, 9th Grade, Anatolian High School] My obstacles are myself, my resources are my books, my strength is my best friend… [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School]. My resources: My family’s support, highly disciplined and qualified teachers… [Male, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School].

Identity achievement

Adolescents also talked about identity achievement, which is one of the important concepts of reality therapy and adolescence, by talking about successful identity patterns (f = 30) and unsuccessful identity patterns (f = 8) for the future. In their statements, adolescents stated successful identity patterns when talking about concepts such as the desire for control, the acquisition of autonomy, and the desire for social order. They also mentioned unsuccessful identity patterns by including unrealistic expectations and avoiding responsibility. Therefore, according to the research results, it becomes crucial to pay attention to adolescents’ unrealistic expectations and tendencies to avoid responsibility and to intervene as necessary. This way, support can be provided for adolescents to achieve successful identity formation.

I want my feet to be firmly on the ground and to live a life without depending on anyone. [Girl, 12th Grade, Anatolian Imam Hatip High School] I would like to have what I want at my fingertips at any time. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School]

Future-oriented emotions

Adolescents’ feelings about the future are categorized under three headings: positive affect (f = 75) , negative affect (f = 107) , and neutral affect (f = 27). Under positive affect, adolescents mentioned feeling hopeful , happy , peaceful , and proud , while also expressing feelings such as hopelessness , anxiety , worry , stress , and unease . Some adolescents also had difficulty describing their emotions. It is noteworthy that adolescents experience negative emotions more frequently than positive emotions. On the basis of reality therapy, attention is paid to the relationship of negative emotions with needs that are not met or are not met in a healthy way.

When I think about my feelings towards the future, I feel hopeful. At least, there are positive feelings inside me for my own future. It’s like everything is going to be really great. [Girl, 9th Grade, Anatolian High School] I feel very sad and scared when I think about not being able to succeed or not reaching my dreams…[Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School]. I don’t know…[Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School].

Four categories were obtained under Future-oriented WDEP system theme in Table  1 . These are wants , doing , evaluation and planning , which are the concepts of reality therapy.

Under this category, adolescents mentioned their expectations of meeting physical (f = 36) and psychological needs for the future (f = 52). They emphasized future economic well-being and physical health in their expectations of meeting physical needs. They also talked about meeting their needs for fun, power and freedom in the future, and their desire to start a family and socialize. When evaluated in the context of future perceptions, wants become highly important as they have the potential to shape the future. This is because wants are qualitative in nature. In this regard, it can be considered that professionals working with adolescents can focus on wants with a perspective of meeting their psychological and physical needs when examining their future perceptions. The wants section could be considered the part where professionals working with adolescents would gain the most information about the perception of the future. This is because adolescents form their wants based on their perceptions of the future. Therefore, considerations could be made for wants such as family, socialization, and meeting needs to be part of adolescents’ perception of the future. Below are some statements expressing adolescents’ wants:

To have a good economic income and to be a happy and healthy person. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] I want to be someone who made my name known. [Girl, 12th Grade, Anatolian Imam Hatip High School] No matter what happens to me, I just need someone to support me. [Girl, 9th Grade, Social Sciences High School] A free life without interference. [Male, 11th Grade, Anatolian High School] A comfortable, fun, non-tiring life [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School].

Under this category, adolescents have discussed what they do concerning their future-oriented actions. They have mentioned avoidance of responsibility (f = 20) and efforts to achieve their goals (f = 47). Additionally, they have emphasized efforts to achieve their goals when discussing what they do for their future. In their statements, they have mentioned concepts like motivating themselves, setting goals, and making plans. In their expressions, they have talked about inaction, a perception of inadequacy, and procrastination behaviors. These statements reveal a range of attitudes and behaviors among adolescents regarding their actions and aspirations for the future, including both challenges and efforts to reach their goals. In the doing phase, adolescents can gain awareness as they evaluate their own behaviors. Indeed, experiences such as avoiding responsibility, procrastination, and feeling inadequate may arise, negatively impacting their future perceptions. In the context of avoiding responsibility, it becomes crucial for professionals working with adolescents to focus on the adolescents’ current situations and behaviors.

I try to study, try to understand. I’m not doing my best at everything, but I can if I want to, yet I still procrastinate. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] I don’t have many obstacles; my family is supportive. I’ve already started preparing for the university entrance exam. I’ll study all summer, no matter what happens, and I won’t give up. Over the next two years, I plan to study a lot and secure a good major so that I won’t be unemployed. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School]

Adolescents’ evaluations of their future can be categorized into three main areas: avoidance of responsibility (f = 87) , efforts to achieve goals (f = 58) and confronting reality (f = 38). They have used concepts representing avoidance behavior such as procrastination, insufficient effort, external locus of control, perception of obstacles, negative self-efficacy beliefs, negative emotions, and neutrality. Regarding their efforts to achieve the goal, they mentioned that they work goal-oriented, have positive efficacy beliefs, need to plan, and internal locus of control. While evaluating their future behavior, they also made statements regarding their awareness that they were facing the truth. Adolescents’ healthy evaluation of their current situation may make it easier for their future perceptions and goals to be more realistic. In this regard, it is important to support adolescents who need evaluation at this stage or who have low self-awareness.

I start studying very late; I prolong my start time, and I check my phone too much. [Boy, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] I feel like I can’t make it, even if I study, it feels like I can’t survive in this country or achieve a profession in this education system. [Girl, 9th Grade, Anatolian High School] I feel like I can succeed in one way and not in another. I’m in a void. [Boy, 11th Grade, Anatolian High School] I’m making an effort, but I feel exhausted, just like Mac-Ready in the movie ‘The Thing’. [Boy, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] I believe that if everything I plan goes well, I will hit my target right in the middle. [Girl, 12th Grade, Anatolian High School] I get stressed a lot, I shouldn’t do this, and that’s why I usually lose in the future. I think if I continue like this, I will lose. Mostly, sometimes my self-confidence is shaken. If I do this, I may lose again in the future. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School]

Adolescents have shared action-oriented (f = 106) and emotion-focused thoughts (f = 53) regarding their future. In their future plans, they have discussed goal-oriented, family-building, migration, personal growth, economic, and responsibility-oriented behaviors. In addition, their statements included positive expressions such as hopeful future perception, as well as economic anxiety, future anxiety, negative perception of social order and thoughts of uncertainty. It is thought that adolescents’ positive or negative feelings and perceptions about the future may have an impact on their plans. As a matter of fact, emotions are an element related to thoughts and behaviors from a total behavioral perspective. In this respect, negative perceptions and emotions about the future need to be intervened. In addition, it is considered important to raise awareness about the future, which is perceived with unrealistic optimism.

I want to live in South Korea and this is not a dream for two days, I have been thinking about it for about a year and a half and now I am sure that I really want it. [Girl, 9th Grade, Anatolian High School] I want to be advanced in every field, for example, I want to learn different languages, play the guitar and piano, and improve more in painting. And I want to do more sports in the future. [Girl, 11th Grade, Anatolian High School] I hope that animal laws will become stricter and that those who hurt animals, violence, harass and rape women will be punished up to death. [Girl, 10th Grade, Anatolian High School] I don’t know what kind of life I will live, what kind of life is waiting for me, I am definitely worried that if I lose out on this path, I will experience great difficulties. [Male, 11th Grade, Anatolian High School]

Perceptions of adolescents regarding psychological needs

In Table  2 , findings related to metaphors used by adolescents to understand their perceptions of psychological needs are presented. Adolescents used metaphors to express their perceptions of these needs in the psychological needs category. They emphasized the fundamental nature and necessity of all psychological needs, creating metaphors that conveyed meanings such as basic needs and requirements, healing properties like medicine and vitamins for the love-belongingness need. For the power need, they used metaphors conveying the meanings of necessity, struggle, effort, protection, and healing. In expressing the freedom need, adolescents used metaphors like a bird, flying, and self-discovery to highlight relaxation and self-awareness. Regarding the fun need, they discussed its basic and necessary aspects, as well as its motivational properties, using metaphors like going to an amusement park, zest for life, and support. When metaphors are examined, it is seen that psychological needs are very important for adolescents. It is particularly noteworthy that they attach vital importance to the need for love and belonging. Therefore, it is important to understand to what extent psychological needs are necessary for adolescents and to support them in meeting their needs in a healthy way.

Love is a need for me, it is the reason for my existence. It is the best help to start something, and I meet my needs by reading books, entering a whole different world. [Female, 10th grade, Anatolian High School] Power is very important to me. Sometimes, I don’t know how I will do it. I feel like I am in a race. [Male, 12th grade, Anatolian High School] The need for freedom is like the most necessary thing for me to live comfortably in the future. [Female, 10th grade, Anatolian High School] For me, it is one of the body’s greatest needs, and I meet my needs by walking around in friend environments.’ [Male, 12th grade, Anatolian High School].

This study examines the meanings attributed by adolescents to future perceptions and psychological needs within the framework of reality therapy concepts. In this context, six categories were initially identified under the theme of future perception: psychological needs, control, quality world, total behavior pattern, responsibility, and identity achievement. When examining research findings, the importance of psychological needs, one of the fundamental concepts of reality therapy, is frequently emphasized during adolescence. Similarly, needs that are stated to be innate and universal in research (Glasser, 2014 ) are considered as the source of behaviors (Wubbolding, 2015 ). In research findings, adolescents particularly emphasize the significance of the need for love and belongingness, considering it essential and one of the healing and basic needs, also reflected in the metaphors they use. Similarly, in reality therapy, this need is recognized as a fundamental requirement (Wubbolding, 2015 ). Furthermore, during adolescence, which is a transitional period, the degree to which an adolescent satisfies psychological needs from the individuals in their relationships becomes crucial. Indeed, the importance of the need for relationship building during adolescence is emphasized. On the other hand, the need for love and belongingness is known theoretically as one of the most challenging psychological needs to fulfill. This is because it is acknowledged that at least one other person is required to meet this need. Therefore, how this need is met is also crucial. In research findings, adolescents state that they meet their needs for love and belongingness by using environmental resources such as social support and hobbies. Parallel to this, Booker ( 2004 ) emphasizes that the development of a strong sense of belonging is part of adolescence. From this perspective, it is essential for adolescents to meet their need for love and belongingness and to use various sources such as social support and hobbies. This is because the healthy fulfillment of needs in reality therapy is crucial for successful identity formation. According to the research results, adolescents consider the need for entertainment, such as the need for love and belongingness, as a fundamental need. The need for entertainment is known within the framework of reality therapy as the easiest need to fulfill, seen as necessary for increasing and sustaining well-being (Yorgun & Voltan-Acar, 2014 ). When considering adolescents, the need for entertainment is crucial. Adolescents mention that they can meet this need through social contact and support, hobbies, technology use, expressing love, and using humor. However, attention may need to be paid to the positive or negative use of humor in interactions with individuals or environments where the need for entertainment is met. Using dark humor or establishing contact in risky environments while meeting the need for entertainment can be considered unhealthy use. This situation may pose a risk to unsuccessful identity formation and damage the need for freedom. In this context, adolescents, in their metaphors, emphasize that the need for entertainment is fundamental and necessary, providing motivation. Adolescents state that the need for freedom is necessary for the present and future, fundamental, vital, and associated with relaxation. They emphasize this through metaphors. From this perspective, it can be considered that adolescents intensely feel the need for freedom. This is because adolescents under the age of 18 act together with individuals who are responsible for them in terms of financial aspects and the implementation of decisions (Dursun, 2020 ). This may make it difficult to meet this need. In the study, adolescents mentioned that they can meet the need for freedom through hobbies, taking responsibility, self-control, expression, questioning, and relaxation. Another perspective is that situations may arise where the need for freedom conflicts with the need for love and belongingness. While an adolescent satisfies the need for love and belongingness by being part of a group such as family, friend group, religion, etc., it is thought that this situation may make it difficult to meet the need for freedom (Yorgun & Voltan-Acar, 2014 ). However, Glasser emphasizes the importance of not harming others’ needs and taking responsibility when satisfying the need for freedom. In this regard, adolescents’ efforts to control themselves and take responsibility may be an indicator that they are trying to meet their needs successfully. Adolescents believe that they meet the need for power through hobbies, social support, sports activities, academic effort and activities, personal development efforts, internal motivation, and taking responsibility. Attempting to discover one’s internal strength, being able to make decisions by taking one’s responsibility, and building positive relationships with people are important for development and psychological well-being (Yorgun & Voltan-Acar, 2014 ; Wubbolding, 2015 ; Dursun, 2022 ). The research results also show that adolescents meet these needs positively, not by exerting power over others.

One of the strong findings in this study is the ways in which adolescents meet their psychological needs. It is emphasized that discussing adolescents’ future needs and expectations is crucial and significantly contributes to their development (Ege, 2018 ). The indication of how psychological needs in adolescent development are met in this research will serve as a guiding factor for parents, mental health professionals, and social support sources in addressing these needs. Additionally, the evaluation of psychological needs in the context of four fundamental psychological needs—namely, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun—in this study aims to broaden the relevant literature, emphasizing the necessity of approaching needs from this perspective (Harvey & Retter, 2002 ).

While adolescents strive to meet their psychological needs, the perception of control in adolescents is active, and their quality world is also in the process of renewal (Ünüvar, 2012 ). Adolescents aspire to control future happiness, gain economic power, and meet entertainment and freedom needs. However, efforts to achieve future goals, efforts to have a profession, goal-oriented behavior, and tendencies toward perfectionism are indicative of adolescents feeling in control. Additionally, some adolescents lack awareness of their future, have negative perceptions based on loneliness and hopelessness, and, in this regard, feel a lack of control. According to reality therapy, it is crucial for adolescents to gain internal control. These findings suggest a need to focus on adolescents’ negative perceptions of control and situations where they do not feel in control. Moreover, considering that motivation increases when psychological needs are met (Maralani et al., 2016 ), adolescents may increase the likelihood of creating a positive perception of the future by feeling in control. In short, in the process of planning future expectations, it becomes crucial for adolescents to have positive orientations toward the future, be aware of their values, and internal motivational sources. This is because when adolescents have high internal motivation, they can make their own decisions, cope with the negative effects of stress, and establish healthier relationships with their environment. In other words, they can feel in control. Planning various studies to help adolescents gain control over their future perceptions, develop their quality worlds, and acquire responsibility could be beneficial. Additionally, interventions focused on reality therapy have been shown to be effective for adolescents in terms of internal control and academic motivation (Kim & Hwang, 2001 ).

In the study, adolescents discussed concepts such as the desire for control, gaining autonomy, and the desire for social order, effectively indicating successful identity patterns. They also emphasized unsuccessful identity patterns by including expressions related to creating unrealistic expectations and avoiding responsibility. Adolescents with positive attitudes towards the future are thought to be able to develop a healthy identity. Therefore, during adolescence, Seginer ( 2003 ) considers the orientation towards the future or individuals’ images of the future as an important developmental task since it lays the groundwork for planning goals. When adolescents explore opportunities for the future, they discover new things and support the formation of their own identities. In parallel, attention is drawn to vocational tendencies regarding identity acquisition and development. Becoming a professional and receiving education for it, and thus preparing for life, is important for identity acquisition during adolescence. These studies highlight future expectations such as professional success, economic gain, and a happy marriage (Yavuzer et al., 2005 ; Öztürk & Uluşahin, 2011 ; Konate & Ergin, 2018 ; Avar, 2019 ). The research findings also indicate that adolescents have similar perceptions of the future. Within the focus of reality therapy, the successful development of adolescent identities, the formation of a positive self-perception, making healthy choices, taking responsibility, and meeting basic psychological needs are effective in shaping adolescents’ future perceptions and assisting them in becoming healthy adults (Zeira & Dekel, 2005 ; Yalçın, 2007 ). Furthermore, in the research, adolescents also mentioned unsuccessful identity patterns. Similarly, in a study, adolescents who perceived themselves as unable to use personality resources efficiently and questioned identity acquisition during this period were found to have anger and inadequacy perceptions towards themselves and the environment (Gümüşel, 2017 ). This could lead to unrealistic expectations and behavioral tendencies to avoid responsibility.

One of the important findings in the research is the feelings that adolescents express regarding the future. It can be said that adolescents’ positive feelings towards the future are parallel to findings in other studies. It can be stated that adolescents experiencing positive feelings towards the future have an increased subjective well-being, and the likelihood of experiencing depression and anxiety feelings decreases (Young et al., 2019 ). In another study, it is indicated that individuals who exhibit positive feelings towards the future and approach it with an optimistic, hopeful perspective will be determined to achieve their goals, make efforts, and demonstrate a positive attitude (İmamoğlu & Güler-Edwards, 2007 ). Similarly, it has been revealed in a parallel study that as adolescents’ hopes increase, their levels of psychological well-being also increase. The source of negative feelings can stem from unmet psychological needs according to reality therapy. These felt emotions challenge the adolescent because adolescence is a period of emotional difficulty and also carries the risk of new onset of anxiety and depressive disorders (Young et al., 2019 ). Therefore, working on emotion regulation skills during this period will contribute to the adolescent’s development of a positive perception towards the future and psychological well-being. Additionally, due to the uncertainties of the future, it can lead to negative feelings in adolescents. For these reasons, adolescents may need motivation, planning, and evaluation for a positive perception of the future (Şimşek, 2011 ).

The second theme obtained from the research findings is the WDEP system for the future. Under this theme, four categories were identified: wants, doing, evaluations, and planning. In the wants category, there was an emphasis on the expectation of economic well-being and physical health in the future as part of meeting physical needs. Additionally, adolescents expressed wants related to meeting the future needs for entertainment, power, and freedom, as well as aspirations for family formation and socialization. It is observed that social support is an important factor in shaping adolescents’ expectations for the future (Sulimani-Aidan & Benbenishty, 2011 ). Wants are an important stage in understanding the needs that drive behavior in reality therapy. In a study, it was found that adolescents want a satisfying job, family, and economic power, and they aspire to have job security, similar to the research results (Briones et al., 2011 ).

The WDEP system in reality therapy aligns closely with three fundamental processes present in the perception of the future. These three fundamental processes are motivation, planning, and evaluation. In a study on how adolescents perceive the future, it is shown that the goals and interests of adolescents relate to the core developmental tasks of late adolescence and early adulthood, reflecting expected lifelong development. The family context has also been found to influence adolescents’ interests, plans, causal attributions, and emotional responses regarding the future (Nurmi, 2004 ). Adolescents’ evaluations of the future are categorized under three headings: avoidance of responsibility, striving for goals, and confronting reality. In their expressions, adolescents included concepts representing avoidance behavior, such as procrastination, insufficient effort, external locus of control, perception of obstacles, negative self-efficacy beliefs, negative emotions, and neutrality. The overall structure of avoidance of responsibility may involve behaviors that prevent individuals from accepting their own wrongdoings through faulty attributions, cognitive biases, and distortions. Similarly, in a study where adolescents indicated obstacles to achieving their future expectations, they believed that obstacles stemmed from negative environmental conditions and themselves. Factors such as not working hard enough, fear of failure, exam stress, lack of self-confidence, and laziness are considered obstacles originating from themselves (Ege, 2018 ). In contrast to these findings, it is also observed that some adolescents are optimistic about their future. It is thought that increasing optimism or reducing pessimism about the future could contribute to a healthy perception of the future.

Adolescents have mentioned action-oriented and emotion-oriented thoughts about the future. In their future plans, they have talked about goal-oriented, family formation, migration, development, economic, and responsibility-oriented behaviors. Expectations, goal setting, planning, and decision-making about the future are important in adolescence, making adolescents’ choices critical. Adolescents have thoughts about the future, such as completing school, building a career, starting a family, having children, experiencing a romantic relationship, having a profession, leading a happy life, achieving economic well-being, taking social responsibility, and maintaining health (Ege & Erbay, 2022 ). Additionally, it is stated that adolescents’ future goals have a multidimensional structure (Giota, 2010 ). The results of this study also indicate that adolescents are similarly goal-oriented. The multidimensional nature of adolescents’ plans for the future is a crucial factor to be considered in future studies. In the current behaviors of adolescents, there is observed procrastination, inaction, and a perception of inadequacy. This is a factor that needs attention. Adolescents who do not take responsibility due to procrastination, inaction, and a perception of inadequacy may develop a negative perception of the future. Similarly, adolescents have expressed negative statements such as economic anxiety, future anxiety, negative perception of social order, and thoughts of uncertainty. While waiting for the future, adolescents plan activities to achieve their goals and evaluate the likelihood of achieving them. Emotional components, whether positive or negative, can motivate life planning, decision-making processes, and behaviors by reflecting how much they believe they can influence their future. Having a positive or optimistic orientation toward the future can help adolescents make decisions while preparing for adulthood. An adolescent with a positive future orientation is more willing to set goals, make plans, and be successful in problem-solving, tolerating disappointment, or maintaining flexibility (Neblett & Cortina, 2006 ). Therefore, studies focusing on encouraging adolescents to make optimistic evaluations and plan for the future become crucial. When the statements of the participants are evaluated in the context of the stages of the WDEP system, it is seen that the psychological and physical needs of adolescents mostly create their wishes. Again, avoiding responsibility is a risk factor for adolescents who think they need to strive for their goals and be action-oriented. however, adolescents prefer their plans to be action-oriented rather than emotion-oriented. In this respect, it can be emphasized that when working with adolescents, the WDEP system will contribute to their awareness, that responsibility should be taken into consideration and that it is important to be action-oriented with plans.

Lastly, adolescents have emphasized the fundamental nature and necessity of all psychological needs and used metaphors to convey this. Adolescents who do not have their psychological needs met are reported to experience emotional and behavioral problems, struggling to establish and manage relationships (Glasser, 2014 ). In a study, adolescents expressed a greater need for freedom and a lower need for power and control as fundamental needs. It was found that girls expressed a greater need for love and belonging and a lower need for entertainment compared to boys (Harvey & Retter, 2002 ). Another study found a positive relationship between adolescents’ psychological well-being, psychological needs, and positive outcomes (Hamurcu & Sargın, 2011 ). Research supports that as psychological needs are met, subjective well-being, motivation, life satisfaction, and the desire for learning increase, leading to more successful initiation and maintenance of relationships (Demirbaş-Çelik, 2018 ; Guo, 2018 ). Therefore, the opinions of adolescents regarding the satisfaction of their psychological needs in the future are highly important. In studies examining the level and satisfaction of psychological needs, it has been found that as psychological needs are met, aggression, submissive behavior, and exam anxiety decrease, while motivation, life satisfaction, the desire for learning, and competence increase (Hamurcu & Sargın, 2011 ; Maralani et al., 2016 ; Guo, 2018 ). One of the strengths of this research is the use of metaphors to express psychological needs. Metaphors created separately for each need have specific meanings and qualities. Metaphors are powerful mental maps that can be learned, helping individuals make sense of their lives. No studies have been found in which adolescents’ psychological needs are expressed through metaphors in the literature.

Implications for theory, research and practice

This study provides some important suggestions for new research. Within the scope of this research, suggestions for both research and practice are included. Adolescents’ awareness and healthy fulfillment of their psychological needs are seen as factors that can contribute to the development of a positive future outlook. Therefore, when working with adolescents, interventions focused on understanding and satisfying their psychological needs can be designed. Elements within the quality worlds of adolescents and the total behavior that forms their emotions, thoughts, and actions are seen as influential factors in shaping their perceptions of the future. Consequently, professionals working with adolescents may consider focusing on their cognitive and emotional states, working with distorted cognitions, and supporting adolescents in emotion regulation. In interventions aimed at planning the future with adolescents, the Reality Therapy WDEP system can be employed, especially to understand the status of their desires and aspirations. Metaphors can be utilized to explore the meanings adolescents attach to their psychological needs. Furthermore, based on the guidance of research results, intervention programs can be developed to assist adolescents in forming a positive future outlook and addressing their psychological needs in a healthy manner. Finally, it’s worth noting that this research was conducted in a qualitative design. Future studies could be planned using a mixed-methods approach, incorporating quantitative or experimental designs into the process.

Methodological limitations

The research findings and recommendations come with certain limitations that should be considered. Firstly, the study is exclusively designed in a qualitative manner. Given the qualitative nature of the research and the sample size, different designs may be needed to explain individual variations in experiences related to factors such as age, gender, and birth order. Additionally, the sample is limited to Turkish adolescents. Including different cultures and developmental stages in the research could provide a broader perspective. Lastly, the future outlook and psychological needs are presented from the perspective of reality therapy. Evaluating cases in different theoretical contexts could contribute to the development of a more comprehensive knowledge base for professionals.

This study has evaluated adolescents’ perceptions of the future and psychological needs in the perspective of reality therapy. The adolescents who participated in the research exhibit both positive and negative expressions that can be assessed concerning their perceptions of the future. Moreover, adolescents place importance on needs such as love and belonging, power, freedom, and entertainment, attempting to fulfill them through various means. The study contributes to the literature by examining adolescents’ experiences in the context of the four psychological needs of reality therapy. Additionally, it is observed that adolescents feeling internal control, and having positive emotions and thoughts that constitute their quality worlds and total behaviors are crucial. Finally, it can be stated that the WDEP system is functional in understanding adolescents’ perceptions of the future.

Data availability

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request.

Abidin, C., & de Seta, G. (2020). Private messages from the field: Confessions on Digital ethnography and it’s discomforts. Journal of Digital Social Research, 2 (1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.33621/jdsr.v2i1.35

Article   Google Scholar  

Allemand, M., Fend, H. A., & Hill, P. L. (2022). Perceptions of the future in adolescence predict depressive symptoms in adolescence and early and middle adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 58 (11), 2197–2209. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001424

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Avar, F. Z. (2019). The relationship between perceived parenting attitudes among high school students and their future expectations and academic success [in Turkish]. Üsküdar University.

Google Scholar  

Aytar, O., & Soylu, Ş. (2019). University students’ perceptions of the present and future: A research on business administration students. Ömer Halisdemir University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Journal, 12 (3), 328–337. https://doi.org/10.25287/ohuiibf.462023

Banks, S. G. (2009). Choice theory: Using choice theory and reality therapy to enhance student achievement and responsibility . The American School Counselor Association.

Booker, C. K. (2004). Exploring school belonging and academic achievement in African American adolescent. Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, 6 (2), 131–143.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3 (2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Briones, E., Tabernero, C., & Arenas, A. (2011). Adolescents’ future wishes and fears in their acculturation process. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35 (1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.06.003

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research Design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches . Sage.

Daltrey, M. H., & Langer, P. (1984). Development and evaluation of a measure of future time perspective. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58 (3), 719–725. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1984.58.3

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2011). Levels of analysis, regnant causes of behavior and well-being: The role of psychology needs. Psychological Inquiry, 22 (1), 17–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2011.545978

Demirbaş-Çelik, N. (2018). Happiness in high school students: Autonomy, relatedness, competence, and meaning in life [in Turkish]. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 13 (3), 422–430.

Dursun, A. (2020). The effectiveness of a reality therapy-based psycho-educational program to reduce adolescents' problematic internet use. [Unpublished Doctoral Thesis]. Anatolian University.

Dursun, A. (2022). Adolescents’ views on problematic internet use and psychological needs. Kalem Educational Human Sciences Journal, 12 , 521–546. https://doi.org/10.23863/kalem.2021.214

Ege, A. (2018). Examining the effects of adolescents’ problems and perceived social support on their future expectations: The example of Altındağ [in Turkish]. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Hacettepe University, Ankara.

Ege, A., & Erbay, E. (2022). Examining the future expectations of adolescents with an ecological approach: A mixed methods research. Journal of National Education, 51 (233), 97–125. https://doi.org/10.37669/milliegitim.766892

Fraguela -Vale, R., Varela-Garrote, L., Carretero-García, M., & Peralbo-Rubio, E. M. (2020). Basic psychological needs, physical self- concept, and physical activity among adolescents: Autonomy in focus. Frontiers in Psychology, 11 , 491–503. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00491

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Giota, J. (2010). Multidimensional and hierarchical assessment of adolescents motivation in school. Scandinavian Journal of Education Research, 54 (1), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313830903488486

Glasser, W. (2014). Reality therapy of the evolution of psychotherapy: The second conference (pp. 270–278). Routledge.

González-Cutre, D., Romero-Elías, M., Jiménez-Loaisa, A., Beltrán-Carrillo, V. J., & Hagger, M. S. (2020). Testing the need for novelty as a candidate need in basic psychological needs theory. Motivation and Emotion, 44 (2), 295–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09812-7

Gümüşel, O. (2017). We are young (2nd Edition). Timaş Publications.

Guo, Y. (2018). The influence of academics autonomous motivation on learning engagement and life satisfaction in adolescents: The mediating role of basic psychological needs satisfaction. Journal of Education and Learning, 7 (4), 254–261. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n5p254

Hamurcu, H., & Sargın, N. (2011). An investigation of the relationship between high school students’ compliance behavior and psychological needs [in Turkish]. Journal of the Institute of Social Sciences, 31 (2), 171–187.

Harvey, V. S., & Retter, K. (2002). Variations by gender between children and adolescents on the four basic psychological needs. International Journal of Reality Therapy, 21 (2), 33–36.

Henwood, K. (2014). Qualitative Research. In: Teo, T. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology. Springer. pp. 1611–1614. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_256

İmamoğlu, O. E., & Güler-Edwards, A. G. (2007). Differences in self-esteem types in future orientations [in Turkish]. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 22 (60), 115–132.

Jamalabadi, M., Maktabi, G. H., Yakhchali, A. H., & Omidian, M. (2022). The effect of reality therapy training on responsibility, self- efficacy, worry, and school related mental well-being of students. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6 (9), 5387–5397.

Kim, R. I., & Hwang, M. G. (2001). The effect of internal control and achievement motivation in group counseling based on reality therapy. International Journal of Reality Therapy, 20 (2), 12–15.

Konate, A. D., & Ergin, D. A. (2018). Testing the effectiveness of the ‘future expectation awareness training’ program for adolescents [in Turkish]. Creative Drama Journal, 13 (1), 69–84.

Liu, X., Zeng, J., Zhang, Y., Chen, S., Ran, F., & Liu, Y. (2023). Which psychological needs frustration has the strongest association with adolescent depressive symptoms? The protective role of self- esteem. Current Psychology , 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-05263-z

Mabeus, D., & Rowland, K. D. (2016). Reality therapy in a Middle School setting: Altering a student’s perception. Georgia School Counselors Association Journal, 23 , 48–52.

Mahmoodi, J., Gharadaghi, A., & Zemestani, M. (2013). The effectiveness of reality therapy training on the identity status and hope in female students. Asian Journal of Medical and Pharmaceutical Researches, 3 (4), 139–147.

Maralani, F. M., Lavasani, M. G., & Hejazi, E. (2016). Structural modeling on the relationship between basic psychological academic needs engagement, and test anxiety. Journal of Education and Learning, 5 (4), 44–52. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v5n4p44

McCabe, K., & Barnett, D. (2000). First comes work, then comes marriage: Future orientation among African American young adolescents. Family Relations Journal, 49 (1), 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00063.x

Mello, Z. R., & Worrell, F. C. (2014). The past, the present, and the future: A conceptual model of time perspective in adolescence. Of Time perspective theory; review, research and application: Essays in honor of Philip G. Zimbardo (pp. 115–129). Springer International Publishing.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Sage.

Neblett, N. G., & Cortina, K. S. (2006). Adolescents' thoughts about parents' jobs and their importance for adolescents’ future orientation. Journal of Adolescence, 29 (5), 795–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.11.006

Nurmi, J. E. (2004). How do adolescents see their future? A review of the development of future orientation and planning. Developmental Review, 11 (1), 1–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(91)90002-6

Öztürk, O. & Uluşahin, A. (2011), Mental health and disorders (11th ed.). Ankara.

Patton, M. Q. (2005). Qualitative research . John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Prenda, K. M., & Lachman, M. E. (2001). Planning for the future: A life management strategy for increasing control and life satisfaction in adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 16 , 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.16.2.206

Ryan, R. M. (1995). Psychological needs and the facilitation of integration processes. Journal of Personality, 63 (3), 397–427. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00501.x

Seginer, R. (2003). Adolescent future orientation: An integrated cultural and ecological perspective. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 6 (1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1056

Şimşek, H. (2011). Future expectations of high school students in the Southeastern Anatolia Region and factors affecting future expectations [in Turkish]. Theoretical Educational Science Journal, 5 (1), 90–109.

Şimşek, H. (2012). Future expectations of high school students in southeastern Turkey: Factors behind future expectations. Journal of Theoretical Educational Sciences, 5 (1), 90–109.

Sulimani-Aidan, Y., & Benbenishty, R. (2011). Future expectations of adolescents in residential care in Israel. Children and Youth Services Review, 33 (7), 1134–1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.02.006

Thomas, S., Sedikides, C., Van den Bos, N., Hutteman, R., & Reijntjes, A. (2017). Happy to be me? Authenticity, psychological need satisfaction and subjective well-being in adolescence. Child Development, 88 (4), 1045–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.09.003

Turcios-Cotto, V., & Milan, S. (2013). Racial / ethnic differences in the educational expectations of adolescents: Does pursuing higher education means some thing different to latino students comparedto white and black students? Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 42 (9), 1399–1412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9845-9

Ünüvar, A. (2012). Examining the effect of a psycho-educational program based on reality theory on high school students' locus of control and resilience levels. [Unpublished Doctoral Thesis]. Dokuz Eylül University.

Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004). Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The synergistic effects of intrinsic goal contents and autonomy-supportive contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87 (2), 246–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.246

Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., & Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. Motivation and Emotion, 44 , 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1

Von Foerster, H. (1972). Perception of the future and the future of perception. Instructional Science, 1 (1), 31–43.

Wahyuningsih, Y. P. (2018). Group Reality Therapy to increase self-esteem in adolescents. In 3rd ASEAN Conference on Psychology, Counselling, and Humanities (ACPCH 2017) (pp. 48–52). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/acpch-17.2018.10

Wubbolding, R. E. (2015). Glasser quality school. Group Dynamics: Theory Research and Practice, 11 (4), 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.11.4.253

Yalçın, A. F. (2007). Effectiveness of a success identity development program [in Turkish]. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Hacettepe University Institute of Social Sciences, Ankara, Turkey.

Yam, Z., Çetinkaya, H., & Kurnaz, A. (2018). Metaphorical investigation of specially talented students’ perceptions on the concept of future [in Turkish]. Journal of National Education Education of the Specially Talented, 47 (1), 67–90.

Yavuzer, H., Demir, İ., Meşeci, F., & Sertelin, Ç. (2005). Future expectations of today's youth. HAYEF Journal of Education, 2 (2), 93–103.

Yorgun, A., & Voltan-Acar, N. (2014). The applicability of reality therapy to Turkish culture: A culturally critical perspective [in Turkish]. Journal of Education and Science, 39 (175), 216–226. https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2014.460

Young, K. S., Sandman, C. F., & Craske, M. G. (2019). Positive and negative emotion regulation in adolescence: Links to anxiety and depression. Brain Sciences, 9 (4), 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9040076

Zeira, A., & Dekel, R. (2005). The self-image of adolescents and its relationship to their perceptions of the future. International Social Work, 48 (2), 177–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872805050208

Download references

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the participants who contributed to this research and the experts who gave their opinions.

Open access funding provided by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK). This research was not funded by any grant.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Psychology, Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, Turkey

Asiye Dursun

The Ministry of National Education, İzmir, Turkey

Nergis Canbulat

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

This work was designed by the authors. Authors obtained the necessary permissions, carried out data collection and wrote the article together. The last time the article was read and approved by the authors.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Asiye Dursun .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval.

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This study was approved by The University of Maltepe Social and Humanitarian Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee on 04.04.2022 (ReferenceNo: 2022/11-05).

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflict of interest

The author declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Dursun, A., Canbulat, N. Examining the experiences related to the psychological needs and future perceptions of Turkish adolescents on the basis of reality therapy: a qualitative study. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06288-8

Download citation

Accepted : 18 June 2024

Published : 08 July 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06288-8

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Reality therapy
• Future perception
• Qualitative study
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Enhancing Climate Resilience in IoT Devices: Challenges, innovations, and best practices.

• Zhunissova, Dinara
• Topping, Professor David
• Evans, Professor James

With growing concern about climate change and the increasing importance of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, the interaction between these two topics has been a focus of increased research. The purpose of this research paper, "Enhancing Climate Change Resilience in IoT Devices: Qualitative Analysis of Problems, Innovations, and Best Practises of IoT Devices," is to conduct a comprehensive qualitative analysis of the relation between IoT technology and climate resilience. This paper details the findings, providing contribution to the departments by offering solutions and recommendations that organisations can consider for improving the resilience of IoT devices in a severe weather condition. The paper includes an in-depth analysis of the present condition of IoT device usage, showing the broad and diverse areas of their application in many sectors, such as smart infrastructure, industrial manufacturing, agriculture, healthcare and more. This analysis highlights that many companies in both, the public and private sectors, are using sensors, actuators, cameras, routers and other devices. It then conducts a qualitative analysis of the particular problems that these devices deal with when subjected to challenging climatic conditions, with a focus on the impact of the environment on their performance. The paper illustrates IoT devices that have shown great climate resilience through real-world examples and in-depth qualitative evaluations of effective situations, delivering useful quality lessons for both developers and consumers. Furthermore, the study conducts a qualitative analysis of the elements that manufacturers and developers should consider while developing climate resistant IoT devices.The evaluation of the importance of quality aspects, such as standards and certifications, in assuring the reliability of IoT devices in various climatic situations is a key aspect of this qualitative study. The paper conducts deep research of these parameters and their influence on device performance, it also emphasises the significance of subjective components of maintenance and protection practises, providing organisations with practical qualitative to overcome severe weather conditions and secure their IoT devices. By looking more closely at these factors, the study aims to find the deeper fundamental factors that affect how resilient and durable devices are. Bringing up the importance of qualitative aspects of maintenance and protection practises shows how important it is to think about not only technological aspects but also subjective features that make IoT devices more durable and make sure they work well even in extreme weather conditions. Over this research, comprehensive interviews with IT professionals from a variety of companies were used to gather data for this study. Open-ended questions were used to get rich and detailed insights. Along with the descriptive information, reports from the sector, case studies, and best practises were also analysed analytically. This created a complete narrative framework for learning about the problems and chances that come with those devices that are resilient to climate change. Besides that, includes qualitative analysis of predicted quality improvements and IoT device applications, taking into consideration changing climatic challenges and technology developments. Remote tracking and predictive maintenance are critical for maintaining the reliability and resilience of IoT devices.

No Sources Found