sociology research paper examples

How to Write a Sociological Essay: Explained with Examples

This article will discuss “How to Write a Sociological Essay” with insider pro tips and give you a map that is tried and tested. An essay writing is done in three phases: a) preparing for the essay, b) writing the essay, and c) editing the essay. We will take it step-by-step so that nothing is left behind because the devil, as well as good grades and presentation, lies in the details.

Writing is a skill that we learn throughout the courses of our lives. Learning how to write is a process that we begin as soon as we turn 4, and the learning process never stops. But the question is, “is all writing the same?”. The answer is NO. Do you remember your initial lessons of English when you were in school, and how the teacher taught various formats of writing such as formal, informal, essay, letter, and much more? Therefore, writing is never that simple. Different occasions demand different styles and commands over the writing style. Thus, the art of writing improves with time and experience.

Those who belong to the world of academia know that writing is something that they cannot escape. No writing is the same when it comes to different disciplines of academia. Similarly, the discipline of sociology demands a particular style of formal academic writing. If you’re a new student of sociology, it can be an overwhelming subject, and writing assignments don’t make the course easier. Having some tips handy can surely help you write and articulate your thoughts better.

[Let us take a running example throughout the article so that every point becomes crystal clear. Let us assume that the topic we have with us is to “Explore Culinary Discourse among the Indian Diasporic Communities” .]

Phase I: Preparing for the Essay

Step 1: make an outline.

So you have to write a sociological essay, which means that you already either received or have a topic in mind. The first thing for you to do is PLAN how you will attempt to write this essay. To plan, the best way is to make an outline. The topic you have, certainly string some thread in your mind. They can be instances you heard or read, some assumptions you hold, something you studied in the past, or based on your own experience, etc. Make a rough outline where you note down all the themes you would like to talk about in your essay. The easiest way to make an outline is to make bullet points. List all the thoughts and examples that you have in find and create a flow for your essay. Remember that this is only a rough outline so you can always make changes and reshuffle your points.

[Explanation through example, assumed topic: “Explore Culinary Discourse among the Indian Diasporic Communities” . Your outline will look something like this:

Step 2: Start Reading

Once you have prepared an outline for your essay, the next step is to start your RESEARCH . You cannot write a sociological essay out of thin air. The essay needs to be thoroughly researched and based on facts. Sociology is the subject of social science that is based on facts and evidence. Therefore, start reading as soon as you have your outline determined. The more you read, the more factual data you will collect. But the question which now emerges is “what to read” . You cannot do a basic Google search to write an academic essay. Your research has to be narrow and concept-based. For writing a sociological essay, make sure that the sources from where you read are academically acclaimed and accepted.

For best search, search for your articles by typing “Food+Diaspora”, “Food+Nostalgia”, adding a plus sign (+) improves the search result.]

Step 3: Make Notes

This is a step that a lot of people miss when they are preparing to write their essays. It is important to read, but how you read is also a very vital part. When you are reading from multiple sources then all that you read becomes a big jumble of information in your mind. It is not possible to remember who said what at all times. Therefore, what you need to do while reading is to maintain an ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY . Whenever you’re reading for writing an academic essay then have a notebook handy, or if you prefer electronic notes then prepare a Word Document, Google Docs, Notes, or any tool of your choice to make notes.

[Explanation through example, assumed topic: “Explore Culinary Discourse among the Indian Diasporic Communities” .

Annotate and divide your notes based on the outline you made. Having organized notes will help you directly apply the concepts where they are needed rather than you going and searching for them again.]

Phase II: Write a Sociological Essay

Now let us get into the details which go into the writing of a sociological essay.

Step 4: Writing a Title, Subtitle, Abstract, and Keywords

This is an optional component of any essay. If you think that your title cannot justify the rest of the contents of your essay, then you opt for a subtitle. The subtitle is the secondary part of the title which is used to further elucidate the title. A subtitle should be smaller in font than the Title but bigger than the rest of the essay body.

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: If you are not sure about your abstract at first, it is always great to write the abstract in the end after you are done with your essay.

Keywords are an extension of your abstract. Whereas in your abstract you will use a paragraph to tell the reader what to expect ahead, by stating keywords, you point out the essence of your essay by using only individual words. These words are mostly concepts of social sciences. At first, glance, looking at your keywords, the reader should get informed about all the concepts and themes you will explain in detail later.

Your keywords could be: Food, Diaspora, Migration, and so on. Build on these as you continue to write your essay.]

Step 5: Writing the Introduction, Main Body, and Conclusion

Your introduction should talk about the subject on which you are writing at the broadest level. In an introduction, you make your readers aware of what you are going to argue later in the essay. An introduction can discuss a little about the history of the topic, how it was understood till now, and a framework of what you are going to talk about ahead. You can think of your introduction as an extended form of the abstract. Since it is the first portion of your essay, it should paint a picture where the readers know exactly what’s ahead of them.

Since your focus is on “food” and “diaspora”, your introductory paragraph can dwell into a little history of the relationship between the two and the importance of food in community building.]

The main body is mostly around 4 to 6 paragraphs long. A sociological essay is filled with debates, theories, theorists, and examples. When writing the main body it is best to target making one or two paragraphs about the same revolving theme. When you shift to the other theme, it is best to connect it with the theme you discussed in the paragraph right above it to form a connection between the two. If you are dividing your essay into various sub-themes then the best way to correlate them is starting each new subtheme by reflecting on the last main arguments presented in the theme before it. To make a sociological essay even more enriching, include examples that exemplify the theoretical concepts better.

The main body can here be divided into the categories which you formed during the first step of making the rough outline. Therefore, your essay could have 3 to 4 sub-sections discussing different themes such as: Food and Media, Caste and Class influence food practices, Politics of Food, Gendered Lens, etc.]

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: As the introduction, the conclusion is smaller compared to the main body. Keep your conclusion within the range of 1 to 2 paragraphs.

Step 6: Citation and Referencing

This is the most academic part of your sociological essay. Any academic essay should be free of plagiarism. But how can one avoid plagiarism when their essay is based on research which was originally done by others. The solution for this is to give credit to the original author for their work. In the world of academia, this is done through the processes of Citation and Referencing (sometimes also called Bibliography). Citation is done within/in-between the text, where you directly or indirectly quote the original text. Whereas, Referencing or Bibliography is done at the end of an essay where you give resources of the books or articles which you have quoted in your essay at various points. Both these processes are done so that the reader can search beyond your essay to get a better grasp of the topic.

There are many different styles of citations and you can determine which you want to follow. Some of the most common styles of citation and referencing are MLA, APA, and Chicago style. If you are working on Google Docs or Word then the application makes your work easier because they help you curate your citations. There are also various online tools that can make citing references far easier, faster, and adhering to citation guidelines, such as an APA generator. This can save you a lot of time when it comes to referencing, and makes the task far more manageable.

How to add citations in Word Document: References → Insert Citations

Example: Syrkin, A. 1984. “Notes on the Buddha’s Threats in the Dīgha Nikāya ”, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies , vol. 7(1), pp.147-58.

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: Always make sure that your Bibliography/References are alphabetically ordered based on the first alphabet of the surname of the author and NOT numbered or bulleted.

Phase III: Editing

Step 7: edit/review your essay.

Pro Tip by Sociology Group: The more you edit the better results you get. But we think that your 3rd draft is the magic draft. Draft 1: rough essay, Draft 2: edited essay, Draft 3: final essay.

99 Good Sociology Research Questions Examples

What is a good research question for sociology? Oftentimes, lecturers give their students the freedom to pick their own research questions. While this can be a good thing on its own, at other times, it can drain the brain. Having relevant sociology research question ideas and sociology research questions examples is the right way to start. In this article, you will be receiving 99 sociology research questions examples to help you avoid a brain drain.

Sociology Research Question Topics

What are the Environmental Hazards in Your Society?
What is the Government’s Control of Society?
What are the Impacts of Cancel Culture in Today’s Society?
How Early Should Children be Taught Sex Education?
What Prevention Methods are Effective Against Teenagers Pregnancy?
Should Parents Encourage Their Teenagers to Get an Abortion?
Is Gender Equality Possible?
Why Is Polygamy Ideal For 21st Century Relationships?
What Role Can Parents Play To Help Prevent Sexually Transmitted Infections In Their Teens?
Is Marriage Relevant in the 21st-century?
What Are Transactional Relationships?
What are the Effects of Having Two Mothers?
How Can Schools Help Students Overcome Addiction?
What Can Schools do About Deviant Behaviour in Their Children?
What are the Steps to Overcoming Abuse?
What are the Impacts of Having Two Fathers?
How Does Family Law Help the Family?
Why Should Children Take Over Family Businesses?
Why Should The Use of Marijuana Be Legalized?
What are the Roles of Grandparents in a Family?
What are the Impacts of Endogamy?
What is the Permanent Solution to Bullying?
Body Confidence Or Moral Decadence?
How Can Interpersonal Conflicts be Resolved?
What is Family Inheritance?
Do Vacations Truly Help Couples Bond?
What are the Impacts of House-husband?
What are the Impacts of Being A Housewife?
Should Polygamy be Encouraged in Today’s Society?
What are the Dangers of Helicopter Parenting?
When Should a Couple Consider Divorce?
What are the Underlying Reasons for Suicide in Young People?
What are the Societal Implications of Cohabitation?
What Causes Rebellion in Young People?
What Ways Can Depression be Managed?
Should Free Speech Have Limits?
What is Societal Pressure?
What is the Relevance of Religion in Today’s Society?
Why is Medical Negligence on the Rise?
What is the Relevance of School Uniforms For Students?
What are the Conflicts of Personal Identity?
Should Prisoners be Allowed to Vote?
Do School Uniforms Encourage Bullying?
Should Children Have Parents of the Same-Sex?
What is Social Disorder?
What is Social Anxiety?
What are the Dangers of Home Schooling?
What are the Dangers of Infidelity to the Society at Large?
What are the Dangers of Political Correctness?
Should Traditional Gender Roles Still Exist in Today’s Society?
Do Adults Engage in Bullying More Than Children?
What are the Different Places Bullying Occurs in Today’s Society?
Should Virtual Learning Become the Standard Form of Learning?
Should Religious Activities be Allowed in Schools?
How Can a Family Maintain a Healthy Lifestyle?
How Does the Media Portray Your Society?
Why do Students Dress the Way do?
Whose Responsibility is it to Train the Child: Parents or Society?
Should Children be Allowed to Believe in Magic?
What Causes Social Isolation?
Should Teens Be Allowed to Take Alcohol?
What are the Impacts of Single Parenting?
What is the Attitude Of Students Towards School Work in Your Society?
What Bad Actions Contribute to Pollution in Your Environment?
What Societal Values are Dying?
Should Teachers Have Other Sources Of Income?
What is Care-work in a Family?
Does a Person’s Society Determine How They See Life?
What is the “Standard Family”?
How do Songs Contribute to a Person’s Identity?
What Are The Underlying Causes Of Unemployment in Your Society?
Should Parents Take Parenting Classes?
What Are Societal Values and Norms?
What are the Impacts Of Divorce on the Children?
What are the Impacts of Long-distance Marriage?
Should Personal Ownership of Guns be Revoked in the United States?
What are the Impacts of Moving Places?
What is the Difference Between Equality and Equity?
Is Reincarnation After Death A Possibility?
How Should Errant Behaviour be Punish?
What Are The Distinctions And Similarities Between Millenials And Generation Z?
How Influential is Pop Culture in Colleges?
Why Is There Disparity in Society?
How Should Child Misbehaviour be Punished?
How do TV Shows Influence Our Culture?
What are the Impacts of Having A Multi-Ethnic Family?
What are the Impacts of Diverse Cultures in a Society?
What are Your Society’s Most-Pressing Needs?
What are the Worst Books of all Time in Society?
What is Gender Discrimination in Society?
What is Gender Disparity in the Workplace?
What are the Implications of Peer Pressure?
How Much Influence do Celebrities Have Over a Society?
How does the Media Misrepresent the Youth?
How does the Media Help in Government Propaganda?
How Can Violence in Society be Solved?
What are the Contributors to a Person’s Identity?
Is Monogamy Ideal For 21st Century Relationships?
Is Overpopulation a Bad Thing?

These research questions are more than enough to select from. Simply choose one and write.

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Sociology Research Papers: Format, Outline, and Topics

By: Barbara P.

Reviewed By:

Published on: Mar 26, 2024

Understanding sociology research papers can be tricky. Many people find them confusing and don't know where to start.

Not knowing how to structure your research paper or what topics to explore can be frustrating! But don't worry! In this blog, we're here to help you. We'll break down sociology research papers into easy-to-understand parts.

By the end, you'll feel confident and ready to tackle your sociology research paper. Let's get started!

On this Page

What is a Sociology Research Paper?

Among the many types of research papers , a sociology paper is a written document that explores different aspects of human societies. These research papers help us understand how people interact, behave, and organize themselves in groups.

In this type of paper, researchers investigate social issues, relationships, and patterns by looking at real-life examples and data. They might study topics like family dynamics, education systems, or cultural norms to learn more about how society works.

Sociology papers often ask questions about why things are the way they are and how they might change over time. They're important because they help us make sense of the world around us and address social challenges.

The Optimal Sociology Paper Format

Here’s how you should format your sociology research paper:

A sociology paper typically follows standard citation requirements, similar to other academic papers. Professors often request the use of the APA (American Psychological Association) format, while others may prefer the ASA (American Sociological Association) style.

Typically, sociology papers are formatted in:

Times New Roman font
12-point size
Entire document should be double-spaced
Margins should be set to at least 1 inch on all sides.

How to Structure a Sociology Research Paper?

The sociology research paper outline may vary depending on the specific requirements of your assignment or the nature of your research. However, a general outline includes the following sections:

Introduction

For the research paper introduction , you will begin by providing background information to give context to your research topic. This context helps readers understand the significance of your study. Following this, you will clearly state the main research question or hypothesis that guides your investigation.

This serves as the focal point around which your research revolves. Moreover, you will explain the purpose of your study, articulating why your research is important and what you aim to achieve through your inquiry.

Typically, you will include your thesis statement at the end of your research paper’s introduction.

Literature Review

In the literature review section, you will review existing research related to your topic. This involves summarizing relevant studies and theories that have been previously explored by scholars.

By synthesizing existing knowledge, you aim to identify gaps in the literature, areas where further research is needed, or where your study contributes new insights. This critical examination of prior work forms the foundation which your result is built upon.

Theoretical Framework

Your research will be guided by a sociological theory or theories that inform your study. In this section, you will choose the theoretical framework that best aligns with your research question and explain how it relates to your investigation.

This theoretical foundation provides a lens through which you interpret your findings and understand the social phenomena under study.

Methodology

The methodology section outlines the approach and rationale for your study. Here, you describe the research design, whether qualitative, quantitative, or a mix of both, and justify your choice.

Additionally, you provide detailed information about your participants, including relevant demographic data. You also specify the methods and tools used to collect data, such as surveys, interviews, or observations. Finally, you describe the techniques you will employ to analyze the collected data.

Findings

In the findings section, you present your research findings in a clear and organized manner. This involves presenting quantitative data using tables, graphs, or charts to enhance understanding.

For qualitative data, you may include direct quotes or examples to illustrate key themes or patterns that emerged from your analysis.

Discussion

Your research paper discussion section is where you interpret your results in relation to your research question and existing literature. Here, you analyze and interpret your findings, considering their implications for the field of sociology.

Additionally, you acknowledge any limitations in your study and suggest areas for future research to address these limitations.

Now coming to the final section, the research paper conclusion is where you summarize the main findings of your study and restate their significance. You emphasize the importance of your research and its contribution to sociological knowledge, which reaffirms the value of your study.

Finally, in the references section, you cite all the research paper sources you used following a consistent citation style throughout. This ensures proper attribution of ideas and information borrowed from other scholars and preserves academic confidentiality.

Sociology Research Paper Examples

Take a look at these sociology paper examples. This will help you understand sociological papers better:

Sociology Research Paper Example PDF

If you want to expand your practical knowledge of sociology research more, you can read this sociology research paper on Generational Divide in India .

For those who are interested in social science theories, you can read this well-received sociological theory research paper .

Here is another sociology research paper on family for you to have a look at.

Sociology Research Paper Topics

Take a look at the following sociology research paper ideas our experts have picked just for you:

Exploring the impact of algorithmic bias on social inequality in online platforms.
Investigating the complexities of transnational migration and its effects on identity formation.
Analyzing the intersection of disability studies and sociology in understanding social exclusion.
Examining the role of environmental racism in shaping urban communities and public health outcomes.
Understanding the cultural nuances of mental health stigma within immigrant populations.
Investigating the social implications of artificial intelligence and automation on labor markets.
Exploring the dynamics of food insecurity and its relationship to socioeconomic status.
Analyzing the social construction of masculinity and its impact on mental health outcomes for men.
Investigating the role of social movements in promoting environmental justice and sustainability.
Understanding the complexities of reproductive rights and access to healthcare for marginalized communities.

In summary , writing a sociology research paper involves thorough planning, clear analysis, and thoughtful discussion of social issues. By following the format and guidelines outlined in this blog, you can write a good sociological research paper with ease.

Also with the help of the sociology research paper topics we included, you can have it easy trying to figure out the research topic for your next sociology research project.

If you find yourself needing help with your research paper, SharkPapers.com is here for you. As a trusted paper writing service online , our experts are dedicated to providing tailored assistance to meet your academic needs.

Visit us and pay for research papers in the most competitive rates!

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some good sociology research questions.

How does social media usage influence self-esteem and body image perception among adolescents?
What factors contribute to the persistence of gender wage gaps in the workplace?
How does gentrification impact the social fabric and cultural identity of urban neighborhoods?
What are the social and psychological effects of long-term unemployment on individuals and their families?
How do cultural beliefs and practices shape attitudes towards mental health treatment in different societies?

What is a research project in sociology?

A research project in sociology is a structured investigation into social behaviors, patterns, and phenomena. It involves gathering and analyzing data to understand different aspects of human societies. These projects explore topics like family dynamics, cultural norms, inequality, and social change, using methods such as surveys, interviews, and statistical analysis.

Barbara has a Ph.D. in public health from an Ivy League university and extensive experience working in the medical field. With her practical experience conducting research on various health issues, she is skilled in writing innovative papers on healthcare. Her many works have been published in multiple publications.

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Writing Guide

Writing sociological topics.

“Sociology is the scientific study of human social life. Sociologists seek to describe social patterns and to develop theories for explanation and prediction of social processes of all sizes. Sociology applies objective and systematic methods of investigation to identify patterns and forms of social life and to understand the processes of development and change in human societies.”

Sociology can be described as the scientific study of society.

Sociologists follow the scientific method in research and translate that research into language that is applicable to diverse audiences.

Even if you don’t plan on becoming a sociologist, learning to communicate in the writing and oral styles that are specific to sociology can be useful in many professions. Even though sociological writing is presenting research about the social world, which we all live in and experience that does not mean that the sociological style of writing will come naturally.

Whether you’re writing a “low-stakes” summary of assigned readings, or a “high-stakes” research proposal, there are stylistic rules specific to sociology that need to be followed. This writing guide aims to help students in sociology courses understand these guidelines and improve their sociological writing.

Departmental Expectations

Enable students to understand the interactions among individuals, groups, and social institutions in society.
Develop student competence in understanding, critically assessing, and applying major sociological concepts.
Introduce students to the various theoretical perspectives of sociology.
Develop student understanding of research methods appropriate to sociological inquiry.
Develop student competence in posing research questions, evaluating evidence, and developing logical arguments.

Disciplinary Genres

Writing in sociology can be either argumentative or analytical. Too often, students in sociology try to find the “right” answer, rather than taking a stance on the literature.

There are various writing genres within sociology. These genres include, but are not limited to: social issue analyses, article critiques, literature reviews, quantitative research designs, quantitative research papers, qualitative research designs, and qualitative research papers. Common types of writing in sociology classes at UNC Charlotte include summaries of readings, topic essays, literature reviews, methodological designs, and research proposals.

For these writing assignments, you will be asked to analyze and critique previous research or make an argument for proposed research, or both. While the exact style of writing will vary by assignment, and by professor, the writing norms of sociology will always apply.

Writing and Speaking Norms in Sociology

The learning objectives for sociology courses can be reached through communicating in a way that is appropriate to the field of Sociology. As a student in Sociology, you will regularly engage in various types of writing.

As is the case in other academic disciplines, sociologists have developed a style of writing that is most appropriate. The American Sociological Association style guide presents the fundamentals of sociological writing.

Following these guidelines, writing in sociology should be:

Clear in expression, with respect to ideas and structure
Concise and coherent, avoiding wordy phrases
Absent of language reflecting bias or stereotypes
Using an active voice
Use verb tense that is consistent within a section
Proper citations, using American Sociological Association (ASA) guidelines

Examples of Common Assignments

The sociology department, as well as all departments at UNC Charlotte, incorporates low-stakes, medium-stakes, and high-stakes writing into the curriculum. It is not uncommon for sociology courses to assign written work from all of these levels.

Low-stakes assignments serve as a means for input: exploration, discovery, hypothesizing, problem-solving, and so on. Think of these assignments as “writing to learn”. Below are some examples of low-stakes assignments commonly used in sociology courses.

Brief in-class writing assignments on course topics.
Summaries of assigned readings.
Creating a hypothesis.
Brief, or list-like, writings about a topic.

Medium Stakes

Medium-stakes assignments focus on certain thinking processes within the discipline. These assignments are still primarily informal but require more guidelines for format, structure, and style that are appropriate to sociology . These assignments are typically done in one sitting and do not require extensive revision. Below are some examples of medium-stakes assignments commonly used in sociology courses.

Response papers on lecture or other course materials that incorporate sociological perspectives.
Wiki contributions, blog posts, discussion board posts.
Reflection papers on personal experiences.
Analyses of current issues or events.

High Stakes

High-stakes assignments are easily recognizable. These assignments incorporate analysis, argumentation, or both to a broad range of concepts or readings. High-stakes writing assignments are subject to several revisions and follow more closely the style guidelines of sociology. Below are some common high-stakes writing assignments in sociology:

Research proposal or research report.
Written report on qualitative or quantitative research done by the student.
Final papers that integrate the entirety of course topics.

Here’s an example of a high-stakes research proposal with instructor comments.

Writing Outcomes

Listed at the bottom of this page in the attachments section is an example of a survey research paper done by a UNC Charlotte student as well as the rubric the instructor utilized for grading purposes.

Below are several tools and tips to help you communicate effectively in sociology.

General Advice for Non-Majors will help students not familiar with writing in sociology.

ASA Style Guide will provide examples of the writing and speaking norms in sociology, as well as show how to properly cite resources.

This Reading Guide will help students learn how to approach sociological literature.

The Writing Resource Center at UNC Charlotte provides writing services to students.

Citation Guide will help you make sure that all of your resources are properly cited.

List of ASA (American Sociological Association) Writing Style Guides

The University Center for Academic Excellence (UCAE) provides academic support for UNC Charlotte students.

The Dr. Abel Scribe citation tool is another useful guide for learning about the ASA’s formatting rules as well as its citation guidelines.

Endnote – Citation software program available to UNC Charlotte students.

Marquette University’s Writing Guide for Social Science Majors

University of California, Berkeley’s Writing Guide for Sociology Majors

These sections adapted from:

American Sociological Association. 2010. American Sociological Association Style Guide. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association.

Bean, John C. 2001. Engaging Ideas: The Professor’s Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Darmouth Institute for Writing and Rhetoric “General Advice for Non-Majors” accessed 2013.

Harris, Angelique and Alia R. Tyner-Mullings. 2013. Writing for Emerging Sociologists. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications

Johnson, William A. et al. 2004. The Sociology Student Writer’s Manual. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall

UNC Charlotte Department of Sociology “Home” section accessed 2013.

USC Libraries
Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

6. The Methodology
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
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The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II. Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE: Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE: If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III. Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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How to Write Sociology Papers

Writing Sociology Papers

Writing is one of the most difficult and most rewarding of all scholarly activities. Few of us, students or professors, find it easy to do. The pain of writing comes largely as a result of bad writing habits. No one can write a good paper in one draft on the night before the paper is due. The following steps will not guarantee a good paper, but they will eliminate the most common problems encountered in bad papers.

1. Select a topic early. Start thinking about topics as soon as the paper is assigned and get approval of your topic choice from the professor before starting the research on the paper. When choosing a topic, think critically. Remember that writing a good sociology paper starts with asking a good sociological question.

2. Give yourself adequate time to do the research. You will need time to think through the things you read or to explore the data you analyze. Also, things will go wrong and you will need time to recover. The one book or article which will help make your paper the best one you've ever done will be unavailable in the library and you have to wait for it to be recalled or to be found through interlibrary loan. Or perhaps the computer will crash and destroy a whole afternoon's work. These things happen to all writers. Allow enough time to finish your paper even if such things happen.

3. Work from an outline. Making an outline breaks the task down into smaller bits which do not seem as daunting. This allows you to keep an image of the whole in mind even while you work on the parts. You can show the outline to your professor and get advice while you are writing a paper rather than after you turn it in for a final grade.

4. Stick to the point. Each paper should contain one key idea which you can state in a sentence or paragraph. The paper will provide the argument and evidence to support that point. Papers should be compact with a strong thesis and a clear line of argument. Avoid digressions and padding.

5. Make more than one draft. First drafts are plagued with confusion, bad writing, omissions, and other errors. So are second drafts, but not to the same extent. Get someone else to read it. Even your roommate who has never had a sociology course may be able to point out unclear parts or mistakes you have missed. The best papers have been rewritten, in part or in whole, several times. Few first draft papers will receive high grades.

6. Proofread the final copy, correcting any typographical errors. A sloppily written, uncorrected paper sends a message that the writer does not care about his or her work. If the writer does not care about the paper, why should the reader?

Such rules may seem demanding and constricting, but they provide the liberation of self discipline. By choosing a topic, doing the research, and writing the paper you take control over a vital part of your own education. What you learn in the process, if you do it conscientiously, is far greater that what shows up in the paper or what is reflected in the grade.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH PAPERS

Some papers have an empirical content that needs to be handled differently than a library research paper. Empirical papers report some original research. It may be based on participant observation, on secondary analysis of social surveys, or some other source. The outline below presents a general form that most articles published in sociology journals follow. You should get specific instructions from professors who assign empirical research papers.

1. Introduction and statement of the research question.

2. Review of previous research and theory.

3. Description of data collection including sample characteristics and the reliability and validity of techniques employed.

4. Presentation of the results of data analysis including explicit reference to the implications the data have for the research question.

5. Conclusion which ties the loose ends of the analysis back to the research question.

6. End notes (if any).

7. References cited in the paper.

Tables and displays of quantitative information should follow the rules set down by Tufte in the work listed below.

Tufte, Edward. 1983. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information . Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. (lib QA 90 T93 1983)

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100 Sociology Research Topics You Can Use Right Now

Sociology is a study of society, relationships, and culture. It can include multiple topics—ranging from class and social mobility to the Internet and marriage traditions. Research in sociology is used to inform policy makers , educators , businesses , social workers , non-profits , etc.

Below are 100 sociology research topics you can use right now, divided by general topic headings. Feel free to adapt these according to your specific interest. You'll always conduct more thorough and informed research if it's a topic you're passionate about.

Art, Food, Music, and Culture

Does art imitate life or does life imitate art?
How has globalization changed local culture?
What role does food play in cultural identity?
Does technology use affect people's eating habits?
How has fast food affected society?
How can clean eating change a person's life for the better?
Should high-sugar drinks be banned from school campuses?
How can travel change a person for the better?
How does music affect the thoughts and actions of teenagers?
Should performance artists be held partially responsible if someone is inspired by their music to commit a crime?
What are some examples of cultural misappropriation?
What role does music play in cultural identity?

Social Solutions and Cultural Biases

What (if any) are the limits of free speech in a civil society?
What are some reasonable solutions to overpopulation?
What are some ways in which different types of media content influence society's attitudes and behaviors?
What is the solution to stop the rise of homegrown terrorism in the U.S.?
Should prescription drug companies be allowed to advertise directly to consumers?
Is the global warming movement a hoax? Why or why not?
Should the drinking age be lowered?
Should more gun control laws be enacted in the U.S.?
What bias exists against people who are obese?
Should polygamy be legal in the U.S.? Why or why not?
Should there be a legal penalty for using racial slurs?
Should the legal working age of young people be raised or lowered?
Should the death penalty be used in all cases involving first-degree murder?
Should prisons be privately owned? Why or why not?
What is privilege? How is it defined and how can it be used to gain access to American politics and positions of power?
How are women discriminated against in the workplace?
What role does feminism play in current American politics?
What makes a patriot?
Compare/analyze the social views of Plato and Aristotle
How has labor migration changed America?
What important skills have been lost in an industrialized West?
Is the #MeToo movement an important one? Why or why not?
What conflict resolution skills would best serve us in the present times?
How can violence against women be dealt with to lower incidence rates?
Should students be allowed to take any subject they want in High School and avoid the ones they don't like?
How should bullies be dealt with in our country's schools?
Do standardized tests improve education or have the opposite effect?
Should school children be forced to go through metal detectors?
What is the best teacher/student ratio for enhanced learning in school?
Do school uniforms decrease teasing and bullying? If so, how?
Should teachers make more money?
Should public education be handled through private enterprises (like charter schools)?
Should religious education be given priority over academic knowledge?
How can schools help impoverished students in ways that won't embarrass them?
What are ethical values that should be considered in education?
Is it the state's role or the parents' role to educate children? Or a combination of both?
Should education be given more political priority than defense and war?
What would a perfect educational setting look like? How would it operate and what subjects would be taught?

Marriage and Family

How should a "family" be defined? Can it be multiple definitions?
What is a traditional role taken on by women that would be better handled by a man (and vice versa)?
How has marriage changed in the United States?
What are the effects of divorce on children?
Is there a negative effect on children who are adopted by a family whose ethnicity is different than their own?
Can children receive all they need from a single parent?
Does helicopter parenting negatively affect children?
Is marriage outdated?
Should teens have access to birth control without their parents' permission?
Should children be forced to show physical affection (hugs, etc.) to family members they're uncomfortable around?
What are the benefits (or negative impact) of maintaining traditional gender roles in a family?
Are social networks safe for preteens and teens? Why or why not?
Should the government have a say in who can get married?
What (if any) are the benefits of arranged marriages?
What are the benefits for (or negative impact on) children being adopted by LGBTQ couples?
How long should two people date before they marry?
Should children be forced to be involved in activities (such as sports, gymnastics, clubs, etc.), even when they'd rather sit at home and play video games all day?
Should parents be required to take a parenting class before having children?
What are potential benefits to being married but choosing not to have children?

Generational

Should communities take better care of their elderly? How?
What are some generational differences among Generations X, Y, and Z?
What benefits do elderly people get from interaction with children?
How has Generation Y changed the country so far?
What are the differences in communication styles between Generation X and Generation Y (Millennials)?
Why could we learn from our elders that could not be learned from books?
Should the elderly live with their immediate family (children and grandchildren)? How would this resolve some of our country's current problems?
What are some positive or negative consequences to intergenerational marriage?

Sociology explores themes of community and relationships.

Spiritualism, religion, and superstition

Why do some people believe in magic?
What is the difference between religion and spiritualism?
Should a government be a theocracy? Why or why not?
How has religion helped (or harmed) our country?
Should religious leaders be able to support a particular candidate from their pulpit?
How have religious cults shaped the nation?
Should students at religious schools be forced to take state tests?
How has our human connection with nature changed while being trapped in crowded cities?
Which generation from the past 200 years made the biggest impact on culture with their religious practice and beliefs? Explain your answer.

Addiction and Mental Health

How should our society deal with addicts?
What are ethical values that should be considered in mental health treatment?
Should mental health be required coverage on all insurance policies?
Is mental health treatment becoming less stigmatized?
How would better access to mental health change our country?
What are some things we're addicted to as a society that are not seen as "addiction," per se?
Should medicinal marijuana be made legal?
What are some alternative treatments for mental health and wellness instead of antidepressants?
Has social media helped or harmed our society?
Are video games addictive for young people and what should be done to curb the addiction?
Should all recreational drugs be made legal?
How has mental health treatment changed in the past 20 years?
Should recreational marijuana be made legal?
How is family counseling a good option for families going through conflict?
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Digital Commons @ USF > College of Arts and Sciences > Sociology > Theses and Dissertations

Sociology Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Empowering Populist Politics: Social Media Use in the US and UK , James M. Howley

Exploring Educational Equity: An Ethnographic Case Study of Non-Profit Initiatives in Early Childhood Education , Jovana Jovanovic

Disability, Blackness, and Online Community: Black Twitter as Self-Narrative , Morgan S. Wilson

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Deconstructing and Decolonizing Identities of “Gender” and “Sex” When Viewed as Anti-Black: Black Narratives Outside of the Binary , Didier Salgado

“We Need to Figure Out Who We Are”: Reframing Manhood in an Online Discussion Forum , Tomas Sanjuan Jr.

Musicking Higher Education: An Analysis of the Effects of Music Pedagogy On College Classroom Atmospheres , April Smith

Framing, Emotion, and Contradiction in the Tampa Bay Times’ Climate Change Coverage , Madison Veeneman

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

"Are We Done?": The Minimization of Covid-19 and the Individualization of Health in the United States , Cassidy R. Boe

Health and Friendships of LGBTQIA+ College Students , Komal Asim Qidwai

Organizing for Here and There: Exploring the Grassroots Organizing of the Puerto Rican Diaspora in the Tampa Bay Area , Dominique Rivera

Stitched Together: What We Learn from Secret Stories in Public Media , Sara D. Rocks

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

"Duck Wars": Examining the Narrative Construction of a "Problem" Species , Jenna A. Bateman

The Debate on Physician-Assisted Death in the United States: A Narrative Analysis of Formula Stories , Rebecca Blackwell

The Social Correlates of War: Conflict Correlations Within Belief Systems. , Richard R. N. Decampa

Narrative Meaning Productions of Compassionate Healthcare: An Examination of Cultural Codes, Organizational Practices, and Everyday Realities , Carley Geiss

Racialized Morality: The Logic of Anti-Trafficking Advocacy , Sophie Elizabeth James

Green Business and the Culture of Capitalism: Constructing Narratives of Environmentalism , Julia S. Jester

Presenting Selves and Interpreting Culture: An Ethnography of Chinese International Tourism in the United States , Fangheyue Ma

Making A Home Away from Home: A Qualitative Study of African Students’ Practices of Integration in the United States , Alphonse O. Opoku

"They Say We're Expendable:" Race, Nation, and Citizenship in the Dominican Republic. , Edlin Veras

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

A social network analysis of online gamers' friendship networks: Structural attributes of Steam friendships, and comparison of offline-online social ties of MMO gamers , Juan G. Arroyo-Flores

Family Response to a Diagnosis of Serious Mental Illness in Teens and Young Adults: A Multi-Voiced Narrative Analysis , Douglas J. Engelman

GoFundTransitions: Narratives of Transnormativity and the Limits of Crowdfunding Livable Futures , Hayden J. Fulton

"Courage Drives Us": Narrative Construction of Organizational Identity in a Cancer-Specific Health Non-Profit Organization , Katie J. Hilderbrand

“I woke up to the world”: Politicizing Blackness and Multiracial Identity Through Activism , Angelica Celeste Loblack

The Athletics Behind the Academics: The Academic Advisor’s Role in the Lives of Student Athletes , Max J.R. Murray

Red-Green Rows: Exploring the Conflict between Labor and Environmental Movements in Kerala, India , Silpa Satheesh

Winning “Americans” for Jesus?: Second-Generation, Racial Ideology, and the Future of the Brazilian Evangelical Church in the U.S. , Rodrigo Otavio Serrao Santana De Jesus

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Palatable Shades of Gender: Status Processes at the Intersections of Race, Gender, and Team Formation , Jasmón L. Bailey

American Converts to Islam: Identity, Racialization, and Authenticity , Patrick M. Casey

Meaning and Monuments: Morality, Racial Ideology, and Nationalism in Confederate Monument Removal Storytelling , Kathryn A. DelGenio

"Keep it in the Closet and Welcome to the Movement": Storying Gay Men Among the Alt-Right , Shelby Statham

Selling White Masculinity: An Analysis of Cultural Intermediaries in the Craft Beverage Industry , Erik Tyler Withers

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Role of the Soldier in Civilian Life: Personal and Social Concerns that Influence Reintegration Processes , Matthew J. Ahlfs

“I Want to Be Who I Am”: Stories of Rejecting Binary Gender , Ana Balius

Breaking the Crass Ceiling? Exploring Narratives, Performances, and Audience Reception of Women's Stand-Up Comedy , Sarah Katherine Cooper

An Intersectional Examination of Disability and LGBTQ+ Identities In Virtual Spaces , Justine E. Egner

"I've never had that": An Exploration of how Children Construct Belonging and Inclusion Within a Foodscape , Olivia M. Fleming

Hybridizers and the Hybridized: Orchid Growing as Hybrid "Nature?" , Kellie Petersen

Coloring in the Margins: Understanding the Experiences of Racial/Ethnic and Sexual/Gender Minority Undergraduates in STEM , Jonathan D. Ware

Decreased Visibility: A Narrative Analysis of Episodic Disability and Contested Illness , Melissa Jane Welch

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

“Have a Seat at our Table: Uncovering the Experiences of Black Students Attending a ‘Racially Diverse’ University” , Diamond Briggs

TERF Wars: Narrative Productions of Gender and Essentialism in Radical-Feminist (Cyber)spaces , Jennifer Earles

“Can You Believe They Think I’m Intimidating?” An Exploration of Identity in Tall Women , Elizabeth Joy Fuller

Black Girl Magic?: Negotiating Emotions and Success in College Bridge Programs , Olivia Ann Johnson

"What Are We Doing Here? This Is Not Us": A Critical Discourse Analysis of The Last Of Us Remastered , Toria Kwan

Behind the Curtain: Cultural Cultivation, Immigrant Outsiderness, and Normalized Racism against Indian Families , Pangri G. Mehta

From the Panels to the Margins: Identity, Marginalization, and Subversion in Cosplay , Manuel Andres Ramirez

Examining Forty Years of the Social Organization of Feminisms: Ethnography of Two Women’s Bookstores in the US South , Mary Catherine Whitlock

"There is No Planet B": Frame Disputes within the Environmental Movement over Geoengineering , David Russell Zeller Jr.

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

“You Can Fight Logic…But You Can’t Fight God”: The Duality of Religious Text and Church as Community for White Lesbians in Appalachian and Rural Places , Jessica Mae Altice

Songwriting as Inquiry and Action: Emotion, Narrative Identity, and Authenticity in Folk Music Culture , Maggie Colleen Cobb

Unraveling the Wild: A Cultural Logic of Animal Stories in Contemporary Social Life , Damien Contessa

“It’s Not Like a Movie. It’s Not Hollywood:” Competing Narratives of a Youth Mentoring Organization , Carley Geiss

An Examination of Perspectives on Community Poverty: A Case Study of a Junior Civic Association , Monica Heimos Heimos

"I'm Not Broken": Perspectives of Students with Disabilities on Identity-making and Social Inclusion on a College Campus , Melinda Leigh Maconi

People and Pride: A Qualitative Study of Place Attachment and Professional Placemakers , Wenonah Machdelena Venter

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Mediated Relationships: An Ethnography of Family Law Mediation , Elaina Behounek

The Continuum of Ethno-Racial Socialization: Learning About Culture and Race in Middle-Class Latina/o Families , Maria D. Duenas

Getting Ahead: Socio-economic Mobility, Perceptions of Opportunity for Socio-economic Mobility, and Attitudes Towards Public Assistance in the United States , Alissa Klein

Beauty is Precious, Knowledge is Power, and Innovation is Progress: Widely Held Beliefs in Policy Narratives about Oil Spills , Brenda Gale Mason

Looking at Levels of Medicalization in the Institutional Narrative of Substance Use Disorders in the Military , Chase Landes Mccain

The Experience of Chronic Pain Management: A Multi-Voiced Narrative Analysis , Loren Wilbers

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Resources Matter: The Role of Social Capital and Collective Efficacy in Mediating Gun Violence , Jennifer Lynne Dean

More to Love: Obesity Histories and Romantic Relationships in the Transition to Adulthood , Hilary Morgan Dotson

Dieting, Discrimination, and Bullying: A Contextual Case Study of Framing in the National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance , Veronica Kay Doughman

Negotiating Muslim Womanhood: The Adaptation Strategies of International Students at Two American Public Colleges , Amber Michelle Gregory

Checking Out: A Qualitative Study of Supermarket Cashiers' Emotional Response to Customer Mistreatment , Michael E. Lawless

Managing Family Food Consumption: Going Beyond Gender in the Kitchen , Blake Janice Martin

Motherhood Bound by State Supervision: An Exploratory Study of the Experiences of Mothers on Parole and Probation , Kaitlyn Robison

In Search of the Artist: The Influences of Commercial Interest on an Art School - A Narrative Analysis , Michael Leonard Sette

"They're Our Bosses": Representations of Clients, Guardians, and Providers in Caregivers' Narratives , Dina Vdovichenko

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Constructing Legal Meaning in the Supreme Court Oral Arguments: Cultural Codes and Border Disputes , Jeffrey Forest Hilbert

"All Blacks Vote the Same?": Assessing Predictors of Black American Political Participation and Partisanship , Antoine Lennell Jackson

Expectations of Nursing Home Use, Psychosocial Characteristics and Race/Ethnicity: The Latino/a Case , Heidi Ross

Beyond the Door: Disability and the Sibling Experience , Morgan Violeta Sanchez Taylor

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

A Mother's Love: A Narrative Analysis of Food Advertisements in an African American Targeted Women's Magazine , Janine Danielle Beahm

It's a Support Club, Not a Sex Club: Narration Strategies and Discourse Coalitions in High School Gay-Straight Alliance Club Controversies , Skyler Lauderdale

Beyond the Backlash: Muslim and Middle Eastern Immigrants' Experiences in America, Ten Years Post-9/11 , Gregory J. Mills

Competing Narratives: Hero and PTSD Stories Told by Male Veterans Returning Home , Adam Gregory Woolf

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

"Can't Buy Me Wealth": Racial Segregation and Housing Wealth in Hillsborough County, Florida , Natalie Marie Delia Deckard

Friendship Networks, Perceived Reciprocity of Support, and Depression , Ryan Francis Huff

That is Bad! This is Good: Morality as Constructed by Viewers of Television Reality Programs , Joseph Charles Losasso

American Muslim Identities: A Qualitative Study of Two Mosques in South Florida , Azka Mahmood Mahmood

Ethnic Identities among Second-Generation Haitian Young Adults in Tampa Bay, Florida: An Analysis of the Reported Influence of Ethnic Organizational Involvement on Disaster Response after the Earthquake of 2010 , Herrica Telus

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

Feral Cats and the People Who Care for Them , Loretta Sue Humphrey

Utilizing Facebook Application for Disaster Relief: Social Network Analysis of American Red Cross Cause Joiners , Jennie Wan Man Lai

Comparative Study of Intentional Communities , Jessica Merrick

More Than Bows and Arrows: Subversion and Double-Consciousness in Native American Storytelling , Anastacia M. Schulhoff

Between Agency and Accountability: An Ethnographic Study of Volunteers Participating in a Juvenile Diversion Program , Marc R. Settembrino

Predictors of Academic Achievement among Students at Hillsborough Community College: Can School Engagement Close the Racial Gap of Achievement? , Warren T. Smith

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Latent Newspaper Functions During the Impact Phase of Hurricane Katrina , Christina A. Brown

The Subjective Experience of PMS: A Sociological Analysis of Women’s Narratives , Christiana B. Chekoudjian

Sacred Selves: An Ethnographic Study of Narratives and Community Practices at a Spiritual Center , Sean E. Currie

Digging It: A Participatory Ethnography of the Experiences at a School Garden , Branimir Cvetkovic

Constructions of Narrative Identities of Women Political Candidates , Amy E. Daniels

“The Best We Can With What We Got”: Mediating Social and Cultural Capital in a Title I School , Jarin Rachel Eisenberg

Identities of Alternative Medicine Practitioners , Mychel Estevez

A Family „Affear‟: Three Generations of Agoraphobics , Sherri Elizabeth Green B.A.

“According to Wikipedia …”: A Comparative Analysis of the Establishment and Display of Authority in a Social Problems Textbook and Wikipedia , Alexander A. Hernandez

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Sociology Class Supplement: Formatting Your Paper

Formatting Your Paper
In-Text Citations
Direct Quotations
Reference Page
MARRIAGE & FAMILY - SOCI 2010
Social Problems Research
Music Research Paper
Critical Thinking Cheatsheet
Writing Your Sociology Research Paper
Cultural Anthropology

Word 2013: How to Format APA Style

Watch this video, pausing and restarting, to help you format your paper in APA format. You may also use the guide below.

Step 1: Format your Word features

You will need to first set up these features in your Word Document.

Font : HOME tab > 12 point font size and Times New Roman. Other acceptable fonts are Calibri, Arial, and Georgia in 11 point size.

Margins: PAGE LAYOUT > Margins >Normal (Top 1”, Bottom 1”, Left 1”, Right 1”)

Spacing : Choose PAGE LAYOUT > Paragraph > tiny arrow in the far right bottom corner of that box. It should open the Paragraph Settings. Then, set the spacing to DOUBLE.

Step 2: Setting Up the Header and/or Page Numbers

The running head is not required in student papers, unless required by your professor or institution. However, manuscripts that are being submitted for publication do require a running head.

To add a running head to your paper, follow the steps below.

1. INSERT > Header > Choose the first one (Blank)

2. The Header will pop up. Above it, the DESIGN tab will be in green. With the DESIGN tab open, choose the HOME tab. Choose Times New Roman font in size 12.

3. Hit the CAPS LOCK button on your keyboard. Type TITLE OF YOUR PAPER . Unlock the CAPS LOCK function. NOTE: The title of your paper should not be longer than 50 characters; if it is a long title, you will need to shorten the title in the running head. (You may keep the title as long as you wish on the title category of the title page.)

4. Hit the TAB button until you move the cursor to the far right.

5. Click on the INSERT > Page number > Current Position > Plain Number (first option).

6. Click, hold, and drag to highlight all the text in your header, including the page number. Choose the HOME tab, then change the font style to Times New Roman and change the font size to 12.

7. Double click outside of your header and into the main part of the page.

If you do not need to set up the running head, you still need to insert page numbers.

1. In the INSERT tab, choose Page Number.

2. Click Top of page, then choose Plain Number 3 to add a page number to the top right corner of your page.

3. Click, hold, and drag to highlight all the text in your header, including the page number. Choose the HOME tab, then change the font style to Times New Roman and change the font size to 12.

4. Double click outside of your header and into the main part of the page.

Step 3: Format your Title Page

1. Place your title in the upper half of the title page. To achieve this, hit ENTER 4-5 times.

2. Go to HOME > Paragraph > Center button to center your title.

3. Still in the HOME tab, choose B to make the font boldface.

4. Type in your title, using appropriate capitalization. NOTE: Your title should not be longer than twelve words or contain abbreviations. It may be one or two lines.

5. Hit ENTER. In the HOME tab, choose B to make the font no longer boldface. Type in your name (first and last) using appropriate capitalization.

6. Hit ENTER. Type in the institution's name: Walters State Community College NOTE : Do NOT abbreviate.

7. Click INSERT tab > Page Break to move to the second page of your essay. (You can also just hit enter until you get to the next page.)

Step 4: Format your Abstract Page

NOTE: Abstracts are required for most scholarly journals, but not always for student assignments. If in doubt, ask your instructor whether an abstract is required for your assignment.

1. Your abstract should be the second page of your essay.

2. In the HOME tab, choose CENTER alignment in the paragraph box. Then click B to make the font boldface.

3. Type the word Abstract . NOTE: Do not use quotation marks, make the font italicized, or make it larger.

4. Hit Enter once. Choose HOME > Paragraph > Align Left. Still in the HOME tab, choose B to make the font no longer boldface. (This is the button that puts the cursor back to the left side of the page.) DO NOT INDENT. Type a brief, objective summary of your essay that should be no longer than 250 words.

Step 5: Format your First Page of Essay

To format the first page of your essay, follow these instructions.

1. INSERT> Page Break to get to the next page of your essay, or click enter until you get to the next page.

2. Go to Home > Paragraph >Align Center. Choose B to make the font boldfaced. Type the full title, using appropriate capitalization, on the first line.

3. Hit enter. Read A & B below. a. If you are using a heading for the first part of your paper (e.g. Review of Literature, Methodology, etc.), then you will need to type your heading using the following format: Bold, center-aligned, with appropriate capitalization. See 3.03 (page 62) in the APA Publication Manual if you have multiple levels of headings.

b. If you are not using a heading, or you are ready to type your essay, got to HOME> Paragraph > Align left. Still in the HOME tab, click B to make the font no longer boldface. (This is the button that puts the cursor back to the left side of the page.) Then, indent and begin typing your essay.

Step 7: Format your Reference Page

To format your References page in Word, please follow these directions.

1. After you have finished your essay, click INSERT > Page Break.

2. Center your cursor. Choose B in the HOME tab to make the font boldface. Type Reference if your essay contains only one citation. Type References if your essay contains more than one distinct citation.

3. Hit ENTER. Choose HOME > Paragraph > Align Left. (This is the button that puts the cursor back to the left side of the page.)

4. Choose PAGE LAYOUT > Paragraph > tiny arrow in the far right bottom corner of that box. It should open the Paragraph Settings.

5. In the Paragraph Settings box, choose Indentation > Special > Drop down the box to HANGING. (Below is what you should see.)

6. In the HOME tab, choose B to make the font no longer boldface.

7. Type in your reference list in alphabetical order by last name, following APA style rules. Make sure that you double space between each entry (Do NOT hit enter more than once at the end of each entry. You should not be spacing more than the double-space that the computer does for you.)

Sources Used

APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition (2019) was consulted in creating this guide.

Questions or Comments

*If you need further assistance formatting your essay, please see/call/email a librarian or visit the Writing Lab.

Library Reference Desk: 423-585-6946

Email: [email protected]

Please email found errors to [email protected].

Links to Helpful Formatting Sites

Purdue OWL Formatting & Style Guide Information on general formatting in APA 7th edition from the Purdue OWL.
Quick Answers-APA Formatting Created by the APA, this website gives in-depth instructions and clear visuals discussing everything from running heads, margins, tables, and quotes.
Sample Papers Sample papers formatted using APA 7th edition.
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Last Updated: May 8, 2024 12:15 PM
URL: https://library.ws.edu/sociology

Research Paper

Category: sociology research paper examples.

The sample research papers on sociology have been designed to serve as model papers for most sociology research paper topics . These papers were written by several well-known discipline figures and emerging younger scholars who provide authoritative overviews coupled with insightful discussion that will quickly familiarize researchers and students alike with fundamental and detailed information for each sociology topic.

Browse sociology research paper examples below.

Basics for GSIs
Advancing Your Skills

Sociology 190 Research Assignment

by Sarah Macdonald, Sociology

Context Assignment 1: Paper Proposal Assignment 2: Literature Review Assignment 3: Abstract and Outline Assignment 4: Research Presentation Assignment 5: Final Paper

Sociology 190 is a senior capstone course in which students engage in small seminar discussions of a particular topic. In my section of Soc 190, Transnational Adoption from a Sociological Perspective , I paired in-depth discussions on the topic of adoption with a semester-long research project — each student designed a research question, collected data, and wrote up a 15–20-page research paper on a topic of their choice. I knew that because the research paper seemed overwhelming to my students, they would need guidance and feedback throughout the process. In designing my syllabus and assignments I consulted with syllabi from others in my department that had previously taught similar courses. The resulting assignments are included in this section.

In the process of setting the assignments I learned that students needed very explicit instructions on the format of a formal research paper, the opportunity to discuss their progress frequently in class, and structured opportunities to learn about how to do sociological research. Throughout the semester we had discussions, both as a large group and in smaller groups, about the students’ progress on their projects, which allowed students a chance to receive feedback more often than I was able to give in writing. We also had several formal opportunities to learn about research, for example when I gave presentations to the students on research methods, or when we had a guest speaker talk about their research, or when students had a session with a subject-specific librarian to learn about how to locate secondary sources. Each assignment then served as a research milestone where students got formal feedback from me about their progress. Before each assignment we had in-depth discussions of how to formulate the different components of a research paper, so the assignments include detailed lists of the parts we had already discussed in class. We ended the semester with a mini research conference where students presented their arguments to their peers and received feedback. They then used this feedback and my feedback on the smaller assignments to produce their final research papers.

Assignment 1: Paper Proposal

Paper proposal.

In no more than 2 double-spaced pages (Times New Roman, size 12 font, one-inch margins) you will:

Briefly describe and explain your research topic and its importance. You should describe why you think this topic is particularly relevant to our course and why it is an important area of study.
Clearly present and explain your central research question.
Identify your data source and method of analysis. How will you collect data and what will you do with the data?
Explain why these sources of data are appropriate for your research question and how they will help you to answer your question.

Choosing a Research Topic and Question

Your research topic and question must relate to the topic of transnational adoption, but beyond this requirement there are no limitations on the topic that you choose. I recommend that you look through the topics in the syllabus to help you to begin to determine what you are most interested in studying. In addition, the reading entitled “International Adoption: A Sociological Account of the US Experience” (Engel et al., 2007) [1] , should help you to understand the various topics related to transnational adoption that are of particular concern to sociologists.

Choosing a Data Source

Once you have identified your research question, you must choose one of the research methods listed below that will be most appropriate for answering your question.

In-depth Interviews : You must conduct 3 to 5 in-depth interviews (lasting at least 45 minutes each) with individuals.
Textual Analysis : You can choose to analyze a set of written or visual texts (books, newspaper articles, news stories, images, films, court documents, government proceedings, etc.). You must choose at least three texts to analyze and may need to choose several texts depending on the types of texts you are analyzing.
Participant Observation : Spend 5 to 10 hours observing social interaction at a relevant research site. If you decide to do this you must get advance permission from the organization and/or individuals before conducting your observation.
Quantitative Analysis : You can complete a basic statistical analysis of a data set. You can either use an existing data set or design your own survey and distribute it to at least 30 people to create your own dataset.

[1] Engel, Madeline, Norma K. Phillips, and Frances A. Dellacava (2007). “International Adoption: A Sociological Account of the US Experience.” International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 27: 257–270.

Assignment 2: Literature Review

For this assignment you will submit a review of current literature on your topic that will:

Summarize and synthesize 5 to 10 sources (books or journal articles, not websites or news stories) that are not included in course readings. This means that you should not simply provide summaries of the sources, but should explain how they relate to each other (synthesize how they draw on similar theories, come to similar conclusions, etc.) and/or offer a critique of their content that is relevant to your own research. You may also choose to cite course readings; in fact, I encourage you to do so, but you must cite at least 5 additional sources.
Explain how your research project is likely to challenge, confirm, complicate, or contribute to existing work on your topic. You must make an argument for what your research will add to literature that already exists on the topic.

The literature review should be 4 to 5 double-spaced pages, size 12 Times New Roman font, one-inch margins.

Additional tips for writing your literature review:

Do not just choose the first 5 sources that you find; make sure that they are relevant to your research question and topic.
Think about the literature review as a window into a conversation between researchers about your topic. You’ll want to explain what they have already found out about the topic and then you’ll want to make a strong case for how your research is adding to the conversation.
Keep your summaries of the articles or books concise and relevant. You don’t need to summarize their entire argument, you just need to give us an idea of what parts are particularly pertinent to your own research.
The format of your literature review should not just be a list of summaries. Instead you will want to identify some way in which the previous literature has fallen short and has not considered the question that you are interested in studying. This takes quite a bit of work in most cases and will mean that you will have to explain clearly how your research will challenge, confirm, complicate, or contribute to existing work on the topic.
Edit, edit, edit. You should spend a fair amount of time putting this together and editing as much as possible. If you do a really good job on this portion, it’s likely you’ll be able to paste it into your final paper with minimal changes! Take it very seriously.
You must use the American Sociological Association’s Style Guide to format your citations. If you use Zotero, it will do it for you automatically. Make sure your in-text citations are also properly formatted. The ASA Style Guide is posted on our course site.

Assignment 3: Abstract and Outline

Part one: abstract.

For this assignment you will write an abstract of no more than 500 words that details the argument you will make in your final paper. The abstract should have the following components:

Research Question: 1 or 2 sentences describing your topic or research question; this doesn’t need to be in question form.
Contribution: A statement that explains what empirical or theoretical contribution your research makes to existing literature.
Methods and Data: An explanation of no more than 1 sentence that explains your methods, i.e., how you collected data to answer your research question.
Findings: A few sentences that describe the main argument you will make in your paper and what you found as a result of doing your research. It is okay if you haven’t yet finished your research and these findings are only preliminary.
Concluding Statement/Implications: You will want to include at least 1 sentence that connects back to the problem that you identified at the beginning and that explains any important implications of your research.

Note: The abstract should not include any citations.

Grading: Your grade will be based on the organization and coherence of your writing, the inclusion of all aspects detailed above, and especially on the clarity, feasibility, and appropriateness of the argument that you plan to make in your final paper.

Part Two: Paper Outline

For this assignment you will write an outline of your final paper that details each of the sections of the paper and the overall argument that you will make in each section. The outline can be as long as you would like, but cannot exceed 5 single-spaced pages, size 12 font, one-inch margins. I recommend that you include as much detail as possible as this will be your last formal opportunity to receive feedback from me.

Please label all sections. For each section you will include a brief paragraph (2–3 sentences) that outlines what you will argue/explain in that section. Then you will outline each paragraph or part of that section (please use the numerical outlining function in Word; you may also use bullet points where necessary). The outline should be as detailed as possible and should include quotations, examples from your research, data that supports your points, etc. You should include the following sections:

Abstract: A revised abstract for the paper that is no longer than 250 words. This means you may have to substantially cut down the abstract that you handed in for the previous assignment.
Introduction: This section should contain the argument you will make in the paper, your specific research question, any background necessary for the reader, and a short introductory explanation of why your topic is sociologically relevant and interesting and how it contributes to existing literature.
Literature Review: This section should contain a summary and synthesis of existing research related to your topic and an explanation of how your topic contributes to existing research, either theoretically or empirically.
Methods: This section will describe the research method(s) you used to answer your question and why the method(s) was (were) appropriate for helping you to answer your research question. You should include the specifics of what exactly you did, for example: How many people did you interview? How many surveys did you post? How many people responded? How did you contact the people that were included in your study? If you did textual analysis, how did you select the texts that you analyzed? Why? How did you go about analyzing them? Include as much detail as possible.
Findings: This is the section where you will make the central argument of your paper. You will explain the answer to your research question. If you are making your argument in several parts or sections, make sure to include those sections in the outline. The outline for the findings section should show me, in a very detailed way, what the argument is that you are making and how you expect to make the argument. It should include support from your research (quotes, percentages, or whatever other type of data you will use to support your argument).
Discussion and Conclusion: In this section you will summarize the argument that you make in the paper and you will reiterate how your findings confirmed or challenged (or both) the findings from the research that you outlined in the literature review. You will explain how your findings contribute to existing literature. You may also suggest questions that still need to be answered and suggestions for further research that should be done on your topic.

Assignment 4: Research Presentation

For this assignment you will prepare a very brief presentation of your research for the class. The purposes of this assignment are: a) to learn about the research that students have done as part of this class, b) to have the opportunity to give feedback and suggestions to other students, c) to discuss several topics related to transnational adoption using the foundational knowledge you have gained this semester.

Guidelines for your presentation:

Your presentation should be about 5 minutes . Please practice ahead of time so that you can make sure that you can fit what you want to say in this time period.
You should briefly explain your research question, your method, and your most interesting finding. In your presentation you should make some connection back to the topics and/or readings that we have discussed in this class — you can either connect your finding to course material or explain how your research contributes to the literature we have read together as part of this course.
After your presentation the class will ask questions of you and your panel. Please come prepared to talk in depth about your research and to answer questions about the research process, your findings, how the findings relate to the course, what contribution you are making to the existing literature on your topic, etc.

Grading: You will be graded on your ability to clearly and concisely present your research, the connections that you make between your research and course material, and your engagement in a discussion about your topic with other students in the class during the Q&A period.

Assignment 5: Final Paper

For this assignment you will draw on the research proposal, literature review, abstract, paper outline, and the data you have collected through your research to write a polished research paper on your topic. The paper must be 15–20 pages, size 12 Times New Roman font, one-inch margins. Please note that your bibliography/works cited and any appendices you choose to include will not be counted in the 15-page minimum.

Required Components for the Final Paper:

Please make sure to label each section with either a section title (e.g., literature review) or a title that communicates the content of the section (e.g., previous research on culture keeping).

Cover Page: The first page of your paper should be a cover sheet that includes a title that communicates the content of your paper, your name, date, title of the class, and any other information you feel is necessary.
Abstract (∼250 words): A revised abstract for the paper that is no longer than 250 words. This means you may have to substantially cut down the abstract that you handed in for the previous assignment. It should be single-spaced and should be placed immediately preceding the introduction.
Introduction (1 – 3 pages): This section should contain the argument you will make in the paper, your specific research question, any background necessary for the reader (e.g., historical context), and a short introductory explanation of why your topic is sociologically relevant and interesting, and how it contributes to existing literature.
Literature Review (4–6 pages): This section should contain a summary and synthesis of existing research related to your topic and an explanation of how your topic contributes to existing research, either theoretically or empirically.
Methods (1–2 pages): This section will describe the research method(s) you used to answer your question and why the method(s) was (were) appropriate for helping you to answer your research question. You should include the specifics of what exactly you did, for example: How many people did you interview? How many surveys did you post? How many people responded? How did you contact the people that were included in your study? If you did textual analysis, how did you select the texts that you analyzed? Why? How did you go about analyzing them? Include as much detail as possible. You should also explain why your sample is likely not representative of the general population you are studying and what biases are present as a result of your research design.
Findings (7+ pages): This is the section where you will make the central argument of your paper. You will explain the answer to your research question. It should include support from your research (quotes, percentages, or whatever other type of data you will use to support your argument). You may choose to divide this section into sub-sections, but each sub-section should have a clear title. Make sure that you are making an argument and that each paragraph in this section connects back to your central argument.
Discussion and Conclusion (2+ pages): In this section you will summarize the argument that you have made in the paper and you will reiterate how your findings confirmed or challenged (or both) the findings from the research that you outlined in the literature review. You will explain how your findings contribute to existing literature. You may also suggest questions that still need to be answered and suggestions for further research that should be done on your topic.
Appendices: If you did interviews or a survey you must include an appendix with your questions. You should refer to the appendix in the methods section. You can also include appendices with additional information (e.g., coding, statistics) if you feel that it is necessary. The appendices do not count in the page count.
Bibliography/Citations: Remember that you must cite at least ten sources in your paper. While many of these will likely be in the literature review, you should also cite where necessary in the other sections of the paper. At least 5 sources must come from readings that were not included in the course syllabus. All parenthetical citations and the works cited/bibliography page must be in ASA format. Formatting instructions are posted on our course website.

In writing this paper please make sure to look back over your previous assignments at my comments and to incorporate changes into your final paper. You are welcome to use any part of your previous assignments verbatim, but I urge you to edit carefully. This paper should be a polished, final paper and not a draft. This means that you will need to finish the paper in advance of the deadline to allow ample time for editing.

Sociological Theory Research Paper

This sample sociology research paper on sociological theory features: 12600 words (approx. 42 pages) and a bibliography with 127 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our custom writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Theoretical sociology has differentiated into ever more schools of thought over the last 40 years, a trend that is facilitated by the lack of “grand theories” that seek to integrate more specialized theoretical programs. Differentiation is furthered by a lack of consensus over the very nature of theorizing in sociology, with the major fault lines of debate revolving around whether or not sociology can be a natural science. Without a commitment to a common epistemology or a core canon of early theoretical works, an increasing number of theoretical perspectives has emerged from a small early base of theories and philosophies— functionalism, conflict theory, utilitarianism, pragmatism, and phenomenology. And as theories continue to proliferate, the hope of ever reaching a consensus over the key properties of the social universe and the best epistemology for studying these properties has begun to fade. Moreover, there are now many highly specialized theories emerging out of research traditions that are only loosely affiliated with theories built from the ideas of the founding generation.

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It is not a simple task, therefore, to survey theoretical sociology at the beginning of the current century. The best that can be done is to focus on the more general theoretical schemes that built on the early legacy provided by the founding generations of sociologists. These are the theories that dominate theoretical sociology.

The Rise and Fall of Functional Theory

Sociology’s first theoretical approach was decidedly functional, examining social structures and processes for how they meet postulated needs and requisites necessary for societal survival. Both Auguste Comte (1896 [1830–1842]) and Herbert Spencer (1898 [1874–1896]) drew an organismic analogy calling attention to the systemic qualities of the social universe and to the functions of parts for maintenance of social systems. For Spencer, there were four basic problems that all systems, including organismic and societal, had to resolve: production, reproduction, regulation, and distribution. Later, Émile Durkheim ([1893] 1947) postulated only one master functional requisite: the need for sociocultural integration.

Functional theorizing might have died with Durkheim and the abandonment of Spencer’s evolutionism were it not for anthropologists, particularly A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (1952) and Bronislaw Malinowski ([1944] 1964), who carried functionalism to the midpoint of the twentieth century. Since preliterate societies had no written history that could be used to explain the origins of cultural features of these societies, assessing the function of a particular cultural pattern for the survival of the society became another way to “explain” why a particular cultural pattern existed (Turner and Maryanski 1979). Radcliffe-Brown (1952) followed Durkheim’s lead and analyzed cultural patterns, such as kinship, for how they resolve integrative problems in preliterate societies, whereas Malinowski adopted Spencer’s more analytical strategy, emphasizing that social reality exists at different system levels (biological organism, social structure, and culture) and that each level of reality has certain functional requisites that must be met if that system level is to be viable in its environment.

It is this latter form of analytical functionalism that came to dominate sociological theory in the 1950s and the first half of the 1960s, primarily through the work of Talcott Parsons (1951) and colleagues (Parsons, Bales, and Shils 1953; Parsons and Smelser 1956). For Parsons, social reality consists of four action systems (behavioral organism, personality, social, and cultural), and each system must meet four fundamental requisites: (1) adaptation (taking in resources, converting them into usable commodities, and distributing them); (2) goal attainment (establishing goals and mobilizing resources to meet these goals); (3) integration (coordination and control among system parts); and (4) latency (reproducing system units and resolving tensions within them). Each action system was analyzed by Parsons in terms of how it meets these requisites; later, Parsons began to explore the inputoutput relations among the action systems. Near the end of analytical functionalism’s brief dominance of sociological theorizing, particularly in the United States, Parsons (1966) posited a cybernetic hierarchy of control among the action systems, with those high in information (culture) providing guidance for those action systems lower in the hierarchy. Energy was seen as rising up the hierarchy from the behavioral organism through personality and social system to culture, while information from culture guided the organization of status roles in social systems, the motivated actions of the personality system, and the mobilization of energy in the organismic system. At the very end of Parsons’s (1978) reign as the leading theorist in the world⎯indeed, not long before his death⎯he posited a view of the entire universe as four systems meeting the four functional requisites (a strategy that harkened back to Spencer’s Synthetic Philosophy, where physics, biology, psychology, sociology, and ethics could be analyzed in terms of the same elementary principles of evolution).

Functionalism came under increasing attack from many quarters by the early 1960s. From philosophy, the idea that system parts should be analyzed in terms of their functions will produce illegitimate teleologies (outcomes cause the very events that lead to these outcomes) or tautologies (circular arguments in which parts meet needs and needs cause parts to emerge). On a more substantive level, the rise of conflict theories (or their resurrection) in the 1960s led critics to argue that functionalism produced a theory supporting the status quo because, in essence, it argued that existing structures must exist to meet needs for survival (Dahrendorf 1958)⎯a line of argument that biases inquiry against searches for alternative structures.

Functionalism did not completely die, however, because there are many scholars, especially in Europe (e.g., Münch 1987, 2001), who continue to use Parsonsian categories to perform functional analysis, while others retain the emphasis on systems without the same elaborate taxonomy revolving around multiple-system requisites (e.g., Luhmann 1982). In the United States, a brief neofunctionalist movement occurred in which theorists (e.g., Alexander 1985; Alexander and Colomy 1985) abandoned the notion of functional requisites and, instead, focused on the strong points of functionalism: the emphasis on structural differentiation and the integrative effects of culture. Neofunctionalism was not functional, for all its other merits, because what makes functionalism distinctive is the view that social structures and systems of cultural symbols exist because they meet fundamental needs or requisites for survival (Turner and Maryanski 1988).

Another effort to save what is important in functional theory revolves around viewing functional requisites as forces that generate selection pressures for social systems. For example, Jonathan Turner (1995) argues that human social systems are driven by forces⎯much like the forces such as gravity in physics and natural selection in biology⎯that push populations to organize in certain ways or suffer the disintegrative consequences. Many of these forces overlap with what hard-core functionalists have seen as survival requisites. Thus, for Turner, regulation, reproduction, distribution, production, and population drive the formation of macro-level institutional systems; differentiation and integrative forces drive meso-level formations of corporate units like organizations and categoric units such as social and ethnic classes (Turner and Boyns 2001); and another set of forces direct the flow of microlevel interpersonal behavior in encounters (Turner 2002). Such an approach is no longer functional because needs or requisites are not posited, but the approach still retains the appeal of functionalism: analysis of how the universal forces apply selection pressures on populations. Other theorists working from different theoretical traditions have also begun to pursue this selectionist line of theorizing (e.g., Runciman 1989; Sanderson 1995).

The Persistence of Ecological Theorizing

In the works of both Spencer and Durkheim can be found the essence of an ecological theory. Both argued that as populations grow, competition for resources increases, setting into motion selection pressures. Spencer’s famous phrase “survival of the fittest” (uttered some nine years before Darwin’s theory was presented) captures some of this view; those individuals and social structures revealing properties that allow them to secure resources in their environment will survive, while those that do not will be selected out. Durkheim took a more benign view of selection, arguing that if individuals and collective actors cannot secure resources in one resource niche, they will seek resources elsewhere, thus increasing the level of specialization (or social speciation) or differentiation in a society. Thus, from the very beginnings of sociological theorizing, social differentiation has been seen as an outcome of niche density and competition for resources.

The arguments of Spencer and Durkheim were downsized between the 1920s and 1940s by the Chicago School in the United States (e.g., Hoyt 1939; Park 1936). While the members of the department of sociology at Chicago pursued many diverse lines of research, one persistent theme was to view urban areas as a kind of ecosystem, with competition among diverse actors (individuals with varying incomes and ethnic backgrounds as well as varying business and governmental actors) for urban space. Their competition is institutionalized by real estate markets; fueled by these markets, the patterns of control of urban space, the movement of individuals and corporate actors in and out of urban space, and the overall distribution of actors across urban areas can be analyzed with ecological principles. Today, this tradition still operates under the label of urban or human ecology (e.g., Frisbie and Kasarda 1988); it has consistently proven a useful theoretical orientation in understanding processes of urbanization and differentiation within urban areas.

In the 1970s, a new type of ecological analysis, one that focused on the ecology of organizations (Hannan and Freeman 1977), emerged. All organizations can be viewed as existing in a niche, where they seek resources (customers, clients, students, memberships, or any other resource needed to sustain an organization). Once an organization sustains itself in a resource niche, other organizations enter this niche and, in so doing, increase the density of organizations. Thus, the number of organizations in a niche will initially increase, but eventually, niche density becomes so great that selection pressures lead to the “death” of those organizations unable to secure resources or, alternatively, to their migration to a new niche where they can sustain themselves. More than urban ecology, organizational ecology borrowed self-consciously from bioecology, transferring many concepts from ecological analysis in biology to sociology. And perhaps more than urban ecology, organizational ecology remains one of the dominant approaches to understanding the structure and distribution of organizational systems in societies (Carroll 1988).

As urban and organizational ecology flourished, one of the carriers of this tradition from the Chicago School, Amos Hawley (1986), began to move the ecological analysis from the meso level (urban areas and organizations) back to macro-level societal dynamics. In essence, Hawley completed a conceptual odyssey to Spencer’s and Durkheim’s macro-level ecological theorizing, adding new refinements. For Hawley, technology as it affects productivity, modes of transportation, communication systems, and markets will lower mobility costs (for moving people, information, and resources) across space; and as mobility costs decrease, differentiation among corporate units (organizations revealing a division of labor) increases. Differentiation is also influenced by the capacity of the state to control territories, manage capital investments in the economy, regulate markets, and encourage technological development. When centers of power can effectively accomplish these goals, mobility costs are lowered and sociocultural differentiation increases. With increased differentiation, new integrative problems inevitably arise, often posing threats to centers of power that, in turn, lower the capacity of the state to control territories and otherwise act in ways that make markets more dynamic, that increase productivity, that expand transportation, and that extend communication. Thus, the ebb and flow of differentiation in a society is mediated by the operation of centers of power as these centers raise or lower mobility costs. Thus, the legacy of Spencer and Durkheim is very much alive in modern macro-level ecological theorizing. Others (e.g., Turner 1994, 1995) have also followed Hawley’s lead in carrying forward Spencer’s and Durkheim’s macro-level ecological theory.

The Challenge of Biosocial Theorizing

The persistence of Darwinian ideas in ecological theorizing has been supplemented in recent decades by another type of Darwinian theory: sociobiology and evolutionary psychology. Both of these approaches emphasize that humans are animals whose phenotypes (physiology as well as behavioral capacities and propensities) are influenced by their genotypes (genetic makeup) as this genotype has been honed by the forces of biological evolution (natural selection, gene flow, genetic drift, and mutation). This approach has been highly threatening to many sociologists because it is often interpreted as a new form of biological determinism that reduces understanding of culture and social structures to genetically driven behavioral propensities. Some of this skepticism was appropriate because early sociobiologists often made rather extreme statements (e.g., Wilson 1975). The basic argument of sociobiology is that behavioral propensities, culture, and social structure are, in essence, “survivor machines” that keep genes responsible for these propensities in the gene pool (Dawkins 1976). If particular behavioral proclivities and the sociocultural arrangements arising from these proclivities enable individuals to reproduce, they operate to maintain the genes of these individuals in the gene pool. Thus, behavioral strategies, social structures, and culture are survival machines, driven by “blind” natural selection to preserve those genes that enhance reproductive fitness (Williams 1966).

Evolutionary psychology (Cosmides 1989; Cosmides and Tooby 1989) adds to this line of argument the notion that there are “modules” in the brain that direct behaviors. These modules have been created by the forces of evolution as they have worked on the neurology of phenotypes (and the underlying genotype) to install behavioral propensities that enhance fitness. For evolutionary psychology, then, universal behaviors are driven by brain modules, as these have been honed by the forces of evolution (Savage and Kanazawa 2004).

These biosocial approaches represent a new way to address a topic that was often part of classical sociological theory: human instincts. Most early theorists had some vision of human instincts, but these views were often vague and disconnected to evolutionary biology. Bio-sociology offers a more sophisticated way to examine what is “natural” to humans as evolved apes, although the number of scholars pursuing this line of theorizing is comparatively small (but growing slowly). What this type of theorizing offers is a chance to reconnect sociology and biology in ways somewhat reminiscent of Comte’s and Spencer’s advocacy. (For sociological efforts to develop bio-sociology, see Horne 2004; Lopreato 2001; Lopreato and Crippen 1999; Machalek and Martin 2004; van den Berghe 1981.)

The Revival of Stage Models of Evolution

Comte, Spencer, Marx, and, to a lesser extent, Durkheim all presented stage models that saw the history of human society as passing through discrete stages of development. These models were, in a sense, descriptive because they reviewed the features of societal types, from simple hunting and gathering through horticulture and variants of horticulture like herding and fishing to agriculture and on to industrialism (post-industrialism was added later as a stage by contemporary sociologists, as was a postmodern stage by other sociologists). Yet these descriptions of societal evolution were always seen as driven by some fundamental forces, converting descriptions of stages into theories about the forces driving movement from one stage to another. For Comte, Spencer, and Durkheim, the driving force was population growth as it unleashed the ecological dynamics summarized above. Moreover, Spencer in particular saw war as an evolutionary force because those societies that won wars were generally better organized (economically, politically, and culturally) than those that were conquered, with the result that winners of wars constantly ratcheted up the complexity of human societies through the evolutionary stages that Spencer described in great detail. For Marx, the driving force of history revolved around changes in technologies and modes of production as these worked to generate “contradictions” that led to class conflict. For two thirds of the twentieth century, stage model evolutionary theory remained recessive. But in the 1960s, it was revived not only by Parsons (1966) in his later works but more significantly by Gerhard Lenski (1966) in his analysis of stratification systems. And later, neo-Marxian approaches like world-systems theorizing (see below) often imply a stage of societal evolution (Sanderson 1999; Wallerstein 1974).

These more recent models of societal evolution avoid the problems of early models, such as seeing each stage of evolution as inevitable and as marching toward an end state personified by Western European countries. Instead, more generic forces such as environment, demographic features (population size, characteristics, and rate of growth), technologies (economic and military), dynamism of markets, levels of production of material goods and services, properties and dynamics of stratification systems, and nature of institutional systems are all seen as interacting in complex ways to drive the structure and culture of societies. Few theories would posit one master force as driving evolution; instead, sets of forces are highlighted in various theories.

Lenski (1966), often in collaboration with others (e.g., Nolan and Lenski 2004), emphasizes the effects of technology (knowledge as it is used to increase production), but these effects are influenced by other forces, particularly the biosocial environment, nature of cultural symbols (values and ideologies), population size and rate of growth, institutional systems (kinship, religion, education, and polity), and patterns of war. Larger populations in stable and resource-rich environments, revealing liberal ideologies encouraging technological innovation, and institutional systems that do not discourage innovations or divert resources away from the economy and that limit warfare will become more complex and able to adapt to their environments. Stephen K. Sanderson (1995) blends ideas from biosociology and Marxian analysis, stressing that natural selection still works on individuals (rather than on society as a whole), but like Lenski, he stresses that societies are driven by demographic, ecological, technological, economic, and political forces. And like all Marxists, Sanderson emphasizes the material conditions of life⎯production and distribution⎯as the base that drives the development of cultural ideologies, political systems, interactions with the ecosystem, and relations with other societies.

While all present-day evolutionary theories stress that it is possible for de-evolution to occur (as Spencer had also argued), they tend to see a direction to evolution toward greater complexity, higher rates of innovation, and increased interdependence among societies connected by global markets. And most theorists would argue implicitly that if human evolution were to be restarted, it would pass through the same evolutionary stages from hunting and gathering to post-industrialism. The virtue of theorizing on stages of evolution is the time perspective gained, with contemporary social formations seen as the outcome of a long evolutionary history driven by a few fundamental forces.

The Revival of Conflict Theorizing

Both Karl Marx (Marx and Engels [1847] 1970) and Max Weber [1922] (1968) posited a conflict view of the social world. Each argued that inequalities generate tensions that, under specifiable conditions, increase the probability (for Marx, a certainty) that subordinates in the system of inequality will become mobilized to engage in conflict with superordinates in an effort to redistribute resources. Marx and Weber presented a similar list of conditions: High levels of inequality, large discontinuities between classes, and low rates of social mobility across classes all set the stage for the emergence of leaders who would articulate a revolutionary ideology. Each added refinements to this general model, but they both saw inequality as potentially unleashing forces that lead subordinates to pursue conflict.

Conflict theorizing remained prominent for most of the twentieth century in Europe, but in the United States, it was recessive until the 1960s. Partly embolded by the European critique of functionalism and by the demise of McCarthyism in the United States as well as by protests against the Vietnam War, conflict theory supplanted functionalism as the dominant theoretical orientation by the 1970s, although today the conflict approach is so integrated into mainstream sociological theorizing that it no longer stands out as a distinctive approach. The essence of conflict theories is the recognition that social reality is organized around inequalities in the distribution of valued resources such as material wealth, power, and prestige and that these inequalities systematically generate tensions, which under specifiable conditions generate various forms of conflict between those who have and those who do not have these valued resources. At first, the conflict theory revival was used as a foil against the perceived conservative bias of functionalism, but over the decades as conflict theory prospered, it developed a number of distinctive variants.

Abstracted Marxism

The first variant of conflict theory sought to make the theory more abstract, drawing from Marx’s analysis of class conflict and extending it to all social systems where inequalities of authority exist (Dahrendorf 1959). This approach took what was useful from Marx, modified the Marxian model with ideas from Weber and Georg Simmel, and generated an abstract theory of conflict in all social systems. In the several versions of this abstracted Marxism (Dahrendorf 1959; Turner 1975), the conditions generating awareness among subordinates of their interests in changing the system inequality are delineated, and these follow from Marx but add the important proviso that the more organized are subordinates, the less likely they are to engage in violent conflict (instead, they will negotiate and compromise). Indeed, in contrast to Marx, these approaches argue that incipient organization, emerging ideologies, and early leadership will lead to open and often violent conflict, whereas high levels of political organization, clearly articulated ideologies, and established leaders lead to negotiation and compromise, a line of theoretical argument that goes against Marx but takes into account Weber’s [1922] (1968) and Simmel’s [1907] (1990) critiques of Marx.

Analytical Marxism

Another variant of Marxism is what Erik Olin Wright (1997) has termed analytical Marxism, an approach that incorporates many of the key ideas of Marxian theory on the dynamics of capitalism while trying to explain with an expanded set of concepts the problems in Marx’s approach, particularly (1) the failure of industrial societies to polarize, (2) the lack of revolutionary conflict in industrial societies, (3) the rise of the state as a source of employment (thus making problematic whether government workers are proletarians or state managers), (4) the expansion of the middle classes in industrial and postindustrial societies, (5) the contradictory class locations of individuals in industrial and post-industrial societies (as both workers and managers), (6) the multiple-class locations of many families (where one person is a manager or owner, while another is a wage worker), and (7) the blurring of class distinctions as some skilled blue-collar workers become high wage earners or even owners of highly profitable small businesses, while many white-collar workers become lower-wage proletarians in service industries.

These and other events that have gone against Marx’s predictions have troubled present-day Marxists (for a review, see Burawoy and Wright 2001), and so they have set about revitalizing Marxian theory to explain contemporary conditions. In Wright’s (1997) version of analytical Marxism, for example, a distinction between economic power (control of others and the ability to extract their economic surplus) and economic welfare (ratio of toil in work to leisure time), coupled with people’s “lived experiences” and contradictory class location, dramatically changes the nature of exploitation and, hence, individuals’ awareness of their interests and willingness to engage in collective organization. Moreover, the notion of “ownership” and “control” is broadened to include four basic types of assets: labor-power assets, capital assets (to invest in economic activity and extract surplus value), organizational assets (to manage and control others and thereby extract surplus), and skill or credential assets (to extract resources beyond the labor necessary to acquire skills and credentials). Depending on the nature and level of any of these assets for individuals and families, the rate of exploitation will vary, being highest among those who have only labor assets and lowest among those who have the other types of assets. Additionally, Wright has sought to account for the fact that the state employs a significant proportion of the workforce yet cannot be seen as part of the bourgeoisie. Here, Wright emphasizes a “state mode of production” made possible by the resources that come from taxes, tariffs, and fees; and from this mode of production comes conflicts between managers, who ally themselves with capitalists and political decision makers, on the one side, and government workers, who provide the actual services, on the other. These two classes of workers in government reveal conflicting class interests and, hence, increased potential for class conflict. In the end, Wright and other analytical Marxists work hard to retain the basic concern with emancipation of subordinates in Marx’s thinking while adjusting Marxian concepts to fit the reality of postindustrial societies.

World-Systems Theory

This approach retains many ideas from Marx on the dynamics of capitalism but shifts the unit of analysis from nation-state to systems of societies and globalization (Chase-Dunn 2001). Immanuel Wallerstein (1974) codified this mode of analysis, building on earlier work by dependency theorists (e.g., Frank 1969), into a conceptualization of world systems. One type of global system is a world empire revolving around conquest and extraction of resources from the conquered, which are then spent on elite privilege, control, and further conquest. Such systems eventually face fiscal crises, leading to showdown wars with other expanding empires. Of more interest to worldsystems theorists like Wallerstein is a world economy driven not only by war but also by the flow of capital and technology through world markets. Such world economies are composed of (1) “core states,” which have power, capital, and technology; (b) “peripheral states,” which have inexpensive labor, natural resources, and insufficient power to stop their conquest, colonization, and exploitation; and (c) “semiperipheral states,” having some economic development and military power, which, over time, can allow them to become part of the core. Thus, for world-systems theorists, the core is seen to exploit the periphery, frequently aided by the semiperiphery, with analysis emphasizing the economic cycles of varying duration (Juglar, Kuznet, and Kondratief cycles) and the flow of resources from periphery to core. From such exploitation, conflict within and between societies can emerge. There are many variants of world-systems theory, which adopt the broad strokes of Wallerstein’s approach but emphasize somewhat different dynamics. For example, Christopher Chase-Dunn (1998) introduces new variables, such as population growth, intensification of production and environmental degradation, and immigration and emigration processes, to world-system dynamics leading to conflict within and between nations (Chase-Dunn and Hall 1997). Thus, Marxian ideas have been given new life by the shift to globalization.

Abstracted Weberianism

Just as Marx’s ideas have been abstracted and extended, so Weber’s analysis of conflict has been converted to more general and abstract theories of conflict. Randall Collins (1975, 1986), for example, has blended Weber’s analysis of domination with ideas from other theoretical traditions. Collins (1981) argues that macro-level social structures like organizations and stratification systems are built from micro-level interaction rituals that sustain class cultures, authority systems in organizations, and inequalities in resources. People carry varying levels of cultural capital, emotional energy, material wealth, prestige, and power; and they use these resources in face-to-face interaction, with those high in these resources generally able to dominate others and augment their shares of resources. True to his Weberian roots, Collins then analyzes the varying cultures of social classes, the power of the state, the ideologies used to legitimate state power, the economy, and even the geopolitics between nations in terms of the relative resources of actors. Those who receive deference because of their resources will have different cultures and orientations than those who must give deference; the nature of control in organizational systems will varying depending on the relative reliance on coercion, material resources, or symbolic resources; the scale of the state depends on a surplus of economic resources, the degree of consensus over symbols, and the ability to use resources to expand the administrative and coercive bases of power; and geopolitics will reflect the technological, productive, geographical, and military advantages of states. Thus, like Marx, Weber’s ideas stand at the core of new forms of conflict theorizing.

Historical-Comparative Analysis

The ideas of Marx and Weber are often combined in historical-comparative analysis of conflict processes. These analyses tend to focus on several classes of historical events, particularly the rise of democracies, revolutionary conflict, and empire formation and collapse. All of these theories focus on the state and the mobilization of masses (and often factions of elites) for conflict against the state. There are two lines of argument in these theories. One lists the conditions that lead masses and elites to mobilize for conflict against the state, while the other specifies the forces weakening the state’s power and its capacity to repress dissent and conflict (Li and Turner 1998). The first line of argument owes more inspiration to Marx, and to a lesser extent to Weber, while the second is more indebted to Weber than to Marx. Some adopt Marx’s ideas and extend them to nonindustrial societies, as is the case with Jeffrey Paige’s (1975) analysis of agrarian revolutions in which cultivators (agricultural workers) and noncultivators (owners of land and their allies in government) evidence a clear conflict of interest, with revolution most likely when cultivators can communicate, develop ideologies, and mobilize for collective action and when noncultivators do not enjoy large resource advantages over cultivators. Barrington Moore’s (1966) analysis of the rise of democracy employs an argument very similar to that developed by abstracted Marxian theories, emphasizing that subordinates can effectively engage in conflict when they live in propinquity, communicate, avoid competition with each other, and perceive that they are being exploited by elites who no longer honor traditional forms of relations with subordinates (primarily because of the effects of markets in breaking down traditional patterns of social relations). Charles Tilly (1978, 1993) similarly develops a model of resource mobilization that draws from Marx and Weber, emphasizing that when subordinates have been kept out of the political arena, when segments of elites have similarly been disenfranchised, and when the state has been weakened (due to fiscal crises, inefficient tax collection, and poor administration), mobilization for conflict is likely. Theda Skocpol’s (1979) analysis of revolution draws from Weber the effects of losing prestige in the world system, which comes with defeat in war, coupled with fiscal crises, which give subordinates opportunities to mobilize for conflict. Jack Goldstone (1991) introduces a demographic variable into these theories of revolutionary conflict, arguing that population growth will over the course of a century cause price inflation, displacement of peasants from the land, urban migrations, disaffection of some elites, and fiscal crises for the state. In turn, these lagged outcomes of population growth weaken the power of the state to repress mobilizations by peasants, migrations of restive peasants to urban areas, and disaffection of some elites. Finally, Randall Collins (1986) develops a Weber-inspired model of empire formation, arguing that expansion of empires increases when a society has a marchland advantage (natural barriers protecting its backside and flanks) and when, compared with its neighbors, it has a larger population, greater wealth, higher levels of productivity, more advanced technologies, and betterorganized armies. But, as the empire expands, it will eventually lose its marchland and military advantages (as enemies copy its technology) while increasing its logistical loads to sustain the empire. Eventually, an empire will have a showdown war with another empire, causing it to collapse and implode back to its original home base. As is evident, then, Marx and Weber’s theoretical legacy lives on in yet another theoretical venue, historical-comparative analysis of state and empire formation, revolutionary conflict, and war.

Critical Theorizing

From sociology’s very beginnings, thinkers have often argued that sociology could be used to reconstruct society. Comte, for example, viewed positivism as a means for creating a better society, but his approach as well as that of his followers, such as Spencer and Durkheim, was not sufficiently critical of the condition of early industrial societies. Instead, it was Marx’s critique of the evils of capitalism that pushed for a critical edge to theorizing, but as critical theorists in the early twentieth century sought to retain the emancipatory thrust of Marx’s ideas, they had to take into account Weber’s prediction that the state would increasingly dominate social relations through rational legal authority.

At the University of Frankfurt, early critical theorists like Max Horkheimer ([1947] 1972, [1947] 1974) and Theodor Adorno [1966] (1973) emphasized that critical theory must describe the social forces that work against human freedom and expose the ideological justifications of these forces. Theorists must confront each other, debating ideas, and from these debates “truth” will emerge, but this truth is not that of science but a practical knowledge that comes from human struggles against the forces of oppression. Others in the Frankfurt School, as it became known, took a more idealist turn. György Lukács [1922] (1968), for example, borrowed from Marx the idea of the “fetishism of commodities” and converted it into a notion of “reification” in which all objects, including people, become commodities to be marketed, whose worth is determined by their “exchange value,” another concept taken from Marx and Adam Smith ([1776] 1976). Lukács saw this process of reification to be an evolutionary trend, coming to a similar conclusion as Weber’s “steel cage” argument, but he proposed a way out: There are limits to how far human consciousness will tolerate reification, and so it is necessary to unlock this innate source of resistance to reification⎯a theoretical position that pushes critical theory into subjectivism.

Outside the Frankfurt School proper, critical theory also took a cultural turn. For example, in Italy, Antonio Gramsci [1928] (1971) returned to the early Marx, where the importance of ideology was emphasized in the critique of the Young Hegelians. For Gramsci, the power of the state is used to manipulate workers and others through the propagation of ideologies about civic culture that are seemingly inoffensive but that nonetheless become the dominant views of even those who are oppressed. Thus, workers come to believe in the appropriateness of markets, the commodification of objects and symbols, the buying and selling of labor as a commodity, the rule of law to enforce contracts unfavorable to workers, the encouragement of private charities (rather than structural reform) to eliminate suffering, the curriculum in schools, the state’s definition of a “good citizen,” and many other taken-forgranted beliefs of the oppressed population. Thus, the state controls a population not so much by a “steel cage” of repression and rational-legal domination as by a “soft” world of symbols that the oppressed accept as “natural and appropriate”⎯a more sophisticated version of Marx’s arguments about “false consciousness.” In France, Louis Althusser (1965) adopted a structuralist metaphor, seeing the individual as trapped in a “deeper” structural order dominated by the state, capitalist economic relations, and capitalist ideologies; and because people see this order as the way things must be, they do not perceive that they can escape from this structure. By failing to see the state and ideology as crude tools of power and by seeing self as subordinate to deep structures directing all social life, individuals come to believe that resistance to these oppressive structures is futile.

The tradition of the Frankfurt School has been carried forth by a number of scholars, the most notable being Jurgen Habermas (1981/1984), who begins by seeing science as one form of domination as the state propagates an ideology revolving around “technocratic consciousness.” Habermas develops a broad evolutionary view of human history, incorporating theoretical elements from many contemporary theoretical traditions, but the basic argument is that the “lifeworld” (an idea borrowed from phenomenology) is being “colonized” by the state and economy; as this process proceeds, people’s capacity for “communicative action” is reduced. For Habermas, communicative action is the process whereby meanings are formed, creating the lifeworld that is the principal means of integration for societies. As the lifeworld is colonized, the reproduction of the lifeworld is interrupted; and societal integration is maintained only by “delinguistified media” such as money and power. Habermas develops a larger philosophical scheme, but his arguments carry forth the legacy of the Frankfurt School.

Within the United States, the issues raised by the old and new Frankfurt School, and those outside Germany working with its legacy, have been less influential than the rise of a wide variety of more specific critical approaches. These critical approaches often borrow from Marx and philosophy, but they owe more inspiration to prominent social movements, particularly the civil rights and women’s movements. These theories are generally philosophical, often anti-science, and critical of the social relations and ideologies that oppress specific subpopulations, such as members of ethnic minorities, women, and workers. Over the last two decades, this line of theorizing, if it can be called theory proper, has gained a strong foothold not only in sociology but also in many other disciplines such as English. Just how successful these ideologically loaded “theories” will be in the next decades is an open question, although they are now well established throughout academia and thus have a resource base that can sustain them. The result is that the debate of earlier generations of sociologists over the prospects for scientific theorizing has taken on a new polemical intensity, exceeding by far the comparatively muted debates among the founding generation of sociologists over the prospects for scientific sociology.

Postmodern Theorizing

One of the most prominent new lines of theorizing in sociology is postmodernism, which, like critical theories, tends to be hostile to science (Lyotard 1979; Rorty 1979) and often takes a cultural turn from its Marxist origins. Economic postmodernism draws ideas not only from Marx but also from early theorists who were concerned about the “pathologies” of modernization, whereas cultural postmodernism emphasizes the increasing dominance of culture at the same time that symbols have become fragmented, commodified, and at times trivialized in ways that make individuals overly reflexive and unable to sustain a stable identity. Both economic and cultural postmodernists emphasize the dramatic transformations that come with global markets driven by capitalism; indeed, these transformations are so fundamental as to mark a new stage of human evolution: the postmodern.

Economic postmodernists stress particular dimensions of the transformation that come with globalization (Harvey 1989; Jameson 1984; Lash and Urry 1987). One point of emphasis is the effect of high volume, velocity, and global markets fueled by advertising. The result has been the commodification of objects, people, and, most important, cultural symbols that are ripped from their indigenous locations, commodified, and marketed across the globe. Marxist-oriented postmodernists, who often overlap with world-systems theorists, emphasize the rapid movement of capital over the world and its deconcentration from historical centers of capital. Advances in transportation and communication technology have also compressed time and space in ways that facilitate the flow not only of capital but also of goods, people, and symbols around the globe. Finally, economic postmodernists tend to emphasize the growing dominance of imaging technologies of reproduction over those for production.

Cultural postmodernists focus on the consequences of the transformations described by economic postmodernists (Baudrillard 1981/1994; Gergen 1991; Kellner 1995). The first significant consequence is the increasing dominance of culture and symbols over material structures. People increasingly live in a world of fragmented symbols, which has more impact on their identities and behaviors than material conditions. The increase in the power of culture is made possible by media technologies and markets that detach culture from local groups, local time, and local space and that send commodified cultural elements via media technologies or via markets around the global system. Indeed, humans live in a simulated world of symbolizations of symbols, viewed through the eyeglass of the media (Baudrillard 1981/1994). As a result of its detachment from its material base and free-floating signifiers, culture loses its capacity to provide stable meanings for individuals. As an outcome of this inability of culture to provide meanings and anchorage of individuals in local groups, self becomes more salient than group, leading to increased reflexivity about self in an endless loop of searching for meanings and for a true sense of self. Thus, at the very time that self is ascendant, it reveals less stability, coherence, and viability.

These themes in contemporary postmodern theory can all be found in the founding generations of sociologists. For example, Durkheim’s concern over anomie and egoism; Marx’s views on alienation; Simmel’s analysis of the marginal and fractured self; Smith’s, Comte’s, Spencer’s, and Durkheim’s concerns about the differentiation and fragmentation of society; Weber’s portrayal of rationalization and emphasis on efficiency over other types of action; Marx’s and the later critical theorists’view of the power of ideology; and many other “pathologies” of modern societies that early theorists emphasized have all been recast in postmodern theory. In a very real sense, then, postmodern theorizing represents an extension of the concerns of early theorists about the effects of modernization on society and humans. Yet much postmodern theory consists of conjectures that have not been seriously tested, although many postmodernists, particularly the cultural postmodernists, would consider empirical tests in the mode of science to impose a “failed epistemology” on their modes of inquiry. Moreover, a great deal of postmodern theory overlaps with critical theorizing because few consider the “postmodern condition” to be a good thing; thus, postmodernism is heavily ideological in critiquing the contemporary world, often assuming implicitly that human nature has somehow been violated.

Like critical theorizing, postmodern theory is part of a much larger intellectual and cultural movement that extends across disciplines as diverse as architecture, social sciences, and the humanities. Within sociology, it has enjoyed a strong following for the last two decades, although there are signs that cultural postmodernists are losing ground, with the economic postmodernists moving more squarely into Marxian-inspired world-systems analysis.

Interactionist Theorizing

Contemporary interactionist theorizing reveals a number of variants, each of which draws from a different theoretical tradition. Symbolic interactionism carries forth the pragmatist tradition synthesized by George Herbert Mead (1934); dramaturgical theory draws primarily from Durkheim’s ([1912] 1947) analysis of rituals; interaction ritual theory also draws from Durkheim and dramaturgy while introducing elements from other modern theories; ethnomethodology represents the modern application of phenomenology (Husserl [1913] 1969; Schütz [1932] 1967), coupled with elements from other traditions; and there are several efforts to develop syntheses among all these strands of theorizing about face-to-face interaction.

Symbolic Interactionism

The ideas of Mead have been applied to a wide variety of topics, from roles (Turner 1968) and identity processes (McCall and Simmons 1978; Stryker 1980, 2001) through the sociology of emotions (Burke 1991; Heise 1979; Scheff 1988) to theories of collective behavior (Snow and Benford 1988; Turner and Killian 1987). The basic argument is that social reality is ultimately constructed from face-to-face interactions among individuals who communicate symbolically, develop definitions of situations, draw on cultural resources, play roles, and seek to verify self and identity (Blumer 1969). Identity theories are perhaps the most prominent theoretical wing of interactionist theory today (for recent statements by various theorists, see Burke 2006; Burke et al. 2003). Here, theorists view more global self-conceptions and situational role identities as a cybernetic control system, with individuals presenting gestures so as to get others to verify their self and identity. These theories also overlap with theories of emotions, since verification of self arouses positive emotions, whereas failure to verify self generates negative emotional arousal and leads to adjustments in behaviors or identities that bring identity, behavior, and responses of others into line. Some versions of symbolic interactionism extend these Gestalt dynamics not only to person but also to others, the identity of others, and the situation, with individuals seen as motivated to keep sentiments about these aspects of interaction consistent with each other (Heise 1979; Smith-Lovin and Heise 1988). As noted earlier, another set of symbolic interactionist theories incorporates Freudian dynamics to explain the activation of defense mechanisms when self and identity are not confirmed or when individuals fail to realize expectations or experience negative sanctions (Scheff 1988; J. Turner 2002). Role theory has also been influenced by symbolic interactionism, with each individual reading the gestures of others to determine the latter’s role and with individuals also seeking to have others verify their roles and the self and identity presented in these roles (R. Turner 2001). Theories of collective behavior and social movements also adopt symbolic interactionists ideas, emphasizing the collective contagion and emotional arousal of crowd behaviors and the processes by which members of social movements frame situations in ways that direct collective actions (Snow and Benford 1988).

Dramaturgical Theories

Erving Goffman (1959, 1967) was the first to downsize Durkheim’s ([1912] 1947) analysis of rituals and emotions as the basis of social solidarity in the most elemental social unit, the encounter, or episode of interaction. While Goffman was often seen as a symbolic interactionist, he was a Durkheimian who emphasized the importance of the cultural script, the dramatic presentations of self to an audience, and the strategic behaviors that individuals employ in presenting self on a stage in which props, sets, space and ecology, and interpersonal demography are employed to make a dramatic presentation and to realize strategic goals. In contrast to most symbolic interactionists, dramaturgy views self as purely situational and as something that individuals “put on” in presenting a “line” or in strategic acts of “impression management.” Thus, in addition to the use of the front stage to manage a line, forms of talk, use of rituals, presentations of roles, and keying of frames (of what is to be included and excluded from the interaction) are all synchronized to present self in a particular light and to achieve strategic ends.

Interaction Ritual Theorizing

Randall Collins (2004) has extended Durkheim’s and Goffman’s analysis to a more general theory of ritual. For Collins, the elements of what Goffman termed the “encounter” constitute a more inclusive ritual where individuals reveal a focus of attention, common mood, rhythmic synchronization of bodies and talk, symbolization of the positive emotional energy from rhythmic synchronization, and enhanced solidarity. When these elements of the ritual do not unfold, however, negative emotional energy is aroused, and solidarity becomes more problematic. Unlike most interactionists, Collins does not see self as a critical motivational force in these rituals. Moreover, he tries to develop a more general theory of meso and macro structures using interaction rituals as the “micro foundation” of all social structures (Collins 1981). More recent theories (Summer-Effler 2002, 2004a, 2004b) in this tradition have blended more symbolic interactionist elements into interaction ritual theory by expanding the analysis of emotions and introducing self and identity as key forces.

Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology emphasizes the methods or interpersonal techniques, especially in talk and conversation, that individuals employ to construct, maintain, or change their presumptions about what they share. This basic idea is adopted from phenomenology, a philosophical tradition (e.g., Husserl [1913] 1969) given a sociological character by Alfred Schütz ([1932] 1967). For Schütz, much interaction involves signaling to others not to question the presumption that parties to an interaction share a common view of reality. For ethnomethodologists, the gestures and signals that individuals exchange are “indexical” in that they have meaning only in particular contexts; and these signs are used to construct a sense of common meaning among individuals. Most ethnomethodological research examines finely coded transcripts of conversations to determine the ethno or folk methods that individuals employ to create or sustain a sense of reality. For example, turn-taking in conversations, gestures searching for a normal conversational form, ignoring gestures that may disconfirm reciprocity of perspectives, patterns of overlaps in conversations, allowing ambiguities in meanings to pass, or repairing in subsequent turns minor misunderstandings are all techniques that individuals employ to create and sustain the sense that they share a common intersubjective world (Garfinkel 1967; Sacks 1992; Schegloff 2001). The data presented by ethnomethodologists have been adopted by other theories, but unfortunately, the theoretical arguments of ethnomethodology appear to have taken a backseat to empirical analyses of conversations, often moving ethnomethodology into some version of linguistics.

Integrative Approaches

All of the above theoretical approaches involved some integration of both classic and contemporary theories. But some contemporary theorists have sought to develop more general and robust theories of interpersonal processes by integrating concepts and propositions from a variety of interactionist theories. Jonathan Turner (2002), for example, has blended elements from symbolic interactionism, dramaturgy, interaction ritual theory, the sociology of emotions, role theory, expectation states theory, and ethnomethodology into a view of encounters as driven fundamental forces: emotions, transactional needs, symbols, status, roles, demography, and ecology. Yet relatively few theories are as integrative as Turner’s efforts; most microsociology tends to remain narrow in focus, producing a delimited set of generalizations and data sets designed to test these generalizations.

Exchange Theorizing

Exchange theory draws from both the behaviorist tradition of Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson (1913), and B. F. Skinner (1938) and the utilitarian tradition of the Scottish moralists. The basic argument is that individuals seek to gain profits in exchanges of resources with others, with profit being a function of the resources received, less the costs and investments spent in seeking these resources. All exchanges are also mediated by norms of fair exchange and justice, with the most prevalent norm of justice emphasizing equity or the distribution of rewards in proportion to relative costs and investments among actors. However, all exchange theories introduce the notion of power, in which one actor has the capacity to receive more rewards than others. Power is typically defined as the dependence of other actors on a powerful actor for valued resources, and the greater is the dependence of actors, the greater is the power of resource-holders over them.

Over the last four decades, exchange analysis has ventured into other areas of theorizing. Initially, exchange theory and network analysis were combined to understand the dynamics of networks in terms of the exchange dynamics that arise from power dependence (Cook and Rice 2001). The general finding is that power-advantaged actors use their advantage to exploit dependent actors by demanding additional resources. Under these conditions, dependent actors will seek other exchange partners, leave the exchange, learn to do without resources, or introduce new resources into the exchange that are highly valued by the previously advantaged actor (thus creating mutual dependence). Other findings emphasize that actors will develop commitments to exchanges, or engage in suboptimal exchanges, in return for certainty of exchange payoffs.

Another area where exchange theory has more recently penetrated is the sociology of emotions, in which powerdependence processes and network structures are analyzed in terms of the emotions that are aroused during the process of exchange (Lawler 2001). From theory and research, several generalizations emerge (Turner and Stets 2005). When payoffs are profitable and meted out in accordance with the norms of justice, positive emotions are aroused, whereas when payoffs are unprofitable, below expectations, and violate the norms of justice, negative emotions are aroused. If individuals are over-rewarded or their over-reward leads to unfair under-reward for others, they will experience guilt. Positive rewards in negotiated and reciprocal exchanges reveal a proximal bias in attributions (leading to feelings of pride), while negative rewards or under-rewards in such exchanges evidence a distal bias (arousing anger toward others, the situation, or group). High-power individuals are more likely to make selfattributions for success in profitable exchanges and external attributions for under-rewards than are low-power actors. The more profits are received in dense networks engaged in coordinated actions, the more likely are positive exchange outcomes to cause actors to make external attributions to the group, and the more they will become attached to the group. These and other generalizations document that exchange theories are becoming integrative, crossing over into other areas of theory and research in sociology.

Structuralist Theory

All sociologists study social structures, but structuralist theorizing in sociology has special connotations. There are, in essence, two branches of structuralist theorizing, both of which derive considerable inspiration from Durkheimian sociology. One branch emphasizes material conditions as influencing the nature of social relations among individuals and collective actors. Marx, Georg Simmel, and especially the early Durkheim all agreed that structure is a set of connections among parts, with the goal of theorizing being to discover the cause of these connections and their dynamic properties. The other branch of structuralism seeks to discover the “deep structures” or “generative rules” guiding the formation of culture systems and social structural arrangements. What is observable empirically is seen as a surface manifestation of a deeper underlying system of generative rules and, in some theorists’ minds (e.g., Lévi-Strauss [1958] 1963, 1979), rules directed by the neurology of the human brain.

The materialist version of structural analysis can be found in any theory that tries to explain the properties of social relations. One of the more prominent approaches in this tradition is network analysis, which views structures as nodes connected by relationships involving the flow of resources. In network theory, the form of the relationship is critical because different forms will reveal varying dynamic properties (for a review, see Turner 2002). The structuralism that also comes from Durkheim, via structural linguistics (de Saussure [1915] 1966; Jakobson 1962–1971) and structural anthropology, has inspired a revival of cultural sociology, even though some theories oftentimes see structure as being generated by the biology of the brain. But structuralism inspired a new concern with cultural codes and the practices that carry these codes to situations and that change or reinforce them. The structuralism movement enjoyed a certain cache during the 1970s and 1980s, but by the turn into the twenty-first century, the interests of structuralists had been incorporated into the “cultural turn” of sociological theorizing. The more materialist versions of structural analysis continue, as they always have, in a wide variety of theoretical perspectives, although network analysis⎯the most formal of these materialist approaches⎯has become ever more concerned with computer algorithms for describing rather than explaining network structures.

The Cultural Turn in Sociological Theory

Over the last decades of the twentieth century, sociological theory has taken a cultural turn. There were, of course, classical antecedents to this turn, but all of them tended to see culture as a dependent variable, as something that is shaped by social structural arrangements. For Marx, culture is a “superstructure” driven by the material “substructure”; for Durkheim, the collective conscience is related to the nature, number, and relationships among system parts, although his work did inspire cultural structuralism; and for the modern functionalists, culture is conceptualized in highly analytical terms as a system composed of abstract elements such as value orientations. Only Weber ([1905] 1958) appeared to emphasize culture as a causal force, as illustrated by his analysis of the Protestant Ethnic and the rise of capitalism (although his analysis in terms of ideal types tended to reduce the culture of Protestantism and capitalism to a few analytical elements). As we saw, the critical theories of the Frankfurt School and others in this tradition like Gramsci often migrated to the analysis of ideologies, but again, culture was always connected to material and political interests. And during the 1960s, as Marxism and conflict sociology reemerged in the United States, culture was once again seen as an ideology reflecting the material interests of contending groups.

Jeffrey Alexander and Philip Smith (2001) have termed most sociological analyses of culture a “weak program” because culture is not explored as an autonomous system but, instead, as a dependent variable or superstructure to material conditions. They even criticize work that focuses explicitly on culture, including the Birmingham School’s analysis of symbols in terms of Marxian structural categories, the efforts of Pierre Bourdieu (1977) to understand “habitus” and its connection to material conditions, and the works of poststructuralists like Michel Foucault (1972), whose “archeology” of knowledge ultimately uncovers the effects of power on culture. Similar cultural programs, such as Wuthnow’s (1987) analysis of the moral order, are seen to emphasize the connection between the moral order and the material resource bases generated by wealth, leadership communication networks, political authority, and other structural properties. Likewise, Michèle Lamont’s (1999) analysis of culture as marking group boundaries is viewed as explaining culture by its attachment to stratification and economic systems.

In contrast to these “weak programs,” Alexander and Smith (2001) propose a “strong program” where culture is treated initially as an autonomous sphere with deep textual analysis of its symbols in their specific context. Both the weak and strong programs emphasize cultural codes, discursive practices by which these codes are used, rituals directed at the code, and the objects denoted by codes, discourse, and rituals, but the strong program avoids connecting cultural analysis to material conditions, as least until the full exploration of the cultural codes has been completed. For example, Alexander’s (2004) strong program of “cultural pragmatics” emphasizes that there are deep background “representations” that generate “scripts” and “texts” that actors decode and interpret; and these need to be analyzed before they are connected to individuals’ actions in front of audiences. Although power and productive relations influence how actors extend culture to audiences through ritual performances, the elements of culture need to be analytically separated from their structural contexts, and their scripts and texts need to be thickly described. Only then can they be reattached to ritual, social structure, and audience to explain ritual practices and audience reactions. And as actors extend culture to audiences, they experience cathexis, which, in turn, influences the nature of the texts, discourse, and rituals.

Whatever the merits of these kinds of arguments, it is clear that cultural sociology has made an enormous comeback over the last decade of the twentieth century, and indeed, theorizing about culture is becoming as prominent in the first decade of this century as conceptualizations of material conditions were at the height of conflict theory in the 1960s and 1970s. Yet, for all the emphasis on thick description of texts, most analyses eventually become highly analytical, abstracting from these texts particular sets of codes that, in turn, are attached to material conditions.

Problems and Prospects for Sociological Theory in the 21st Century

The decline of grand theory when it is most needed.

At the very time when sociological theory has differentiated into a variety of approaches, general and integrative theorizing has declined. All of the early theorists, especially Spencer, Marx, Weber, and Durkheim, were generalists who sought to explain a wide range of phenomena across long reaches of history. Functional theory in the modern era, particularly that practiced by Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann, was also grand, but with the demise of these versions of grand theory, such theorizing fell out of favor and has been replaced by narrower theories confined to one level of analysis and held in check by scope conditions. Relatively few theories today seek to explain all phenomena at the micro, meso, and macro levels. There are some exceptions, however. For example, Anthony Giddens’s (1984) structuration theory is grand in the sense that it attempts to explain all levels of reality, although his scheme is more of a conceptual framework for describing a wide range of empirical cases. Jonathan Turner’s (1995, 2002) efforts of theorizing approximate a grand approach because he consciously seeks to integrate existing theories at all levels of social reality. Randall Collins’s (1975, 2004) interaction ritual theory is another approach that seeks to explain reality at the micro, meso, and macro levels. Still, most theorists shy away from this kind of integrative effort, at the very time that sociological theory is fragmenting into diverse and often hostile camps. In the future, it will be necessary for more integrative and, indeed, grand approaches to make a comeback if sociological theory is to reveal any coherence in the twenty-first century.

The Continuing Debate over Science

From the beginning, sociologists have debated the prospects for scientific sociology resembling that in the natural sciences. The founders were split, with Comte, Spencer, Simmel, and Durkheim pushing for scientific sociology, while Marx and Weber had doubts about the prospects for universal laws that could explain reality at all times and in all places. This split over the prospects for scientific sociology continued through the whole of the twentieth century and divides sociological theory (Turner and Turner 1990).

There are those who wish to perform rigorous analytical work but who view a sociology that apes the natural sciences as impossible; there are those who see the epistemology of the natural sciences as not only impossible but as a tool of repression; there are still others who see science as proposing grand narratives when the world does not reveal such an obdurate character; there are many who seek sociology as an art form or as a clinical field in which investigators use their intuiting to solve problems; and there are many who argue that sociology should be explicitly ideological, seeking to change the world. There is, then, a rather large collection of anti-scientists within sociology, especially sociological theory.

The end result is that scientific sociology is not accepted by many sociologists. Yet an enormous amount of theoretical growth and accumulation of knowledge has occurred over the last four decades, at the very time when many were having doubts about the appropriateness or possibility of a natural science of society. Thus, much of the new scientific understanding about the dynamics of the social world is ignored or viewed with hostility by those who have other agendas. Indeed, should sociology ever have its Einstein, only a few would take notice.

Chauvinism and Intolerance

Even among those who are committed to the epistemology of science, there is both chauvinism and intolerance. Some proclaim that certain processes occurring at a particular level of reality are the key properties and processes of the social universe, while being dismissive of those who think otherwise. And among those who do not believe that science is possible or even desirable, there is a smug condescension that is equally dismissive. For the former, theory becomes narrow and focused, building up barriers to other theoretical approaches, while for the latter group, theory becomes anything and everything⎯ideology, practice, philosophizing, textual analysis, moral crusading, critique, and virtually any activity. In being anything and everything, it becomes nothing in the sense of accumulating knowledge about the social world. Social theory, when not disciplined by the epistemology of science, becomes driven by intellectual fads and foibles, constantly changing with new social, cultural, and intellectual movements but never establishing a base of knowledge.

Conclusions

This summary cannot really do justice to the diversity of activity that occurs under the rubrics of “social” and, more narrowly, “sociological” theory. Humpty Dumpty has fallen off the wall, split into so many pieces that even grand theorists may never be able to put him back together again. In one sense, the proliferation of theories is a sign of vitality, especially among those narrow theories that seek to develop cumulative knowledge. But it is also an indicator of weakness because at some point, sociological theory will need to develop a more integrated set of principles and models about social reality. This effort is hindered by those who simply do not accept the epistemology of science. As a result, efforts to integrate theories will often be sidetracked by debate and acrimony as factions become intolerant of each other. As a consequence, at a time when enormous progress has been made in denoting the basic properties of the social universe, in developing abstract models and principles on the operative dynamics of these properties, and in assessing these theories with systematically collected data, it is not clear how many sociologists are listening. Fifty years ago, it seemed that sociology was ready to take its place at the table of science; today, this prospect seems more remote, despite the fact that sociology is far more sophisticated theoretically than five decades ago. Thus, as we move toward the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century, it is not clear just what the prospects for sociological theory will be. Will the scientists prevail? Will the anti-science factions win out? Or will the fight continue for another 100 years? Realistically speaking, this last prognosis is the most likely scenario.

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Münch, Richard. 2001. The Ethics of Modernity: Formation and Transformation in Britain, France, Germany, and the United States. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Nolan, Patrick and Gerhard Lenski. 2004. Human Societies. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Press.
Paige, Jeffrey. 1975. Agrarian Revolution. New York: Free Press.
Park, Robert E. 1936. “Human Ecology.” American Journal of Sociology 42:1–15.
Parsons, Talcott. 1951. The Social System. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Parsons, Talcott. 1966. Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Parsons, Talcott. 1978. Action Theory and the Human Condition. New York: Free Press.
Parsons, Talcott, Robert F. Bales, and Edward A. Shils. 1953. Working Papers in the Theory of Action. New York: Free Press. Parsons, Talcott and Neil J. Smelser. 1956. Economy and Society. New York: Free Press.
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100+ Best Sociology Research Topics

Table of contents

1 What is Sociology Research Paper?
2 Tips on How To Choose a Good Sociology Research Topic
3 Culture and Society Sociology Research Topics
4 Urban Sociology Topics
5 Education Sociology Research Topics
6 Race and Ethnicity Sociology Research Topics
7 Medicine and Mental Health Sociology Research Topics
8 Family Sociology Research Topics
9 Environmental Sociology Research Topics
10 Crime Sociology Research Topics
11 Sociology Research Topics for High School Students
12.1 Conclusion

As the name suggests, Sociology is one topic that provides users with information about social relations. Sociology cuts into different areas, including family and social networks.

As the name suggests, Sociology is one topic that provides users with information about social relations. Sociology cuts into different areas, including family and social networks. It cuts across all other categories of relationships that involve more than one communicating human. Hence this is to say that sociology, as a discipline and research interest, studies the behaviour and nature of humans when associating with each other.

Sociology generally involves research. It analyses empirical data to conclude humans psychology. Factor analysis is one of the popular tools with which sociology research is carried out. Other tools that stand out are research papers.

Sociology research topics and research are deep data-based studies. With which experts learn more about the human-to-human association and their respective psychology. There are dedicated easy sociology research topics on gender and sociology research topics for college students. They are majorly passed on as a thesis. This article will consider Sociology Research papers and different types of essay topics relevant to modern times.

What is Sociology Research Paper?

A sociology Research paper or essay is written in a format similar to a report. It is fundamentally rooted in statistical analysis, Interviews, questionnaires, text analysis, and many more metrics. It is a sociology research paper because it includes studying the human state in terms of living, activity, couples and family association, and survival.

The most demanding part of a sociology research writing project is drafting a quantitative analysis. Many college projects and post-graduate theses will require quantitative analysis for results. However, sociology topics for traditional purposes may only need textual analysis founded on simple close-end questionnaires.

To write a sociology research topic, one will need to know the problem and how to get the needed solution. A sociology project must have a problem, a hypothesis, and the possible best solution for solving it. It must also be unique, which means it is not just a piece of writing that can be lifted anywhere from the internet. It is best to pay for a research paper founded on sociology to know how to create an excellent context matter or use it for your project.

Tips on How To Choose a Good Sociology Research Topic

It is one thing to understand the concept of a research topic and another to know how to write a sociology paper . There are processes and things that must be followed for a research paper to come outright. It includes researching, outlining, planning, and organizing the steps.

It is important to have a systematic arrangement of your steps. This is done in other to get excellent Sociology research topic ideas. The steps to getting perfect Sociology research paper topics are outlined below.

Choose a topic that works with your Strength While it may be tempting to pick a unique topic, you should go for one that you can easily work on. This is very important as you will be able to provide a strong case. That is when dealing with a subject you understand compared to one that you barely know how works. Unless otherwise stated, always choose a topic you understand.
Pick a good Scope The next step you should take after selecting a topic is to narrow it to a problem or several related problems that a single hypothesis can conveniently encompass. This will help you achieve a better concentration of effort and give you a very strong ground as you know the direction of the research before you even start.

While these steps are significant, you should have a concrete understanding of sociology to craft a standard project. If that is a little complex for you, you should buy a research paper on sociology at affordable prices to get what you want. You can find several reliable service providers online.

Culture and Society Sociology Research Topics

Culture and society are the foundation of sociology research projects. Humans are divided into different cultures and are categorized into societies. There is a sense of class, status, and, sadly, race bias. Sociology paper projects usually focus on these metrics to understand why humans act the way they do and what is expected over the years.

This section will consider the best sociology research paper topics examples that you can work with.

The effect of cultural appropriation in the long term.
The effect of media on human attitude and behavior.
How political differences affect friendship and family relationships.
Important social justice issues affecting society.
Association between political affiliation and religion.
Adult children who care for their children while also caring for their aged parents.
Senior citizens who are beyond retirement age and still in the workforce.
The effect and evolution of cancel culture.
Public distrust in political appointees and elected officials.
The unique separation challenges that those who work from home face in their workplace.

Urban Sociology Topics

With immense progress in every sector and the continuous evolution of technology, the conventional and more conservative way of association is fading off. These days, almost every person wants to be associated with the urban lifestyle. This section considers Easy sociology research titles in urban lifestyles and what they hold for the future.

The human relationship and social media.
Characteristics of long-lasting childhood relationship.
Industrial Revolution and its impact on a relationship and family structure.
Factors that lead to divorce.
Urban spacing and policy.
Urban services as regards local welfare.
Socialisation: how it has evolved over time.
Infertility and its impact on marriage success.
Marginalised and vulnerable groups in urban areas.

Education Sociology Research Topics

Education is social. The younger age group of any society population is the target of sociology research. Most Sociology Research Topics on Education focus on how teenagers and young adults relate with themselves, modernized equipment, and the available resources.

Here are some topics on Education Sociology Research Topic:

The relationship between success in school and socioeconomic status.
To what extent do low-income families rely on the school to provide food for their children?
The outcome of classroom learning compared to homeschool pupils.
How does peer pressure affect school children?
To what extent do standardized admission tests determine college success?
What is the link between k-12 success and college success?
The role of school attendance on children’s social skills progress.
How to promote equality among school children from economic handicap backgrounds.
The bias prevalent in the k-12 curricula approved by the state.
The effect of preschool on a child’s elementary school success.

Race and Ethnicity Sociology Research Topics

Race and ethnicity are major categories in sociology, and as such, there are many sociology research topics and ideas that you can select from. This section considers several race-based titles for research.

The race-based bias that happens in the workplace.
Pros and cons of interracial marriages.
Areas of life where race-based discrimination is prevalent.
Racial stereotypes have the potential to destroy people’s life.
How does nationality determine career development?
Assimilation and immigration.
Voter’s behaviour towards gender and race.
Gender and racial wage gaps.
As an American immigrant, how do I become a validated voter?
Underpinning ethics of nationality, ethnicity, and race.

Medicine and Mental Health Sociology Research Topics

Medical sociology research topics ideas are among the more social science project work option available to social scientists. Society has always affected the growth of medicine and mental health, and some data back this claim.

There are many medicines & mental health Sociological Topics that you can work on, and the major ones are considered in this section.

The impact of COVID-19 on our health.
Is milk harmful to adults, or is it another myth?
Unhealthy and healthy methods of dealing with stress.
Is it ethical to transplant organs?
How do people become addicts?
How does lack of regular sleep affect our health?
The effect of sugar consumption on our health.
The effects of bullying on the person’s mental health.
The relationship between social depression or anxiety and social media presence.
The effects of school shootings on students’ mental health, parents, staff, and faculty.

Family Sociology Research Topics

Sociology research topics on family are one of the more interesting sociology-based topics that researchers and experts consider. Here are some topics in family sociology research topics.

How does divorce affect children?
The impact of cross-racial adoption on society and children.
The impact of single parenting on children.
Social programs are designed for children who have challenges communicating with their parents.
Sociology of marriage and families.
How to quit helicopter parenting.
The expectation of parents on the work that nannies do.
Should children learn gender studies from childhood?
Can a healthy kid be raised in an unconventional family?
How much should parents influence their children’s attitudes, behaviour, and decisions?

Environmental Sociology Research Topics

This section considers sociology research titles on the environment

Should green energy be used instead of atomic energy sources?
The relationship between nature and consumerism culture.
The bias from the media during environmental issues coverage.
Political global changes are resulting in environmental challenges.
How to prevent industrial waste from remote areas of the world.
Utilising of natural resources and the digital era.
Why middle school students should be taught social ecology.
What is the connection between environmental conditions and group behaviour?
How can the condition of an environment affect its population, public health, economic livelihoods, and everyday life?
The relationship between economic factors and environmental conditions.

Crime Sociology Research Topics

There are multiple Sociology research topics on crime that researchers can create projects on. Here are the top choices to select from.

The crime rate changes in places where marijuana is legalised.
How does the unemployment rate influence crime?
The relationship between juvenile crime and the social, economic status of the family.
Factors that determine gang membership or affiliation.
How does upbringing affect adult anti-social behaviour?
How does cultural background and gender affect how a person views drug abuse.
The relationship between law violation and mental health.
How can gun possession be made safe with stricter laws?
The difference between homicide and murder.
The difference between criminal and civil cases.

Sociology Research Topics for High School Students

High school students are a major part of sociology research due to the peculiarity of the population. Here are some topics in sociology research.

The effect of social media usage in the classroom.
The impact of online communication on one’s social skills.
The difference between spiritualism and religion.
Should males and females have the same rights in the workplace?
How gender and role stereotypes are presented on TV.
The effect of music and music education on teenagers.
The effect of globalisation on various cultures.
What influences the problematic attitudes of young people towards their future.
The effect of meat consumption on our environment.
The factors contributing to the rate of high school dropouts.

Sociology Research Topics for College Students

Several sociology research topics focus on college students, and this section will consider them.

Immigration and assimilation.
Big cities and racial segregation.
Multicultural Society and dominant cultures.
College students and social media.
The role of nationalities and language at school.
School adolescents and their deviant behaviour.
Ways of resolving conflict while on campus.
Social movements impact the awareness of bullying.
The role models of the past decade versus the ones in recent times.
The effect of changes in the educational field on new students.

Sociology is a fascinating field of study, and there are plenty of compelling research topics to choose from. Writing an essay on sociology can be a challenging task if you don’t know where to start. If you’re feeling overwhelmed, you can always turn to a writing essay service for help. There are many services that offer professional assistance in researching and crafting a sociology essay. From exploring popular sociological theories to looking at current events, there are countless topics to consider.

This article has considered a vast Sociology research topics list. The topics were divided into ten different categories directly impacted by the concept of sociology. These topic examples are well-drafted and are in line with the demand for recent sociological concepts. Therefore if you seek topics in sociology that you would love to work on, then the ones on this list are good options to consider.

However, you need to understand the basics of draft sociology research to get the benefits of these topics. If that is not possible given the time frame of the project, then you could opt to buy sociology research on your desired topic of interest.

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Anthropology
Individual and Society
Interpersonal Relationship
Race and Ethnicity
Sociological Theories
Sociology of Gender
Sociology of Generations
Sociology of Media and Communication
Sociology of the Family

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200+ Top Sociology Research Topics

Updated 05 Jul 2024

Why is it important to choose the right research topic in sociology? There is hardly a student on our planet who intentionally writes and submits poorly written, plagiarized, or uncompleted papers. In most cases, it results from constant procrastination caused by a lack of motivation and interest. After a few weeks of research, there appears to be nothing left on sociology research topics. That is why choosing a question, problem, pattern, or phenomenon to research is an essential part of the work that needs time and consideration. Taking the one from a research paper writer lists is not an option for conscious and motivated students.

The difficulty of choice is becoming more severe within the streaming growth of data scopes.

Research Methods of Sociology

While it is possible to choose your methodology based on your course specifics, following one of seven research methods of sociology is still recommended. These methods involve not only the purpose statement but also structure, composition, and research methods. Starting from the use of specific surveys to the general observation, you should implement your methodology as justification for your exploration and analysis.

Consider these seven sociology research methods:

Implementation of Social Surveys . By turning to this method, you add data from the large social groups.
Identification of The Connections . It studies the causes and effects related to a certain problem.
Interviews. By collecting information from actual people or specialists dealing with an issue, you make your research reliable.
Observation & Participation. It usually stands for collection of statistics from a particular group being studied.
Ethnography. The qualitative methodology focuses on social interactions, beliefs, vision, perceptions, and behavioral patterns.
Longitudinal Studies. It usually takes time as it focuses on prolonged studies to determine the scope of the problem.
Focus on Secondary Data Sources. It is a synthesis of information that has been collected by fellow researchers.

What are social science topics?

Social science topics involve scientific research into human society and social relationships. Major disciplines in this category are Economics, Geography, History, Archaeology, Anthropology, Politics, Law, Linguistics, Psychology, and Sociology.

What is a sociological topic?

By contrast, essays on sociology are more narrowly focused – they normally deal with the study of the structure, development, and functioning of human society, including social relationships, various social institutions and interactions between them.

What are some good sociology research topics?

Some good research topics in sociology deal with the institution of family and the changes it underwent throughout history, social media and its impact on individuals and society, the sociology of gender, including that of sexual minorities, social movements and groups, and social stereotypes.

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Tips on How to Choose a Good Topic for Sociology Research

Choosing a good topic for your sociology research should clearly outline a problem or make an argument that you want to make. Avoiding too general or vague statements that can be read or understood differently is recommended. The trick is to come up with those Sociology topics that inspire you and help your readers to find the solutions. Remember about plagiarism issues by always referencing each source and quote that you have. Here are the steps to consider as you make your choice:

Think over good ideas as you research your sociology research paper topics.
Choose only something that inspires you.
Address relevant social issues.
Compose a list of keywords that relate to your topic idea.
Think over relevant sources as you compose your thesis statement.
Always narrow your topic down to reflect the precise problem.
Identify sociology research methodology for your paper.
Provide not only your opinion but the counter-arguments as well.
Remember to compose your Bibliography in advance as you encounter each useful source.
Always make your topic's wording related to your thesis statement.

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Sociology Research Topics Ideas

Sociology includes a systematic plan for gathering and analyzing observations about the world. Determine the field that you find exciting. Finding problematic questions is the next step. The last research paper step is determining that there is enough literature on specific topic. Defining the field and unsettled questions will give you an idea of what to start with and how to work on research.

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Sociology Research Paper Topics for College Students

The Impact of Social Media on College Students' Mental Health
Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education
The Sociology of Online Learning
Campus Culture and Student Activism
The Gig Economy and College Students
Gender Dynamics in College Sports
The Effects of Student Loan Debt on Post-College Life
Cultural Adaptation and International Students
Social Networking and Interpersonal Relationships in College
Mental Health Services on College Campuses
The Role of Greek Life in College Social Structure
Sustainability and Environmental Activism in Colleges
The Digital Divide and Educational Inequality in College
Body Image and Eating Disorders in College Populations
The Impact of COVID-19 on College Student Life

Sociology Research Topics on Family

Review sociology research topics list and choose the one that reflects your personal interests!

The Evolution of Family Structures in the 21st Century
Impact of Divorce on Children's Psychological Well-being
Single Parenting and Its Effects on Child Development
The Role of Extended Family in Modern Society
Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Family Dynamics
The Influence of Technology on Family Interactions
Work-Life Balance and Its Impact on Family Relationships
Adoption and Its Long-Term Effects on Families
The Changing Roles of Gender in Household Responsibilities
The Effects of Economic Stress on Family Units
Intergenerational Relationships and Family Dynamics
Same-Sex Parenting and Its Social Implications
The Impact of Immigration on Family Structures
Child-free by Choice: Reasons and Societal Responses
The Role of Family in Elderly Care and Aging

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Sociology of Nationality and Race

Nationality is an example of the most contradictive topics. It is always hot and actual!

The Impact of Globalization on National Identity
Racial and Ethnic Inequality in Education Systems
The Role of Race in Political Representation and Participation
Nationalism and Xenophobia in the 21st Century
Interracial Relationships and Social Perceptions
The Sociology of Immigration and Assimilation
Ethnic Minorities and Access to Healthcare
Cultural Retention vs. Assimilation among Immigrant Communities
Race and Policing: A Sociological Analysis
The Influence of Race on Employment Opportunities and Workplace Dynamics
Media Representation of Different Races and Nationalities
The Impact of Colonialism on Contemporary Racial Dynamics
Social Movements and Race: From Civil Rights to Black Lives Matter
The Role of Language in Shaping National and Racial Identity
Racial Stereotypes and Their Impact on Young People

Sociology Research Topics on Human Rights

The Sociological Impact of Refugee Crises on Human Rights
Gender Equality and Human Rights in the Workplace
The Role of Social Media in Human Rights Advocacy
Human Trafficking: Sociological Perspectives and Solutions
The Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Modern Societies
The Impact of Globalization on Labor Rights
LGBTQ+ Rights and Social Acceptance Across Cultures
Children's Rights and Child Labor in Developing Countries
The Sociological Aspects of Freedom of Speech and Censorship
Disability Rights and Inclusion in Society
The Intersection of Race and Policing: Human Rights Implications
Women's Rights in Traditional Societies
The Sociological Impact of Climate Change on Human Rights
The Rights of the Elderly in Aging Societies
Privacy Rights in the Digital Age: A Sociological Perspective

Sociology of Social Media

Modern sociology research paper topics are here:

The Influence of Social Media on Teenage Social Development
Social Media's Role in Shaping Public Opinion
The Impact of Social Media on Political Mobilization and Activism
Cyberbullying and Its Sociological Implications
Social Media Addiction: Causes and Effects
The Role of Social Media in Relationship Formation and Maintenance
Privacy and Surveillance on Social Media Platforms
The Spread of Misinformation and Fake News on Social Media
Social Media Influencers and Their Impact on Youth Culture
The Digital Divide: Access to Social Media in Different Socioeconomic Groups
Social Media and Mental Health: A Sociological Analysis
The Role of Social Media in Cultural Globalization
Social Media and Body Image Perceptions Among Adolescents
Social Media as a Tool for Social Change and Awareness Campaigns
The Evolution of Language and Communication in the Age of Social Media

Sociology Research Topics on Interpersonal Communication

The Impact of Non-Verbal Communication in Different Cultures
The Role of Technology in Shaping Modern Interpersonal Communication
Communication Styles and Conflict Resolution in Relationships
The Influence of Social Media on Face-to-Face Communication
Language Barriers and Their Impact on Social Integration
The Effects of Digital Communication on Empathy and Emotional Intelligence
Gender Differences in Communication Styles and Perceptions
The Role of Communication in Maintaining Long-Distance Relationships
Interpersonal Communication in the Workplace: Hierarchies and Power Dynamics
The Impact of Cultural Differences on Communication in Multicultural Societies
Communication Challenges in Inter-Generational Relationships
The Psychology of Persuasion and Influence in Social Interactions
The Role of Active Listening in Effective Communication
Communication Strategies for Conflict Management and Resolution
The Impact of Social Isolation on Communication Skills and Social Interaction.

Sociology Research Topics on Stereotypes

The Formation and Impact of Gender Stereotypes in Society
Racial Stereotypes and Their Influence on Social Interactions
Stereotyping and Prejudice in Educational Settings
The Media's Role in Perpetuating Ethnic Stereotypes
Age Stereotypes and Ageism in the Workplace
The Impact of Stereotyping on Mental Health
Stereotypes in the Criminal Justice System
The Effects of Stereotyping in Sports and Athletics
Cultural Stereotypes and Their Impact on International Relations
Stereotypes and Body Image: Societal Expectations and Self-Perception
The Role of Stereotypes in Political Discourse and Ideology
Stereotypes in Advertising and Consumer Behavior
Disability Stereotypes and Social Inclusion
Breaking Down Stereotypes: Strategies for Social Change
The Influence of Social Media on the Formation and Spread of Stereotypes.

Sociology of Gender

The Evolution of Gender Roles in Modern Society
Gender Inequality in the Workplace
The Impact of Media on Gender Perceptions and Stereotypes
Gender and Education: Differences in Learning and Academic Achievement
The Sociology of Transgender and Non-Binary Identities
Masculinity and Mental Health: Societal Expectations and Realities
Feminism in the 21st Century: Achievements and Challenges
Gender and Sexuality: Social Attitudes and Changing Norms
The Role of Gender in Political Leadership and Representation
Gender Dynamics in Family Structures and Parenting
Gender-Based Violence: Societal Causes and Responses
The Intersection of Gender and Race in Social Stratification
Gender and Technology: Access, Usage, and Representation
The Impact of Gender Stereotypes in Sports and Physical Education
Gender and Religion: Traditional Roles and Contemporary Shifts.

Sociology of Youth Culture

The most involving sociology topics for research among youth. Best ideas relating to hobbies, subcultures, and sports are here:

The Influence of Social Media on Youth Culture and Identity
Trends in Music and Fashion Among Today's Youth
The Role of Technology in Shaping Youth Interactions and Relationships
Youth Subcultures and Their Societal Impact
The Changing Landscape of Teenage Communication in the Digital Age
Youth Activism and Political Engagement in Contemporary Society
The Impact of Globalization on Youth Culture and Identity
Mental Health Issues Among Adolescents in Modern Society
The Effects of Peer Pressure and Social Expectations on Teenagers
Youth and Education: Attitudes Towards School and Learning
The Representation of Youth in Media and Popular Culture
The Influence of Celebrity Culture on Teenagers' Values and Aspirations
Youth Unemployment and Its Social Consequences
The Role of Sports and Recreation in Youth Development
The Impact of Family Dynamics on Youth Behavior and Attitudes.

Research Topics in Educational Sociology

The Impact of Socioeconomic Status on Educational Achievement
Gender Disparities in Academic Performance and Subject Preferences
The Role of Cultural Capital in Educational Success
The Effects of School Climate on Student Learning and Behavior
Educational Inequality and Access to Resources
The Influence of Teacher Expectations on Student Performance
The Sociological Implications of Standardized Testing
The Impact of Technology and Digital Learning on Education
School-to-Prison Pipeline: Sociological Perspectives
The Role of Parental Involvement in Student Academic Outcomes
Bullying in Schools: Causes, Effects, and Interventions
The Effects of School Choice and Educational Policy on Communities
The Role of Education in Social Mobility
Multicultural Education and Curriculum Development
The Sociological Impact of Homeschooling and Alternative Education Models.

The Sociology of Social Movements

The Role of Social Media in Modern Social Movements
Grassroots Movements: Formation, Mobilization, and Impact
The Influence of Political Climate on Social Movement Emergence
Environmental Movements and Their Societal Impact
The Dynamics of Leadership in Social Movements
Gender and Participation in Social Movements
The Impact of Globalization on Transnational Social Movements
Social Movements and Policy Change: Mechanisms and Outcomes
The Role of Art and Culture in Social Movements
The Psychology Behind Collective Action and Social Movement Participation
The Impact of Economic Conditions on Labor and Worker Movements
Identity Politics and Social Movements
The Evolution of Civil Rights Movements Across Decades
Social Movements and the Media: Framing and Public Perception
The Effectiveness of Nonviolent vs. Violent Strategies in Social Movements.

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Sociology Research Topics on Social Issues and Cultural Biases

The Sociological Impact of Racial Profiling and Discrimination
Gender Bias in the Workplace: Causes and Consequences
The Influence of Media on Cultural Stereotyping
Social Inequality and Access to Healthcare
The Effects of Poverty on Child Development and Education
Ageism in Modern Society: Causes and Impacts
The Role of Religion in Shaping Cultural Biases
Immigration and Xenophobia: Societal Causes and Effects
LGBTQ+ Discrimination and Social Acceptance
The Impact of Language Barriers on Social Integration
Social Stigma and Mental Health: A Sociological Perspective
The Role of Education in Overcoming Cultural Biases
The Effects of Urbanization on Community and Social Relationships
The Sociological Aspects of Body Image and Beauty Standards
The Impact of Social Media on the Perpetuation of Cultural Biases.

Medical Sociology Research Topics

The Impact of Socioeconomic Status on Access to Healthcare
Cultural Beliefs and Their Influence on Health Practices
The Sociology of Mental Health and Illness
Health Disparities and Inequalities in Different Communities
The Role of Social Networks in Health and Illness
The Stigma Associated with Chronic Illnesses and Disabilities
The Impact of Healthcare Policies on Patient Outcomes
Doctor-Patient Relationships: Communication and Trust
The Sociological Implications of Emerging Medical Technologies
The Effect of Workplace Environment on Employee Health
Social Determinants of Health Behaviors and Outcomes
The Impact of Globalization on Public Health Issues
Ethical Issues in Medical Sociology: Euthanasia, Abortion, and Bioethics
The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Health and Healing
The Sociological Aspects of Aging and Geriatric Healthcare.

Environmental Sociology Topics

The Sociological Impact of Climate Change on Communities
Environmental Justice and Inequality
The Role of Social Movements in Environmental Policy Change
Urbanization and Its Environmental Consequences
Societal Attitudes Towards Renewable Energy and Sustainability
The Intersection of Economy and Environment: Sociological Perspectives
Cultural Influences on Environmental Practices and Ethics
The Social Dimensions of Water Scarcity and Management
Environmental Racism and Its Impact on Marginalized Communities
Consumerism and Its Impact on the Environment
The Sociology of Natural Disasters: Preparedness and Response
The Role of Education in Promoting Environmental Awareness
The Impact of Agricultural Practices on the Environment
The Relationship Between Population Growth and Environmental Degradation
The Influence of Media on Public Perception of Environmental Issues.

Food Sociology Research Topics

The Cultural Significance of Food in Different Societies
The Impact of Globalization on Local Food Traditions
Societal Attitudes Towards Vegetarianism and Veganism
Food Insecurity and Its Social Implications
The Role of Food in Social Identity and Group Dynamics
The Sociology of Eating Disorders and Body Image
The Impact of Fast Food Culture on Health and Society
Food Deserts and Access to Healthy Food in Urban Areas
The Social and Cultural Aspects of Cooking and Meal Preparation
The Influence of Social Media on Food Trends and Eating Habits
The Relationship Between Food, Class, and Status
The Sociology of Food Labeling and Consumer Choices
Ethical and Sociological Implications of Genetically Modified Foods
The Role of Food in Festivals and Social Gatherings
The Intersection of Food and Environmental Sustainability.

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Research Topics & Ideas: Sociology

50 Topic Ideas To Kickstart Your Research Project

Research topics and ideas about sociology

If you’re just starting out exploring sociology-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research by providing a hearty list of research ideas , including real-world examples from recent sociological studies.

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . These topic ideas provided here are intentionally broad and generic , so keep in mind that you will need to develop them further. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

To develop a suitable research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan to fill that gap. If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Sociology-Related Research Topics

Analyzing the social impact of income inequality on urban gentrification.
Investigating the effects of social media on family dynamics in the digital age.
The role of cultural factors in shaping dietary habits among different ethnic groups.
Analyzing the impact of globalization on indigenous communities.
Investigating the sociological factors behind the rise of populist politics in Europe.
The effect of neighborhood environment on adolescent development and behavior.
Analyzing the social implications of artificial intelligence on workforce dynamics.
Investigating the impact of urbanization on traditional social structures.
The role of religion in shaping social attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights.
Analyzing the sociological aspects of mental health stigma in the workplace.
Investigating the impact of migration on family structures in immigrant communities.
The effect of economic recessions on social class mobility.
Analyzing the role of social networks in the spread of disinformation.
Investigating the societal response to climate change and environmental crises.
The role of media representation in shaping public perceptions of crime.
Analyzing the sociocultural factors influencing consumer behavior.
Investigating the social dynamics of multigenerational households.
The impact of educational policies on social inequality.
Analyzing the social determinants of health disparities in urban areas.
Investigating the effects of urban green spaces on community well-being.
The role of social movements in shaping public policy.
Analyzing the impact of social welfare systems on poverty alleviation.
Investigating the sociological aspects of aging populations in developed countries.
The role of community engagement in local governance.
Analyzing the social effects of mass surveillance technologies.

Sociology Research Ideas (Continued)

Investigating the impact of gentrification on small businesses and local economies.
The role of cultural festivals in fostering community cohesion.
Analyzing the societal impacts of long-term unemployment.
Investigating the role of education in cultural integration processes.
The impact of social media on youth identity and self-expression.
Analyzing the sociological factors influencing drug abuse and addiction.
Investigating the role of urban planning in promoting social integration.
The impact of tourism on local communities and cultural preservation.
Analyzing the social dynamics of protest movements and civil unrest.
Investigating the role of language in cultural identity and social cohesion.
The impact of international trade policies on local labor markets.
Analyzing the role of sports in promoting social inclusion and community development.
Investigating the impact of housing policies on homelessness.
The role of public transport systems in shaping urban social life.
Analyzing the social consequences of technological disruption in traditional industries.
Investigating the sociological implications of telecommuting and remote work trends.
The impact of social policies on gender equality and women’s rights.
Analyzing the role of social entrepreneurship in addressing societal challenges.
Investigating the effects of urban renewal projects on community identity.
The role of public art in urban regeneration and social commentary.
Analyzing the impact of cultural diversity on education systems.
Investigating the sociological factors driving political apathy among young adults.
The role of community-based organizations in addressing urban poverty.
Analyzing the social impacts of large-scale sporting events on host cities.
Investigating the sociological dimensions of food insecurity in affluent societies.

Recent Studies & Publications: Sociology

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual sociology-related studies to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of recent studies to help refine your thinking. These are actual studies, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

Social system learning process (Subekti et al., 2022)
Sociography: Writing Differently (Kilby & Gilloch, 2022)
The Future of ‘Digital Research’ (Cipolla, 2022).
A sociological approach of literature in Leo N. Tolstoy’s short story God Sees the Truth, But Waits (Larasati & Irmawati, 2022)
Teaching methods of sociology research and social work to students at Vietnam Trade Union University (Huu, 2022)
Ideology and the New Social Movements (Scott, 2023)
The sociological craft through the lens of theatre (Holgersson, 2022).
An Essay on Sociological Thinking, Sociological Thought and the Relationship of a Sociologist (Sönmez & Sucu, 2022)
How Can Theories Represent Social Phenomena? (Fuhse, 2022)
Hyperscanning and the Future of Neurosociology (TenHouten et al., 2022)
Sociology of Wisdom: The Present and Perspectives (Jijyan et al., 2022). Collective Memory (Halbwachs & Coser, 2022)
Sociology as a scientific discipline: the post-positivist conception of J. Alexander and P. Kolomi (Vorona, 2022)
Murder by Usury and Organised Denial: A critical realist perspective on the liberating paradigm shift from psychopathic dominance towards human civilisation (Priels, 2022)
Analysis of Corruption Justice In The Perspective of Legal Sociology (Hayfa & Kansil, 2023)
Contributions to the Study of Sociology of Education: Classical Authors (Quentin & Sophie, 2022)
Inequality without Groups: Contemporary Theories of Categories, Intersectional Typicality, and the Disaggregation of Difference (Monk, 2022)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest. In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

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If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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Home > FACULTIES > Sociology > SOCIOLOGY_MASRP

MA Research Paper

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Pain Among Immigrants to Canada: Testing the Healthy Immigrant Effect , Marouna Gomes

The Person Behind the Poster: A Podcast Ethnography and Framing Analysis of Chris Lambert’s Podcast Series Your Own Backyard , Emily Hans

Understanding the Long-term Ramifications of Adolescent Marijuana Use and its Effects on Educational Attainment , Trent Lebans

The Spatial Risk of Assault on Police Officers in Toronto, Ontario , Stephanie C. Pongracz

Assessing Homelessness Risk and Service Deprivation in London, Ontario , Jackie Tan

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Under the Influence? Factors That Impact Canadian’s Confidence in Police , Justin Clark

HOW ARE THE FORMAL AND INFORMAL ONLINE SUPPORTS OF MENTAL HEALTH ACCESSIBLE FOR REFUGEES AND THEIR CHILDREN IN CANADA? , Maria Jose Gonzalez Sanchez

Nursing Homes and Loneliness Among Older Adults in the United States , Camila Iciaszczyk

Comparing Chronic Pain in Urban and Rural Canadian Adults , Alyssa T. Jensen

Labour Market Outcomes for Skilled Worker Immigrants and Non-Immigrants in Canada , Adam Mamudovski Mr.

A Middle Ground: The Gendered Division of Housework in Heterosexual Mixed-Nativity Couples , Rebecca Rayner

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Chronic Pain , Sarah M. Revie

Framing Diversity and EDI Practices: A Comparison of Strategic Planning and Recruitment Materials in Two Canadian Universities , Michelle H. Robinson

The Practice of curation on Instagram: A Bourdieusian approach , Eve S. Smerchinski

“I can’t trust anyone”: International Students’ Experience with Student Support Services in Canada , Cathlin Sullivan

A Complex Disease with Complex Discourse: Exploring the Online Messaging of Two Canadian Obesity Charities and the Implications for Weight Stigma , Caitlin E. Turnbull

Differences in Income for Foreign-Born Blacks Across Settlement Types in an Era of Rising Anti-Immigration Sentiment , Sandra F. Weir

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

The Effect of the Analyst-Officer Relationship on Crime Analysis: Experiential Knowledge vs. Data-Driven Decisions , Emma Brown

Social Isolation: Do Helpers Help Ward It Off? , Kirsten Young Brown

The Impacts of Housing Affordability on Immigrant Household Formation and Homeownership , Wanyun Cheng

The mental health culture in Hockey: A scoping review , Lauren Dormer

Stopping the Blame Game: An Intersectional Approach to Minority Victimization in Canada , Melissa Elliott

The Effects of Race and Gender on Income and Workplace Position of Professional Engineers in Ontario: Can Homophily Preferences Help Explain Barriers? , Jayzer E. Flores

In #FlatEarth We Trust: The Danger of the Self-Representation of Flat Earthers on Twitter , Lauren Gomes

Assessing the Impact of Denizenship in the Making and Evaluation of Temporary Foreign Worker Policies in Canada , Sihwa Kim

Mind the Gap: Sexual Orientation Wage Gaps for Racialized and Immigrant Minorities , Shannon Mok

The Life Satisfaction of Immigrants in Canada: Does Time of Arrival Matter? , Laura G. Monteiro

Disability and Health Outcomes of Eastern European Immigrants to the United States , Ina Palii

On Unequal Terms: The Indigenous Wage Gap In Canada , Taylor N. Paul

Conflict or co-operation? Ontarian pharmacists battle for an increased scope of practice , Kali E. Pieters

Personality Traits and Transition to First Marriage , Sumangala Sasudevan

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Intimate Partner Violence: Policy, Policing and Best Practices in Ontario , Anna Bieniek

LIVING ARRANGEMENTS, PROXIMITY TO CHILD/PARENT AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS AMONG OLDER ADULTS , Haemi Chung

Out of the Closet and into Sport: An Analysis of Openly Lesbian Athletes , rachel fazzari

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY & WOKEWASHING , Lucas Hendsbee

The Educational Attainment Differences Among Children of Immigrants in Canada , Alexandra Janeiro

The Interrelated Nature of Trauma: Exploring the Narratives of Persons Living with a Family Member who has Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder , Emily Johnson

Does Higher Education Make a Difference? The Influence of Educational Attainment on Women’s and Men’s Employment Outcomes , Katelyn Mitri

International Students’ Earnings in London, Ontario , Amna Wasty

Canadian Inter-Provincial Migration Decline and The Demographic Determinants: A logit model and decomposition analysis measuring the demographic predictors of Canadian inter-provincial migration alongside migration’s widespread decline , Nathaniel White

The Economic Integration of Mexican Mennonite Immigrants in Canada , Marina Wiebe

An App a Day Keeps the Doctor Away: A Visual Case Analysis of the Self-Optimization Ideologies Downloaded onto Apple Users as They Download Applications , Ismahan Yusuf

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

SCHOOL SHOULDN’T END WHEN THE BELL RINGS: AN EXPLORATORY HOMESCHOOLING STUDY , Mackenzie Dukelow

Pathways over the Life Course: Patterns of Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence and Their Potential Impact on Educational Attainment , Stephen Carneiro Fernandes

Bad Comic, Good Comic: The Social Construction of Brownness in the Racial and Ethnic Humor of South Asian Comedians , Tasmeea Islam

Income & Net-Worth: A Comparative Analysis of Immigrant Inequality , Cavita Meetun

Neoliberalism and the School Choice Movement in the United States , Lianne M.A. Mulder

Assessing The Importance of CVE Strategies in Ontario , Matthew Murray

Divorce and Health: Does Educational Attainment Matter? , Sara Quinn-Hogan

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Racism, Oligarchy and Contentious Politics in Bermuda , Andrea Dean

CONCEPTUALIZING JUSTICE: POLICE RESPONSES TO SEX CRIMES IN PARTNERSHIP WITH CANADIAN POLICE DEPARTMENTS , Keyanna Drakes

The Economic Integration of Canada's Refugees: Understanding the Issues with Canada's Approach , Ryan Endicott

Addressing Sexual Violence on Canadian Campuses: An Analysis of Policies at Ontario Universities , Rhian C. Foley

The Influence of Parents and Natural Mentors on Young Adults' Substance Use Behaviours: Evidence from a National Study , Travis Hackshaw

Jihad and Hashtags: Women's Roles in the Islamic State and Pro-Jihadist Social Networks , Rachel K. Inch

A Novel Measure of Work Stress: Identifying Work Stressor Patterns in Canada Using Latent Class Analysis , Vesna Pajovic

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

"I Took the Blue Pill" The Effect of the Hegemonic Masculine Police Culture on Canadian Policewomen's Identities , Lesley J. Bikos

Beyond the Land of Five Rivers: Social Inequality and Class Consciousness in the Canadian Sikh Diaspora , Harmeet S. Sandhu

Exploring Cross-National Incarceration , Evan R. Wiley

Terror on Twitter: A Comparative Analysis of Gender and the Involvement in Pro-Jihadist Communities on Twitter , Eric W. Witmer

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Neighbourhood Context and Youth Mental Health: The Role of Local Community Programming in a Mid-sized Ontario Urban Centre , Monica Christine Bochus

Living in a Transnational World: Identity Negotiation and Formation Among Second-Generation Lebanese Young Adults Living in London Ontario , Wajeha Chams

The Immigrant Health Advantage in Canada: Lessened by Six Health Determinants , Sasha Koba

Seasonal Agricultural Workers in Canada: Understanding the Socio-Political Issues , W. Zachary Marshall

Combining Work and Family: The Experiences of Gender and Ethnicity of Visible Minority Women in Leadership Positions , Alelie Ocampo

Gender, Generation, and Jobs: Differences in Gender Role Ideologies by Age and Occupation , Christina Treleaven

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Sociology Research Paper
Sociology Research Paper. This sample sociology research paper features: 10800 words (approx. 36 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 59 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers ...
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original research worthy of fulfilling the university's independent research requirements for sociology: a junior paper for juniors, and a senior thesis for seniors. Together with the mentorship of your faculty advisor, this handbook will help you think through the various steps of your independent research, and
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Sociology 91r, an independent reading and research course, with a Sociology faculty member. This is a one semester course resulting in a smaller research paper, but it gives you the experience of independent work and provides an alternative way to tie together what you have learned as a Sociology concentrator.
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Sociology Research Topics & Ideas (Free Webinar + Template)
If you're just starting out exploring sociology-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you've come to the right place. In this post, we'll help kickstart your research by providing a hearty list of research ideas, including real-world examples from recent sociological studies.. PS - This is just the start…
MA Research Paper
The Research Paper is the final degree requirement for students in the Sociology MA three-term research paper stream. Department of Sociology Graduate Program. Follow. Theses/Dissertations from 2024 PDF. Pain Among Immigrants to Canada: Testing the Healthy Immigrant Effect, Marouna Gomes. PDF.

How to Write a Sociological Essay: Explained with Examples

Phase I: Preparing for the Essay

Step 2: Start Reading

Step 3: Make Notes

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Step 4: Writing a Title, Subtitle, Abstract, and Keywords

Step 5: Writing the Introduction, Main Body, and Conclusion

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Sociology Class Supplement: Formatting Your Paper

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