critically discuss about equalization of educational opportunities in india

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Equalization of Educational Opportunities (with Indian context)

After independence, India formulated the goal of equalization of opportunity in education and employment because India believed in democratic philosophy. According to the Indian Constitution, every individual should have equal opportunities for getting education, no matter which race, religion, culture, sex, caste etc. Regarding equalization of educational opportunity, the report of the Education Commission 1964-66 states, “One of the important social objectives of education is to equalize opportunities, enabling the backward underprivileged classes and individuals to use education as a lever for the improvement of their condition”. According to NPE-1986, equalization of education means “to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in access but also in the conditions for success”.

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Juny Khyat, 2021

Education is the only tool for changing the society. In India education has been recognised as the instrument for national development and for creating a new social order. When education became a formal system of human society for learning, the concept of curriculum came into vogue and it has been enjoying a great prominence throughout. A curriculum provides a framework for learning. Education is the Universal right and Indian constitution guarantees the education as a fundamental right of every child. India's Right to education act (2009) also supports the same. India is known for its unity in diversity, similarly we can see the diversity in different educational boards in India namely State, CBSE and ICSE and many more. Every board has its own structure. In this paper authors have critically analyzed all the three boards by considering the 9 th standard science text books by analyzing the curriculum, Content, General objectives and Curriculum making objectives, Units, Medium of instruction, concept mapping, Activities, medium of Instruction, Co-curricular activities and also the Examination pattern and results with their Fee structure. The analysis found that there is a clear inequality in terms of curriculum, examination and fee structure of these three types of Boards. According to the paradigm 'Education brings Equality', we need to give equal opportunities in providing experiences in learning for all the children irrespective of type of boards and curriculum. The authors also suggest that, to bring the equality through Education India needs to have 'One Nation and One Education system'.

Contemporary Voice of Dalit , 2019

The aim of this article is to contextualize the meaning of equal educational opportunities and its distributional pattern in Indian society from the perspective of justice. This article also attempts to answer the following questions: (a) The meaning of equal opportunities in education: for whom is the education intended? and (b) What is the pattern of educational distribution and inequalities in educational opportunities? Finally, the article also elaborates on the relationship between state, society and education; how the state favours certain ideologies which perpetuate the denial of education and create problematic situation for low-caste students in their access to educational institutions.

Theory and Research in Education, 2005

Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory, 2018

Taking equality seriously means that we ought to consider the ways in which persons are not only unfairly advantaged or disadvantaged from the start – e.g., through genetic inheritance, wealth, or a parent’s educational background – but also how opportunities and rewards that result from these basic inequalities are later exacerbated in the distribution of goods and opportunities. The basic point of equality as a normative principle is not that everyone have similar things or achieve similar outcomes, that would be undesirable both for reasons having to do with individual liberty as well as social need.

The notion of equality in social system has been brought to bear on education, thus many societies today talk of equal educational opportunity and educational equalization. Many countries are making provision for equal educational opportunities. Equal educational opportunity means that all persons are born equal and should be treated equally in having access to education irrespective of sex, race, religion, social class or disability, while equalization of education is an attempt to make the educational attainment levels of the various groups in a society to be equal. The government of Nigeria at various levels has taken several measures to make the principles of equal educational opportunity a reality; however several obstacles still stand against it lending to make it a myth. Some of these measures and the obstacles were discussed in the paper and some measures were recommended to make educational opportunity a reality in Nigeria.

Comparative Education Review, 1984

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Introduction, section snippets, references (35), cited by (72).

World Development

Inequality of educational opportunity in india: changes over time and across states, study background, methodology and data, acknowledgments, the meaning and measurement of income mobility, journal of economic theory.

• Asadullah, M N., Kambhampati, U., & Lopez-Boo, F. (2009). Social Divisions in School Participation and Attainment in...

Measuring inequality of opportunities for children, mimeograph

• Behrman, J., Birdsall, N., & Székely, M. (2001). Intergenerational Mobility in Latin America. RES Working Papers 4267,...

The policy origins of poverty and growth in India

Missing in action: teacher and health worker absence in developing countries, journal of economic perspectives.

• Checchi, D., & Peragine, V. (2005). Regional disparities and inequality of opportunity: The case of Italy. IZA...

Mathematical methods for statistics

Sibling correlations and intergenerational mobility in latin america, economic development and cultural change.

• De, Anuradha & Endow, T. 2008. Public Expenditure on Education in India: Recent Trends and Outcomes. RECOUP Working...

Poverty and inequality in India: a re-examination

Economic and political weekly, changing educational inequalities in india in the context of affirmative action, overlapping identities under liberalization: gender and caste in india.

• Dougherty, S., & Herd, R. (2008). Improving Human Capital Formation in India. OECD Economics Department Working Papers,...

India: Economic development and social opportunity

On kinship structure, female autonomy, and demographic behavior in india, population and development review.

• Ferreira, F., & Gignoux, J. (2011). The measurement of inequality of opportunity: theory and application to Latin...

Inequalities in LPG and electricity consumption in India: The role of caste, tribe, and religion

Learning in india's primary schools: how do disparities widen across the grades.

Unfortunately, progress among the most disadvantaged children is likely to be far worse than these average levels, given the body of evidence exploring educational inequalities in low- and lower- middle income countries. In India, as with many other countries, prior research has identified considerable disparities in access to primary schooling (see, for example, Kingdon 2002; Agrawal, 2014; Asadullah et al., 2013; Asadullah and Yalonetzky, 2012) and in differential access to private and government provision (for example, Alcott and Rose, 2015; Bangay and Latham, 2013; Chudgar and Creed, 2016; Kelly et al., 2016; Maitra et al., 2011; French and Kingdon, 2010; Woodhead et al., 2013a, 2013b; Singh and Bangay, 2014; Singh and Sarkar, 2015). Increasingly, studies in India have been complemented by research focusing on the extent and determinants of disparities of learning more specifically (for example, Borooah, 2012; Kingdon, 2007; Rolleston and James, 2015; Woodhead et al., 2013a).

Changes in Intergenerational Occupational Mobility in India: Evidence from National Sample Surveys, 1983-2012

Will south asia achieve the sustainable development goals by 2030 learning from the mdgs experience, like father, like son intergenerational educational mobility in india, stuck in place: investigating social mobility in 14 bangalore slums.

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5 5 Sociology of Educational Inequality in India: A Critique and a New Research Agenda

• Published: October 2012
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This chapter explores the sociological aspects of educational inequality in India. There is little coherent understanding of changing patterns of educational inequality, and few clear-cut pointers to explanations for continued non-participation in, and non-completion of schooling on the part of a significant number of children. The author believes that this state of affairs arises out of the theoretical inadequacies and political conservatism that characterizes much of the study of educational inequality. The author also critiques the new research agenda by analysing the issue of unequal educational access and attainment in elementary education, with a focus on those subordinated by caste, class, and gender, and identifies crucial areas that are missing in our understanding of the influence of social processes in student participation in education and in shaping the educational system. The author points to the need for a critical systemic exploration of the education system as a subsystem of society in which school structure, organization, and processes are to be placed in wider political economy and stratified social structure based on wealth and social status. The author concludes by stressing the need to open up the issue of educational inequality to wider debates operating at the level of economy, polity, and society, and to adopt wider perspectives in sociological studies of the education system.

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Bridging Educational Disparities in India: An Analysis of AISHE 2020-21 Data by Social Groups: SC, ST, & OBC

Introduction.

Higher education significantly impacts a nation’s socio-economic progress by nurturing a skilled workforce and fostering innovation. As per the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, India aspires to achieve a Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) of 50 percent by 2035 . Realizing this goal hinges on addressing enrollment disparities, particularly among marginalized communities, such as the Scheduled Tribes,  Scheduled Castes, and other Backward Classes. Despite all achievements, the All India Higher Education Survey reveals that the Gross Enrolment Ratio is still low at 27.2 percent.

Throughout history, the SC, ST, and OBC communities have endured systemic discrimination and limited access to quality education, leading to lower enrollment rates; this perpetuates social and economic disparities. Acknowledging these inequities, NEP 2020 commits to rectify this situation and ensure equal access to higher education.

Significance of Inclusive Enrollment

Equity and Social Justice: In India’s diverse and democratic society, ensuring equal educational opportunities is crucial for social justice, inclusivity, and harmony.

Economic Prosperity: Augmenting enrollment among SC, ST, and OBC communities unlocks untapped talent, stimulating economic growth and innovation by diversifying the workforce.

Demographic Potential: India’s youth population represents a demographic dividend. Ensuring access to higher education for all segments of this demographic is vital for harnessing this potential on the global stage.

Human Capital Development: Higher education equips individuals with skills and knowledge, boosting human capital development and contributing towards a more educated and skilled workforce.

Reduction of Inequality: Education is a potent tool for reducing social and economic disparities. Encouraging enrollment among SC, ST, and OBC communities bridges income and employment gaps, fostering a more equitable society.

Government Initiatives

The Indian government has instituted various measures to address these disparities, including reservation policies in educational institutions, scholarship programs, financial aid, and awareness campaigns to motivate marginalized students to pursue higher education. Despite these initiatives, obstacles persist, such as inadequate access to quality education in remote areas, lack of awareness, and socio-economic barriers. To meet the 2035 GER target of 50 percent, collaboration among the government, educational institutions, and civil society is imperative; this may entail infrastructure enhancement, expanded scholarship programs, and improved career counseling to encourage more students from SC, ST, and OBC backgrounds to pursue higher education.

The Present Article

The present article is exclusively based on the data provided by the Ministry of Education through the All India Survey on Higher Education, which is the latest available for the year 2020-21. Even though the year 2023 is about to be over, there is a time lag in educational statistics is still available for the year 2020-21 in the case of higher education and for the year 2021-22 in the case of school education, all which indicate that concerted efforts are required to bridge the time lag in educational statistics. Not only the total enrolment at the higher education level is available, but its distribution by social groups such as by the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Class is available by gender. The analysis is undertaken both at the all-India and state level by gender. Provisional conclusions, areas of concern, the government’s recent initiatives and follow-up actions, as well as India’s resolution to attain a Gross Enrolment Ratio of 50 percent by 2035, envisaged in NEP 2020, have also been looked into.

AISHE 2020-21 Data by Social Groups: All India

The AISHE data represents the estimated enrollment of students in different social groups across various States and Union Territories in India for the year 2020-21. The enrollment is categorized by social groups: Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other Backward Classes.

Here is a breakdown of the data at the all-India level for the year 2020-21 which may be analyse in relation to share in 2011 Total Population: SC, 16.6 percent and ST, 8.6 percent.

All-India Total Enrollment

• Male: 21,237,910
• Female: 20,142,803
• Total: 41,380,713

Enrollment by Social Groups

• Scheduled Castes:
• Male: 14.10 percent
• Female: 13.66 percent
• Total: 14.25 percent

Scheduled Tribes

• Male: 5.61 percent
• Female: 6.06 percent
• Total: 5.83 percent

Other Backward Class

• Male: 35.47 percent
• Female: 36.18 percent
• Total: 35.82 percent

State-specific Analysis and Implications

A & N Islands: Total enrollment stands at 11,965, with the highest representation from Other Backward Classes (OBC) at 28.99 percent, followed by Scheduled Castes (SC) at 3.86 percent and Scheduled Tribes (ST) at 0.04 percent.

Andhra Pradesh: Total enrollment reaches 1,987,618, with OBCs having the highest representation at 42.76 percent, followed by SC at 16.71 percent and ST at 4.67 percent.

Arunachal Pradesh: The total enrollment is 59,735, with the highest representation from ST at 69.77 percent followed by and SC at 21.80 percent AND OBCs at 3.46 percent, .

Assam: The state records a total enrollment of 697,093, with OBCs having the highest representation at 43.61 percent, followed by ST at 17.64 percent and  SC at 7.74 percent.

Chandigarh: Total enrollment is 110,465, with SC having the highest representation at 30.72 percent, followed by OBC at 15.24 percent and ST at 0.02 percent.

Chhattisgarh: With a total enrollment of 653,405, OBCs have the highest representation at 43.61 percent, followed by ST at 21.29 percent and SC at 13.15 percent.

Rajasthan: In 2020-21, total enrollment in higher education was 2,432,790. Male students constituted 1,278,304, while female students constituted 1,154,486. SCs made up 16.04 percent of the total enrollment, STs 11.42 percent, and OBCs 39.51 percent. Achieving a 50 percent GER by 2035 requires addressing gender and social disparities.

Kerala: With a total enrollment of 1,364,536, SC students accounted for 7.08 percent, ST students 1.06 percent, and OBC students 51.03 percent. Kerala’s relatively high enrollment rate and higher proportion of female students indicate better access to education. However, targeted efforts are still needed to enhance inclusivity.

Uttar Pradesh: Total enrollment was 6,651,067, with SC students constituting 17.39 percent, ST students 0.92 percent, and OBC students 39.21 percent. To achieve a 50 percent GER by 2035, Uttar Pradesh must increase enrollment rates and address gender and social disparities.

Bihar: Bihar had a total enrollment of 2,360,941, with SC students accounting for 11.64 percent, ST students 1.52 percent, and OBC students 42.09 percent. Achieving a 50 percent GER by 2035 requires addressing gender imbalances and promoting inclusivity.

West Bengal: West Bengal recorded a total enrollment of 2,215,536, with SC students constituting 17.59 percent, ST students 3.30 percent, and OBC students 15.70 percent. To achieve a 50 percent GER by 2035, the state must improve enrollment rates, especially among marginalized communities.

Maharashtra: Maharashtra had a total enrollment of 4,546,149, with SC students accounting for 12.01 percent, ST students 4.36 percent, and OBC students 28.74 percent. Sustained efforts are required to provide equal opportunities and address disparities to achieve a 50 percent GER by 2035.

Tamil Nadu: Tamil Nadu witnessed a total enrollment of 3,336,439, with SC students constituting 17.18 percent, ST students 0.98 percent, and OBC students 58.02 percent. To achieve a 50 percent GER by 2035, efforts should focus on inclusivity and access for all social groups.

Madhya Pradesh: Madhya Pradesh had a total enrollment of 2,598,561, with SC students accounting for 15.20 percent, ST students 11.33 percent, and OBC students 44.57 percent. Targeted actions are needed to address disparities and ensure equitable access to higher education.

The state-wise analysis of enrollment data offers insights into the representation of different social groups in higher education across India. It underscores the unique educational landscape and challenges in various regions, forming the basis for tailored policies to enhance access and inclusivity for underrepresented social groups nationwide with regard to the following:

Disparities in Enrollment: Addressing these disparities is crucial in order to provide equal opportunities for all students, regardless of their social background.

Gender Disparities: Bridging the gender gap in higher education should be a priority to ensure gender equity.

Targeted Interventions: Scholarships, mentorship programs, and awareness campaigns can improve access for underrepresented groups.

Infrastructure Development: Expanding quality infrastructure, especially in remote areas, enhances access to higher education.

Policy Reforms: Equitable representation and affirmative action policies should be in place.

Community Engagement: Collaborating with local communities identifies specific challenges and solutions.

Data Monitoring and Evaluation: Data-driven decision-making measures progress and identifies areas for improvement.

Special Focus on Scheduled Tribes: Ensuring equitable access for this group is essential.

  Follow-up Actions

• Promote higher education awareness among marginalized communities.
• Provide targeted financial aid and scholarships.
• Establish mentorship programs.
• Collaborate with NGOs and community organizations.
• Enhance infrastructure in rural areas.
• Review and update reservation policies.
• Monitor the impact of interventions for ongoing improvements.

Implementing these measures and continuously monitoring progress will contribute to a more inclusive higher education system in India, ensuring fair and equitable access for all.

Concluding Thoughts

Based on the analysis of the AISHE 2020-21 data, it is evident that there are significant disparities in higher education enrollment in India. The Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) stands at 27.2 percent, which is considerably lower than the target of 50 percent set by the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. Marginalized communities face systemic discrimination and limited access to quality education, resulting in lower enrollment rates.

Inclusive enrollment is of great significance for several reasons. Firstly, it promotes equity, social justice, and inclusivity in India’s diverse society. Secondly, it contributes to economic prosperity by unlocking untapped talent and diversifying the workforce, leading to innovation and growth. Thirdly, it harnesses the demographic potential of India’s youth population, which is crucial for global competitiveness. Higher education, in general, and in particular in India, also plays a key role in human capital development, equipping individuals with skills and knowledge for a more educated and skilled workforce. Lastly, inclusive enrollment reduces inequality by bridging income and employment gaps, fostering a more equitable society.

The Government of India has implemented various initiatives, including reservation policies, scholarships, financial aid, and awareness campaigns, to address enrollment disparities. However, challenges persist, such as inadequate access to quality education in remote areas, lack of awareness, and socio-economic barriers. Achieving the goal of 50 percent GER by 2035 requires collaboration among the government, educational institutions, and civil society. This may involve infrastructure enhancement, expanded scholarship programs, and improved career counseling to encourage more students from SC, ST, and OBC backgrounds to pursue higher education.

The state-wise analysis of enrollment data highlights the representation of different social groups in higher education across India. It underscores the need for tailored policies to enhance access and inclusivity. Addressing disparities in enrollment, bridging the gender gap, targeted interventions through scholarships and mentorship programs, infrastructure development, policy reforms, community engagement, and data monitoring and evaluation are essential factors in promoting fair and equitable access to higher education.

We may conclude by saying that it is crucial to promote higher education awareness among marginalized communities, provide targeted financial aid and scholarships, establish mentorship programs, collaborate with NGOs and community organizations, enhance infrastructure in rural areas, review and update reservation policies, and continually monitor the impact of interventions for ongoing improvements. By implementing these measures and keeping track of progress, India can create a more inclusive higher education system and ensure fair and equitable access for all.

  Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: What is the significance of inclusive enrollment in higher education in India?

Answer: Inclusive enrollment is crucial for social justice, economic prosperity, harnessing demographic potential, human capital development, and reducing inequality in Indian society. It ensures that all segments of the population, including marginalized communities, have access to higher education, contributing to the nation’s progress.

Q2: What is the Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER), and why is it important in the context of NEP 2020?

Answer: The GER is the ratio of students enrolled in higher education to the eligible age group. In the context of NEP 2020, India aims to achieve a GER of 50 percent by 2035. This goal is significant as it reflects the commitment to provide equal educational opportunities to all and promote socio-economic development.

Q3: What government initiatives have been taken to address educational disparities in India?

Answer: The government has implemented measures such as reservation policies, scholarship programs, financial aid, and awareness campaigns to encourage marginalized students to pursue higher education. These initiatives aim to bridge enrollment gaps and promote inclusivity.

Q4: What does the AISHE 2020-21 data reveal about enrollment by social groups in India?

Answer: The data shows disparities in enrollment among social groups, with the Other Backward Classes (OBC) having the highest representation, while Scheduled Tribes (ST) have the lowest representation. It highlights the need to address these disparities for a more equitable education system.

Q5: How do gender disparities manifest in higher education based on the AISHE data?

Answer: Gender disparities are evident, with variations in male and female enrollment across different states and social groups. Bridging the gender gap is essential to achieve gender equity and ensure equal opportunities for all.

Q6: What are the key state-specific challenges revealed by the analysis of AISHE data?

Answer: The state-wise analysis highlights unique challenges and opportunities in different regions, including disparities in enrollment, infrastructure issues, and the need for tailored policies to enhance access and inclusivity.

Q7: What are the follow-up actions recommended to address educational disparities in India?

Answer: The recommended actions include promoting higher education awareness, providing targeted financial aid and scholarships, establishing mentorship programs, collaborating with NGOs and community organizations, enhancing infrastructure in rural areas, reviewing reservation policies, and continuous monitoring and evaluation to drive ongoing improvements.

Q8: Why is it essential to focus on ensuring equitable access for Scheduled Tribes (ST) in higher education?

Answer: Focusing on equitable access for ST is crucial because this group has the lowest representation in higher education. Addressing disparities and providing opportunities for ST students is essential for achieving a more inclusive and fair education system in India.

  Education for All in India

Professor Arun C Mehta, Ex. HoD of EMIS Department, NIEPA

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Educational inequality in india in 2022: how to end disparity in education.

When it comes to our very own country, unfortunately, the disparity in education has no bounds even in this day and age. India’s education landscape is highly uneven. Differences based on caste, class, and gender are examples of how these inequities show up and end up in our very own society. Children in India, especially rural India, have substantially lower chances of having access to schooling in English. Geographical differences can make these disparities worse. It also has to do with the incapacity to instil a passion for learning in the younger generation. Lastly, the purpose of education for most children is carrying forward one’s family legacy, getting a secure job and supporting their family until one reaches retirement. There obviously can be so much more value added to this purpose. 

Why does educational inequality exist?

Not one but various factors have led to educational inequality in India. Factors such as lack of infrastructure, class, linguistic exclusion, geography, gender inequality, caste discrimination and so on are collectively responsible for educational inequality. Additionally, in contrast to attempting to make the kids like learning and let them take it from there, the majority of teachers believe they simply need to teach children in order to achieve good test scores. Due to income inequality in our nation, many young people have no choice but to work in order to support their families and cannot devote all of their time to studying. Given below is a detailed analysis of the various factors leading to inequality in education in India. 

Factors Leading to Inequality

According to data conducted by Oxfam in 2020, the richest 10 per cent of Indians controlled approximately 74 per cent of the nation's wealth. The disparity between the rich and the poor has always played a huge role in inequalities in education in India. India is a developing nation, with most of its opportunities cushioned in the urban cities. On the other hand, children from rural areas and socially disadvantaged groups such as SC, ST, and OBC do not receive fair chances or an equal number of opportunities in the educational system to succeed at the top of their abilities. Numerous governmental programmes have been developed throughout the years to reduce the gap between various socioeconomic categories. 

Linguistic Exclusion

While it is probably a major contributor to issues with educational access and socioeconomic mobility in multilingual emerging cultures, language has been generally ignored in studies of inequality. In post-colonial countries, it is typical for elites to hold onto their positions of authority while disenfranchising the majority of the population, which communicates in local languages, through the employment of European languages in formal education, government, and the economy.

The case of linguistic minorities has received the majority of attention in studies of language-based inequality thus far, while the developmental implications of a more equitable environment for widely spoken languages in education, training, and access to livelihoods have received much less attention. Additionally, despite the recent rise in interest in the economic implications of language, the management of multilingualism in the economic sphere and its implications for economic growth has not yet received enough attention. 

Due to Geography

First, let's talk about geographical disparity, often known as the inequality that students and teachers experience based on geographical circumstances. The main factor for geographical inequality in India is the disparity in development levels between urban and rural areas. In India, all significant development initiatives take place in cities, which encourages the establishment of brand-new, state-of-the-art educational facilities in metropolitan areas. Urban educational institutions have superior amenities with nicer furnishings, smarter facilities, playgrounds, clean water availability, medical facilities, competent teachers, counselling, more job options, and much more. Rural institutions not only lack all these amenities, but also even the most fundamental sanitation and hygiene provisions. Unfortunately, numerous government schools in India lack basic amenities including adequate classroom space, clean water, and preparations for good lighting. These deficiencies contribute to growing inequality.

Gender inequality 

When we think of gender inequality in India, health, educational, economic, and political disparities between men and women in India are naturally factored in. The profoundly rooted patriarchal structures are primarily to blame for gender inequality. Systemic subordination is the practise of discriminating against women from before conception. Men and women are both impacted by the complex issue of gender inequality in India. Since the goal of education is to create knowledge makers who can utilize their acquired information to the greatest financial advantage, gender equality and equity in education are closely tied to the democratic growth of society. 

Caste Discrimination 

Education disparity has been further exacerbated by the unequal allocation of opportunities based on social class and caste. One of the main causes of educational inequality in India is the caste system. India is a diverse nation with many different social groupings, each with its own set of ideals and principles. They operate in accordance with their values, and anything that goes against their values is unacceptable to them.

The rigidity of various socio-cultural groupings is creating problems in our nation’s very own educational system. The prospects for education for the youth of this nation are strongly impacted by the significance of social ideas and the function of caste in every individual's life in India. Caste has a significant impact on decisions about children's schooling. Children from Dalit communities in India frequently must travel further to attend the village's main school, which may be caste-segregated as they prefer studying in schools with a higher percentage of single teacher and schools with poor infrastructure.

How does educational inequality affect the disabled?

Even in today’s world, where technology and our very own perspectives have evolved significantly, educational inequality in India still happens to affect the disabled. The Indian education system is not well designed to suit the disabled. Inclusionary education is described as 'a system of education where students with and without disabilities learn together and the system of teaching and learning is suitably adapted to meet the learning needs of different types of students with disabilities' by the national Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 (RPWD Act). For children with special needs, the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan have created a road map for implementing residential Bridge Courses that would help them build readiness skills, academic competencies, and enthusiasm for effective integration into regular schools.

The issue of educational inequality in India and other countries got worse because of COVID-19. The drive for online-based learning in India's quest to establish a 'new normal' wasn't viable in the long run according to India TODAY's report. There is much too much diversity and difference among students across the nation whilst the access to the internet and technology is on the lower end. According to data conducted by Oxfam in 2020, the top 10 per cent of the nation's wealthiest families have access to digital learning tools, while more than 320 million young people do not. By striving to get children back into classrooms as quickly as possible, we can stop the imbalance from COVID-19 from getting worse.

How to counter educational inequality?

The government policies have had and will always have a huge role to play in overcoming educational inequality in India. Government policies could change the course of infrastructure, facilities, and job opportunities as well as educate the citizens of India about the importance of quality education. A few suggested solutions to bring about a positive change and improvement in the condition of families with lower levels of income include making public transportation easily accessible, improving sanitation facilities, providing clean water and surroundings, and giving special consideration to educational institutions.

It’s safe to conclude that economic, social, technical, geographical, and ownership factors all contribute to the disparity in education. The signs and the root reasons for India's uneven educational system are well known and comprehended. Some of the actions that must be taken to address educational equity include concrete modifications to legal provisions, initiatives to educate and train teachers, improvements to government implementation, monitoring, and enforcement capacities and increased funding for education.

Strategies to Combat Educational Disparity Equitable Resource Allocation: Ensuring that educational resources, including infrastructure and teaching materials, are distributed fairly to all regions and schools.

Inclusive Curriculum: Developing a curriculum that celebrates diversity, incorporates local languages, and promotes social inclusivity.

Teacher Training: Providing teachers with the necessary training to teach diverse student populations effectively.

Digital Access: Expanding digital access and bridging the digital divide to ensure all students can participate in online education.

Gender Sensitization: Implementing programs that challenge gender stereotypes and encourage girls to pursue education.

Affirmative Action: Enforcing policies that provide marginalized communities with educational opportunities and representation.

Factors Leading to Inequality:

Educational inequality often begins with economic disparities. Children from low-income families face numerous barriers to accessing quality education. They may attend underfunded schools with inadequate resources, which can result in overcrowded classrooms, poorly maintained infrastructure, and outdated teaching materials. Additionally, financial constraints may limit their access to extracurricular activities, private tutoring, or educational technology, further widening the gap between privileged and underprivileged students.

Linguistic diversity is a hallmark of India, but it also contributes to educational inequality. Many students from linguistic minorities lack access to education in their mother tongue. As a result, they may struggle to understand the curriculum, leading to lower learning outcomes. Addressing this issue involves promoting multilingual education, which recognizes and incorporates the linguistic diversity of the country, ensuring that no child is left behind due to language barriers.

How Does Educational Inequality Affect the Disabled?

Disabled individuals face substantial challenges in accessing quality education. The educational infrastructure often lacks inclusivity and adaptive measures, making it difficult for them to navigate the system. Physical barriers, inaccessible learning materials, and a lack of trained teachers can create formidable obstacles. Moreover, social stigma and discrimination compound the difficulties faced by disabled students, resulting in unequal educational outcomes. To address this issue, there's a critical need for inclusive educational policies, accessible infrastructure, and sensitivity training for educators.

Impact of Covid-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on educational inequality in India. The sudden shift to remote learning exposed the digital divide, with many students lacking access to necessary devices and a reliable internet connection. This divide disproportionately affected students from marginalized backgrounds, leading to a widening gap in educational attainment. Schools were forced to adapt rapidly to new modes of teaching, leaving both teachers and students grappling with technology-related challenges. The pandemic underscored the urgency of addressing digital access disparities and highlighted the importance of flexible educational models.

Strategies to Combat Educational Disparity

Equitable Resource Allocation:

Ensuring that educational resources, including infrastructure, teaching materials, and qualified educators, are distributed fairly among all regions and schools is a crucial step in narrowing the educational inequality gap. This may involve reallocating resources from well-endowed schools to those in underserved areas, along with transparent budgeting and allocation processes.

Inclusive Curriculum:

Developing an inclusive curriculum that celebrates India's linguistic and cultural diversity is essential for addressing educational inequality. This curriculum should incorporate local languages, highlight the contributions of diverse communities, and promote social inclusivity. It should reflect the real experiences of students and promote a sense of belonging.

Teacher Training:

Teacher training is fundamental to improving the quality of education. Ensuring that teachers are equipped with the necessary skills to teach diverse student populations effectively, including those with disabilities and from marginalized backgrounds, is critical. Professional development programs should focus on inclusive teaching practices, linguistic diversity, and pedagogical innovations.

Digital Access:

Expanding digital access is an urgent priority, especially in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bridging the digital divide requires both policy interventions and infrastructure development. This includes providing affordable devices, reliable internet connectivity, and digital literacy training to students and teachers in remote areas. Initiatives like 'Digital India' aim to make digital resources accessible to all.

Gender Sensitization:

Promoting gender sensitivity is essential to overcoming gender-based educational disparities. Implementing programs that challenge gender stereotypes, empower girls, and encourage them to pursue education beyond societal norms is crucial. This can be achieved through awareness campaigns, workshops, and community engagement.

Affirmative Action:

Implementing policies that provide marginalized communities with educational opportunities and representation is vital. Affirmative action measures, such as reservations in educational institutions and public sector employment, can play a key role in reducing disparities based on caste, tribe, and socioeconomic status.

These strategies, along with targeted policy interventions, community engagement, and ongoing research, offer hope for a more equitable educational landscape in India. By tackling the root causes of educational inequality and fostering an inclusive and diverse learning environment, we can help students realize their full potential regardless of their background.

Educational inequality poses a significant obstacle to India's progress. However, by recognizing the various factors contributing to this disparity and implementing effective strategies, we can bridge the gap and provide every child with an equal opportunity to access quality education. In doing so, we not only address a fundamental issue but also pave the way for a brighter and more equitable future for all.

Q1: What is educational inequality in India, and why is it a concern?

A1: Educational inequality in India refers to disparities in access to quality education, resources, and learning outcomes among different groups of students. It is a concern because it perpetuates social and economic disparities and hinders the development of a just and equitable society.

Q2: How can linguistic exclusion lead to educational inequality?

A2: Linguistic exclusion occurs when students are not provided education in their mother tongue, hindering their ability to comprehend and engage with the curriculum. This can lead to lower educational outcomes, particularly among linguistic minorities.

Q3: What steps can be taken to bridge the digital divide and address the impact of COVID-19 on education?

A3: To bridge the digital divide, India can invest in providing affordable devices, improving internet connectivity in remote areas, and offering digital literacy training. Additionally, schools can implement hybrid models that combine online and offline learning.

Q4: What are some effective strategies to promote gender sensitivity and reduce gender-based educational disparities?

A4: Strategies include implementing gender sensitivity training for educators, challenging gender stereotypes, promoting girls' education through awareness campaigns, and fostering an environment where girls are encouraged to pursue educational paths beyond traditional norms.

Q5: What is inclusive curriculum, and why is it important?

A5: An inclusive curriculum is one that acknowledges and celebrates the linguistic and cultural diversity of India. It is important because it ensures that all students see themselves reflected in the educational content, fostering a sense of belonging and promoting social inclusivity.

Q6: How can teachers be better prepared to address educational inequality and cater to diverse student needs?

A6: Teachers can receive professional development in inclusive teaching practices, linguistic diversity, and pedagogical innovations. This training equips them to teach diverse student populations more effectively.

Q7: Are there policies in place to address educational inequality in India?

A7: Yes, India has implemented various policies and initiatives, including the Right to Education Act, to address educational inequality. However, there is a need for continued policy development and implementation to further reduce disparities.

Q8: How can individuals and communities contribute to countering educational inequality in India?

A8: Individuals and communities can contribute by supporting local schools, engaging in community outreach programs, raising awareness about the importance of education, and advocating for equitable resource allocation in their regions.

These FAQs provide insights into the complexities of educational inequality in India and offer guidance on how individuals, communities, and policymakers can work together to address this critical issue.

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New Education Policy 2020: Why India Needs to Mainstream Vocational Education

• Reference work entry
• First Online: 29 September 2024
• pp 995–1029
• Cite this reference work entry

• Archana Mishra 2  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

In a country like India, with a booming youthful population and a diversified workforce, vocational education plays a critical role in supporting skill development, employment, and economic progress. In recent times, India is seeing all out efforts to enhance the enrollment for skilling programs, with the aim of creating work-ready graduates, through vocational education and internships. By the 2019–2020 All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE, 2020), over 15.2 million students were enrolled in various vocational courses at the undergraduate and the postgraduate levels. This significant enrollment highlights the need to expedite the process of bridging the skill gaps, keeping in mind the industry requirements. In this endeavour, the issues identified and required to be addressed, include, perceptions of vocational education as a secondary option, ignorance of potential career paths, and the private sector’s unwillingness to absorb a greater proportion of skill trainings that align with the economy’s emerging needs.

This chapter examines the composition of India’s vocational education system, the previous 10 years’ worth of efforts to improve worker skill levels, and the potential impact of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 on meeting the country’s skilling goals, if it is implemented effectively and with clear goals in mind. The study compares the inherent barriers and the efforts taken in each setting to produce outcomes that result in enhanced employability, as it examines the skilling initiatives in South Korea, Singapore, Germany, and India. The study provides actionable insights and suggests effective implementation of NEP-2020 in India. This paper examines the comparative skilling approaches in the tourism and logistics sectors of India, providing specific insights on skilling related to tourism, to bring to light the gap between the two. Additionally, it suggests measures to overcome the challenges faced in building a better skilling ecosystem in India, through effective policy execution and by strengthening industry links, as the country’s economy grows. The chapter concludes that even the most well-designed models of vocational education, however, will not produce the desired results unless the learners are willing, there are verifiable job outcomes, and the stakeholders actively collaborate to create a win-win situation for all.

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Further Reading

Diem, R., Levy, T., & VanSickle R. (n.d.). South Korean education. Centre for Global Education. Retrieved from https://asiasociety.org/education/south-korean-education#:~:text=The%20Education%20System,Korea’s%20high%20schools%20were%20coeducational

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OECD. (2012). Vocational education and training in Korea: strengths, challenges, and recommendations, Retrieved from: http://www.oecd.org/education/skillsbeyond-school/45166922.pdf

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Mishra, A. (2024). New Education Policy 2020: Why India Needs to Mainstream Vocational Education. In: Sharma, A. (eds) International Handbook of Skill, Education, Learning, and Research Development in Tourism and Hospitality. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-4318-6_66

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