thesis on peer pressure

The Role of Peer Pressure in Adolescents’ Risky Behaviors

• First Online: 28 August 2022

Cite this chapter

• Carlos Andrés Libisch 5 ,
• Flavio Marsiglia 6 ,
• Stephen Kulis 6 ,
• Olalla Cutrín 5 ,
• José Antonio Gómez-Fraguela 5 &
• Paul Ruiz 7  

578 Accesses

1 Altmetric

Peer pressure is defined as the subjective or actual experience of being pressured to do certain things according to certain guidelines of the peer group. Adolescence is the time when a person is most vulnerable to peer pressure. Since 2015 an international group of researchers from the USA and Uruguay have collaborated to develop a culturally adapted version of the keepin’ it REAL (kiR) substance-use prevention curriculum for implementation and testing in Uruguay. The curriculum includes a focus on socially competent ways to navigate peer pressure (Marsiglia et al., 2018 ). This chapter analyzes the peer pressure phenomenon from different theoretical and practical approaches and reports results from a randomized controlled trial of the prevention curriculum in six Uruguayan primary schools.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Akers, R. L., & Jennings, W. G. (2009). The social learning theory of crime and deviance. In M. D. Krohn, A. J. Lizotte, & G. P. Hall (Eds.), Handbook on crime and deviance (pp. 103–120). Springer.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Alexandrowicz, V. (2021). ESL and cultures resource . University of San Diego. Downloaded from: https://sites.sandiego.edu/esl/latin-american/

Google Scholar  

Arocena, F., & Aguiar, S. (2017). Tres leyes innovadoras en Uruguay: Aborto, matrimonio homosexual y regulación de la marihuana/Three innovative laws in Uruguay: abortion, same-sex marriage and marijuana regulation. Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 30 (40), 43–62.

Bagwell, C. L. (2004). Friendships, peer networks, and antisocial behavior. In J. B. Kupersmidt & K. A. Dodge (Eds.), Children’s peer relations: From development to intervention (pp. 37–57). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10653-003

Balsa, A. I., Gandelman, N., & González, N. (2015a). Peer effects in risk aversion. Risk Analysis, 35 , 27–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12260

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Balsa, A., Gandelman, N., & Roldán, F. (2015b). Peer Effects in the Development of Capabilities in Adolescence. CAF – Working paper; 2015/09 . CAF. Retrieved from http://scioteca.caf.com/handle/123456789/820

Bernal, G., Jiménez-Chafey, M. I., & Domenech Rodríguez, M. M. (2009). Cultural adaptation of treatments: A resource for considering culture in evidence-based practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40 (4), 361–368. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016401

Article   Google Scholar  

Beullens, K., & Vandenbosch, L. (2016). A conditional process analysis on the relationship between the use of social networking sites, attitudes, peer norms, and adolescents’ intentions to consume alcohol. Media Psychology, 19 , 310–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2015.1049275

Bonta, J., & Andrews, D. A. (2017). The psychology of criminal conduct (6th ed.). Routledge.

Botvin, G. (1990). Substance abuse prevention: Theory, practice, and effectiveness. Crime and Justice, 13 , 461–519.

Brauer, J. R., & De Coster, S. (2015). Social relationships and delinquency: Revisiting parent and peer influence during adolescence. Youth & Society, 47 , 374–394. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X12467655

Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). The bioecological theory of human development. In U. Bronfenbrenner (Ed.), Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development (pp. 3–15). Sage Publications.

Brown, B. B., & Klute, C. (2003). Friendships, cliques, and crowds. In G. R. Adams & M. D. Berzonsky (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of adolescence (pp. 330–348). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470756607.ch16

Brown, B. B. (2004). Adolescents’ relationships with peers. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 363–394). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780471726746.ch12

Brown, E. C., Catalano, R. F., Fleming, C. B., Haggerty, K. P., Abbott, R. D., Cortes, R. R., & Park, J. (2005). Mediator effects in the social development model: An examination of constituent theories. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 15 , 221–235.

Brown, B. B., & Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology: Vol. 2. Contextual influences on adolescent development (3rd ed., pp. 74–103). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy002004

Burk, W. J., van der Vorst, H., Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2012). Alcohol use and friendship dynamics: Selection and socialization in early-, middle-, and late-adolescent peer networks. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73 , 89–98. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2012.73.89

Burt, S. A. (2012). How do we optimally conceptualize the heterogeneity within antisocial behavior? An argument for aggressive versus non-aggressive behavioral dimensions. Clinical Psychology Review, 32 , 263–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.02.006

Burt, S. A., & Klump, K. L. (2014). Prosocial peer affiliation suppresses genetic influences on non-aggressive antisocial behaviors during childhood. Psychological Medicine, 44 , 821–830.

Choleris, E., Guo, C., Liu, H., Mainardi, M., & Valsecchi, P. (1997). The effect of demonstrator age and number on the duration of socially-induced food preferences in house mice. Behavioral Processes, 41 , 69–77.

Church, R. (1959). Emotional reactions of rats to the pain of others. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 52 (2), 132–134.

Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44 , 588–608. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094589

Collins, W. A., & Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescent development in interpersonal context. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Child and adolescent development: An advanced course (pp. 551–590). Wiley.

Couto, B., Salles, A., Sedeño, L., Peradejordi, M., Barttfeld, P., Canales-Johnson, A., Dos Santos, Y. V., Huepe, D., Bekinschtein, T., Sigman, M., Favaloro, R., Manes, F., & Ibanez, A. (2014). The man who feels two hearts: The different pathways of interoception. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9 (9), 1253–1260.

Criss, M. M., Shaw, D. S., Moilanen, K. L., Hitchings, J. E., & Ingoldsby, E. M. (2009). Family, neighborhood, and peer characteristics as predictors of child adjustment: A longitudinal analysis of additive and mediation models. Social Development, 18 , 511–535.

Cutrín, O., Gómez-Fraguela, J. A., Maneiro, L., & Sobral, J. (2017). Effects of parenting practices through deviant peers on nonviolent and violent antisocial behaviours in middle- and late-adolescence. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 9 , 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpal.2017.02.001

Cutrín, O., Maneiro, L., Sobral, J., & Gómez-Fraguela, J. A. (2019). Validation of the deviant peers scale in Spanish adolescents: A new measure to assess antisocial behaviour in peers. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 41 , 185–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-018-9710-6

Cutrín, O., Kulis, S., Maneiro, L., MacFadden, I., Navas, M. P., Alarcón, D., Gómez-Fragüela, J. A., Villalba, C., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2020). Effectiveness of the Mantente REAL program for preventing alcohol use in Spanish adolescents. Psychosocial Intervention . https://journals.copmadrid.org/pi/art/pi2020a19

Decety, J., & Chaminade, T. (2003). Neural correlates of feeling sympathy. Neuropsychologia, 41 , 127–138.

DeLisi, M. (2015). Age-crime curve and criminal career patterns. In J. Morizot & L. Kazemian (Eds.), The development of criminal and antisocial behavior: Theory, research and practical applications (pp. 51–63). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08720-7_4

Demanet, J., & Van Houtte, M. (2012). School belonging and school misconduct: The differing role of teacher and peer attachment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41 (4), 499–514.

Deniz, M. (2021). Fear of missing out (FoMO) mediate relations between social self-efficacy and life satisfaction. Psicologia: Reflexão e Critica, 34 (1), 1–9. https://doi-org.proxy.timbo.org.uy/10.1186/s41155-021-00193-w

De Wall, F. (2007). Primates y filósofos. La evolución de la moral del simio al hombre . Barcelona.

Dishion, T. J., Spracklen, K. M., Andrews, D. W., & Patterson, G. R. (1996). Deviancy training in male adolescent friendships. Behavior Therapy, 27 , 373–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(96)80023-2

Dodge, K. A., Coie, J. D., & Lynam, D. (2008). Aggression and antisocial behavior in youth. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Child and adolescent development: An advance course (pp. 437–472). John Wiley & Sons.

Eassey, J. M., & Buchanan, M. (2015). Fleas and feathers: The role of peers in the study of juvenile delinquency. In M. D. Krohn & J. Lane (Eds.), The handbook of juvenile delinquency and juvenile justice (pp. 199–216). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118513217.ch14

Filardo, V. (Ed.). (2002). Tribus urbanas en Montevideo: nuevas formas de sociabilidad juvenil (1ª ed.). Editorial Trilce.

Fournier, A. K., Hall, E., Ricke, P., & Storey, B. (2013). Alcohol and the social network: Online social networking sites and college students’ perceived drinking norms. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2 , 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032097

Fox, J., & Moreland, J. J. (2015). The dark side of social networking sites: An exploration of the relational and psychological stressors associated with Facebook use and affordances. Computers in Human Behavior, 45 , 168–176.

Gardner, T. W., Dishion, T. J., & Connell, A. M. (2008). Adolescent self-regulation as resilience: Resistance to antisocial behavior within the deviant peer context. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36 , 273–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9176-6

Geusens, F., & Beullens, K. (2016). The association between social networking sites and alcohol abuse among Belgian adolescents: The role of attitudes and social norms. Journal of Media Psychology . https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000196

Geusens, F., & Beullens, K. (2017). Strategic self-presentation or authentic communication? Predicting adolescents’ alcohol references on social media. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 78 (1), 124–133. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2017.78.124 . [PubMed: 27936372].

Gonzalez-Pirelli, F., Ruiz, P. (2014). Cognición social. En: A Vasquez, Manual de Psicología Cognitiva (pp. 253–276). : Comisión Sectorial de Enseñanza.

Gottfredson, D. C., Gerstenblith, S. A., Soulé, D. A., Womer, S. C., & Lu, S. (2004). Do after school programs reduce delinquency? Prevention Science, 5 , 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:PREV.0000045359.41696.02

Granic, I., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). Toward a comprehensive model of antisocial development: A dynamic systems approach. Psychological Review, 113 , 101–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.113.1.101

Guzmán Facundo, F. R., Vargas Martínez, J. I., Candia Arredondo, J. S., Rodriguez Aguilar, L., & Lopez Garcia, K. S. (2019). Influencia De La Presión De Pares Y Facebook en Actitudes Favorecedoras Al Consumo De Drogas Ilícitas en Jóvenes Universitarios Mexicanos. Health & Addictions/Salud y Drogas, 19 (1), 22–30. https://doi-org.proxy.timbo.org.uy/10.21134/haaj.v19i1.399

Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J., & Rapson, R. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 2 , 96–99.

Hecht, M. L., Marsiglia, F. F., Elek-Fisk, E., Wagstaff, D. A., Kulis, S., & Dustman, P. (2003). Culturally grounded substance use prevention: An evaluation of the keepin’t REAL curriculum. Prevention Science, 4 , 233–248.

Heyes, C., Jaldow, E., Nokes, T., & Dawson, G. (1994). Imitation in rats (Rattus norvegicus): The role of demonstrator action. Behavioral Processes, 32 , 173–182.

Herrenkohl, T. I., Lee, J., & Hawkins, J. D. (2012). Risk versus direct protective factors and youth violence: Seattle social development project. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 43 , S41–S56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2012.04.030

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Holleran, L. K., Reeves, L., Dustman, P., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2002). Creating culturally grounded videos for substance abuse prevention. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 2 , 55–78. https://doi.org/10.1300/J160v02n01_04

INEEd. (2020). Reporte del Mirador Educativo 6. 40 años de egreso de la educación media en Uruguay . INEEd.

Jules, M. A., Maynard, D.-M. B., & Coulson, N. (2021). Youth drug use in Barbados and England: Correlates with online peer influences. Journal of Adolescent Research , 274–310. https://doi-org.proxy.timbo.org.uy/10.1177/0743558419839226

Kreager, D. A., Rulison, K., & Moody, J. (2011). Delinquency and the structure of adolescent peer groups. Criminology, 49 , 95–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2010.00219.x

Kulis, S. S., Nieri, T., Yabiku, S., Stromwall, L., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2007). Promoting reduced and discontinued substance use among adolescent substance users: Effectiveness of a universal prevention program. Prevention Science, 8 , 35–49.

Kulis, S. S., Marsiglia, F. F., Porta, M., Arévalo Avalos, M. R., & Ayers, S. L. (2019). Testing the keepin’ it REAL substance use prevention curriculum among early adolescents in Guatemala City. Prevention Science, 20 , 532–543.

Kulis, S. S., García-Pérez, H. M., Marsiglia, F. F., & Ayers, S. L. (2021a). Testing a culturally adapted youth substance use prevention program in a Mexican border city: Mantente REAL. Substance Use and Misuse, 56 (2), 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1858103

Kulis, S. S., Marsiglia, F. F., Medina-Mora, M. E., Nuño-Gutiérrez, B. L., Corona, M. D., & Ayers, S. L. (2021b). Keepin’ it REAL – Mantente REAL in Mexico: A cluster randomized controlled trial of a culturally adapted substance use prevention curriculum for early adolescents. Prevention Science, 22 (5), 645–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-021-01217-8

Laursen, B., Hafen, C. A., Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2012). Friend influence over adolescent problem behaviors as a function of relative peer acceptance: To be liked is to be emulated. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121 , 88–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024707

Leander, N. P., vanDellen, M. R., Rachl-Willberger, J., Shah, J. Y., Fitzsimons, G. J., & Chartrand, T. L. (2016). Is freedom contagious? A self-regulatory model of reactance and sensitivity to deviant peers. Motivation Science, 2 , 256–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000042

Le Blanc, M. (2015). Developmental criminology: Thoughts on the past and insights for the future. In J. Morizot & L. Kazemian (Eds.), The development of criminal and antisocial behavior: Theory, research and practical applications (pp. 507–535). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08720-7_32

Lerner, R. M. (2006). Developmental science, developmental systems, and contemporary theories of human development. In R. M. Lerner & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 1–17). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0101

Magnusson, D., & Stattin, H. (2006). The person in context: A holistic-interactionistic approach. In R. M. Lerner & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 400–464). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0108

Mahoney, J. L., Stattin, H., & Lord, H. (2004). Unstructured youth recreation centre participation and antisocial behaviour development: Selection influences and the moderating role of antisocial peers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28 , 553–560.

Malacas, C., Alfaro, P., & Hernández, R. M. (2019). Factores predictores de la intención de consumo de marihuana en adolescentes de nivel secundaria. Health and Addictions, 2 , 20–27. https://doi.org/10.21134/haaj.v20i2.481

Marsiglia, F. F., & Hecht, M. L. (2005). Keepin’it REAL: An evidence-based program . ETR Associates.

Marsiglia FF, Kulis S, Martinez Rodriguez G, Becerra D, Castillo J. (2009). Culturally specific youth substance abuse resistance skills: Applicability across the US-Mexico.

Marsiglia, F. F., & Booth, J. (2015). Cultural adaptation of interventions in real practice settings. Research on Social Work Practice, 25 , 423–432.

Marsiglia, F. F., Kulis, S., Booth, J. M., Nuño-Gutiérrez, B. L., & Robbins, D. E. (2015). Long-term effects of the keepin’it REAL model program in Mexico: Substance use trajectories of Guadalajara middle school students. Journal of Primary Prevention, 36 , 93–104.

Marsiglia, F. F., Kulis, S., Kiehne, E., Ayers, E., Libisch Recalde, C., & Barros Sulca, L. (2018). Adolescent substance use prevention and legalization of Marijuana in Uruguay: A feasibility trial of the keepin’ it REAL prevention program. Journal of Substance Use, 23, 457-465. Border. Research on Social Work Practice, 19 (2), 152–164.

Marsiglia, F. F., Medina-Mora, M. E., Gonzalvez, A., Alderson, G., Harthun, M., Ayers, S., Nuño Gutiérrez, B., Corona, M. D., Mendoza Melendez, M. A., & Kulis, S. (2019). Binational cultural adaptation of the keepin’ it REAL substance use prevention program for adolescents in Mexico. Prevention Science, 20 , 1125–1135.

McFarland, L. A., & Ployhart, R. E. (2015). Social media: A contextual framework to guide research and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100 , 1653–1677. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039244

McGloin, J. M. (2009). Delinquency balance: Revisiting peer influence. Criminology, 47 , 439–477. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00146.x

Meldrum, R. C., & Barnes, J. C. (2017). Unstructured socializing with peers and delinquent behavior: A genetically informed analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46 , 1968–1981.

Melgar, A. K., Reynés, M. D., & Paredes-Labra, J. (2017). Plan CEIBAL e inclusión social. Un caso paradigmático/Plan CEIBAL and social inclusion. A paradigmatic case./Plano CEIBAL e inclusão social. Um caso paradigmático. Psicología, Conocimiento y Sociedad, 7 (2), 45–63. https://doi-org.proxy.timbo.org.uy/10.26864/pcs.v7.n2.4

Moffitt, T. E. (2018). Male antisocial behavior in adolescence and beyond. Nature Human Behavior, 2 , 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0309-4

Monahan, K. C., Rhew, I. C., Hawkins, J. D., & Brown, E. C. (2014). Adolescent pathways to co-occurring problem behavior: The effects of peer delinquency and peer substance use. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 24 , 630–645. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12053

Nagoshi, J. L., Kulis, S., Marsiglia, F. F., & Piña-Watson, B. (2020). Accounting for linguistic acculturation, coping, antisociality and depressive affect in the gender role-alcohol use relationship in Mexican American adolescents: A moderated mediation model for boys and girls. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2020.1781732

Nakahashi, W., & Ohtsuki, H. (2017). Evolution of emotional contagion in group-living animals. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 15 (440), 12–20.

Nesi, J., Rothenberg, W. A., Hussong, A. M., & Jackson, K. M. (2017). Friends’ alcohol-related social networking site activity predicts escalations in adolescent drinking: Mediation by peer norms. Journal of Adolescent Health, 60 , 641–647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.01.009

Nesi, J., Choukas-Bradley, S., & Prinstein, M. J. (2018). Transformation of adolescent peer relations in the social media context: Part 2-application to peer group processes and future directions for research. Clinical Child & Family Psychology Review, 21 (3), 295–319. https://doi-org.proxy.timbo.org.uy/10.1007/s10567-018-0262-9

Nicol, C. (1995). The social transmission of information and behavior. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 44 , 79–98.

Niland, P., Lyons, A. C., Goodwin, I., & Hutton, F. (2015). Friendship work on Facebook: Young adults’ understandings and practices of friendship. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 25 (2), 123–137.

Nummenmaa, L., Hirvonen, J., Parkkola, R., & Hietanen, J. (2008). Is emotional contagion special? An fMRI study on neural systems for affective and cognitive empathy. NeuroImage, 43 , 571–580.

Osgood, D. W., Wilson, J. K., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Johnston, L. D. (1996). Routine activities and individual deviant behavior. American Sociological Review, 61 , 635–655. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096397

Palardy, G. J. (2013). High school socioeconomic segregation and student attainment. American Educational Research Journal, 50 (4), 714–754. https://doi-org.proxy.timbo.org.uy/10.2307/23526103

Patterson, G. R., & Yoerger, K. (1999). Intraindividual growth in covert antisocial behaviour: A necessary precursor to chronic juvenile and adult arrests? Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 9 , 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.289

Pérez, A., & Mejía, J. (2015). Evolución de la prevención del consumo de drogas en el mundo y en américa latina . Corporación Nuevos Rumbos. ISBN: 978-958-57904-21.

Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2013). The effects of internet communication on adolescents’ psychosocial development: An assessment of risks and opportunities. In E. Scharrer (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of media studies, volume 5: Media effects/media psychology (pp. 678–697). Wiley-Blackwell.

Pilatti, A., Brussino, S. A., & Godoy, J. C. (2013). Factores que influyen en el consumo de alcohol de adolescentes argentinos: un path análisis prospectivo. Revista de Psicología, 22 , 22–36. https://doi.org/10.5354/0719-0581.2013.27716

Reeves, L., Dustman, P., Holleran, L., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2008). Creating culturally grounded prevention videos: Defining moments in the journey to collaboration. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 8 , 65–94.

Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., Parker, J. G., & Bowker, J. C. (2008). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Child and adolescent development: An advanced course (pp. 141–180). John Wiley & Sons.

Ruiz, P. (2015). ¿Qué sabemos sobre el contagio emocional?. Definición, evolución, neurobiología y su relación con la psicoterapia. Cuadernos de Neuropsicología, 9 (3), 15–24.

Ruiz, P., Calliari, A., & Pautassi, R. (2018). Reserpine-induced depression is associated in female, but not in male, adolescent rats with heightened, fluoxetine-sensitive, ethanol consumption. Behavioral Brain Research, 21 (348), 160–170.

Ruiz, P. (2019). Estudio de variables cognitivas, neuroendócrinas y consumo de alcohol en modelos animales de trastornos de estados de ánimo, y su contraparte en humanos (Tesis de Doctorado no publicada) . Universidad Nacional de Córdoba.

Sanchez, C., Andrade, P., Bentancourt, D., & Vital, G. (2013). Escala de Resistencia a la presión de los amigos para el consumo de alcohol. Actas de Investigación Psicológica, 3 (1), 917–929.

Sancassiani, F., Pintus, E., Holte, A., Paulus, P., Moro, M. F., Cossu, G., & Lindert, J. (2015). Enhancing the emotional and social skills of the youth to promote their wellbeing and positive development: A systematic review of universal school-based randomized controlled trials. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 11 (Suppl 1 M2), 21. https://doi.org/10.2174/1745017901511010021

Scheier, L. M. (2012). Primary prevention models: The essence of drug abuse prevention in schools. In H. Shaffer, D. A. LaPlante, & S. E. Nelson (Eds.), APA addiction syndrome handbook ( Recovery, prevention, and other issues ) (Vol. 2, pp. 197–223). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13750-009

Snyder, J. J., Schrepferman, L. P., Bullard, L., McEachern, A. D., & Patterson, G. R. (2012). Covert antisocial behavior, peer deviancy training, parenting processes, and sex-differences in the development of antisocial behavior during childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 24 , 1117–1138. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579412000570

Steinberg, L. (2017). Adolescence (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Subrahmanyam, K., & Šmahel, D. (2011). Digital youth: The role of media in development . Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6278-2

Book   Google Scholar  

Sutherland, E. H. (1972). The theory of differential association. In D. Dressler (Ed.), Readings in criminology and penology (pp. 365–371). Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/dres92534-039

Tanner-Smith, E. E., Durlak, J. A., & Marx, R. A. (2018). Empirically based mean effect size distributions for universal prevention programs targeting school-aged youth: A review of meta-analyses. Prevention Science, 19 , 1091–1101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-018-0942-1

Thurow, C. F., Junior, E. L. P., Westphal, R., de São Tiago, F. M. L., & Schneider, D. R. (2020). Risk and protective factors for drug use: A scoping review on the communities that care youth survey. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science (IJAERS), 7 . https://doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.711.5

Tompsett, C. J., Domoff, S. E., & Toro, P. A. (2013). Peer substance use and homelessness predicting substance abuse from adolescence through early adulthood. American Journal of Community Psychology, 51 , 520–529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9569-3

Zentall, T., & Levine, J. (1972). Observational learning and social facilitation in the rat. Science, 178 , 1220–1221.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Carlos Andrés Libisch, Olalla Cutrín & José Antonio Gómez-Fraguela

Arizona State University, Tempe, FL, USA

Flavio Marsiglia & Stephen Kulis

Universidad de la República, Facultad de Psicología, Montevideo, Uruguay

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carlos Andrés Libisch .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Sociocognitive Neuropsychology Laboratory (LINES), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil

Marcus Vinicius Alves

Universidade Estadual do Norte do Paraná, Bandeirantes, Paraná, Brazil

Roberta Ekuni

Universidad Nacional de Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Maria Julia Hermida

University of the Republic, Montevideo, Uruguay

Juan Valle-Lisboa

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Libisch, C.A., Marsiglia, F., Kulis, S., Cutrín, O., Gómez-Fraguela, J.A., Ruiz, P. (2022). The Role of Peer Pressure in Adolescents’ Risky Behaviors. In: Alves, M.V., Ekuni, R., Hermida, M.J., Valle-Lisboa, J. (eds) Cognitive Sciences and Education in Non-WEIRD Populations. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06908-6_8

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06908-6_8

Published : 28 August 2022

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-031-06907-9

Online ISBN : 978-3-031-06908-6

eBook Packages : Behavioral Science and Psychology Behavioral Science and Psychology (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Psychol Res Behav Manag
• PMC10637237

The Impact of Academic Pressure and Peer Support on Adolescents’ Loneliness: A Polynomial Regression and Response Surface Analysis

Zhensong lan.

1 School of Public Administration, Hechi University, Yizhou, Guangxi, 546300, People’s Republic of China

Huaqiang Liu

2 School of Law and Public Administration, Yibin University, Yibin, Sichuan, 644000, People’s Republic of China

3 Yibin Ronghe Social Work Service Center, Yibin, Sichuan, 644000, People’s Republic of China

Xuefang Huang

4 School of Teacher Education, Hechi University, Yizhou, Guangxi, 546300, People’s Republic of China

5 Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 330013, People’s Republic of China

Fafang Deng

6 School of Economics and Management, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, 100124, People’s Republic of China

To explore the impact of the match between academic pressure and peer support on adolescents’ sense of loneliness and examine whether social connectedness played a mediating role, using a polynomial regression and response surface analysis.

A questionnaire survey was conducted with 1277 adolescents from two cities in Sichuan Province, China, to investigate their academic pressure, peer support, social connectedness, and sense of loneliness.

(1) Adolescents’ sense of loneliness positively correlated with their level of academic pressure and negatively correlated with their degree of peer support. (2) Social connectedness played a mediating role in the relationship between academic pressure, peer support, and sense of loneliness. (3) Adolescents with high academic pressure and low peer support had weaker social connectedness than those with low academic pressure and high peer support. (4) Adolescents with high academic pressure and high peer support had stronger social connectedness than those with low academic pressure and low peer support.

The study revealed the mechanism through which a match (or mismatch) between academic pressure and peer support influenced adolescents’ sense of loneliness and validated the mediating role of social connectedness. The study enriches the developmental theory of adolescent loneliness and provides research experience for future interventions targeting adolescent loneliness.

Introduction

Loneliness is a subjective feeling of social isolation or a perceived lack of contact with others that results in a distressing experience. 1 It is also a significant but underestimated public health risk. 2 Loneliness pervades the entire human lifespan but is most common among adolescents and young people. 3 , 4 Statistics show that nearly 80% of adolescents frequently experience loneliness. 5 The causes of their loneliness include limited familial interaction or increased familial conflict, 6 , 7 hindered development of intimate social relationships, 8 academic maladaptation, 9 and transitions to new environments or roles. 10 , 11 Context development theory suggests that support from friends and parents interact in adolescents’ emotional adaptation, with one form of support compensating for the absence of the other. 12 , 13 Academic pressure also seems to play a role in the increase in adolescent loneliness. 14 This study aims to explore this interaction.

The Relationship Between Academic Pressure and Sense of Loneliness

Academic pressure is defined as stress related to academic performance. 15 Research has shown that the significant increase in loneliness during adolescence is often associated with poor academic performance. 16 One reason is that, in many countries, teachers, and parents place great emphasis on education, making educational expectations one of the main sources of immense pressure on adolescents. 17 There may thus be a positive correlation between academic pressure and loneliness, with high academic pressure leading to higher levels of loneliness, and lonely adolescents feeling a greater academic burden. 14 Although loneliness has been extensively explored as a variable, academic pressure has not received much attention as a factor contributing to a sense of loneliness. However, it has been proven to be a significant variable that should not be overlooked. 14 Previous researches have not much studied on the relationship between academic stress and loneliness among Chinese adolescents. In view of the background that Chinese adolescents generally face greater academic pressure, it is necessary to further examine this relationship.

This study therefore proposes Hypothesis 1: There is a significant positive correlation between academic pressure and a sense of loneliness in adolescents.

The Relationship Between Friend Support and Sense of Loneliness

High-quality friendships are crucial for the well-being of adolescents. 18 Peers and parents are important factors in an individual’s developmental environment, and different types of social relationship can meet different interpersonal needs. 19 Each type of relationship provides essential functions, and a lack of necessary relationship provisions can lead to painful experiences of loneliness. 4 During adolescence, peer relationships in predicting adolescent well-being becomes more prominent. 20 Evidence suggests that a lack of intimate friendships is one of the main causes of adolescent loneliness. 13 In view of the fact that social relationships can meet interpersonal needs and the impact of intimate relationships on adolescents’ loneliness, previous studies have also lacked the relationship between peer support and loneliness. This study attempts to further explore the impact of peer support on adolescents’ loneliness, in order to explore the improvement of adolescents’ peer support to improve their loneliness in the future.

Therefore, this study proposes Hypothesis 2: There is a significant negative correlation between peer support and a sense of loneliness in adolescents.

The Relationship Between Academic Pressure, Friend Support, Social Connectedness, and Sense of Loneliness

Social connectedness refers to an individual’s subjective perception of the intimacy of interpersonal relationships and the cognitive recognition of patterns in these relationships. It reflects an individual’s attachment and commitment to social entities. 20–22 Loneliness occurs when there is a discrepancy between an individual’s expectations and the actual level of interpersonal interactions. It is a subjective experience of perceived unsatisfactory social connectedness and interpersonal relationships, indicating that lonely individuals often experience poor social interactions. 20 , 23 One study found that middle school students with better school connectedness and social connectedness had better mental health outcomes. 24 This suggests that when individuals feel lonely, they may need to enhance their social connectedness and engage in friendly interactions and conversations with others to promote positive emotional experiences and alleviate the distress caused by loneliness. 14

Research has shown that social connectedness is positively correlated with social support and is a protective factor for common psychological distress symptoms such as loneliness, 25 , 26 while a decrease in social support is closely associated with increased feelings of loneliness in adolescents. 27 In addition, scholars have found that higher levels of academic pressure are associated with lower levels of social support. 28 Previous studies focused on the impact of academic stress, peer support or social connection on adolescent loneliness, lacking of research experience to explore how academic stress and peer support work together to affect adolescent loneliness. In addition, peer support is passive support, while social connection is active connection, so it is necessary to explore the mediating role of social connection in it.

Therefore, in order to investigate the mechanisms through which academic pressure and peer support influence feelings of loneliness in adolescents, as well as the mediating role of social connectedness in this mechanism, this study proposes Hypothesis 3: Social connectedness plays a mediating role between the matching effect of “academic pressure-peer relationship” and loneliness in adolescents.

Participants

This study selected adolescents in grades 7 to 12 from four middle schools in L City and Y City, Sichuan Province, China, in January 2023 as participants. Cluster sampling was conducted at the class level with two classes selected from each grade in the four schools, resulting in a total sample of 1320 adolescents. A paper-based questionnaire survey was administered in a group setting. Prior to the administration of the tests, informed consent was obtained from all participants. A total of 1320 questionnaires were distributed; after excluding invalid responses, 1277 valid questionnaires were obtained, accounting for 96.74% of the total. The study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Yibin University (approval number: 2022042101Y).

In the valid sample, the average age of the adolescents was 14.34 years (SD = 1.72), including 678 (53.1%) males and 599 (46.9%) females. There were 211 (16.5%) students in grade 7, 245 (19.2%) in grade 8, 255 (20.0%) in grade 9, 194 (15.2%) in grade 10, 183 (14.3%) in grade 11, and 189 (14.8%) in grade 12. There were 193 (15.1%) only children and 1084 (84.9%) children with siblings.

Measurements

Academic pressure questionnaire.

This study used the Academic Pressure Questionnaire developed by Wang et al. 29 The questionnaire consists of 35 items covering four dimensions of academic pressure: academic performance pressure, setback pressure, external environmental pressure, and competitive pressure. The behavioral measurement frequency of the participants was scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with (0 = Never, 1 = Occasionally, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, and 4 = Always). After reverse-scoring transformation, higher scores indicated higher levels of academic pressure. In this study, Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.96, and the KMO and Bartlett’s test values were 0.97, indicating good reliability and validity for the scale.

Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale

This study used the Chinese version of the Child and Adolescent Social Support (CASS) scale, which was revised by Luo, Chen, and Mu. 30 The revised scale consists of five subscales with a total of 60 items. The peer support subscale is a subscale of the CASS scale, consisting of 12 items. The behavioral measurement frequency of the participants was scored on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = Never, 1 = Occasionally, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, and 4 = Always). After reverse-scoring transformation, higher scores indicated lower levels of social support. In this study, Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale was 0.96, and the KMO and Bartlett’s test values were 0.97, indicating good reliability and validity for the scale.

Social Connectedness Scale

The Social Connectedness scale, revised by Fan et al, 31 was used to measure the degree of social connectedness. It comprises 20 items across three dimensions: sense of integration, sense of acceptance, and life involvement. Participants rated each item on a five-point Likert scale (0 = never, 1 = occasionally, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, and 4 = always). After reverse-scoring transformation, the higher the score, the lower the social connectedness. In this study, Cronbach’s α was 0.92, and the KMO and Bartlett’s test values were 0.95, indicating good reliability and validity.

Loneliness Scale

A revised version of the “Adolescent Loneliness Scale” developed by Zou, 32 was used to measure adolescent loneliness. The scale consists of 21 items. Participants were required to rate their agreement with each item. Each item was scored on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 2 = Occasionally, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, and 5 = Always). After reverse-scoring transformation, higher scores indicated a stronger sense of loneliness. In this study, Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale was 0.93, and the KMO and Bartlett’s test values were 0.94.

Method of Analysis

The reliability and validity of the questionnaire were assessed using SPSS software (version 23.0; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive statistics and correlation analyses were conducted on the research variables. Polynomial regression and response surface analyses were performed using R language. The important features of the three-dimensional response surface were estimated, and significance tests were conducted. In addition, a three-dimensional response surface graph was plotted.

The polynomial regression analysis was used to test a set of linear and nonlinear equations derived from the regression model. 33 , 34 The independent variables in this model included academic stress (XX) and peer support (HY) as well as their squared and interaction terms. This method of analysis was used to examine the independent, consistency, and differentiation effects (ie, inconsistent effects) of the two independent variables on the dependent variable. The model was constructed using a quadratic polynomial regression as follows: GD = b0 + control variables + b1(XX) + b2(HY) + b3(XX)^2 + b4(XX) × (HY) + b5(HY)^2 + Gender + Age + e. Here, GD represented the dependent variable, XX and HY were the two independent variables, b0 was the intercept, b1–b5 were the non-standard regression coefficients, gender and age were control variables, and e represented the error term. The analysis process in this study mainly involved three steps.

Step 1 involved conducting the polynomial regression analysis. 34 , 35 First, the predictor variables XX and HY were normalized and the ratio of sample consistency or inconsistency in the direction of XX and HY was examined 35 to validate the suitability of the polynomial regression analysis. Second, the control and independent variables XX and HY were entered into the regression equation to test the linear effects of XX and HY on the dependent variable (GD). Finally, the interaction term (XX × HY) and squared terms ((XX)^2 and (HY)^2) were included in the equation to test the curve relationship and interaction effects.

Step 2 involved the construction of a three-dimensional response surface based on the results of the polynomial regression analysis. 33 The regression coefficients (b1–b5) were transformed into parameters (a1–a5) for response surface analysis. 36 The analysis of data features, such as the stationary point of the response surface, (in)consistency lines, and the relationship between the first principal axis and the a1–a5 parameters, was used to interpret the results. 33 , 36

Step 3 involved evaluating the direct and indirect effects of the mediation model between XX and HY in consistent and inconsistent matching pairs using a block variable. 34 , 35 First, the five polynomials (XX, HY, (XX)^2, (XX) × (HY), and (HY)^2) were combined into a block variable. The block variable was then used as the independent variable to test the matching (consistency or inconsistency) of XX–HY and its impact on loneliness (GD) through the social connectedness (SL) hypothesis. The PROCESS plugin in SPSS was used, and bootstrap resampling was performed 5000 times to estimate the 95% confidence interval of the effect values and to test the mediation effect. 37

Descriptive Statistical and Correlation Analyses

The statistical results of the mean, standard deviation, and correlation matrix of each variable are shown in Table 1 using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. The results showed no significant correlations between sex, age, social connectedness, and loneliness among adolescents (Rs = −0.043 to 0.036, p > 0.05). However, there were significant positive correlations among academic stress (XX), peer support (HY), social connectedness, and loneliness (Rs = 0.314–0.817, p < 0.001). Thus, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported. The loneliness score among adolescents in this study was 25.16 ± 16.27, which is at a lower level (with a maximum score of 82.0 points). However, 212 adolescents (16.60%) scored higher than the median score of 42.0.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis (N = 1277)

Notes : Statistically significant values ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001; Gender: 0 for Boy and 1 for Girl; XX = academic pressure; HY = peer support; SL = social connectedness; GD= loneliness.

The results showed that the proportion of consistent cases between academic stress (XX) and peer support (HY) was 34.85% (445 participants), the proportion of cases where academic stress (XX) was greater than peer support (HY) was 32.03% (409 participants), and the proportion of cases in which academic stress (XX) was less than peer support (HY) was 33.12% (423 participants). These proportions met the analysis requirements (each category was greater than 10%) and allowed the polynomial regression analysis to be conducted.

The Effect of Academic Pressure–Peer Support Matching on Adolescents’ Social Connectedness

The impact of matching academic stress (XX) with peer support (HY) on adolescents’ social connectedness was examined using polynomial regression and response surface analyses. Table 2 presents the results of the study.

Polynomial Regression Results and Response Surface Analysis (N = 1277)

Notes : Statistically significant values * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001; Gender: 0 for Boy and 1 for Girl; SL = social connectedness; GD = loneliness. The regression coefficients in the table are unstandardized regression coefficients. ΔR^2 represents the change in the model’s explanatory power after including the quadratic terms XX^2, XX×HY, and HY^2. R^2 represents the variance explained by the polynomial regression model as a whole. a1 and a2 represent the slope and curvature of the consistent line, respectively, a3 and a4 represent the slope and curvature of the inconsistent line, respectively, and a5 indicates whether the first principal axis of the surface lies on the consistent line.

According to the data in Table 2 , after controlling for gender and age, XX(b1=0.299) and HY(b2=0.524) positively predicted the social connectedness(SL) levels (p < 0.001). The significance of ΔR^2 in the polynomial model increased significantly (p < 0.001), indicating a significant relationship between the independent variables (XX–HY) and the dependent variable (social connectedness, SL) in the opposite direction (“one high and one low”). 38 In addition, the response surface significantly shifted along the inconsistent line (a5 = −0.071, p < 0.01), indicating that the first principal axis representing the response surface did not coincide with the consistent line.

The slope (a1 = 0.823, p < 0.001) and curvature (a2 = 0.053, p < 0.05) along the consistent line (XX = HY) of the response surface indicated that the dependent variable (social connectedness, SL) formed an upward concave surface along the consistency of the independent variable (XX–HY) ( Figure 1 ). In other words, the response surface first decreased along the consistent curve, reached its lowest point near the stationary point, and then increased. Compared to the “low XX–low HY” level of consistency, when the consistency level of the independent variable was “high XX–high HY”, the level of social connectedness (SL) was higher (Z-hat = 23.490, 95% CI [21.829, 25.141]). As higher scores indicate weaker peer support and social connectedness (SL) in adolescents, the social connectedness (SL) of adolescents with strong academic stress (XX) and weak peer support (HY) was weaker than that of adolescents with weak academic stress (XX) and strong peer support (HY).

Response surface analysis of academic pressure (XX) and peer support (HY) matching with social connectedness (SL).

The curvature (a4 = 0.106, p < 0.05) along the inconsistent line (XX = -HY) of the response surface indicates a concave increase from left to right ( Figure 1 ), which means that the consistency of the independent variables (XX and HY) had a negative impact on social connectedness (SL), the lowest value of which occurred within the region where HY > XX. In addition, the slope (a3 = −0.225, P < 0.001) of the inconsistent line suggests a significant difference in the level of social connectedness (SL) owing to the difference in the independent variables. When using the point selection method 39 for calculation, it was found that the level of social connectedness (SL) was lower for “high XX–low HY” than for “low XX–high HY” (Z-hat = −2.768, 95% CI [−5.104, −0.530]). Higher scores indicate weaker peer support(HY) and social connectedness (SL) in adolescents; the social connectedness (SL) of adolescents with strong academic stress (XX) and peer support (HY) was stronger than that of adolescents with weak academic stress (XX) and peer support (HY).

The Effect of Academic Pressure–Peer Support Matching on Adolescents’ Loneliness

The impact of matching academic stress (XX) with peer support (HY) on adolescents’ loneliness was examined using polynomial regression and response surface analyses. Table 2 presents the results of the study.

According to the data in Table 2 , after controlling for gender and age, XX(b1=0.250) and HY(b2=0.445) positively predicted the loneliness(GD) levels (p < 0.001). The significance of ΔR^2 in the polynomial model increased significantly (p < 0.001), indicating a significant relationship between the independent variables (XX–HY) and the dependent variable (loneliness, GD) in the opposite direction (“one high and one low”). 38 In addition, the response surface significantly shifted along the inconsistent line (a5 = −0.071, p < 0.01), indicating that the first principal axis representing the response surface did not coincide with the consistent line.

The slope (a1 = 0.796, p < 0.001) and curvature (a2 = 0.153, p < 0.001) along the consistent line (XX = HY) of the response surface indicated that the dependent variable (loneliness, GD) formed an upward concave surface along the consistency of the independent variable (XX–HY) ( Figure 2 ). Compared to the “low XX–low HY” level of consistency, when the consistency level of the independent variable was “high XX–high HY”, the level of loneliness (GD) was higher (Z-hat=26.435, 95% CI [24.442, 28.495]). As higher scores indicate weaker peer support (HY) and loneliness (GD) in adolescents, the loneliness (GD) of adolescents with strong academic stress (XX) and weak peer support (HY) was weaker than that of adolescents with weak academic stress (XX) and strong peer support (HY).

Response surface analysis of academic pressure (XX) and peer support (HY) matching with loneliness (GD).

The results of slope (a3 =−0.095, P < 0.01) and curvature (a4 = 0.066, P > 0.05) of the response surface along the inconsistency line show that the response surface presents an approximate straight line with lower left and higher right along the inconsistency line (left corner to right corner) ( Figure 2 ). That is to say, the value of loneliness (GD) varies with the degree of differentiation between academic pressure (XX) and peer support (HY). Compared with “low XX–high HY”, the level of loneliness (GD) is higher when “high XX–low HY”. That is, the greater the difference of ‘XX > HY’, the higher the level of loneliness (GD).

Mediating Effect Test

On the basis of the above analysis, we now examine the impact of the block variable (XX–HY) on adolescents’ feelings of loneliness and the mediating effect of social connectedness between the block variable (XX–HY) and adolescents’ feelings of loneliness. As polynomial regression and response surface analysis include sex and age as control variables, this study incorporated them as control variables in the equation. All variables were standardized. As shown in Figure 3 , with gender and age as control variables, the block variable (XX–HY) was the independent variable, social connectedness was the mediating variable, and adolescents’ feelings of loneliness was the dependent variable. The effect of the block variable (XX–HY) on social connectedness was 1.000 (t = 34.36, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.943, 1.057]); the effect of social connectedness on adolescents’ feelings of loneliness was 0.691 (t = 31.77, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.648, 0.734]); the total effect of the block variable (XX–HY) on adolescents’ feelings of loneliness was 0.262 (t = 8.36, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.200, 0.323]); and the direct effect was 0.953 (t = 31.52, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.894, 1.012]).

Mediating effect of social connectedness between the block variable (academic pressure–peer support) and loneliness among adolescents.

Therefore, social connectedness in adolescents was found to partially mediate the relationship between the block variable (XX–HY) and adolescents’ feelings of loneliness, with a mediation effect size of 72.51%. Hence, Hypothesis 3 is supported.

Due to the emphasis on academic achievement in the Chinese educational environment, adolescents in China generally experience high levels of academic pressure. 17 Moreover, Chinese adolescents face reduced family connections and increased academic pressure. 14 This results confirm that the stronger the academic pressure faced by adolescents, the weaker their social connectedness. 28 This result is consistent with the earlier findings, academic pressures can reduce adolescents’ level of social engagement, 40 and peer support was positively correlated with social connectedness, meaning that the stronger the level of support from friends, the stronger the social connectedness of adolescents.

In this study, academic pressure and peer support had interdependent effects on adolescents’ social connectedness. Furthermore, adolescents with high academic pressure and low peer support had weaker social connectedness than those with low academic pressure and high peer support. Moreover, the degree of adolescent social connectedness showed a concave response surface consistent with academic pressure and peer support. This indicates that, with increasing academic pressure, peer support initially has a weakening effect on the reduction of social connectedness, followed by an additional effect. This finding highlights the importance of considering both academic pressure and peer support and reveals the unique and independent impact of peer support on academic pressure and social connectedness. These results may have practical implications for the implementation of measures and programs to alleviate academic pressure and promote the development of friendships among students.

The research findings also revealed that the level of social connectedness among adolescents tends to increase in a concave shape from left to right in the mismatch of academic pressure and peer support. This means that consistency between academic pressure and peer support has a negative impact on the level of social connectedness among adolescents. Furthermore, the maximum value of social connectedness among adolescents occurs in the region where peer support is strong and academic pressure is high (HY > XX). In other words, adolescents with high academic pressure and strong peer support have stronger social connectedness than those with low academic pressure and weak peer support. This indirectly indicates that adolescents who face less academic pressure and receive effective peer support have a stronger level of social connectedness, and peer support seems to have a more prominent impact on their social connectedness. Conversely, positive peer support provides adolescents with greater coping resources, enabling them to adapt better to environmental changes 41 and thus improve their academic performance. 42

The Mediating Role of Social Connectedness in the Match Between Academic Pressure and Peer Support and Loneliness

Loneliness is a prominent issue in early adolescence; 3 however, it is currently unclear which factors are closely related to it. Our research findings suggest that social support is closely associated with feelings of loneliness among adolescents. 27 Social support is also closely related to social connectedness, serving as a protective factor against loneliness. 25 , 26 One possible explanation is that adolescents who feel lonely often report lower social skills, and these subjective negative cognitions hinder their behavior in seeking social support and connections because they perceive their functioning in social environments negatively. 43 Research has shown that academic pressure has a unique relationship with feelings of loneliness. 16 Greater academic pressure is associated with stronger feelings of loneliness, and in turn, loneliness negatively affects academic pressure. 14

Furthermore, after examining the multivariate effects of academic pressure and friend support on feelings of loneliness, social connectedness, academic pressure and loneliness were found to be positively correlated. Peer support and social connectedness scores increased, indicating lower levels of peer support and social connectedness among adolescents. This confirms that the higher the level of peer support and social connectedness among adolescents and the greater the academic pressure they face, the stronger their feelings of loneliness.

The results also showed that social connectedness mediated the relationship between academic pressure and peer support matching and feelings of loneliness among adolescents, with a mediation effect size of 72.51%. This indicates that the level of social connectedness among adolescents has a significant mediating effect between the matching of academic pressure and peer support and feelings of loneliness. This study is the first to focus not only on the specific effects of academic pressure, friend support, and social connectedness on feelings of loneliness but also on the associations and differential effects among these factors. Doing so not only confirmed the positive role of more social connections in facilitating friend interactions and communication, and reducing feelings of loneliness 14 but also validated the view that positive social connections are beneficial for the well-being of adolescents who experience loneliness due to increased academic pressure. 24

The main contribution of this study is its use of polynomial regression combined with response surface methodology to reveal the mechanism underlying the joint influence of academic pressure and peer support on social connectedness and feelings of loneliness among adolescents.

Although this study provides new insights, its research design still has some limitations. First, the sampling limitations make it difficult to generalize from the research findings, as the sample size of four secondary schools in two cities is relatively small compared to a national sample. Second, this study focused on junior high and high school students, and it is not known whether the research findings could be replicated. Finally, this was a cross-sectional study, and further longitudinal research data are needed to examine the practical and theoretical effects of social connectedness intervention practices for preventing and intervening in adolescent loneliness.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to the administrators and class teachers of middle schools in Luzhou City and Yibin City, as well as the participants and their parents for their active cooperation, whose help enabled the smooth development of this study.Meanwhile, we would like to thank Yibin University, Hechi University and other institutions for their full support in ethical review, research and coordination.

Funding Statement

This study was funded by the Key Project of Rural Community Governance Research Center of Sichuan Province, China(SQZL2021A02).

Declaration of AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process

During the preparation of this work the author(s) used Chat AI in order to proofread the language. After using this tool, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and takes full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Data Sharing Statement

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate

This study and its research programs were approved by the Ethics Committee of Human Research Ethics Committee of Yibin University, China (2022-04-21-01Y). All methods were carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the aforementioned ethics committee. All participants were informed about the contents of the survey and obtained their consent, as well as the informed consent of the participants’ parents or legal guardians and the class teacher.

Author Contributions

All authors made a significant contribution to the work reported, whether that is in the conception, study design, execution, acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation, or in all these areas; took part in drafting, revising or critically reviewing the article; gave final approval of the version to be published; have agreed on the journal to which the article has been submitted; and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

The authors of this study declare no conflict of interest and that the study has not been submitted for publication anywhere else.