secondary questions in research

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Secondary Research: Definition, Methods and Examples.

In the world of research, there are two main types of data sources: primary and secondary. While primary research involves collecting new data directly from individuals or sources, secondary research involves analyzing existing data already collected by someone else. Today we’ll discuss secondary research.

One common source of this research is published research reports and other documents. These materials can often be found in public libraries, on websites, or even as data extracted from previously conducted surveys. In addition, many government and non-government agencies maintain extensive data repositories that can be accessed for research purposes.

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While secondary research may not offer the same level of control as primary research, it can be a highly valuable tool for gaining insights and identifying trends. Researchers can save time and resources by leveraging existing data sources while still uncovering important information.

What is Secondary Research: Definition

Secondary research is a research method that involves using already existing data. Existing data is summarized and collated to increase the overall effectiveness of the research.

One of the key advantages of secondary research is that it allows us to gain insights and draw conclusions without having to collect new data ourselves. This can save time and resources and also allow us to build upon existing knowledge and expertise.

When conducting secondary research, it’s important to be thorough and thoughtful in our approach. This means carefully selecting the sources and ensuring that the data we’re analyzing is reliable and relevant to the research question . It also means being critical and analytical in the analysis and recognizing any potential biases or limitations in the data.

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Secondary research is much more cost-effective than primary research , as it uses already existing data, unlike primary research, where data is collected firsthand by organizations or businesses or they can employ a third party to collect data on their behalf.

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Secondary Research Methods with Examples

Secondary research is cost-effective, one of the reasons it is a popular choice among many businesses and organizations. Not every organization is able to pay a huge sum of money to conduct research and gather data. So, rightly secondary research is also termed “ desk research ”, as data can be retrieved from sitting behind a desk.

The following are popularly used secondary research methods and examples:

1. Data Available on The Internet

One of the most popular ways to collect secondary data is the internet. Data is readily available on the internet and can be downloaded at the click of a button.

This data is practically free of cost, or one may have to pay a negligible amount to download the already existing data. Websites have a lot of information that businesses or organizations can use to suit their research needs. However, organizations need to consider only authentic and trusted website to collect information.

2. Government and Non-Government Agencies

Data for secondary research can also be collected from some government and non-government agencies. For example, US Government Printing Office, US Census Bureau, and Small Business Development Centers have valuable and relevant data that businesses or organizations can use.

There is a certain cost applicable to download or use data available with these agencies. Data obtained from these agencies are authentic and trustworthy.

3. Public Libraries

Public libraries are another good source to search for data for this research. Public libraries have copies of important research that were conducted earlier. They are a storehouse of important information and documents from which information can be extracted.

The services provided in these public libraries vary from one library to another. More often, libraries have a huge collection of government publications with market statistics, large collection of business directories and newsletters.

4. Educational Institutions

Importance of collecting data from educational institutions for secondary research is often overlooked. However, more research is conducted in colleges and universities than any other business sector.

The data that is collected by universities is mainly for primary research. However, businesses or organizations can approach educational institutions and request for data from them.

5. Commercial Information Sources

Local newspapers, journals, magazines, radio and TV stations are a great source to obtain data for secondary research. These commercial information sources have first-hand information on economic developments, political agenda, market research, demographic segmentation and similar subjects.

Businesses or organizations can request to obtain data that is most relevant to their study. Businesses not only have the opportunity to identify their prospective clients but can also know about the avenues to promote their products or services through these sources as they have a wider reach.

Key Differences between Primary Research and Secondary Research

Understanding the distinction between primary research and secondary research is essential in determining which research method is best for your project. These are the two main types of research methods, each with advantages and disadvantages. In this section, we will explore the critical differences between the two and when it is appropriate to use them.

How to Conduct Secondary Research?

We have already learned about the differences between primary and secondary research. Now, let’s take a closer look at how to conduct it.

Secondary research is an important tool for gathering information already collected and analyzed by others. It can help us save time and money and allow us to gain insights into the subject we are researching. So, in this section, we will discuss some common methods and tips for conducting it effectively.

Here are the steps involved in conducting secondary research:

1. Identify the topic of research: Before beginning secondary research, identify the topic that needs research. Once that’s done, list down the research attributes and its purpose.

2. Identify research sources: Next, narrow down on the information sources that will provide most relevant data and information applicable to your research.

3. Collect existing data: Once the data collection sources are narrowed down, check for any previous data that is available which is closely related to the topic. Data related to research can be obtained from various sources like newspapers, public libraries, government and non-government agencies etc.

4. Combine and compare: Once data is collected, combine and compare the data for any duplication and assemble data into a usable format. Make sure to collect data from authentic sources. Incorrect data can hamper research severely.

4. Analyze data: Analyze collected data and identify if all questions are answered. If not, repeat the process if there is a need to dwell further into actionable insights.

Advantages of Secondary Research

Secondary research offers a number of advantages to researchers, including efficiency, the ability to build upon existing knowledge, and the ability to conduct research in situations where primary research may not be possible or ethical. By carefully selecting their sources and being thoughtful in their approach, researchers can leverage secondary research to drive impact and advance the field. Some key advantages are the following:

1. Most information in this research is readily available. There are many sources from which relevant data can be collected and used, unlike primary research, where data needs to collect from scratch.

2. This is a less expensive and less time-consuming process as data required is easily available and doesn’t cost much if extracted from authentic sources. A minimum expenditure is associated to obtain data.

3. The data that is collected through secondary research gives organizations or businesses an idea about the effectiveness of primary research. Hence, organizations or businesses can form a hypothesis and evaluate cost of conducting primary research.

4. Secondary research is quicker to conduct because of the availability of data. It can be completed within a few weeks depending on the objective of businesses or scale of data needed.

As we can see, this research is the process of analyzing data already collected by someone else, and it can offer a number of benefits to researchers.

Disadvantages of Secondary Research

On the other hand, we have some disadvantages that come with doing secondary research. Some of the most notorious are the following:

1. Although data is readily available, credibility evaluation must be performed to understand the authenticity of the information available.

2. Not all secondary data resources offer the latest reports and statistics. Even when the data is accurate, it may not be updated enough to accommodate recent timelines.

3. Secondary research derives its conclusion from collective primary research data. The success of your research will depend, to a greater extent, on the quality of research already conducted by primary research.

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

In conclusion, secondary research is an important tool for researchers exploring various topics. By leveraging existing data sources, researchers can save time and resources, build upon existing knowledge, and conduct research in situations where primary research may not be feasible.

There are a variety of methods and examples of secondary research, from analyzing public data sets to reviewing previously published research papers. As students and aspiring researchers, it’s important to understand the benefits and limitations of this research and to approach it thoughtfully and critically. By doing so, we can continue to advance our understanding of the world around us and contribute to meaningful research that positively impacts society.

QuestionPro can be a useful tool for conducting secondary research in a variety of ways. You can create online surveys that target a specific population, collecting data that can be analyzed to gain insights into consumer behavior, attitudes, and preferences; analyze existing data sets that you have obtained through other means or benchmark your organization against others in your industry or against industry standards. The software provides a range of benchmarking tools that can help you compare your performance on key metrics, such as customer satisfaction, with that of your peers.

Using QuestionPro thoughtfully and strategically allows you to gain valuable insights to inform decision-making and drive business success. Start today for free! No credit card is required.

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What is secondary research?

Last updated

7 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

In this guide, we explain in detail what secondary research is, including the difference between this research method and primary research, the different sources for secondary research, and how you can benefit from this research method.

Analyze your secondary research

Bring your secondary research together inside Dovetail, tag PDFs, and uncover actionable insights

• Overview of secondary research

Secondary research is a method by which the researcher finds existing data, filters it to meet the context of their research question, analyzes it, and then summarizes it to come up with valid research conclusions.

This research method involves searching for information, often via the internet, using keywords or search terms relevant to the research question. The goal is to find data from internal and external sources that are up-to-date and authoritative, and that fully answer the question.

Secondary research reviews existing research and looks for patterns, trends, and insights, which helps determine what further research, if any, is needed.

• Secondary research methods

Secondary research is more economical than primary research, mainly because the methods for this type of research use existing data and do not require the data to be collected first-hand or by a third party that you have to pay.

Secondary research is referred to as ‘desk research’ or ‘desktop research,’ since the data can be retrieved from behind a desk instead of having to host a focus group and create the research from scratch.

Finding existing research is relatively easy since there are numerous accessible sources organizations can use to obtain the information they need. These  include:

The internet:  This data is either free or behind a paywall. Yet, while there are plenty of sites on the internet with information that can be used, businesses need to be careful to collect information from trusted and authentic websites to ensure the data is accurate.

Government agencies: Government agencies are typically known to provide valuable, trustworthy information that companies can use for their research.

The public library: This establishment holds paper-based and online sources of reliable information, including business databases, magazines, newspapers, and government publications. Be mindful of any copyright restrictions that may apply when using these sources.

Commercial information: This source provides first-hand information on politics, demographics, and economic developments through information aggregators, newspapers, magazines, radio, blogs, podcasts, and journals. This information may be free or behind a paywall.

Educational and scientific facilities: Universities, colleges, and specialized research facilities carry out significant amounts of research. As a result, they have data that may be available to the public and businesses for use.

• Key differences between primary research and secondary research

Both primary and secondary research methods provide researchers with vital, complementary information, despite some major differences between the two approaches.

Primary research involves gathering first-hand information by directly working with the target market, users, and interviewees. Researchers ask questions directly using surveys , interviews, and focus groups.

Through the primary research method, researchers obtain targeted responses and accurate results directly related to their overall research goals.

Secondary research uses existing data, such as published reports, that have already been completed through earlier primary and secondary research. Researchers can use this existing data to support their research goals and preliminary research findings.

Other notable differences between primary and secondary research  include:

Relevance: Primary research uses raw data relevant to the investigation's goals. Secondary research may contain irrelevant data or may not neatly fit the parameters of the researcher's goals.

Time: Primary research takes a lot of time. Secondary research can be done relatively quickly.

Researcher bias: Primary research can be subject to researcher bias.

Cost: Primary research can be expensive. Secondary research can be more affordable because the data is often free. However, valuable data is often behind a paywall. The piece of secondary research you want may not exist or be very expensive, so you may have to turn to primary research to fill the information gap.

• When to conduct secondary research

Both primary and secondary research have roles to play in providing a holistic and accurate understanding of a topic. Generally, secondary research is done at the beginning of the research phase, especially if the topic is new.

Secondary research can provide context and critical background information to understand the issue at hand and identify any gaps, that could then be filled by primary research.

• How to conduct secondary research

Researchers usually follow several steps for secondary research.

1. Identify and define the research topic

Before starting either of these research methods, you first need to determine the following:

Topic to be researched

Purpose of this research

For instance, you may want to explore a question, determine why something happened, or confirm whether an issue is true.

At this stage, you also need to consider what search terms or keywords might be the most effective for this topic. You could do this by looking at what synonyms exist for your topic, the use of industry terms and acronyms, as well as the balance between statistical or quantitative data and contextual data to support your research topic.

It’s also essential to define what you don’t want to cover in your secondary research process. This might be choosing only to use recent information or only focusing on research based on a particular country or type of consumer. From there, once you know what you want to know and why you can decide whether you need to use both primary and secondary research to answer your questions.

2. Find research and existing data sources

Once you have determined your research topic , select the information sources that will provide you with the most appropriate and relevant data for your research. If you need secondary research, you want to determine where this information can likely be found, for example:

Trade associations

Government sources

Create a list of the relevant data sources , and other organizations or people that can help you find what you need.

3. Begin searching and collecting the existing data

Once you have narrowed down your sources, you will start gathering this information and putting it into an organized system. This often involves:

Checking the credibility of the source

Setting up meetings with research teams

Signing up for accounts to access certain websites or journals

One search result on the internet often leads to other pieces of helpful information, known as ‘pearl gathering’ or ‘pearl harvesting.’ This is usually a serendipitous activity, which can lead to valuable nuggets of information you may not have been aware of or considered.

4. Combine the data and compare the results

Once you have gathered all the data, start going through it by carefully examining all the information and comparing it to ensure the data is usable and that it isn’t duplicated or corrupted. Contradictory information is useful—just make sure you note the contradiction and the context. Be mindful of copyright and plagiarism when using secondary research and always cite your sources.

Once you have assessed everything, you will begin to look at what this information tells you by checking out the trends and comparing the different datasets. You will also investigate what this information means for your research, whether it helps your overall goal, and any gaps or deficiencies.

5. Analyze your data and explore further

In the final stage of conducting secondary research, you will analyze the data you have gathered and determine if it answers the questions you had before you started researching. Check that you understand the information, whether it fills in all your gaps, and whether it provides you with other insights or actions you should take next.

If you still need further data, repeat these steps to find additional information that can help you explore your topic more deeply. You may also need to supplement what you find with primary research to ensure that your data is complete, accurate, transparent, and credible.

• The advantages of secondary research

There are numerous advantages to performing secondary research. Some key benefits are:

Quicker than primary research: Because the data is already available, you can usually find the information you need fairly quickly. Not only will secondary research help you research faster, but you will also start optimizing the data more quickly.

Plenty of available data: There are countless sources for you to choose from, making research more accessible. This data may be already compiled and arranged, such as statistical information,  so you can quickly make use of it.

Lower costs:  Since you will not have to carry out the research from scratch, secondary research tends to be much more affordable than primary research.

Opens doors to further research:  Existing research usually identifies whether more research needs to be done. This could mean follow-up surveys or telephone interviews with subject matter experts (SME) to add value to your own research.

• The disadvantages of secondary research

While there are plenty of benefits to secondary research are plenty, there are some issues you should be aware of. These include:

Credibility issues: It is important to verify the sources used. Some information may be biased and not reflect or hide, relevant issues or challenges. It could also be inaccurate.

No recent information:  Even if data may seem accurate, it may not be up to date, so the information you gather may no longer be correct. Outdated research can distort your overall findings.

Poor quality: Because secondary research tends to make conclusions from primary research data, the success of secondary research will depend on the quality and context of the research that has already been completed. If the research you are using is of poor quality, this will bring down the quality of your own findings.

Research doesn’t exist or is not easily accessible, or is expensive: Sometimes the information you need is confidential or proprietary, such as sales or earnings figures. Many information-based businesses attach value to the information they hold or publish, so the costs to access this information can be prohibitive.

Should you complete secondary research or primary research first?

Due to the costs and time involved in primary research, it may be more beneficial to conduct secondary market research first. This will save you time and provide a picture of what issues you may come across in your research. This allows you to focus on using more expensive primary research to get the specific answers you want.

What should you ask yourself before using secondary research data?

Check the date of the research to make sure it is still relevant. Also, determine the data source so you can assess how credible and trustworthy it is likely to be. For example, data from known brands, professional organizations, and even government agencies are usually excellent sources to use in your secondary research, as it tends to be trustworthy.

Be careful when using some websites and personal blogs as they may be based on opinions rather than facts. However, these sources can be useful for determining sentiment about a product or service, and help direct any primary research.

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Secondary Research Guide: Definition, Methods, Examples

Apr 3, 2024

8 min. read

The internet has vastly expanded our access to information, allowing us to learn almost anything about everything. But not all market research is created equal , and this secondary research guide explains why.

There are two key ways to do research. One is to test your own ideas, make your own observations, and collect your own data to derive conclusions. The other is to use secondary research — where someone else has done most of the heavy lifting for you. 

Here’s an overview of secondary research and the value it brings to data-driven businesses.

Secondary Research Definition: What Is Secondary Research?

Primary vs Secondary Market Research

What Are Secondary Research Methods?

Advantages of secondary research, disadvantages of secondary research, best practices for secondary research, how to conduct secondary research with meltwater.

Secondary research definition: The process of collecting information from existing sources and data that have already been analyzed by others.

Secondary research (aka desk research or complementary research ) provides a foundation to help you understand a topic, with the goal of building on existing knowledge. They often cover the same information as primary sources, but they add a layer of analysis and explanation to them.

Users can choose from several secondary research types and sources, including:

• Journal articles
• Research papers

With secondary sources, users can draw insights, detect trends , and validate findings to jumpstart their research efforts.

Primary vs. Secondary Market Research

We’ve touched a little on primary research , but it’s essential to understand exactly how primary and secondary research are unique.

Think of primary research as the “thing” itself, and secondary research as the analysis of the “thing,” like these primary and secondary research examples:

• An expert gives an interview (primary research) and a marketer uses that interview to write an article (secondary research).
• A company conducts a consumer satisfaction survey (primary research) and a business analyst uses the survey data to write a market trend report (secondary research).
• A marketing team launches a new advertising campaign across various platforms (primary research) and a marketing research firm, like Meltwater for market research , compiles the campaign performance data to benchmark against industry standards (secondary research).

In other words, primary sources make original contributions to a topic or issue, while secondary sources analyze, synthesize, or interpret primary sources.

Both are necessary when optimizing a business, gaining a competitive edge , improving marketing, or understanding consumer trends that may impact your business.

Secondary research methods focus on analyzing existing data rather than collecting primary data . Common examples of secondary research methods include:

• Literature review . Researchers analyze and synthesize existing literature (e.g., white papers, research papers, articles) to find knowledge gaps and build on current findings.
• Content analysis . Researchers review media sources and published content to find meaningful patterns and trends.
• AI-powered secondary research . Platforms like Meltwater for market research analyze vast amounts of complex data and use AI technologies like natural language processing and machine learning to turn data into contextual insights.

Researchers today have access to more secondary research companies and market research tools and technology than ever before, allowing them to streamline their efforts and improve their findings.

Want to see how Meltwater can complement your secondary market research efforts? Simply fill out the form at the bottom of this post, and we'll be in touch.

Conducting secondary research offers benefits in every job function and use case, from marketing to the C-suite. Here are a few advantages you can expect.

Cost and time efficiency

Using existing research saves you time and money compared to conducting primary research. Secondary data is readily available and easily accessible via libraries, free publications, or the Internet. This is particularly advantageous when you face time constraints or when a project requires a large amount of data and research.

Access to large datasets

Secondary data gives you access to larger data sets and sample sizes compared to what primary methods may produce. Larger sample sizes can improve the statistical power of the study and add more credibility to your findings.

Ability to analyze trends and patterns

Using larger sample sizes, researchers have more opportunities to find and analyze trends and patterns. The more data that supports a trend or pattern, the more trustworthy the trend becomes and the more useful for making decisions. 

Historical context

Using a combination of older and recent data allows researchers to gain historical context about patterns and trends. Learning what’s happened before can help decision-makers gain a better current understanding and improve how they approach a problem or project.

Basis for further research

Ideally, you’ll use secondary research to further other efforts . Secondary sources help to identify knowledge gaps, highlight areas for improvement, or conduct deeper investigations.

Tip: Learn how to use Meltwater as a research tool and how Meltwater uses AI.

Secondary research comes with a few drawbacks, though these aren’t necessarily deal breakers when deciding to use secondary sources.

Reliability concerns

Researchers don’t always know where the data comes from or how it’s collected, which can lead to reliability concerns. They don’t control the initial process, nor do they always know the original purpose for collecting the data, both of which can lead to skewed results.

Potential bias

The original data collectors may have a specific agenda when doing their primary research, which may lead to biased findings. Evaluating the credibility and integrity of secondary data sources can prove difficult.

Outdated information

Secondary sources may contain outdated information, especially when dealing with rapidly evolving trends or fields. Using outdated information can lead to inaccurate conclusions and widen knowledge gaps.

Limitations in customization

Relying on secondary data means being at the mercy of what’s already published. It doesn’t consider your specific use cases, which limits you as to how you can customize and use the data.

A lack of relevance

Secondary research rarely holds all the answers you need, at least from a single source. You typically need multiple secondary sources to piece together a narrative, and even then you might not find the specific information you need.

To make secondary market research your new best friend, you’ll need to think critically about its strengths and find ways to overcome its weaknesses. Let’s review some best practices to use secondary research to its fullest potential.

Identify credible sources for secondary research

To overcome the challenges of bias, accuracy, and reliability, choose secondary sources that have a demonstrated history of excellence . For example, an article published in a medical journal naturally has more credibility than a blog post on a little-known website.

Assess credibility based on peer reviews, author expertise, sampling techniques, publication reputation, and data collection methodologies. Cross-reference the data with other sources to gain a general consensus of truth.

The more credibility “factors” a source has, the more confidently you can rely on it. 

Evaluate the quality and relevance of secondary data

You can gauge the quality of the data by asking simple questions:

• How complete is the data? 
• How old is the data? 
• Is this data relevant to my needs?
• Does the data come from a known, trustworthy source?

It’s best to focus on data that aligns with your research objectives. Knowing the questions you want to answer and the outcomes you want to achieve ahead of time helps you focus only on data that offers meaningful insights.

Document your sources 

If you’re sharing secondary data with others, it’s essential to document your sources to gain others’ trust. They don’t have the benefit of being “in the trenches” with you during your research, and sharing your sources can add credibility to your findings and gain instant buy-in.

Secondary market research offers an efficient, cost-effective way to learn more about a topic or trend, providing a comprehensive understanding of the customer journey . Compared to primary research, users can gain broader insights, analyze trends and patterns, and gain a solid foundation for further exploration by using secondary sources.

Meltwater for market research speeds up the time to value in using secondary research with AI-powered insights, enhancing your understanding of the customer journey. Using natural language processing, machine learning, and trusted data science processes, Meltwater helps you find relevant data and automatically surfaces insights to help you understand its significance. Our solution identifies hidden connections between data points you might not know to look for and spells out what the data means, allowing you to make better decisions based on accurate conclusions. Learn more about Meltwater's power as a secondary research solution when you request a demo by filling out the form below:

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What is secondary research, why is secondary research important.

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Secondary research, also known as a literature review , preliminary research , historical research , background research , desk research , or library research , is research that analyzes or describes prior research. Rather than generating and analyzing new data, secondary research analyzes existing research results to establish the boundaries of knowledge on a topic, to identify trends or new practices, to test mathematical models or train machine learning systems, or to verify facts and figures. Secondary research is also used to justify the need for primary research as well as to justify and support other activities. For example, secondary research may be used to support a proposal to modernize a manufacturing plant, to justify the use of newly a developed treatment for cancer, to strengthen a business proposal, or to validate points made in a speech.

Because secondary research is used for so many purposes in so many settings, all professionals will be required to perform it at some point in their careers. For managers and entrepreneurs, regardless of the industry or profession, secondary research is a regular part of worklife, although parts of the research, such as finding the supporting documents, are often delegated to juniors in the organization. For all these reasons, it is essential to learn how to conduct secondary research, even if you are unlikely to ever conduct primary research.

Secondary research is also essential if your main goal is primary research. Research funding is obtained only by using secondary research to show the need for the primary research you want to conduct. In fact, primary research depends on secondary research to prove that it is indeed new and original research and not just a rehash or replication of somebody else’s work.

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What is Secondary Research? Types, Methods, Examples

Appinio Research · 20.09.2023 · 13min read

Have you ever wondered how researchers gather valuable insights without conducting new experiments or surveys? That's where secondary research steps in—a powerful approach that allows us to explore existing data and information others collect.

Whether you're a student, a professional, or someone seeking to make informed decisions, understanding the art of secondary research opens doors to a wealth of knowledge.

What is Secondary Research?

Secondary Research refers to the process of gathering and analyzing existing data, information, and knowledge that has been previously collected and compiled by others. This approach allows researchers to leverage available sources, such as articles, reports, and databases, to gain insights, validate hypotheses, and make informed decisions without collecting new data.

Benefits of Secondary Research

Secondary research offers a range of advantages that can significantly enhance your research process and the quality of your findings.

• Time and Cost Efficiency: Secondary research saves time and resources by utilizing existing data sources, eliminating the need for data collection from scratch.
• Wide Range of Data: Secondary research provides access to vast information from various sources, allowing for comprehensive analysis.
• Historical Perspective: Examining past research helps identify trends, changes, and long-term patterns that might not be immediately apparent.
• Reduced Bias: As data is collected by others, there's often less inherent bias than in conducting primary research, where biases might affect data collection.
• Support for Primary Research: Secondary research can lay the foundation for primary research by providing context and insights into gaps in existing knowledge.
• Comparative Analysis : By integrating data from multiple sources, you can conduct robust comparative analyses for more accurate conclusions.
• Benchmarking and Validation: Secondary research aids in benchmarking performance against industry standards and validating hypotheses.

Primary Research vs. Secondary Research

When it comes to research methodologies, primary and secondary research each have their distinct characteristics and advantages. Here's a brief comparison to help you understand the differences.

Primary Research

• Data Source: Involves collecting new data directly from original sources.
• Data Collection: Researchers design and conduct surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations.
• Time and Resources: Typically requires more time, effort, and resources due to data collection.
• Fresh Insights: Provides firsthand, up-to-date information tailored to specific research questions.
• Control: Researchers control the data collection process and can shape methodologies.

Secondary Research

• Data Source: Involves utilizing existing data and information collected by others.
• Data Collection: Researchers search, select, and analyze data from published sources, reports, and databases.
• Time and Resources: Generally more time-efficient and cost-effective as data is already available.
• Existing Knowledge: Utilizes data that has been previously compiled, often providing broader context.
• Less Control: Researchers have limited control over how data was collected originally, if any.

Choosing between primary and secondary research depends on your research objectives, available resources, and the depth of insights you require.

Types of Secondary Research

Secondary research encompasses various types of existing data sources that can provide valuable insights for your research endeavors. Understanding these types can help you choose the most relevant sources for your objectives.

Here are the primary types of secondary research:

Internal Sources

Internal sources consist of data generated within your organization or entity. These sources provide valuable insights into your own operations and performance.

• Company Records and Data: Internal reports, documents, and databases that house information about sales, operations, and customer interactions.
• Sales Reports and Customer Data: Analysis of past sales trends, customer demographics, and purchasing behavior.
• Financial Statements and Annual Reports: Financial data, such as balance sheets and income statements, offer insights into the organization's financial health.

External Sources

External sources encompass data collected and published by entities outside your organization.

These sources offer a broader perspective on various subjects.

• Published Literature and Journals: Scholarly articles, research papers, and academic studies available in journals or online databases.
• Market Research Reports: Reports from market research firms that provide insights into industry trends, consumer behavior, and market forecasts.
• Government and NGO Databases: Data collected and maintained by government agencies and non-governmental organizations, offering demographic, economic, and social information.
• Online Media and News Articles: News outlets and online publications that cover current events, trends, and societal developments.

Each type of secondary research source holds its value and relevance, depending on the nature of your research objectives. Combining these sources lets you understand the subject matter and make informed decisions.

How to Conduct Secondary Research?

Effective secondary research involves a thoughtful and systematic approach that enables you to extract valuable insights from existing data sources. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to navigate the process:

1. Define Your Research Objectives

Before delving into secondary research, clearly define what you aim to achieve. Identify the specific questions you want to answer, the insights you're seeking, and the scope of your research.

2. Identify Relevant Sources

Begin by identifying the most appropriate sources for your research. Consider the nature of your research objectives and the data type you require. Seek out sources such as academic journals, market research reports, official government databases, and reputable news outlets.

3. Evaluate Source Credibility

Ensuring the credibility of your sources is crucial. Evaluate the reliability of each source by assessing factors such as the author's expertise, the publication's reputation, and the objectivity of the information provided. Choose sources that align with your research goals and are free from bias.

4. Extract and Analyze Information

Once you've gathered your sources, carefully extract the relevant information. Take thorough notes, capturing key data points, insights, and any supporting evidence. As you accumulate information, start identifying patterns, trends, and connections across different sources.

5. Synthesize Findings

As you analyze the data, synthesize your findings to draw meaningful conclusions. Compare and contrast information from various sources to identify common themes and discrepancies. This synthesis process allows you to construct a coherent narrative that addresses your research objectives.

6. Address Limitations and Gaps

Acknowledge the limitations and potential gaps in your secondary research. Recognize that secondary data might have inherent biases or be outdated. Where necessary, address these limitations by cross-referencing information or finding additional sources to fill in gaps.

7. Contextualize Your Findings

Contextualization is crucial in deriving actionable insights from your secondary research. Consider the broader context within which the data was collected. How does the information relate to current trends, societal changes, or industry shifts? This contextual understanding enhances the relevance and applicability of your findings.

8. Cite Your Sources

Maintain academic integrity by properly citing the sources you've used for your secondary research. Accurate citations not only give credit to the original authors but also provide a clear trail for readers to access the information themselves.

9. Integrate Secondary and Primary Research (If Applicable)

In some cases, combining secondary and primary research can yield more robust insights. If you've also conducted primary research, consider integrating your secondary findings with your primary data to provide a well-rounded perspective on your research topic.

You can use a market research platform like Appinio to conduct primary research with real-time insights in minutes!

10. Communicate Your Findings

Finally, communicate your findings effectively. Whether it's in an academic paper, a business report, or any other format, present your insights clearly and concisely. Provide context for your conclusions and use visual aids like charts and graphs to enhance understanding.

Remember that conducting secondary research is not just about gathering information—it's about critically analyzing, interpreting, and deriving valuable insights from existing data. By following these steps, you'll navigate the process successfully and contribute to the body of knowledge in your field.

Secondary Research Examples

To better understand how secondary research is applied in various contexts, let's explore a few real-world examples that showcase its versatility and value.

Market Analysis and Trend Forecasting

Imagine you're a marketing strategist tasked with launching a new product in the smartphone industry. By conducting secondary research, you can:

• Access Market Reports: Utilize market research reports to understand consumer preferences, competitive landscape, and growth projections.
• Analyze Trends: Examine past sales data and industry reports to identify trends in smartphone features, design, and user preferences.
• Benchmark Competitors: Compare market share, customer satisfaction, and pricing strategies of key competitors to develop a strategic advantage.
• Forecast Demand: Use historical sales data and market growth predictions to estimate demand for your new product.

Academic Research and Literature Reviews

Suppose you're a student researching climate change's effects on marine ecosystems. Secondary research aids your academic endeavors by:

• Reviewing Existing Studies: Analyze peer-reviewed articles and scientific papers to understand the current state of knowledge on the topic.
• Identifying Knowledge Gaps: Identify areas where further research is needed based on what existing studies still need to cover.
• Comparing Methodologies: Compare research methodologies used by different studies to assess the strengths and limitations of their approaches.
• Synthesizing Insights: Synthesize findings from various studies to form a comprehensive overview of the topic's implications on marine life.

Competitive Landscape Assessment for Business Strategy

Consider you're a business owner looking to expand your restaurant chain to a new location. Secondary research aids your strategic decision-making by:

• Analyzing Demographics: Utilize demographic data from government databases to understand the local population's age, income, and preferences.
• Studying Local Trends: Examine restaurant industry reports to identify the types of cuisines and dining experiences currently popular in the area.
• Understanding Consumer Behavior: Analyze online reviews and social media discussions to gauge customer sentiment towards existing restaurants in the vicinity.
• Assessing Economic Conditions: Access economic reports to evaluate the local economy's stability and potential purchasing power.

These examples illustrate the practical applications of secondary research across various fields to provide a foundation for informed decision-making, deeper understanding, and innovation.

Secondary Research Limitations

While secondary research offers many benefits, it's essential to be aware of its limitations to ensure the validity and reliability of your findings.

• Data Quality and Validity: The accuracy and reliability of secondary data can vary, affecting the credibility of your research.
• Limited Contextual Information: Secondary sources might lack detailed contextual information, making it important to interpret findings within the appropriate context.
• Data Suitability: Existing data might not align perfectly with your research objectives, leading to compromises or incomplete insights.
• Outdated Information: Some sources might provide obsolete information that doesn't accurately reflect current trends or situations.
• Potential Bias: While secondary data is often less biased, biases might still exist in the original data sources, influencing your findings.
• Incompatibility of Data: Combining data from different sources might pose challenges due to variations in definitions, methodologies, or units of measurement.
• Lack of Control: Unlike primary research, you have no control over how data was collected or its quality, potentially affecting your analysis. Understanding these limitations will help you navigate secondary research effectively and make informed decisions based on a well-rounded understanding of its strengths and weaknesses.

Secondary research is a valuable tool that businesses can use to their advantage. By tapping into existing data and insights, companies can save time, resources, and effort that would otherwise be spent on primary research. This approach equips decision-makers with a broader understanding of market trends, consumer behaviors, and competitive landscapes. Additionally, benchmarking against industry standards and validating hypotheses empowers businesses to make informed choices that lead to growth and success.

As you navigate the world of secondary research, remember that it's not just about data retrieval—it's about strategic utilization. With a clear grasp of how to access, analyze, and interpret existing information, businesses can stay ahead of the curve, adapt to changing landscapes, and make decisions that are grounded in reliable knowledge.

How to Conduct Secondary Research in Minutes?

In the world of decision-making, having access to real-time consumer insights is no longer a luxury—it's a necessity. That's where Appinio comes in, revolutionizing how businesses gather valuable data for better decision-making. As a real-time market research platform, Appinio empowers companies to tap into the pulse of consumer opinions swiftly and seamlessly.

• Fast Insights: Say goodbye to lengthy research processes. With Appinio, you can transform questions into actionable insights in minutes.
• Data-Driven Decisions: Harness the power of real-time consumer insights to drive your business strategies, allowing you to make informed choices on the fly.
• Seamless Integration: Appinio handles the research and technical complexities, freeing you to focus on what truly matters: making rapid data-driven decisions that propel your business forward.

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What is a Pulse Survey? Definition, Types, Questions

• What is Secondary Research? + [Methods & Examples]

In some situations, the researcher may not be directly involved in the data gathering process and instead, would rely on already existing data in order to arrive at research outcomes. This approach to systematic investigation is known as secondary research. 

There are many reasons a researcher may want to make use of already existing data instead of collecting data samples, first-hand. In this article, we will share some of these reasons with you and show you how to conduct secondary research with Formplus. 

What is Secondary  Research?

Secondary research is a common approach to a systematic investigation in which the researcher depends solely on existing data in the course of the research process. This research design involves organizing, collating and analyzing these data samples for valid research conclusions. 

Secondary research is also known as desk research since it involves synthesizing existing data that can be sourced from the internet, peer-reviewed journals , textbooks, government archives, and libraries. What the secondary researcher does is to study already established patterns in previous researches and apply this information to the specific research context. 

Interestingly, secondary research often relies on data provided by primary research and this is why some researches combine both methods of investigation. In this sense, the researcher begins by evaluating and identifying gaps in existing knowledge before adopting primary research to gather new information that will serve his or her research. 

What are Secondary Research Methods?

As already highlighted, secondary research involves data assimilation from different sources, that is, using available research materials instead of creating a new pool of data using primary research methods. Common secondary research methods include data collection through the internet, libraries, archives, schools and organizational reports. 

• Online Data

Online data is data that is gathered via the internet. In recent times, this method has become popular because the internet provides a large pool of both free and paid research resources that can be easily accessed with the click of a button. 

While this method simplifies the data gathering process , the researcher must take care to depend solely on authentic sites when collecting information. In some way, the internet is a virtual aggregation for all other sources of secondary research data. 

• Data from Government and Non-government Archives

You can also gather useful research materials from government and non-government archives and these archives usually contain verifiable information that provides useful insights on varying research contexts. In many cases, you would need to pay a sum to gain access to these data. 

The challenge, however, is that such data is not always readily available due to a number of factors. For instance, some of these materials are described as classified information as such, it would be difficult for researchers to have access to them. 

• Data from Libraries

Research materials can also be accessed through public and private libraries. Think of a library as an information storehouse that contains an aggregation of important information that can serve as valid data in different research contexts. 

Typically, researchers donate several copies of dissertations to public and private libraries; especially in cases of academic research. Also, business directories, newsletters, annual reports and other similar documents that can serve as research data, are gathered and stored in libraries, in both soft and hard copies. 

• Data from Institutions of Learning

Educational facilities like schools, faculties, and colleges are also a great source of secondary data; especially in academic research. This is because a lot of research is carried out in educational institutions more than in other sectors. 

It is relatively easier to obtain research data from educational institutions because these institutions are committed to solving problems and expanding the body of knowledge. You can easily request research materials from educational facilities for the purpose of a literature review. 

Secondary research methods can also be categorized into qualitative and quantitative data collection methods . Quantitative data gathering methods include online questionnaires and surveys, reports about trends plus statistics about different areas of a business or industry.  

Qualitative research methods include relying on previous interviews and data gathered through focus groups which helps an organization to understand the needs of its customers and plan to fulfill these needs. It also helps businesses to measure the level of employee satisfaction with organizational policies. 

When Do We Conduct Secondary Research?

Typically, secondary research is the first step in any systematic investigation. This is because it helps the researcher to understand what research efforts have been made so far and to utilize this knowledge in mapping out a novel direction for his or her investigation. 

For instance, you may want to carry out research into the nature of a respiratory condition with the aim of developing a vaccine. The best place to start is to gather existing research material about the condition which would help to point your research in the right direction. 

When sifting through these pieces of information, you would gain insights into methods and findings from previous researches which would help you define your own research process. Secondary research also helps you to identify knowledge gaps that can serve as the name of your own research. 

Questions to ask before conducting Secondary Research

Since secondary research relies on already existing data, the researcher must take extra care to ensure that he or she utilizes authentic data samples for the research. Falsified data can have a negative impact on the research outcomes; hence, it is important to always carry out resource evaluation by asking a number of questions as highlighted below:

• What is the purpose of the research? Again, it is important for every researcher to clearly define the purpose of the research before proceeding with it. Usually, the research purpose determines the approach that would be adopted. 
• What is my research methodology? After identifying the purpose of the research, the next thing to do is outline the research methodology. This is the point where the researcher chooses to gather data using secondary research methods. 
• What are my expected research outcomes? 
• Who collected the data to be analyzed? Before going on to use secondary data for your research, it is necessary to ascertain the authenticity of the information. This usually affects the data reliability and determines if the researcher can trust the materials.  For instance, data gathered from personal blogs and websites may not be as credible as information obtained from an organization’s website. 
• When was the data collected? Data recency is another factor that must be considered since the recency of data can affect research outcomes. For instance, if you are carrying out research into the number of women who smoke in London, it would not be appropriate for you to make use of information that was gathered 5 years ago unless you plan to do some sort of data comparison. 
• Is the data consistent with other data available from other sources? Always compare and contrast your data with other available research materials as this would help you to identify inconsistencies if any.
• What type of data was collected? Take care to determine if the secondary data aligns with your research goals and objectives. 
• How was the data collected? 

Advantages of Secondary Research

• Easily Accessible With secondary research, data can easily be accessed in no time; especially with the use of the internet. Apart from the internet, there are different data sources available in secondary research like public libraries and archives which are relatively easy to access too. 
• Secondary research is cost-effective and it is not time-consuming. The researcher can cut down on costs because he or she is not directly involved in the data collection process which is also time-consuming. 
• Secondary research helps researchers to identify knowledge gaps which can serve as the basis of further systematic investigation. 
• It is useful for mapping out the scope of research thereby setting the stage for field investigations. When carrying out secondary research, the researchers may find that the exact information they were looking for is already available, thus eliminating the need and expense incurred in carrying out primary research in these areas. 

Disadvantages of Secondary Research  

• Questionable Data: With secondary research, it is hard to determine the authenticity of the data because the researcher is not directly involved in the research process. Invalid data can affect research outcomes negatively hence, it is important for the researcher to take extra care by evaluating the data before making use of it. 
• Generalization: Secondary data is unspecific in nature and may not directly cater to the needs of the researcher. There may not be correlations between the existing data and the research process. 
• Common Data: Research materials in secondary research are not exclusive to an individual or group. This means that everyone has access to the data and there is little or no “information advantage” gained by those who obtain the research.
• It has the risk of outdated research materials. Outdated information may offer little value especially for organizations competing in fast-changing markets.

How to Conduct Online Surveys with Formplus 

Follow these 5 steps to create and administer online surveys for secondary research: 

• Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create an online survey for secondary research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin. 

• Edit Form Title

Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Secondary Research Survey”.

• Click on the edit button to edit the form.

• Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Preview form. 
• Customize your Form

With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images and even change the font according to your needs. 

• Multiple Sharing Options

Formplus offers multiple form sharing options which enables you to easily share your questionnaire with respondents. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages. 

You can send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access. 

Why Use Formplus as a Secondary Research Tool?

• Simple Form Builder Solution

The Formplus form builder is easy to use and does not require you to have any knowledge in computer programming, unlike other form builders. For instance, you can easily add form fields to your form by dragging and dropping them from the inputs section in the builder. 

In the form builder, you can also modify your fields to be hidden or read-only and you can create smart forms with save and resume options, form lookup, and conditional logic. Formplus also allows you to customize your form by adding preferred background images and your organization’s logo. 

• Over 25 Form Fields

With over 25 versatile form fields available in the form builder, you can easily collect data the way you like. You can receive payments directly in your form by adding payment fields and you can also add file upload fields to allow you receive files in your form too. 

• Offline Form feature

With Formplus, you can collect data from respondents even without internet connectivity . Formplus automatically detects when there is no or poor internet access and allows forms to be filled out and submitted in offline mode. 

Offline form responses are automatically synced with the servers when the internet connection is restored. This feature is extremely useful for field research that may involve sourcing for data in remote and rural areas plus it allows you to scale up on your audience reach. 

• Team and Collaboration

 You can add important collaborators and team members to your shared account so that you all can work on forms and responses together. With the multiple users options, you can assign different roles to team members and you can also grant and limit access to forms and folders. 

This feature works with an audit trail that enables you to track changes and suggestions made to your form as the administrator of the shared account. You can set up permissions to limit access to the account while organizing and monitoring your form(s) effectively. 

• Embeddable Form

Formplus allows you to easily add your form with respondents with the click of a button. For instance, you can directly embed your form in your organization’s web pages by adding Its unique shortcode to your site’s HTML. 

You can also share your form to your social media pages using the social media direct sharing buttons available in the form builder. You can choose to embed the form as an iframe or web pop-up that is easy to fill. 

With Formplus, you can share your form with numerous form respondents in no time. You can invite respondents to fill out your form via email invitation which allows you to also track responses and prevent multiple submissions in your form. 

In addition, you can also share your form link as a QR code so that respondents only need to scan the code to access your form. Our forms have a unique QR code that you can add to your website or print in banners, business cards and the like. 

While secondary research can be cost-effective and time-efficient, it requires the researcher to take extra care in ensuring that the data is authentic and valid. As highlighted earlier, data in secondary research can be sourced through the internet, archives, and libraries, amongst other methods. 

Secondary research is usually the starting point of systematic investigation because it provides the researcher with a background of existing research efforts while identifying knowledge gaps to be filled. This type of research is typically used in science and education. 

It is, however, important to note that secondary research relies on the outcomes of collective primary research data in carrying out its systematic investigation. Hence, the success of your research will depend, to a greater extent, on the quality of data provided by primary research in relation to the research context.

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Secondary Research: Methods, Examples, and Strategic Insights

Kate williams.

Last Updated:  

29 May 2024

Table Of Contents

Secondary Research

• An Overview
• Primary vs Secondary

Sources and References

• Conducting Research
• Pros and Cons

Secondary research involves the analysis and interpretation of existing data and information collected by others. It provides valuable insights for informed decision-making without conducting new surveys or experiments. But, why is it important for businesses? Successful enterprises attribute their strategic decisions to comprehensive secondary research. In this blog, we will look into its importance, pros and cons, and all that you need to know.

What is Secondary Research?

Secondary research is not just about compiling data. It’s about synthesizing information to draw meaningful conclusions. Analysts sift through vast datasets, identifying patterns, trends, and correlations. This methodical approach transforms raw data into actionable insights, guiding businesses in their strategic endeavors.

Simply put, it involves the analysis and interpretation of existing data and information collected by others. This data can come from a variety of sources, such as academic papers, industry reports, market studies, government publications, and online databases. By tapping into pre-existing data, businesses can gain valuable insights without the time and resource-intensive process of conducting primary research, making it a cost-effective and efficient approach.

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Primary vs Secondary Research

Now, before we delve into the details, we need to be very clear about what primary research is. Why? Because the former builds upon the latter. Secondary research can only be done upon the existence of data. And, what better way than a comparison of the two to get a better grasp?

Primary Research:

Direct Data Collection: It involves gathering data directly from the source. Researchers use methods like surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations to collect specific information tailored to their study.

Specific to Study: The data collected in primary research is exclusive to the research question at hand. It is designed to address specific inquiries and provide detailed, targeted insights into the topic of interest.

Time-Consuming: Moreover, it can be time-intensive as it requires planning, conducting surveys or interviews, and analyzing the collected data. Researchers invest significant time to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information gathered.

Tailored Questions: Researchers formulate precise and tailored questions to extract relevant information from participants. These questions are carefully designed to elicit specific responses, contributing to the depth of the research findings.

Costly: Implementing primary research methods often involves expenses related to participant recruitment, survey administration, and data analysis. The costs can vary based on the complexity and scope of the research.

Fresh Information: It provides fresh, firsthand information directly from the participants. It offers unique perspectives and insights, making it valuable for studies requiring original data.

Read More: How To Do Primary Research: An Ultimate Guide

Existing Data Analysis: It involves the analysis and interpretation of pre-existing data. Researchers explore reports, articles, studies, and other pre-existing information to draw conclusions or generate insights.

Broad Overview: It provides a comprehensive overview of a subject matter. It encompasses a wide range of data, allowing researchers to explore multiple facets of a topic without the need for new data collection.

Time-Efficient: Researchers utilize information readily available from various sources. This approach saves time compared to the process of collecting new data through primary research methods.

General Insights: The insights gained are general. They offer a broad understanding of a topic without the specificity that primary research can provide. Basically, it forms a foundation for initial exploration.

Cost-Effective: Compared to primary research, it is cost-effective as it utilizes existing data sources. Researchers do not incur the costs associated with participant recruitment and data collection, making it a budget-friendly option.

Historical Data: Secondary research often involves historical data, which can provide trends and patterns over time. Researchers can analyze past information to identify changes, making it valuable for longitudinal studies.

When conducting secondary research for a company, the focus narrows down to specific sources that offer relevant insights into market trends, consumer behaviors, industry competition, and other business-related aspects.

Here’s a tailored list of key sources and references:

1. Industry Reports and Market Research Firms

Market research is key! Industry-specific reports from reputable market research firms offer detailed analyses, market forecasts, and competitor landscapes, aiding businesses in understanding market trends and customer demands.

2. Competitor Websites and Annual Reports

Your competitor’s website and annual reports are like their personal diary. Analyzing them provides valuable information on their products, strategies, financial performance, and market positioning, helping businesses identify competitive advantages and market gaps.

3. Trade Publications and Business Magazines

They provide industry-specific news, expert opinions, and case studies. This in turn provides insights into merging trends, best practices, and successful business strategies.

4. Government Economic Data and Regulatory Publications

Governments share economic data and regulations. For instance, you get data on GDP growth, employment rates, and industry regulations. You’ll know what’s changing and how it might affect your business.

5. Academic Journals and Research Papers

These are like textbooks. They provide in-depth information about theories and analyses. With it, you can understand the “whys” behind market behaviors.

How to Conduct Secondary Research

1. define your research questions.

Clearly outline what you want to know. Define specific research questions to guide your search and keep your focus sharp. Also, remember to make the questions to the point to provide a clear direction for your study.

2. Identify Your Sources

Don’t just stick to one source. Explore all the options available to get a broad view of the subject. Later, narrow down your findings to get to the precise point you have been deducing.

3. Use Online Databases Wisely

Develop a robust set of keywords related to your topic. Utilize Boolean operators ( AND, OR, NOT ) to refine your search. Experiment with various combinations to obtain the most relevant results.

4. Evaluate Your Sources

Assess the credibility of each source. Check the author’s credentials, publication date, and publisher. Peer-reviewed journals and academic institutions are usually trustworthy.

5. Take Thorough Notes

Record key points, statistics, and quotes. Note the publication details for proper citation. Organize your notes by topic for easy reference.

6. Synthesize Information

Analyze the gathered data. Identify patterns, trends, and discrepancies. Compare and contrast information from different sources to gain comprehensive insights. By doing this, you can see how different sources complement or contradict each other.

7. Validate the Information

Once you have all the information needed, properly source and add references. Any unauthorized data can cause huge differences in the decisions you make based on the insights. In the case of academic research, create a comprehensive bibliography listing all your sources.

8. Stay Curious and Keep Exploring

Research does not end with a single project. Stay curious about new developments, theories, and research findings. Continue learning to broaden your knowledge base and refine your research skills.

Types of Secondary Research

1. literature reviews.

Literature reviews involve analyzing existing academic publications, research papers, books, and articles related to the topic of study. Through literature reviews, scholars gain insights into the evolution of ideas, theories, and methodologies, providing a solid foundation for their research endeavors.

2. Content Analysis

Content analysis is a methodical examination of various media forms, such as articles, advertisements, social media posts, or documents, to extract meaningful insights. Researchers scrutinize the content to identify patterns, themes, attitudes, or trends within the material. This method is widely used in media studies, communication, and social sciences.

 3. Historical Analysis

This method allows researchers to explore the social, cultural, and political factors that have shaped societies, providing valuable context for contemporary studies. It is the meticulous study of historical documents, records, artifacts, or events to gain insights into past behaviors or trends.

4. Case Studies

Case studies delve into specific instances, organizations, or events, offering an in-depth exploration of real-life situations. Researchers analyze existing reports, documents, or publications related to the chosen case to extract valuable insights. It is widely used in business, social sciences, and medical research.

5. Surveys and Polls

Surveys and polls involve the analysis of data that is collected from diverse populations. Researchers explore data sets generated by organizations or research institutions through survey administration. They provide the quantitative data you need to make informed decisions. Moreover, they make it easy to gain insights into public opinions, attitudes, behaviors, or trends across various demographics.

Read More: How to Conduct a Survey

Pros and Cons of Secondary Research

Cost-Effectiveness: Utilizes existing data, saving on research costs. Time Efficiency: Quick access to a wide range of data. Broad Scope: Covers diverse topics and historical data. In-Depth Analysis: Enables detailed examination and exploration.

Disadvantages

Data Quality Concerns: Varied quality and potential biases in existing data. Limited Control: No control over data collection, limiting specific variables. Data Relevance: Data might not precisely align with research questions. Outdated Information: Data can become obsolete in rapidly changing fields.

Alright, before we end this, let’s talk timing! Secondary research guides you through different points of your research process. Imagine you are at the beginning, trying to go deeper into the topic. This is where it comes of use. It gives you foundational knowledge and helps you refine your questions. Then, later, when you’re digging into scholarly articles, research shows you where others have tread and where unexplored territories lie.

So, before you conduct primary research make sure you make a quick secondary research pitstop. It will not only save you time and effort but also help you understand the trends that matter, whether you’re at the beginning, middle, or even near the end of your research.

And, while you’re at it, make sure you stop by SurveySparrow and give it a try! This pitstop might be your ultimate solution.

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Using Secondary Research For Better Decisions: An Overview

It’s time to enhance your work with existing research findings! Explore all about the world of secondary research.

Secondary research, also known as desk research or literature review, is a cornerstone of academic inquiry and professional investigation. It involves the analysis and synthesis of existing data, information, and knowledge collected by others, rather than gathering primary data firsthand. In essence, secondary research is akin to standing on the shoulders of giants, leveraging the work of previous researchers to gain insights, validate findings, and generate new knowledge.

This methodological approach holds immense value across various disciplines, from scientific research and social sciences to business analytics and market research. By tapping into a vast reservoir of pre-existing data sources, secondary research enables researchers to explore diverse perspectives, identify patterns, and draw meaningful conclusions without the constraints of time and resources associated with primary data collection.

This article delves into the nuances of secondary research, exploring its significance, methodologies, best practices, and potential pitfalls. 

Understanding Secondary Research

Secondary research refers to the systematic examination and analysis of existing data, information, and knowledge sources to address a research question or inquiry. This type of research involves synthesizing data that has already been collected, processed, and published by others, rather than gathering new data through direct observation or experimentation.

Definition Of Secondary Research

Secondary research encompasses a wide range of sources, including but not limited to academic journals, books, government reports, industry publications, market research reports, historical documents, and online databases. Researchers often employ various methods to access and analyze these sources, such as literature reviews, content analysis, meta-analyses, and data mining techniques.

Also read: Chaos to Clarity: Structuring Your Literature Review Format

One of the key characteristics of secondary research is its reliance on pre-existing data and information. Researchers leverage these resources to examine trends, explore relationships, validate hypotheses, and generate new insights within their respective fields of study. Secondary research can be particularly useful when conducting exploratory studies, theoretical investigations, or comparative analyses where access to primary data may be limited or impractical.

Secondary research differs from primary research in several fundamental ways:

• Source of Data : Primary research involves the collection of original data directly from individuals, organizations, or phenomena through methods such as surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations. In contrast, secondary research relies on data that has already been collected, processed, and disseminated by others.
• Time and Resources : Primary research typically requires significant time, effort, and resources to plan, execute, and analyze data collection activities. Secondary research, on the other hand, can be more time-efficient and cost-effective since researchers can access readily available data without the need for direct data collection.
• Control Over Variables : In primary research, researchers have greater control over the research process, including the selection of participants, design of data collection instruments, and manipulation of variables. Secondary research involves analyzing data collected by others, limiting researchers’ control over these factors.
• Depth of Analysis : While primary research allows researchers to delve deeply into specific research questions or hypotheses, secondary research often provides broader insights by synthesizing data from multiple sources and perspectives.

Importance Of Secondary Research

Secondary research plays a crucial role in advancing scientific inquiry, informing evidence-based decision-making, and addressing research questions across various disciplines. Its cost-effectiveness, time efficiency, access to diverse data sources, validation of findings, exploratory insights, historical context, ethical considerations, and promotion of accessibility and reproducibility underscore its importance as a valuable research methodology.

• Cost – Effectiveness : Secondary research is often more cost-effective compared to primary research methods. It eliminates the need for data collection expenses such as survey administration, participant recruitment, and experimental setups, making it an attractive option for researchers with limited budgets.
• Time Efficiency : Secondary research saves valuable time by leveraging existing data sources. Researchers can quickly access a vast array of information without the lengthy process of designing, implementing, and analyzing primary data collection methods.
• Access to Diverse Data Sources : Secondary research provides access to a wide range of data sources, including academic journals, government reports, industry publications, and historical documents. This diversity allows researchers to explore multiple perspectives, validate findings, and conduct comprehensive literature reviews to support their research objectives.
• Validation of Findings : Secondary research enables researchers to validate their findings by comparing and contrasting results across different studies and datasets. This process helps strengthen the robustness and credibility of research outcomes, enhancing confidence in the conclusions drawn from the analysis.
• Exploratory Insights : Secondary research can uncover new insights and hypotheses for further exploration. By synthesizing existing knowledge and identifying gaps in the literature, researchers can generate novel research questions and directions that contribute to the advancement of knowledge within their fields.
• Historical Context and Trends Analysis : Secondary research provides access to historical data, allowing researchers to analyze trends, patterns, and changes over time. This historical perspective enhances understanding of phenomena, facilitates longitudinal studies, and informs future projections and forecasts.
• Ethical Considerations : Secondary research minimizes ethical concerns associated with primary data collection, such as ensuring participant confidentiality, obtaining informed consent, and mitigating potential harm to research subjects. By utilizing existing data, researchers can adhere to ethical principles while still conducting rigorous and impactful research.
• Accessibility and Reproducibility : Secondary research promotes accessibility and reproducibility by making data and findings available to a wider audience of researchers and stakeholders. Transparent reporting of methods and results enhances the credibility and replicability of research outcomes, fostering collaboration and knowledge exchange within the academic community.

Also read: The Importance of Reproducibility in Scientific Research

Key Methods Of Secondary Research

In secondary research, researchers utilize various methods to access and analyze existing data sources. These methods allow researchers to explore diverse perspectives, validate findings, identify patterns, and generate new insights without the constraints of primary data collection.

Data Sources For Secondary Research

Researchers access a variety of sources such as academic journals, government reports, industry publications, books, and online databases.

• Academic Journals : Academic journals contain peer-reviewed research articles spanning various disciplines. They provide in-depth analyses, theoretical frameworks, and empirical findings relevant to specific research topics. Advantages include rigorously reviewed and validated research, while disadvantages may include access fees and potential publication bias.
• Government Reports and Publications : Government agencies produce reports, statistics, and policy documents on a wide range of topics, including demographics, economics, health, and education. These sources offer authoritative data and insights but may be subject to political agendas and limitations in data availability or accessibility.
• Industry Reports and Market Research : Industry reports and market research publications provide data and analysis on specific markets, industries, consumer behaviors, and trends. They offer valuable insights for business planning, market analysis, and strategic decision-making, but may be costly and proprietary.
• Books and Monographs : Books and monographs offer comprehensive reviews, analyses, and interpretations of research topics, theories, and methodologies. They provide historical context, theoretical frameworks, and qualitative insights, but may lack the timeliness and specificity of other sources.
• Online Databases and Repositories : Online databases such as PubMed, JSTOR, and Google Scholar aggregate scholarly literature, research articles, and citations from various sources. They offer extensive search capabilities, access to full-text articles, and citation tracking features, but may require subscriptions or access fees for certain content.

Techniques Of Collating Secondary Research

Different techniques are employed to analyze and interpret secondary data, including literature reviews, content analysis, meta-analysis, data mining, and systematic reviews.

• Literature Review : A literature review involves systematically searching, evaluating, and synthesizing existing research literature on a specific topic or research question. It helps identify gaps in knowledge, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies, providing a comprehensive overview of relevant studies and findings.
• Content Analysis : Content analysis involves analyzing textual, visual, or audiovisual content to identify patterns, themes, and trends. It allows researchers to quantify and interpret qualitative data, uncovering implicit meanings and relationships within a dataset.
• Meta – Analysis : Meta-analysis involves statistically synthesizing data from multiple studies to produce a quantitative summary of findings. It enables researchers to assess the magnitude and consistency of effects across studies, identify sources of variability, and generate more precise estimates of effect sizes.
• Data Mining : Data mining involves extracting patterns, trends, and insights from large datasets using computational techniques and algorithms. It allows researchers to discover hidden patterns, associations, and correlations within complex data structures, facilitating exploratory analyses and predictive modeling.
• Systematic Review : A systematic review involves a rigorous and transparent process of searching, selecting, and synthesizing relevant research studies to address a specific research question. It follows predefined criteria and methodologies to minimize bias and ensure reproducibility, providing robust evidence for informing policy and practice decisions.

Usage Of Secondary Research In Different Fields

Secondary research plays a vital role in academia and market analysis by providing researchers and businesses with access to existing data sources, insights, and knowledge that inform scholarly inquiry, theoretical development, and strategic decision-making.

Secondary Research In Academic Studies

In academia, secondary research methods are essential for synthesizing existing knowledge, identifying research gaps, and developing theoretical frameworks. Through literature reviews, meta-analyses, historical research, and theoretical studies, scholars contribute to the advancement of knowledge within their disciplines.

• Literature Reviews : Researchers conduct literature reviews to synthesize existing knowledge on a particular topic, identify research gaps, and develop theoretical frameworks for further investigation.
• Meta – Analysis : Meta-analyses combine data from multiple studies to provide a comprehensive overview of research findings, assess the magnitude of effects, and identify trends or patterns across studies.
• Historical Research : Historians utilize secondary sources such as archival documents, historical texts, and scholarly publications to analyze past events, trends, and social phenomena.
• Theoretical Studies: Scholars use secondary research to develop and critique theoretical frameworks, test hypotheses, and contribute to the theoretical foundations of their disciplines.

Benefits of Secondary Research in Academia:

• Provides a comprehensive understanding of existing knowledge and research trends.
• Helps identify gaps in the literature and areas for further investigation.
• Supports the development of theoretical frameworks and research hypotheses.
• Facilitates interdisciplinary collaborations and knowledge exchange.

Secondary Research In Market Analysis

In market analysis, secondary research plays a critical role in gathering market data, assessing industry trends, and understanding consumer behavior. Market research reports, competitor analysis, trend tracking, and consumer insights derived from secondary data sources inform strategic decision-making and drive business success.

• Market Research Reports : Analysts use secondary data sources such as market research reports, industry publications, and government statistics to assess market size, trends, consumer behavior, and competitive landscapes.
• Competitor Analysis : Companies analyze secondary data on competitors’ products, pricing strategies, marketing campaigns, and customer feedback to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in the market.
• Trend Analysis : Market analysts track industry trends, technological advancements, regulatory changes, and macroeconomic indicators using secondary data to anticipate market shifts and inform strategic decision-making.
• Consumer Insights : Secondary research provides insights into consumer preferences, demographics, purchasing behaviors, and market segmentation, helping businesses tailor their products and services to meet customer needs.

Benefits of Secondary Research in Market Analysis:

• Offers cost-effective access to a wide range of market data and insights.
• Helps businesses understand market dynamics, competitive landscapes, and consumer trends.
• Supports evidence-based decision-making and strategic planning.
• Enables companies to anticipate market opportunities and mitigate risks.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Secondary Research

Secondary research offers numerous benefits for researchers across various fields. It provides a cost-effective and time-efficient means of accessing a diverse range of data sources, validating findings, and generating new insights. Below are the key advantages and disadvantages of secondary research:

Advantages Of Secondary Research

While this article has touched on a few of these benefits previously, let’s revisit and delve into some specific advantages once more.

• Cost – Effectiveness : By utilizing existing data sources, secondary research eliminates the need for expensive data collection methods, making it a cost-effective option for researchers with limited budgets.
• Time Efficiency : Secondary research saves valuable time by providing quick access to a wealth of information, bypassing the lengthy process of primary data collection and analysis.
• Access to Diverse Data Sources : Researchers can access a wide range of data sources, including academic journals, government reports, industry publications, and online databases, allowing for comprehensive literature reviews and validation of findings from multiple perspectives.
• Validation of Findings : Secondary research enables researchers to validate their findings by comparing and contrasting results across different studies and datasets, enhancing the credibility and robustness of research outcomes.
• Exploratory Insights : Secondary research can uncover new insights and hypotheses for further exploration, contributing to the generation of novel research questions and directions within various fields of study.

Disadvantages Of Secondary Research

Despite its advantages, secondary research also presents certain limitations and challenges that researchers need to consider. Below are the key disadvantages of secondary research:

• Limited Control Over Data Quality : Researchers have limited control over the quality and reliability of secondary data sources, which may be outdated, incomplete, or biased, leading to potential inaccuracies in research findings.
• Potential for Biases : Secondary data sources may be subject to biases introduced by the original data collectors or authors, such as publication bias, selection bias, and reporting bias, which can distort research findings and affect the validity of conclusions.
• Data Availability and Accessibility : Some secondary data sources may be inaccessible or proprietary, requiring researchers to rely on publicly available datasets or pay for access to certain information, which may limit the scope and depth of research studies.
• Lack of Contextual Information : Secondary data often lacks detailed documentation about data collection methods, sample characteristics, and measurement instruments, making it challenging for researchers to interpret findings accurately and draw meaningful conclusions.
• Incompatibility of Data Sources : Integrating data from multiple sources with varying formats, definitions, and measurement scales can pose challenges for researchers, leading to inconsistencies and data integration issues that require careful validation of results.

Secondary Research Best Practices

• Define Clear Objectives : Clearly define your research objectives and questions to guide your secondary research process. This ensures focus and clarity when selecting relevant data sources and methodologies.
• Select Reliable Data Sources : Choose reputable and reliable sources for your secondary research, such as peer-reviewed journals, government reports, and reputable databases. Verify the credibility and validity of sources to ensure the quality of your data.
• Use Multiple Sources : Utilize multiple data sources to triangulate findings and validate results. Combining diverse sources enhances the robustness and reliability of your research outcomes.
• Conduct Comprehensive Literature Reviews : Thoroughly search and review existing literature related to your research topic. A comprehensive literature review helps identify gaps, trends, and key insights to inform your study.
• Document Your Process : Keep detailed records of your secondary research process, including search strategies, data sources, and selection criteria. Transparent documentation ensures reproducibility and enhances the credibility of your research.
• Evaluate Data Quality : Assess the quality and reliability of secondary data sources, considering factors such as relevance, currency, accuracy, and methodological rigor. Scrutinize potential biases and limitations in the data to mitigate risks.
• Critically Analyze Findings : Critically analyze and interpret secondary research findings, considering the context, assumptions, and limitations of the data. Exercise caution in drawing conclusions and avoid overgeneralization or misinterpretation.
• Synthesize and Summarize Insights : Synthesize key insights from your secondary research findings and present them in a clear and concise manner. Summarize relevant trends, patterns, and implications to inform decision-making and further research.
• Acknowledge Sources Appropriately : Properly cite and acknowledge the sources of your secondary research data to uphold academic integrity and avoid plagiarism. Follow citation guidelines and provide clear references for all borrowed information.
• Stay Ethical : Adhere to ethical principles in conducting secondary research, including respect for intellectual property rights, confidentiality of data, and transparency in reporting methods and findings. Maintain integrity and professionalism throughout the research process.

Science Figures, Graphical Abstracts, And Infographics For Your Research

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Jessica Abbadia is a lawyer that has been working in Digital Marketing since 2020, improving organic performance for apps and websites in various regions through ASO and SEO. Currently developing scientific and intellectual knowledge for the community's benefit. Jessica is an animal rights activist who enjoys reading and drinking strong coffee.

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Secondary Research Advantages, Limitations, and Sources

Summary: secondary research should be a prerequisite to the collection of primary data, but it rarely provides all the answers you need. a thorough evaluation of the secondary data is needed to assess its relevance and accuracy..

5 minutes to read. By author Michaela Mora on January 25, 2022 Topics: Relevant Methods & Tips , Business Strategy , Market Research

Secondary research is based on data already collected for purposes other than the specific problem you have. Secondary research is usually part of exploratory market research designs.

The connection between the specific purpose that originates the research is what differentiates secondary research from primary research. Primary research is designed to address specific problems. However, analysis of available secondary data should be a prerequisite to the collection of primary data.

Advantages of Secondary Research

Secondary data can be faster and cheaper to obtain, depending on the sources you use.

Secondary research can help to:

• Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses.
• Formulate an appropriate research design (e.g., identify key variables).
• Interpret data from primary research as it can provide some insights into general trends in an industry or product category.
• Understand the competitive landscape.

Limitations of Secondary Research

The usefulness of secondary research tends to be limited often for two main reasons:

Lack of relevance

Secondary research rarely provides all the answers you need. The objectives and methodology used to collect the secondary data may not be appropriate for the problem at hand.

Given that it was designed to find answers to a different problem than yours, you will likely find gaps in answers to your problem. Furthermore, the data collection methods used may not provide the data type needed to support the business decisions you have to make (e.g., qualitative research methods are not appropriate for go/no-go decisions).

Lack of Accuracy

Secondary data may be incomplete and lack accuracy depending on;

• The research design (exploratory, descriptive, causal, primary vs. repackaged secondary data, the analytical plan, etc.)
• Sampling design and sources (target audiences, recruitment methods)
• Data collection method (qualitative and quantitative techniques)
• Analysis point of view (focus and omissions)
• Reporting stages (preliminary, final, peer-reviewed)
• Rate of change in the studied topic (slowly vs. rapidly evolving phenomenon, e.g., adoption of specific technologies).
• Lack of agreement between data sources.

Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Research Data

Before taking the information at face value, you should conduct a thorough evaluation of the secondary data you find using the following criteria:

• Purpose : Understanding why the data was collected and what questions it was trying to answer will tell us how relevant and useful it is since it may or may not be appropriate for your objectives.
• Methodology used to collect the data : Important to understand sources of bias.
• Accuracy of data: Sources of errors may include research design, sampling, data collection, analysis, and reporting.
• When the data was collected : Secondary data may not be current or updated frequently enough for the purpose that you need.
• Content of the data : Understanding the key variables, units of measurement, categories used and analyzed relationships may reveal how useful and relevant it is for your purposes.
• Source reputation : In the era of purposeful misinformation on the Internet, it is important to check the expertise, credibility, reputation, and trustworthiness of the data source.

Secondary Research Data Sources

Compared to primary research, the collection of secondary data can be faster and cheaper to obtain, depending on the sources you use.

Secondary data can come from internal or external sources.

Internal sources of secondary data include ready-to-use data or data that requires further processing available in internal management support systems your company may be using (e.g., invoices, sales transactions, Google Analytics for your website, etc.).

Prior primary qualitative and quantitative research conducted by the company are also common sources of secondary data. They often generate more questions and help formulate new primary research needed.

However, if there are no internal data collection systems yet or prior research, you probably won’t have much usable secondary data at your disposal.

External sources of secondary data include:

• Published materials
• External databases
• Syndicated services.

Published Materials

Published materials can be classified as:

• General business sources: Guides, directories, indexes, and statistical data.
• Government sources: Census data and other government publications.

External Databases

In many industries across a variety of topics, there are private and public databases that can bed accessed online or by downloading data for free, a fixed fee, or a subscription.

These databases can include bibliographic, numeric, full-text, directory, and special-purpose databases. Some public institutions make data collected through various methods, including surveys, available for others to analyze.

Syndicated Services

These services are offered by companies that collect and sell pools of data that have a commercial value and meet shared needs by a number of clients, even if the data is not collected for specific purposes those clients may have.

Syndicated services can be classified based on specific units of measurements (e.g., consumers, households, organizations, etc.).

The data collection methods for these data may include:

• Surveys (Psychographic and Lifestyle, advertising evaluations, general topics)
• Household panels (Purchase and media use)
• Electronic scanner services (volume tracking data, scanner panels, scanner panels with Cable TV)
• Audits (retailers, wholesalers)
• Direct inquiries to institutions
• Clipping services tracking PR for institutions
• Corporate reports

You can spend hours doing research on Google in search of external sources, but this is likely to yield limited insights. Books, articles journals, reports, blogs posts, and videos you may find online are usually analyses and summaries of data from a particular perspective. They may be useful and give you an indication of the type of data used, but they are not the actual data. Whenever possible, you should look at the actual raw data used to draw your own conclusion on its value for your research objectives. You should check professionally gathered secondary research.

Here are some external secondary data sources often used in market research that you may find useful as starting points in your research. Some are free, while others require payment.

• Pew Research Center : Reports about the issues, attitudes, and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis, and other empirical social science research.
• Data.Census.gov : Data dissemination platform to access demographic and economic data from the U.S. Census Bureau.
• Data.gov : The US. government’s open data source with almost 200,00 datasets ranges in topics from health, agriculture, climate, ecosystems, public safety, finance, energy, manufacturing, education, and business.
• Google Scholar : A web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines.
• Google Public Data Explorer : Makes large, public-interest datasets easy to explore, visualize and communicate.
• Google News Archive : Allows users to search historical newspapers and retrieve scanned images of their pages.
• Mckinsey & Company : Articles based on analyses of various industries.
• Statista : Business data platform with data across 170+ industries and 150+ countries.
• Claritas : Syndicated reports on various market segments.
• Mintel : Consumer reports combining exclusive consumer research with other market data and expert analysis.
• MarketResearch.com : Data aggregator with over 350 publishers covering every sector of the economy as well as emerging industries.
• Packaged Facts : Reports based on market research on consumer goods and services industries.
• Dun & Bradstreet : Company directory with business information.

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15 Secondary Research Examples

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Secondary research is the analysis, summary or synthesis of already existing published research. Instead of collecting original data, as in primary research , secondary research involves data or the results of data analyses already collected.

It is generally published in books, handbooks, textbooks, articles, encyclopedias, websites, magazines, literature reviews and meta-analyses. These are usually referred to as secondary sources .

Secondary research is a good place to start when wanting to acquire a broad view of a research area. It is usually easier to understand and may not require advanced training in research design and statistics.

Secondary Research Examples

1. literature review.

A literature review summarizes, reviews, and critiques the existing published literature on a topic.

Literature reviews are considered secondary research because it is a collection and analysis of the existing literature rather than generating new data for the study.

They hold value for academic studies because they enable us to take stock of the existing knowledge in a field, evaluate it, and identify flaws or gaps in the existing literature. As a result, they’re almost universally used by academics prior to conducting primary research.

Example 1: Workplace stress in nursing: a literature review

Citation: McVicar, A. (2003). Workplace stress in nursing: a literature review.  Journal of advanced nursing ,  44 (6), 633-642. Source: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0309-2402.2003.02853.x

Summary: This study conducted a systematic analysis of literature on the causes of stress for nurses in the workplace. The study explored the literature published between 2000 and 2014. The authors found that the literature identifies several main causes of stress for nurses: professional relationships with doctors and staff, communication difficulties with patients and their families, the stress of emergency cases, overwork, lack of staff, and lack of support from the institutions. They conclude that understanding these stress factors can help improve the healthcare system and make it better for both nurses and patients.

Example 2: The impact of shiftwork on health: a literature review

Citation: Matheson, A., O’Brien, L., & Reid, J. A. (2014). The impact of shiftwork on health: a literature review.  Journal of Clinical Nursing ,  23 (23-24), 3309-3320. Source: https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.12524

In this literature review, 118 studies were analyzed to examine the impact of shift work on nurses’ health. The findings were organized into three main themes: physical health, psychosocial health, and sleep. The majority of shift work research has primarily focused on these themes, but there is a lack of studies that explore the personal experiences of shift workers and how they navigate the effects of shift work on their daily lives. Consequently, it remains challenging to determine how individuals manage their shift work schedules. They found that, while shift work is an inevitable aspect of the nursing profession, there is limited research specifically targeting nurses and the implications for their self-care.

Example 3: Social media and entrepreneurship research: A literature review

Citation: Olanrewaju, A. S. T., Hossain, M. A., Whiteside, N., & Mercieca, P. (2020). Social media and entrepreneurship research: A literature review.  International Journal of Information Management ,  50 , 90-110. Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2019.05.011

In this literature review, 118 studies were analyzed to examine the impact of shift work on nurses’ health. The findings were organized into three main themes: physical health, social health , and sleep. The majority of shift work research has primarily focused on these themes, but there is a lack of studies that explore the personal experiences of shift workers and how they navigate the effects of shift work on their daily lives. Consequently, it remains challenging to determine how individuals manage their shift work schedules. They found that, while shift work is an inevitable aspect of the nursing profession, there is limited research specifically targeting nurses and the implications for their self-care.

Example 4: Adoption of electric vehicle: A literature review and prospects for sustainability

Citation: Kumar, R. R., & Alok, K. (2020). Adoption of electric vehicle: A literature review and prospects for sustainability.  Journal of Cleaner Production ,  253 , 119911. Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119911

This study is a literature review that aims to synthesize and integrate findings from existing research on electric vehicles. By reviewing 239 articles from top journals, the study identifies key factors that influence electric vehicle adoption. Themes identified included: availability of charging infrastructure and total cost of ownership. The authors propose that this analysis can provide valuable insights for future improvements in electric mobility.

Example 5: Towards an understanding of social media use in the classroom: a literature review

Citation: Van Den Beemt, A., Thurlings, M., & Willems, M. (2020). Towards an understanding of social media use in the classroom: a literature review.  Technology, Pedagogy and Education ,  29 (1), 35-55. Source: https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2019.1695657

This study examines how social media can be used in education and the challenges teachers face in balancing its potential benefits with potential distractions. The review analyzes 271 research papers. They find that ambiguous results and poor study quality plague the literature. However, they identify several factors affecting the success of social media in the classroom, including: school culture, attitudes towards social media, and learning goals. The study’s value is that it organizes findings from a large corpus of existing research to help understand the topic more comprehensively.

2. Meta-Analyses

Meta-analyses are similar to literature reviews, but are at a larger scale and tend to involve the quantitative synthesis of data from multiple studies to identify trends and derive estimates of overall effect sizes.

For example, while a literature review might be a qualitative assessment of trends in the literature, a meta analysis would be a quantitative assessment, using statistical methods, of studies that meet specific inclusion criteria that can be directly compared and contrasted.

Often, meta-analysis aim to identify whether the existing data can provide an authoritative account for a hypothesis and whether it’s confirmed across the body of literature.

Example 6: Cholesterol and Alzheimer’s Disease Risk: A Meta-Meta-Analysis

Citation: Sáiz-Vazquez, O., Puente-Martínez, A., Ubillos-Landa, S., Pacheco-Bonrostro, J., & Santabárbara, J. (2020). Cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease risk: a meta-meta-analysis.  Brain sciences ,  10 (6), 386. Source: https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10060386

This study examines the relationship between cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Researchers conducted a systematic search of meta-analyses and reviewed several databases, collecting 100 primary studies and five meta-analyses to analyze the connection between cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease. They find that the literature compellingly demonstrates that low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels significantly influence the development of Alzheimer’s disease, but high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), total cholesterol (TC), and triglycerides (TG) levels do not show significant effects. This is an example of secondary research because it compiles and analyzes data from multiple existing studies and meta-analyses rather than collecting new, original data.

Example 7: The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research

Citation: Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., & Hattie, J. (2020). The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research.  Frontiers in Psychology ,  10 , 3087. Source: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03087

This meta-analysis examines 435 empirical studies research on the effects of feedback on student learning. They use a random-effects model to ascertain whether there is a clear effect size across the literature. The authors find that feedback tends to impact cognitive and motor skill outcomes but has less of an effect on motivational and behavioral outcomes. A key (albeit somewhat obvious) finding was that the manner in which the feedback is provided is a key factor in whether the feedback is effective.

Example 8: How Much Does Education Improve Intelligence? A Meta-Analysis

Citation: Ritchie, S. J., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2018). How much does education improve intelligence? A meta-analysis.  Psychological science ,  29 (8), 1358-1369. Source: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618774253

This study investigates the relationship between years of education and intelligence test scores. The researchers analyzed three types of quasiexperimental studies involving over 600,000 participants to understand if longer education increases intelligence or if more intelligent students simply complete more education. They found that an additional year of education consistently increased cognitive abilities by 1 to 5 IQ points across all broad categories of cognitive ability. The effects persisted throughout the participants’ lives, suggesting that education is an effective way to raise intelligence. This study is an example of secondary research because it compiles and analyzes data from multiple existing studies rather than gathering new, original data.

Example 9: A meta-analysis of factors related to recycling

Citation: Geiger, J. L., Steg, L., Van Der Werff, E., & Ünal, A. B. (2019). A meta-analysis of factors related to recycling.  Journal of environmental psychology ,  64 , 78-97. Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.05.004

This study aims to identify key factors influencing recycling behavior across different studies. The researchers conducted a random-effects meta-analysis on 91 studies focusing on individual and household recycling. They found that both individual factors (such as recycling self-identity and personal norms) and contextual factors (like having a bin at home and owning a house) impacted recycling behavior. The analysis also revealed that individual and contextual factors better predicted the intention to recycle rather than the actual recycling behavior. The study offers theoretical and practical implications and suggests that future research should examine the effects of contextual factors and the interplay between individual and contextual factors.

Example 10: Stress management interventions for police officers and recruits

Citation: Patterson, G. T., Chung, I. W., & Swan, P. W. (2014). Stress management interventions for police officers and recruits: A meta-analysis.  Journal of experimental criminology ,  10 , 487-513. Source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9214-7

The meta-analysis systematically reviews randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies that explore the effects of stress management interventions on outcomes among police officers. It looked at 12 primary studies published between 1984 and 2008. Across the studies, there were a total of 906 participants. Interestingly, it found that the interventions were not effective. Here, we can see how secondary research is valuable sometimes for showing there is no clear trend or consensus in existing literature. The conclusions suggest a need for further research to develop and implement more effective interventions addressing specific stressors and using randomized controlled trials.

3. Textbooks

Academic textbooks tend not to present new research. Rather, they present key academic information in ways that are accessible to university students and academics.

As a result, we can consider textbooks to be secondary rather than primary research. They’re collections of information and research produced by other people, then re-packaged for a specific audience.

Textbooks tend to be written by experts in a topic. However, unlike literature reviews and meta-analyses, they are not necessarily systematic in nature and are not designed to progress current knowledge through identifying gaps, weaknesses, and strengths in the existing literature.

Example 11: Psychology for the Third Millennium: Integrating Cultural and Neuroscience Perspectives

This textbook aims to bridge the gap between two distinct domains in psychology: Qualitative and Cultural Psychology , which focuses on managing meaning and norms, and Neuropsychology and Neuroscience, which studies brain processes. The authors believe that by combining these areas, a more comprehensive general psychology can be achieved, which unites the biological and cultural aspects of human life. This textbook is considered a secondary source because it synthesizes and integrates information from various primary research studies, theories, and perspectives in the field of psychology.

Example 12: Cultural Sociology: An Introduction

Citation: Bennett, A., Back, L., Edles, L. D., Gibson, M., Inglis, D., Jacobs, R., & Woodward, I. (2012).  Cultural sociology: an introduction . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

This student textbook introduces cultural sociology and proposes that it is a valid model for sociological thinking and research. It gathers together existing knowledge within the field to prevent an overview of major sociological themes and empirical approaches utilized within cultural sociological research. It does not present new research, but rather packages existing knowledge in sociology and makes it understandable for undergraduate students.

Example 13: A Textbook of Community Nursing

Citation: Chilton, S., & Bain, H. (Eds.). (2017).  A textbook of community nursing . New York: Routledge.

This textbook presents an evidence-based introduction to professional topics in nursing. In other words, it gathers evidence from other research and presents it to students. It covers areas such as care approaches, public health, eHealth, therapeutic relationships, and mental health. Like many textbooks, it brings together its own secondary research with user-friendly elements like exercises, activities, and hypothetical case studies in each chapter.

4. White Papers

White papers are typically produced within businesses and government departments rather than academic research environments.

Generally, a white paper will focus on a specific topic of concern to the institution in order to present a state of the current situation as well as opportunities that could be pursued for change, improvement, or profit generation in the future.

Unlike a literature review, a white paper generally doesn’t follow standards of academic rigor and may be presented with a bias toward, or focus on, a company or institution’s mission and values.

Example 14: Future of Mobility White Paper

Citation: Shaheen, S., Totte, H., & Stocker, A. (2018). Future of Mobility White Paper.  UC Berkeley: Institute of Transportation Studies at UC Berkeley Source: https://doi.org/10.7922/G2WH2N5D

This white paper explores the how transportation is changing due to concerns over climate change, equity of access to transit, and rapid technological advances (such as shared mobility and automation). The authors aggregate current information and research on key trends, emerging technologies/services, impacts on California’s transportation ecosystem, and future growth projections by reviewing state agency publications, peer-reviewed articles, and forecast reports from various sources. This white paper is an example of secondary research because it synthesizes and integrates information from multiple primary research sources, expert interviews, and input from an advisory committee of local and state transportation agencies.

Example 15: White Paper Concerning Philosophy of Education and Environment

Citation: Humphreys, C., Blenkinsop, S. White Paper Concerning Philosophy of Education and Environment.  Stud Philos Educ   36 (1): 243–264. Source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-017-9567-2

This white paper acknowledges the increasing significance of climate change, environmental degradation, and our relationship with nature, and the need for philosophers of education and global citizens to respond. The paper examines five key journals in the philosophy of education to identify the scope and content of current environmental discussions. By organizing and summarizing the located articles, it assesses the possibilities and limitations of these discussions within the philosophy of education community. This white paper is an example of secondary research because it synthesizes and integrates information from multiple primary research sources, specifically articles from the key journals in the field, to analyze the current state of environmental discussions.

5. Academic Essays

Students’ academic essays tend to present secondary rather than primary research. The student is expected to study current literature on a topic and use it to present a thesis statement.

Academic essays tend to require rigorous standards of analysis, critique, and evaluation, but do not require systematic investigation of a topic like you would expect in a literature review.

In an essay, a student may identify the most relevant or important data from a field of research in order to demonstrate their knowledge of a field of study. They may also, after demonstrating sufficient knowledge and understanding, present a thesis statement about the issue.

Secondary research involves data that has already been collected. The published research might be reviewed, included in a meta-analysis, or subjected to a re-analysis.

These findings might be published in a peer-reviewed journal or handbook, become the foundation of a book for public consumption, or presented in a more narrative form for a popular website or magazine.

Sources for secondary research can range from scientific journals to government databases and archived data accumulated by research institutes.

University students might engage in secondary research to become familiar with an area of research. That might help spark an intriguing hypothesis for a research project of master’s thesis.

Secondary research can yield new insights into human behavior , or confirm existing conceptualizations of psychological constructs.

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Primary vs Secondary Research: Differences, Methods, Sources, and More

Table of Contents

Primary vs Secondary Research – What’s the Difference?

In the search for knowledge and data to inform decisions, researchers and analysts rely on a blend of research sources. These sources are broadly categorized into primary and secondary research, each serving unique purposes and offering different insights into the subject matter at hand. But what exactly sets them apart?

Primary research is the process of gathering fresh data directly from its source. This approach offers real-time insights and specific information tailored to specific objectives set by stakeholders. Examples include surveys , interviews, and observational studies.

Secondary research , on the other hand, involves the analysis of existing data, most often collected and presented by others. This type of research is invaluable for understanding broader trends, providing context, or validating hypotheses. Common sources include scholarly articles, industry reports, and data compilations.

The crux of the difference lies in the origin of the information: primary research yields firsthand data which can be tailored to a specific business question, whilst secondary research synthesizes what's already out there. In essence, primary research listens directly to the voice of the subject, whereas secondary research hears it secondhand .

When to Use Primary and Secondary Research

Selecting the appropriate research method is pivotal and should be aligned with your research objectives. The choice between primary and secondary research is not merely procedural but strategic, influencing the depth and breadth of insights you can uncover.

Primary research shines when you need up-to-date, specific information directly relevant to your study. It's the go-to for fresh insights, understanding consumer behavior, or testing new theories. Its bespoke nature makes it indispensable for tailoring questions to get the exact answers you need.

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Secondary research is your first step into the research world. It helps set the stage by offering a broad understanding of the topic. Before diving into costly primary research, secondary research can validate the need for further investigation or provide a solid background to build upon. It's especially useful for identifying trends, benchmarking, and situating your research within the existing body of knowledge.

Combining both methods can significantly enhance your research. Starting with secondary research lays the groundwork and narrows the focus, whilst subsequent primary research delves deep into specific areas of interest, providing a well-rounded, comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Primary vs Secondary Research Methods

In the landscape of market research, the methodologies employed can significantly influence the insights and conclusions drawn. Let's delve deeper into the various methods underpinning both primary and secondary research, shedding light on their unique applications and the distinct insights they offer.

Primary Research Methods:

• Surveys: Surveys are a cornerstone of primary research, offering a quantitative approach to gathering data directly from the target audience. By employing structured questionnaires, researchers can collect a vast array of data ranging from customer preferences to behavioral patterns. This method is particularly valuable for acquiring statistically significant data that can inform decision-making processes and strategy development. The application of statistical approaches for analysing this data, such as key drivers analysis, MaxDiff or conjoint analysis can also further enhance any collected data.
• One on One Interviews: Interviews provide a qualitative depth to primary research, allowing for a nuanced exploration of participants' attitudes, experiences, and motivations. Conducted either face-to-face or remotely, interviews enable researchers to delve into the complexities of human behavior, offering rich insights that surveys alone may not uncover. This method is instrumental in exploring new areas of research or obtaining detailed information on specific topics.
• Focus Groups: Focus groups bring together a small, diverse group of participants to discuss and provide feedback on a particular subject, product, or idea. This interactive setting fosters a dynamic exchange of ideas, revealing consumers' perceptions, experiences, and preferences. Focus groups are invaluable for testing concepts, exploring market trends, and understanding the factors that influence consumer decisions.
• Ethnographic Studies: Ethnographic studies involve the systematic watching, recording, and analysis of behaviors and events in their natural setting. This method offers an unobtrusive way to gather authentic data on how people interact with products, services, or environments, providing insights that can lead to more user-centered design and marketing strategies.

Secondary Research Methods:

• Literature Reviews: Literature reviews involve the comprehensive examination of existing research and publications on a given topic. This method enables researchers to synthesize findings from a range of sources, providing a broad understanding of what is already known about a subject and identifying gaps in current knowledge.
• Meta-Analysis: Meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to arrive at a comprehensive conclusion. This method is particularly useful in secondary research for aggregating findings across different studies, offering a more robust understanding of the evidence on a particular topic.
• Content Analysis: Content analysis is a method for systematically analyzing texts, media, or other content to quantify patterns, themes, or biases . This approach allows researchers to assess the presence of certain words, concepts, or sentiments within a body of work, providing insights into trends, representations, and societal norms. This can be performed across a range of sources including social media, customer forums or review sites.
• Historical Research: Historical research involves the study of past events, trends, and behaviors through the examination of relevant documents and records. This method can provide context and understanding of current trends and inform future predictions, offering a unique perspective that enriches secondary research.

Each of these methods, whether primary or secondary, plays a crucial role in the mosaic of market research, offering distinct pathways to uncovering the insights necessary to drive informed decisions and strategies.

Primary vs Secondary Sources in Research

Both primary and secondary sources of research form the backbone of the insight generation process, when both are utilized in tandem it can provide the perfect steppingstone for the generation of real insights. Let’s explore how each category serves its unique purpose in the research ecosystem.

Primary Research Data Sources

Primary research data sources are the lifeblood of firsthand research, providing raw, unfiltered insights directly from the source. These include:

• Customer Satisfaction Survey Results: Direct feedback from customers about their satisfaction with a product or service. This data is invaluable for identifying strengths to build on and areas for improvement and typically renews each month or quarter so that metrics can be tracked over time.
• NPS Rating Scores from Customers: Net Promoter Score (NPS) provides a straightforward metric to gauge customer loyalty and satisfaction. This quantitative data can reveal much about customer sentiment and the likelihood of referrals.
• Ad-hoc Surveys: Ad-hoc surveys can be about any topic which requires investigation, they are typically one off surveys which zero in on one particular business objective. Ad-hoc projects are useful for situations such as investigating issues identified in other tracking surveys, new product development, ad testing, brand messaging, and many other kinds of projects.
• A Field Researcher’s Notes: Detailed observations from fieldwork can offer nuanced insights into user behaviors, interactions, and environmental factors that influence those interactions. These notes are a goldmine for understanding the context and complexities of user experiences.
• Recordings Made During Focus Groups: Audio or video recordings of focus group discussions capture the dynamics of conversation, including reactions, emotions, and the interplay of ideas. Analyzing these recordings can uncover nuanced consumer attitudes and perceptions that might not be evident in survey data alone.

These primary data sources are characterized by their immediacy and specificity, offering a direct line to the subject of study. They enable researchers to gather data that is specifically tailored to their research objectives, providing a solid foundation for insightful analysis and strategic decision-making.

Secondary Research Data Sources

In contrast, secondary research data sources offer a broader perspective, compiling and synthesizing information from various origins. These sources include:

• Books, Magazines, Scholarly Journals: Published works provide comprehensive overviews, detailed analyses, and theoretical frameworks that can inform research topics, offering depth and context that enriches primary data.
• Market Research Reports: These reports aggregate data and analyses on industry trends, consumer behavior, and market dynamics, providing a macro-level view that can guide primary research directions and validate findings.
• Government Reports: Official statistics and reports from government agencies offer authoritative data on a wide range of topics, from economic indicators to demographic trends, providing a reliable basis for secondary analysis.
• White Papers, Private Company Data: White papers and reports from businesses and consultancies offer insights into industry-specific research, best practices, and market analyses. These sources can be invaluable for understanding the competitive landscape and identifying emerging trends.

Secondary data sources serve as a compass, guiding researchers through the vast landscape of information to identify relevant trends, benchmark against existing data, and build upon the foundation of existing knowledge. They can significantly expedite the research process by leveraging the collective wisdom and research efforts of others.

By adeptly navigating both primary and secondary sources, researchers can construct a well-rounded research project that combines the depth of firsthand data with the breadth of existing knowledge. This holistic approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of the research topic, fostering informed decisions and strategic insights.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Research in Marketing

In the realm of marketing, both primary and secondary research methods play critical roles in understanding market dynamics, consumer behavior, and competitive landscapes. By comparing examples across both methodologies, we can appreciate their unique contributions to strategic decision-making.

Example 1: New Product Development

Primary Research: Direct Consumer Feedback through Surveys and Focus Groups

• Objective: To gauge consumer interest in a new product concept and identify preferred features.
• Process: Surveys distributed to a target demographic to collect quantitative data on consumer preferences, and focus groups conducted to dive deeper into consumer attitudes and desires.
• Insights: Direct insights into consumer needs, preferences for specific features, and willingness to pay. These insights help in refining product design and developing a targeted marketing strategy.

Secondary Research: Market Analysis Reports

• Objective: To understand the existing market landscape, including competitor products and market trends.
• Process: Analyzing published market analysis reports and industry studies to gather data on market size, growth trends, and competitive offerings.
• Insights: Provides a broader understanding of the market, helping to position the new product strategically against competitors and align it with current trends.

Example 2: Brand Positioning

Primary Research: Brand Perception Analysis through Surveys

• Objective: To understand how the brand is perceived by consumers and identify potential areas for repositioning.
• Process: Conducting surveys that ask consumers to describe the brand in their own words, rate it against various attributes, and compare it to competitors.
• Insights: Direct feedback on brand strengths and weaknesses from the consumer's perspective, offering actionable data for adjusting brand messaging and positioning.

Secondary Research: Social Media Sentiment Analysis

• Objective: To analyze public sentiment towards the brand and its competitors.
• Process: Utilizing software tools to analyze mentions, hashtags, and discussions related to the brand and its competitors across social media platforms.
• Insights: Offers an overview of public perception and emerging trends in consumer sentiment, which can validate findings from primary research or highlight areas needing further investigation.

Example 3: Market Expansion Strategy

Primary Research: Consumer Demand Studies in New Markets

• Objective: To assess demand and consumer preferences in a new geographic market.
• Process: Conducting surveys and interviews with potential consumers in the target market to understand their needs, preferences, and cultural nuances.
• Insights: Provides specific insights into the new market’s consumer behavior, preferences, and potential barriers to entry, guiding market entry strategies.

Secondary Research: Economic and Demographic Analysis

• Objective: To evaluate the economic viability and demographic appeal of the new market.
• Process: Reviewing existing economic reports, demographic data, and industry trends relevant to the target market.
• Insights: Offers a macro view of the market's potential, including economic conditions, demographic trends, and consumer spending patterns, which can complement insights gained from primary research.

By leveraging both primary and secondary research, marketers can form a comprehensive understanding of their market, consumers, and competitors, facilitating informed decision-making and strategic planning. Each method brings its strengths to the table, with primary research offering direct consumer insights and secondary research providing a broader context within which to interpret those insights.

What Are the Pros and Cons of Primary and Secondary Research?

When it comes to market research, both primary and secondary research offer unique advantages and face certain limitations. Understanding these can help researchers and businesses make informed decisions on which approach to utilize for their specific needs. Below is a comparative table highlighting the pros and cons of each research type.

Navigating the Pros and Cons

• Balance Your Research Needs: Consider starting with secondary research to gain a broad understanding of the subject matter, then delve into primary research for specific, targeted insights that are tailored to your precise needs.
• Resource Allocation: Evaluate your budget, time, and resource availability. Primary research can offer more specific and actionable data but requires more resources. Secondary research is more accessible but may lack the specificity or recency you need.
• Quality and Relevance: Assess the quality and relevance of available secondary sources before deciding if primary research is necessary. Sometimes, the existing data might suffice, especially for preliminary market understanding or trend analysis.
• Combining Both for Comprehensive Insights: Often, the most effective research strategy involves a combination of both primary and secondary research. This approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the market, leveraging the broad perspective provided by secondary sources and the depth and specificity of primary data.

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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on June 20, 2018 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on May 31, 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . Thus, secondary research describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews , surveys , experiments ) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

Documentaries

If you are researching the causes of World War II, a recent documentary about the war is a secondary source . But if you are researching the filmmaking techniques used in historical documentaries, the documentary is a primary source .

Reviews and essays

If your paper is about the novels of Toni Morrison, a magazine review of one of her novels is a secondary source . But if your paper is about the critical reception of Toni Morrison’s work, the review is a primary source .

Newspaper articles

If your aim is to analyze the government’s economic policy, a newspaper article about a new policy is a secondary source . But if your aim is to analyze media coverage of economic issues, the newspaper article is a primary source .

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in evaluating the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

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Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research. Tertiary sources are often used in the first, exploratory stage of research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesize a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review or meta analysis, you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
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• Common knowledge

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

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Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 31). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved July 10, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/primary-and-secondary-sources/

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How to do your dissertation secondary research in 4 steps

(Last updated: 12 May 2021)

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If you are reading this guide, it's very likely you may be doing secondary research for your dissertation, rather than primary. If this is indeed you, then here's the good news: secondary research is the easiest type of research! Congratulations!

In a nutshell, secondary research is far more simple. So simple, in fact, that we have been able to explain how to do it completely in just 4 steps (see below). If nothing else, secondary research avoids the all-so-tiring efforts usually involved with primary research. Like recruiting your participants, choosing and preparing your measures, and spending days (or months) collecting your data.

That said, you do still need to know how to do secondary research. Which is what you're here for. So, go make a decent-sized mug of your favourite hot beverage (consider a glass of water , too) then come back and get comfy.

Here's what we'll cover in this guide:

The basics: What's secondary research all about?

Understanding secondary research, advantages of secondary research, disadvantages of secondary research, methods and purposes of secondary research, types of secondary data, sources of secondary data, secondary research process in 4 steps, step 1: develop your research question(s), step 2: identify a secondary data set, step 3: evaluate a secondary data set, step 4: prepare and analyse secondary data.

To answer this question, let’s first recall what we mean by primary research . As you probably already know, primary research is when the researcher collects the data himself or herself. The researcher uses so-called “real-time” data, which means that the data is collected during the course of a specific research project and is under the researcher’s direct control.

In contrast, secondary research involves data that has been collected by somebody else previously. This type of data is called “past data” and is usually accessible via past researchers, government records, and various online and offline resources.

So to recap, secondary research involves re-analysing, interpreting, or reviewing past data. The role of the researcher is always to specify how this past data informs his or her current research.

In contrast to primary research, secondary research is easier, particularly because the researcher is less involved with the actual process of collecting the data. Furthermore, secondary research requires less time and less money (i.e., you don’t need to provide your participants with compensation for participating or pay for any other costs of the research).

One of the most obvious advantages is that, compared to primary research, secondary research is inexpensive . Primary research usually requires spending a lot of money. For instance, members of the research team should be paid salaries. There are often travel and transportation costs. You may need to pay for office space and equipment, and compensate your participants for taking part. There may be other overhead costs too.

These costs do not exist when doing secondary research. Although researchers may need to purchase secondary data sets, this is always less costly than if the research were to be conducted from scratch.

As an undergraduate or graduate student, your dissertation project won't need to be an expensive endeavour. Thus, it is useful to know that you can further reduce costs, by using freely available secondary data sets.

But this is far from the only consideration.

Most students value another important advantage of secondary research, which is that secondary research saves you time . Primary research usually requires months spent recruiting participants, providing them with questionnaires, interviews, or other measures, cleaning the data set, and analysing the results. With secondary research, you can skip most of these daunting tasks; instead, you merely need to select, prepare, and analyse an existing data set.

Moreover, you probably won’t need a lot of time to obtain your secondary data set, because secondary data is usually easily accessible . In the past, students needed to go to libraries and spend hours trying to find a suitable data set. New technologies make this process much less time-consuming. In most cases, you can find your secondary data through online search engines or by contacting previous researchers via email.

A third important advantage of secondary research is that you can base your project on a large scope of data . If you wanted to obtain a large data set yourself, you would need to dedicate an immense amount of effort. What's more, if you were doing primary research, you would never be able to use longitudinal data in your graduate or undergraduate project, since it would take you years to complete. This is because longitudinal data involves assessing and re-assessing a group of participants over long periods of time.

When using secondary data, however, you have an opportunity to work with immensely large data sets that somebody else has already collected. Thus, you can also deal with longitudinal data, which may allow you to explore trends and changes of phenomena over time.

With secondary research, you are relying not only on a large scope of data, but also on professionally collected data . This is yet another advantage of secondary research. For instance, data that you will use for your secondary research project has been collected by researchers who are likely to have had years of experience in recruiting representative participant samples, designing studies, and using specific measurement tools.

If you had collected this data yourself, your own data set would probably have more flaws, simply because of your lower level of expertise when compared to these professional researchers.

The first such disadvantage is that your secondary data may be, to a greater or lesser extent, inappropriate for your own research purposes. This is simply because you have not collected the data yourself.

When you collect your data personally, you do so with a specific research question in mind. This makes it easy to obtain the relevant information. However, secondary data was always collected for the purposes of fulfilling other researchers’ goals and objectives.

Thus, although secondary data may provide you with a large scope of professionally collected data, this data is unlikely to be fully appropriate to your own research question. There are several reasons for this. For instance, you may be interested in the data of a particular population, in a specific geographic region, and collected during a specific time frame. However, your secondary data may have focused on a slightly different population, may have been collected in a different geographical region, or may have been collected a long time ago.

Apart from being potentially inappropriate for your own research purposes, secondary data could have a different format than you require. For instance, you might have preferred participants’ age to be in the form of a continuous variable (i.e., you want your participants to have indicated their specific age). But the secondary data set may contain a categorical age variable; for example, participants might have indicated an age group they belong to (e.g., 20-29, 30-39, 40-49, etc.). Or another example: A secondary data set may contain too few ethnic categories (e.g., “White” and “Other”), while you would ideally want a wider range of racial categories (e.g., “White”, “Black or African American”, “American Indian”, and “Asian”). Differences such as these mean that secondary data may not be perfectly appropriate for your research.

The above two disadvantages may lead to yet another one: the existing data set may not answer your own research question(s) in an ideal way. As noted above, secondary data was collected with a different research question in mind, and this may limit its application to your own research purpose.

Unfortunately, the list of disadvantages does not end here. An additional weakness of secondary data is that you have a lack of control over the quality of data. All researchers need to establish that their data is reliable and valid. But if the original researchers did not establish the reliability and validity of their data, this may limit its reliability and validity for your research as well. To establish reliability and validity, you are usually advised to critically evaluate how the data was gathered, analysed, and presented.

But here lies the final disadvantage of doing secondary research: original researchers may fail to provide sufficient information on how their research was conducted. You might be faced with a lack of information on recruitment procedures, sample representativeness, data collection methods, employed measurement tools and statistical analyses, and the like. This may require you to take extra steps to obtain such information, if that is possible at all.

At this point, we should ask: “What are the methods of secondary research?” and “When do we use each of these methods?” Here, we can differentiate between three methods of secondary research: using a secondary data set in isolation , combining two secondary data sets, and combining secondary and primary data sets. Let’s outline each of these separately, and also explain when to use each of these methods.

Initially, you can use a secondary data set in isolation – that is, without combining it with other data sets. You dig and find a data set that is useful for your research purposes and then base your entire research on that set of data. You do this when you want to re-assess a data set with a different research question in mind.

Let’s illustrate this with a simple example. Suppose that, in your research, you want to investigate whether pregnant women of different nationalities experience different levels of anxiety during different pregnancy stages. Based on the literature, you have formed an idea that nationality may matter in this relationship between pregnancy and anxiety.

If you wanted to test this relationship by collecting the data yourself, you would need to recruit many pregnant women of different nationalities and assess their anxiety levels throughout their pregnancy. It would take you at least a year to complete this research project.

Instead of undertaking this long endeavour, you thus decide to find a secondary data set – one that investigated (for instance) a range of difficulties experienced by pregnant women in a nationwide sample. The original research question that guided this research could have been: “to what extent do pregnant women experience a range of mental health difficulties, including stress, anxiety, mood disorders, and paranoid thoughts?” The original researchers might have outlined women’s nationality, but weren’t particularly interested in investigating the link between women’s nationality and anxiety at different pregnancy stages. You are, therefore, re-assessing their data set with your own research question in mind.

Your research may, however, require you to combine two secondary data sets . You will use this kind of methodology when you want to investigate the relationship between certain variables in two data sets or when you want to compare findings from two past studies.

To take an example: One of your secondary data sets may focus on a target population’s tendency to smoke cigarettes, while the other data set focuses on the same population’s tendency to drink alcohol. In your own research, you may thus be looking at whether there is a correlation between smoking and drinking among this population.

Here is a second example: Your two secondary data sets may focus on the same outcome variable, such as the degree to which people go to Greece for a summer vacation. However, one data set could have been collected in Britain and the other in Germany. By comparing these two data sets, you can investigate which nation tends to visit Greece more.

Finally, your research project may involve combining primary and secondary data . You may decide to do this when you want to obtain existing information that would inform your primary research.

Let’s use another simple example and say that your research project focuses on American versus British people’s attitudes towards racial discrimination. Let’s say that you were able to find a recent study that investigated Americans’ attitudes of these kind, which were assessed with a certain set of measures. However, your search finds no recent studies on Britons’ attitudes. Let’s also say that you live in London and that it would be difficult for you to assess Americans’ attitudes on the topic, but clearly much more straightforward to conduct primary research on British attitudes.

In this case, you can simply reuse the data from the American study and adopt exactly the same measures with your British participants. Your secondary data is being combined with your primary data. Alternatively, you may combine these types of data when the role of your secondary data is to outline descriptive information that supports your research. For instance, if your project is focusing on attitudes towards McDonald’s food, you may want to support your primary research with secondary data that outlines how many people eat McDonald’s in your country of choice.

TABLE 3 summarises particular methods and purposes of secondary research:

We have already provided above several examples of using quantitative secondary data. This type of data is used when the original study has investigated a population’s tendency to smoke or drink alcohol, the degree to which people from different nationalities go to Greece for their summer vacation, or the degree to which pregnant women experience anxiety.

In all these examples, outcome variables were assessed by questionnaires, and thus the obtained data was numerical.

Quantitative secondary research is much more common than qualitative secondary research. However, this is not to say that you cannot use qualitative secondary data in your research project. This type of secondary data is used when you want the previously-collected information to inform your current research. More specifically, it is used when you want to test the information obtained through qualitative research by implementing a quantitative methodology.

For instance, a past qualitative study might have focused on the reasons why people choose to live on boats. This study might have interviewed some 30 participants and noted the four most important reasons people live on boats: (1) they can lead a transient lifestyle, (2) they have an increased sense of freedom, (3) they feel that they are “world citizens”, and (4) they can more easily visit their family members who live in different locations. In your own research, you can therefore reuse this qualitative data to form a questionnaire, which you then give to a larger population of people who live on boats. This will help you to generalise the previously-obtained qualitative results to a broader population.

Importantly, you can also re-assess a qualitative data set in your research, rather than using it as a basis for your quantitative research. Let’s say that your research focuses on the kind of language that people who live on boats use when describing their transient lifestyles. The original research did not focus on this research question per se – however, you can reuse the information from interviews to “extract” the types of descriptions of a transient lifestyle that were given by participants.

TABLE 4 highlights the two main types of secondary data and their associated purposes:

Internal sources of data are those that are internal to the organisation in question. For instance, if you are doing a research project for an organisation (or research institution) where you are an intern, and you want to reuse some of their past data, you would be using internal data sources.

The benefit of using these sources is that they are easily accessible and there is no associated financial cost of obtaining them.

External sources of data, on the other hand, are those that are external to an organisation or a research institution. This type of data has been collected by “somebody else”, in the literal sense of the term. The benefit of external sources of data is that they provide comprehensive data – however, you may sometimes need more effort (or money) to obtain it.

Let’s now focus on different types of internal and external secondary data sources.

There are several types of internal sources. For instance, if your research focuses on an organisation’s profitability, you might use their sales data . Each organisation keeps a track of its sales records, and thus your data may provide information on sales by geographical area, types of customer, product prices, types of product packaging, time of the year, and the like.

Alternatively, you may use an organisation’s financial data . The purpose of using this data could be to conduct a cost-benefit analysis and understand the economic opportunities or outcomes of hiring more people, buying more vehicles, investing in new products, and so on.

Another type of internal data is transport data . Here, you may focus on outlining the safest and most effective transportation routes or vehicles used by an organisation.

Alternatively, you may rely on marketing data , where your goal would be to assess the benefits and outcomes of different marketing operations and strategies.

Some other ideas would be to use customer data to ascertain the ideal type of customer, or to use safety data to explore the degree to which employees comply with an organisation’s safety regulations.

The list of the types of internal sources of secondary data can be extensive; the most important thing to remember is that this data comes from a particular organisation itself, in which you do your research in an internal manner.

The list of external secondary data sources can be just as extensive. One example is the data obtained through government sources . These can include social surveys, health data, agricultural statistics, energy expenditure statistics, population censuses, import/export data, production statistics, and the like. Government agencies tend to conduct a lot of research, therefore covering almost any kind of topic you can think of.

Another external source of secondary data are national and international institutions , including banks, trade unions, universities, health organisations, etc. As with government, such institutions dedicate a lot of effort to conducting up-to-date research, so you simply need to find an organisation that has collected the data on your own topic of interest.

Alternatively, you may obtain your secondary data from trade, business, and professional associations . These usually have data sets on business-related topics and are likely to be willing to provide you with secondary data if they understand the importance of your research. If your research is built on past academic studies, you may also rely on scientific journals as an external data source.

Once you have specified what kind of secondary data you need, you can contact the authors of the original study.

As a final example of a secondary data source, you can rely on data from commercial research organisations. These usually focus their research on media statistics and consumer information, which may be relevant if, for example, your research is within media studies or you are investigating consumer behaviour.

At this point, you should have a clearer understanding of secondary research in general terms.

Now it may be useful to focus on the actual process of doing secondary research. This next section is organised to introduce you to each step of this process, so that you can rely on this guide while planning your study. At the end of this blog post, in Table 6 , you will find a summary of all the steps of doing secondary research.

For an undergraduate thesis, you are often provided with a specific research question by your supervisor. But for most other types of research, and especially if you are doing your graduate thesis, you need to arrive at a research question yourself.

The first step here is to specify the general research area in which your research will fall. For example, you may be interested in the topic of anxiety during pregnancy, or tourism in Greece, or transient lifestyles. Since we have used these examples previously, it may be useful to rely on them again to illustrate our discussion.

Once you have identified your general topic, your next step consists of reading through existing papers to see whether there is a gap in the literature that your research can fill. At this point, you may discover that previous research has not investigated national differences in the experiences of anxiety during pregnancy, or national differences in a tendency to go to Greece for a summer vacation, or that there is no literature generalising the findings on people’s choice to live on boats.

Having found your topic of interest and identified a gap in the literature, you need to specify your research question. In our three examples, research questions would be specified in the following manner: (1) “Do women of different nationalities experience different levels of anxiety during different stages of pregnancy?”, (2) “Are there any differences in an interest in Greek tourism between Germans and Britons?”, and (3) “Why do people choose to live on boats?”.

It is at this point, after reviewing the literature and specifying your research questions, that you may decide to rely on secondary data. You will do this if you discover that there is past data that would be perfectly reusable in your own research, therefore helping you to answer your research question more thoroughly (and easily).

But how do you discover if there is past data that could be useful for your research? You do this through reviewing the literature on your topic of interest. During this process, you will identify other researchers, organisations, agencies, or research centres that have explored your research topic.

Somewhere there, you may discover a useful secondary data set. You then need to contact the original authors and ask for a permission to use their data. (Note, however, that this happens only if you are relying on external sources of secondary data. If you are doing your research internally (i.e., within a particular organisation), you don’t need to search through the literature for a secondary data set – you can just reuse some past data that was collected within the organisation itself.)

In any case, you need to ensure that a secondary data set is a good fit for your own research question. Once you have established that it is, you need to specify the reasons why you have decided to rely on secondary data.

For instance, your choice to rely on secondary data in the above examples might be as follows: (1) A recent study has focused on a range of mental difficulties experienced by women in a multinational sample and this data can be reused; (2) There is existing data on Germans’ and Britons’ interest in Greek tourism and these data sets can be compared; and (3) There is existing qualitative research on the reasons for choosing to live on boats, and this data can be relied upon to conduct a further quantitative investigation.

Because such disadvantages of secondary data can limit the effectiveness of your research, it is crucial that you evaluate a secondary data set. To ease this process, we outline here a reflective approach that will allow you to evaluate secondary data in a stepwise fashion.

Step 3(a): What was the aim of the original study?

During this step, you also need to pay close attention to any differences in research purposes and research questions between the original study and your own investigation. As we have discussed previously, you will often discover that the original study had a different research question in mind, and it is important for you to specify this difference.

Let’s put this step of identifying the aim of the original study in practice, by referring to our three research examples. The aim of the first research example was to investigate mental difficulties (e.g., stress, anxiety, mood disorders, and paranoid thoughts) in a multinational sample of pregnant women.

How does this aim differ from your research aim? Well, you are seeking to reuse this data set to investigate national differences in anxiety experienced by women during different pregnancy stages. When it comes to the second research example, you are basing your research on two secondary data sets – one that aimed to investigate Germans’ interest in Greek tourism and the other that aimed to investigate Britons’ interest in Greek tourism.

While these two studies focused on particular national populations, the aim of your research is to compare Germans’ and Britons’ tendency to visit Greece for summer vacation. Finally, in our third example, the original research was a qualitative investigation into the reasons for living on boats. Your research question is different, because, although you are seeking to do the same investigation, you wish to do so by using a quantitative methodology.

Importantly, in all three examples, you conclude that secondary data may in fact answer your research question. If you conclude otherwise, it may be wise to find a different secondary data set or to opt for primary research.

Step 3(b): Who has collected the data?

Let’s say that, in our example of research on pregnancy, data was collected by the UK government; that in our example of research on Greek tourism, the data was collected by a travel agency; and that in our example of research on the reasons for choosing to live on boats, the data was collected by researchers from a UK university.

Let’s also say that you have checked the background of these organisations and researchers, and that you have concluded that they all have a sufficiently professional background, except for the travel agency. Given that this agency’s research did not lead to a publication (for instance), and given that not much can be found about the authors of the research, you conclude that the professionalism of this data source remains unclear.

Step 3(c): Which measures were employed?

Original authors should have documented all their sample characteristics, measures, procedures, and protocols. This information can be obtained either in their final research report or through contacting the authors directly.

It is important for you to know what type of data was collected, which measures were used, and whether such measures were reliable and valid (if they were quantitative measures). You also need to make a clear outline of the type of data collected – and especially the data relevant for your research.

Let’s say that, in our first example, researchers have (among other assessed variables) used a demographic measure to note women’s nationalities and have used the State Anxiety Inventory to assess women’s anxiety levels during different pregnancy stages, both of which you conclude are valid and reliable tools. In our second example, the authors might have crafted their own measure to assess interest in Greek tourism, but there may be no established validity and reliability for this measure. And in our third example, the authors have employed semi-structured interviews, which cover the most important reasons for wanting to live on boats.

Step 3(d): When was the data collected?

Ideally, you want your secondary data to have been collected within the last five years. For the sake of our examples, let’s say that all three original studies were conducted within this time-range.

Step 3(e): What methodology was used to collect the data?

We have already noted that you need to evaluate the reliability and validity of employed measures. In addition to this, you need to evaluate how the sample was obtained, whether the sample was large enough, if the sample was representative of the population, if there were any missing responses on employed measures, whether confounders were controlled for, and whether the employed statistical analyses were appropriate. Any drawbacks in the original methodology may limit your own research as well.

For the sake of our examples, let’s say that the study on mental difficulties in pregnant women recruited a representative sample of pregnant women (i.e., they had different nationalities, different economic backgrounds, different education levels, etc.) in maternity wards of seven hospitals; that the sample was large enough (N = 945); that the number of missing values was low; that many confounders were controlled for (e.g., education level, age, presence of partnership, etc.); and that statistical analyses were appropriate (e.g., regression analyses were used).

Let’s further say that our second research example had slightly less sufficient methodology. Although the number of participants in the two samples was high enough (N1 = 453; N2 = 488), the number of missing values was low, and statistical analyses were appropriate (descriptive statistics), the authors failed to report how they recruited their participants and whether they controlled for any confounders.

Let’s say that these authors also failed to provide you with more information via email. Finally, let’s assume that our third research example also had sufficient methodology, with a sufficiently large sample size for a qualitative investigation (N = 30), high sample representativeness (participants with different backgrounds, coming from different boat communities), and sufficient analyses (thematic analysis).

Note that, since this was a qualitative investigation, there is no need to evaluate the number of missing values and the use of confounders.

Step 3(f): Making a final evaluation

We would conclude that the secondary data from our first research example has a high quality. Data was recently collected by professionals, the employed measures were both reliable and valid, and the methodology was more than sufficient. We can be confident that our new research question can be sufficiently answered with the existing data. Thus, the data set for our first example is ideal.

The two secondary data sets from our second research example seem, however, less than ideal. Although we can answer our research questions on the basis of these recent data sets, the data was collected by an unprofessional source, the reliability and validity of the employed measure is uncertain, and the employed methodology has a few notable drawbacks.

Finally, the data from our third example seems sufficient both for answering our research question and in terms of the specific evaluations (data was collected recently by a professional source, semi-structured interviews were well made, and the employed methodology was sufficient).

The final question to ask is: “what can be done if our evaluation reveals the lack of appropriateness of secondary data?”. The answer, unfortunately, is “nothing”. In this instance, you can only note the drawbacks of the original data set, present its limitations, and conclude that your own research may not be sufficiently well grounded.

Your first sub-step here (if you are doing quantitative research) is to outline all variables of interest that you will use in your study. In our first example, you could have at least five variables of interest: (1) women’s nationality, (2) anxiety levels at the beginning of pregnancy, (3) anxiety levels at three months of pregnancy, (4) anxiety levels at six months of pregnancy, and (5) anxiety levels at nine months of pregnancy. In our second example, you will have two variables of interest: (1) participants’ nationality, and (2) the degree of interest in going to Greece for a summer vacation. Once your variables of interest are identified, you need to transfer this data into a new SPSS or Excel file. Remember simply to copy this data into the new file – it is vital that you do not alter it!

Once this is done, you should address missing data (identify and label them) and recode variables if necessary (e.g., giving a value of 1 to German participants and a value of 2 to British participants). You may also need to reverse-score some items, so that higher scores on all items indicate a higher degree of what is being assessed.

Most of the time, you will also need to create new variables – that is, to compute final scores. For instance, in our example of research on anxiety during pregnancy, your data will consist of scores on each item of the State Anxiety Inventory, completed at various times during pregnancy. You will need to calculate final anxiety scores for each time the measure was completed.

Your final step consists of analysing the data. You will always need to decide on the most suitable analysis technique for your secondary data set. In our first research example, you would rely on MANOVA (to see if women of different nationalities experience different stress levels at the beginning, at three months, at six months, and at nine months of pregnancy); and in our second example, you would use an independent samples t-test (to see if interest in Greek tourism differs between Germans and Britons).

The process of preparing and analysing a secondary data set is slightly different if your secondary data is qualitative. In our example on the reasons for living on boats, you would first need to outline all reasons for living on boats, as recognised by the original qualitative research. Then you would need to craft a questionnaire that assesses these reasons in a broader population.

Finally, you would need to analyse the data by employing statistical analyses.

Note that this example combines qualitative and quantitative data. But what if you are reusing qualitative data, as in our previous example of re-coding the interviews from our study to discover the language used when describing transient lifestyles? Here, you would simply need to recode the interviews and conduct a thematic analysis.

In summary…

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 9.7.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Determining an Appropriate Sample Size for Qualitative Interviews to Achieve True and Near Code Saturation: Secondary Analysis of Data

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Claudia M Squire, MS   ; 
• Kristen C Giombi, PhD   ; 
• Douglas J Rupert, MPH   ; 
• Jacqueline Amoozegar, MSPH   ; 
• Peyton Williams, MPH  

RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States

Corresponding Author:

Claudia M Squire, MS

RTI International

3040 East Cornwallis Road

Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194

United States

Phone: 1 9195416613

Email: [email protected]

Background: In-depth interviews are a common method of qualitative data collection, providing rich data on individuals’ perceptions and behaviors that would be challenging to collect with quantitative methods. Researchers typically need to decide on sample size a priori. Although studies have assessed when saturation has been achieved, there is no agreement on the minimum number of interviews needed to achieve saturation. To date, most research on saturation has been based on in-person data collection. During the COVID-19 pandemic, web-based data collection became increasingly common, as traditional in-person data collection was possible. Researchers continue to use web-based data collection methods post the COVID-19 emergency, making it important to assess whether findings around saturation differ for in-person versus web-based interviews.

Objective: We aimed to identify the number of web-based interviews needed to achieve true code saturation or near code saturation.

Methods: The analyses for this study were based on data from 5 Food and Drug Administration–funded studies conducted through web-based platforms with patients with underlying medical conditions or with health care providers who provide primary or specialty care to patients. We extracted code- and interview-specific data and examined the data summaries to determine when true saturation or near saturation was reached.

Results: The sample size used in the 5 studies ranged from 30 to 70 interviews. True saturation was reached after 91% to 100% (n=30-67) of planned interviews, whereas near saturation was reached after 33% to 60% (n=15-23) of planned interviews. Studies that relied heavily on deductive coding and studies that had a more structured interview guide reached both true saturation and near saturation sooner. We also examined the types of codes applied after near saturation had been reached. In 4 of the 5 studies, most of these codes represented previously established core concepts or themes. Codes representing newly identified concepts, other or miscellaneous responses (eg, “in general”), uncertainty or confusion (eg, “don’t know”), or categorization for analysis (eg, correct as compared with incorrect) were less commonly applied after near saturation had been reached.

Conclusions: This study provides support that near saturation may be a sufficient measure to target and that conducting additional interviews after that point may result in diminishing returns. Factors to consider in determining how many interviews to conduct include the structure and type of questions included in the interview guide, the coding structure, and the population under study. Studies with less structured interview guides, studies that rely heavily on inductive coding and analytic techniques, and studies that include populations that may be less knowledgeable about the topics discussed may require a larger sample size to reach an acceptable level of saturation. Our findings also build on previous studies looking at saturation for in-person data collection conducted at a small number of sites.

Introduction

In-depth interviews are commonly used to collect qualitative data for a wide variety of research purposes across many subject matter areas. These types of interviews are an ideal approach for examining individuals’ perceptions and behaviors at a level of depth, complexity, and richness that would be challenging to achieve with quantitative data collection methods. Typically, trained interviewers conduct interviews using a guide designed to address the study’s key research aims by asking a series of questions and probes ordered by topic. These interview guides can range from highly structured to completely unstructured (eg, loosely organized conversations). Following the completion of data collection, interview notes and transcripts generated from audio recordings of the interviews are analyzed to assess for patterns in responses among the interviewees or subsets of the participants [ 1 , 2 ].

During the COVID-19 pandemic, web-based data collection became increasingly common, as traditional in-person data collection was not possible, and researchers continue to use web-based data collection methods post the COVID-19 emergency, citing advantages such as accessing marginalized populations, achieving greater geographic diversity, being able to offer a more flexible schedule, and saving on travel expenses [ 3 ]. Potential concerns about web-based data collection, such as the inability to build rapport and data richness, have been largely unfounded [ 3 , 4 ].

While we do not expect web-based data collection to supplant in-person research, it continues to show signs of growth. To date, much of the research on qualitative methods has focused on in-person data collection. Consequently, it will be important to conduct research to determine if previous widely accepted findings hold true for web-based data collection.

Researchers typically make a priori decisions about the number of interviews to conduct with the aim of balancing the need for sufficient data with resource limitations and respondent burden. The concept of saturation is frequently used to justify the study’s rigor with respect to the selected sample size. To provide empirically based recommendations on adequate minimum sample sizes, researchers have conducted studies to assess when saturation occurs. However, multiple types of saturation exist—such as theoretical, thematic, code, and meaning—and within each type of saturation, the definitions and measurement approaches used by investigators vary substantially, as does the level of detail researchers report in publications about their methods for achieving and assessing saturation [ 5 ].

This study aimed to examine the number of interviews needed to obtain code saturation for 5 recently conducted studies funded by the Food and Drug Administration [ 6 ] involving web-based interviews. Specifically, how many web-based interviews are needed to obtain true code saturation (ie, the use of 100% of all codes applied in the study) and how many web-based interviews are needed to achieve near code saturation (ie, the use of 90% of all codes applied in the study)?

Literature Review

Multiple authors have defined saturation as the point during data collection and analysis, at which no new additional data are found that reveal a new conceptual category [ 7 - 13 ] or theme related to the research question—an indicator that further data collection is redundant [ 11 ]. Additionally, Coenen et al [ 14 ] specified that no new second-level themes are revealed in 2 consecutive focus groups or interviews.

Other authors have distinguished between various types of saturation. One of the most common types of saturation mentioned in the literature is theoretical saturation, which emerges from grounded theory and occurs when the concepts of a theory are fully reflected in the data and no new insights, themes, or issues are identified from the data [ 5 , 11 , 12 , 15 - 18 ]. Hennink et al [ 17 ] expanded this definition, adding that all relevant conceptual categories should have been identified, thus emphasizing the importance of sample adequacy over sample size. Guest et al [ 15 ] operationalized the concept of theoretical saturation as the point in data collection and analysis when new information produces little or no change to the codebook, and van Rijnsoever [ 19 ] operationalized it as being when all the codes have been observed once in the sample.

Some authors have defined theoretical saturation, thematic saturation, and data saturation as the same concept [ 16 , 18 ], whereas others have defined these terms differently [ 12 , 20 ]. For example, some authors have defined thematic saturation as the point where no new codes or themes are emerging from the data [ 12 , 21 ]. For thematic saturation to be achieved, data should be collected until nothing new is generated [ 20 , 22 ]. Data saturation has been defined as the level to which new data are repetitive of the data that have been collected [ 12 , 23 , 24 ].

Furthermore, Hennink et al [ 17 ] distinguished between code saturation and meaning saturation. Code saturation is based on primary or parent codes and relates to the quantity of the data (“hearing it all”). Meaning saturation is based on sub or child codes and relates to the quality or richness of the data (“understanding it all”). Constantinou et al [ 7 ] made the point that it is the categorization of the raw data, rather than the data, that are saturated.

The literature reflects multiple methods that have been used to determine saturation [ 7 - 10 , 13 - 18 , 21 , 25 ]. Sim et al [ 26 ] discussed the four general approaches that have been used to determine sample size for qualitative research: (1) rules of thumb, based on a combination of methodological considerations and past experience; (2) conceptual models, based on specific characteristics of the proposed study; (3) numerical guidelines derived from the empirical investigation; and (4) statistical approaches, based on the probability of obtaining a sufficient sample size.

For example, Galvin [ 9 ] used a statistical approach based on binomial logic to establish the relationship between identifying a theme in a particular sample and within the larger population; for example, number of chances of detecting a theme if that theme exists within number of the population. Using the probability equation, the researcher can determine the number of interviews needed for a stated level of confidence that all relevant themes held by a certain proportion of the population will occur within the interview sample. This method assumes the researcher knows in advance the emergent themes from the study and at what rate they may occur.

Constantinou et al [ 7 ] used the comparative method for themes saturation, which relies on both a deductive and an inductive approach to generate codes (keywords extracted from the participants’ words) and themes (codes that fall into similar categories). Themes are compared across interviews, and theme saturation is reached when the next interview does not produce any new themes. The sequence of interviews is reordered multiple times to check for order-induced error. When exploring the various methods for determining saturation, researchers reached different conclusions on when saturation was achieved (findings on saturation by other authors are present in Multimedia Appendix 1 ) [ 7 - 10 , 13 - 17 , 21 , 25 , 27 , 28 ].

Most studies assessing saturation focused on in-person data collection or did not specify the data collection method. Given recent increases in web-based data collection, studies assessing saturation for web-based interviews are critical to ensure that recommendations regarding sample size are tailored to the mode of data collection [ 4 ]. While there is evidence to suggest that the content of data coded from in-person as compared with web-based interviews is conceptually similar [ 29 ], this is a relatively new area of exploration. Rapport may be higher with in-person as compared with web-based interviews [ 30 ], which may impact the amount and type of content generated. Additionally, participants in web-based data collection studies are more geographically diverse and may be more likely to be non-White, less educated, and less healthy than participants in in-person data collection studies [ 31 ].

Study Design

This study was based on analyses from data collected for 5 Food and Drug Administration–funded studies conducted using web-based platforms, such as Zoom (Zoom Video Communications) and Adobe Connect (Adobe Systems), and focused on patients with underlying medical conditions or on health care providers who provide primary or specialty care to patients. All platforms used for these interviews offered audio and video components and allowed for the sharing of stimuli on screen. A brief description of each study is provided in Table 1 . Each study’s data had been coded and stored using NVivo software (version 11; QSR International).

Ethical Considerations

This project was determined to not research with human participants by Research Triangle Institute’s institutional review board (STUDY00021985). The original 5 studies that this project is based on were reviewed by Research Triangle Institute’s institutional review board and were determined to be exempt under category 2ii. Participants in these studies were provided information about measures used to protect their privacy and the confidentiality of their data in the study’s consent forms. All participants were provided compensation for their time (the amount and type varied by study).

Data Preparation and Analysis

We established and applied a systematic approach to analyze all 5 study data sets. Our analytic approach was organized into 2 stages—data preparation and data analysis.

Data Preparation

First, because previous interviews sometimes influence moderator probes—for example, the moderator asks a follow-up question based on something they heard in a previous interview—we sorted interviews from each study by interview order. We then extracted code- and interview-specific data from the NVivo databases—including transcript name, code name, number of files coded, number of associated parent and child codes, and number of coding references—and compiled these data in an Excel (Microsoft Corp) file. We then updated the Excel file with important code and interview characteristics, including the order in which interviews were conducted, whether each code was directly (ie, child codes) or indirectly (ie, parent codes) applied to transcripts (in a tiered coding scheme, direct codes are those that have no child codes, whereas indirect codes function as “parents” that have additional codes nested beneath them), and the point at which each code was first applied to an interview. Finally, we created pivot tables within each Excel file to compile the data.

Data Analysis

Once the data were compiled, the data summaries were examined to determine when true saturation and near saturation occurred during data collection. True saturation was defined as 100% of all applied codes being used; near saturation was defined as 90% of all applied codes being used. We calculated saturation separately for each study’s data set, and we calculated saturation separately for all codes (ie, parent and child codes) as compared with direct codes (ie, child codes only). True saturation and near saturation points were identified by calculating the cumulative percentage of new codes for each interview, flagging when 100% and 90% of applied codes had been used.

True and Near Saturation

The number of web-based interviews used across the 5 studies ranged from 30 to 70 ( Table 2 ). True saturation (100% use of all applied codes) was reached in the final or near final interview ( Figure 1 ), suggesting that, even with a large sample size, additional interviews are likely to continue uncovering a small number of new codes or findings.

Across all studies, near saturation (90% use of all applied codes) was reached near—and often before—the midpoint of data collection. In other words, only a small number of new codes or findings were uncovered once the first half of the sample had been interviewed. In terms of absolute numbers, the point at which near saturation was reached occurred between 33% and 60% (n=15-23) of planned interviews ( Table 2 ). Despite the participants being more geographically, and possibly demographically, diverse compared with typical in-person participants, our findings were similar to previous studies on saturation [ 10 , 15 , 17 ].

We examined the types of codes applied after near saturation had been reached. In 4 of the 5 studies, most of these codes (n=8-33, 57%-62%) represented previously established core concepts or themes, such as a trusted source of information, a behavioral intention, or a recommended change to educational material. Codes representing newly identified concepts (n=2-8, 10%-15%), other miscellaneous responses (eg, “in general”; n=6-9, 13%-41%), uncertainty or confusion (eg, “don’t know”; n=0-6, 0%-11%), or categorization for analysis (eg, “correct as compared with incorrect”; n=0-3, 0%-4%) were less commonly applied after near saturation had been reached.

The overwhelming majority of codes applied after near saturation (n=9-41, 73%-82%) had already been established in study codebooks before analysis. Only a small number of codes applied after this point (n=4-20, 18%-27%) were conceptually distinct enough to merit updating the study codebooks by including them. Likewise, most of the codes used after near saturation (n=11-35, 44%-64%) were applied to only a single interview. Far fewer codes were applied to 2 interviews (n=0-13, 0%-27%), 3 interviews (n=0-6, 0%-21%), or 4 or more interviews (n=0-12, 0%-21%).

Study B was an outlier in terms of codes applied after near saturation. This study had fewer codes representing core established concepts (n=8, 28%) and more codes representing newly identified concepts (n=7, 24%) or providing categorization for analysis (n=3, 10%) than other studies. The study also had a much higher proportion of new codes (n=20, 69%) that were added to the study codebook during analysis. These differences may be because the study sampled 2 populations with very different medical conditions (ie, type 2 diabetes as compared with vulvovaginal atrophy), leading to a broader range of applied codes.

In examining the relationship between the number of codes in the codebook for each study, the study with the most codes (study A: 657 codes) required the largest number of interviews to reach both true saturation and near saturation. However, this pattern did not hold true for the remainder of the studies. The study with the next highest number of codes (study C: 362 codes) was third to reach true saturation and last to reach near saturation.

Parent and Child Codes

All 5 study codebooks included both parent (ie, top-level codes) and child codes (ie, subcodes). We examined saturation using two analytic lenses—(1) all codes (parent and child) and (2) parent codes only—to determine if there were differences in when saturation was reached. We found no differences in when true saturation was reached. However, near saturation was reached slightly later (ie, after an additional 3 to 4 interviews) when examining only parent codes ( Figure 2 ).

Differences by Study

In total, 3 of the studies had codebooks that consisted almost entirely of deductive (ie, concept-driven) codes, whereas the codebooks in the remaining 2 studies contained a mix of both deductive and inductive (ie, data-driven) codes. Although the results were largely consistent across the 5 studies, as expected, the studies that relied heavily on deductive coding reached both true saturation and near saturation sooner. This finding suggests that studies using more inductive coding and analytic techniques may require slightly larger sample sizes to reach saturation.

Structure of an Interview Guide

Although all the studies used a semistructured interview guide, the level of structure varied across studies. The 3 studies (ie, studies C, D, and E) that had a more structured interview guide (eg, questions for which participants were asked their preference among discrete choices or the range of likely answers was limited) reached both true saturation and near saturation sooner. In fact, the study with the most structured guide reached near saturation the soonest, although it fell in the middle for true saturation. This finding suggests that studies using a less structured interview guide may need to conduct more interviews to reach an acceptable level of saturation.

Principal Findings

Although true saturation was not reached until the final interview or close to the final interview, near saturation was reached much sooner, ranging from just below to just above the midpoint of data collection, with most of the studies falling just below the midpoint. Although additional interviews conducted after near saturation may result in new information, our findings suggest there may be diminishing returns relative to the resources expended. We have identified several study characteristics that researchers can consider when making decisions on sample size for web-based interviews.

Although our findings were mostly consistent across the 5 studies we examined, near saturation was reached sooner on the studies that consisted of largely deductive codes compared with those that had a greater number of inductive codes. Consequently, researchers should consider their analytic approach when determining sample size. Studies that intend for the coding scheme to be iterative throughout the coding process may want to err on the side of having a slightly higher sample size than if the codebook is expected to consist largely of deductive codes tied to the interview guide.

These studies ranged in length from 30 to 90 minutes, and a majority (n=3) lasted 60 minutes. Although the 90-minute study reached both true saturation and near saturation at the latest point, the shortest interview (at 30 minutes) required the second-highest number of interviews to reach both saturation points. Although the length of the interview may be a minor consideration, the level of structure of the interview guide and the types of codes used seem to be larger drivers.

Our findings point to the need for a slightly higher number of interviews to reach an acceptable level of saturation—categorized by us as near code saturation—than what has been found in other studies. For example, Guest et al [ 15 ] found that 6 interviews were enough to get high-level themes, reaching a plateau at 10 to 12 interviews. Similarly, Young and Casey [ 27 ] found that near code saturation was reached at 6 to 9 interviews.

Our findings also build on previous studies looking at saturation for in-person data collection conducted at a small number of sites. Data from our studies included participants from all US Census Bureau regions, which provides support that these findings may be more generalizable than previous studies.

Limitations

Our study had several limitations. First, our analysis was conducted on a sample of 5 studies that had similarities. All the studies were related to the medical field, and our study populations (patients with an identified medical condition and health care providers) were knowledgeable about the topics discussed. Second, all the studies were conducted using semistructured interview guides that leaned toward being more structured (ie, interviewers largely stuck to scripted probes as compared with guides that allow for unscripted follow-up probes and unstructured conversations). Additionally, all the studies used a similar approach to coding by using a mix of both deductive and inductive codes (though to varying extents). Consequently, studies with a less structured approach to both the interview and coding process may yield different results. Finally, all our studies are broadly classified as social science research. The findings for other fields of inquiry, such as economic or medical studies, may differ.

Conclusions

Saturation is an important consideration in planning and conducting qualitative research, yet, there is no definitive guidance on how to define and measure saturation, particularly for web-based data collection, which allows for data to be collected from a more geographically diverse sample. Our study provides support that near saturation may be a sufficient measure to target and that conducting additional interviews after that point may result in diminishing returns. Factors to consider in determining how many interviews to conduct include the structure and type of questions included in the interview guide, the coding structure, and the population being studied. Studies with less structured interview guides, studies that rely heavily on inductive coding and analytic techniques, and studies that include populations that may be less knowledgeable about the topics discussed may require a larger sample size to reach an acceptable level of saturation. Rather than trying to reach a consensus on the number of interviews needed to achieve saturation in qualitative research overall, we recommend that future research should explore saturation within different types of studies, such as different fields of inquiry, subject matter, and populations being studied. Creating a robust body of knowledge in this area will allow researchers to identify the guidance that best meets the needs of their work.

Acknowledgments

Research Triangle Institute–affiliated authors received support for the development of this manuscript from the RTI Fellow’s program under RTI Fellow, Leila Kahwati, MPH, MD. All studies included in the analyses were funded by the Food and Drug Administration. The authors would like to thank the following Food and Drug Administration staff for their contribution to this research: Kit Aikin, Kevin Betts, Amie O’Donoghue, and Helen Sullivan.

Data Availability

The data sets analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Achieving saturation in interviews: saturation type, methods for achieving saturation, and findings by other authors.

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Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 22.09.23; peer-reviewed by K Kelly, G Guest; comments to author 24.10.23; revised version received 30.01.24; accepted 09.05.24; published 09.07.24.

©Claudia M Squire, Kristen C Giombi, Douglas J Rupert, Jacqueline Amoozegar, Peyton Williams. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 09.07.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (ISSN 1438-8871), is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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Primary vs secondary research – what’s the difference.

14 min read Find out how primary and secondary research are different from each other, and how you can use them both in your own research program.

Primary vs secondary research: in a nutshell

The essential difference between primary and secondary research lies in who collects the data.

• Primary research definition

When you conduct primary research, you’re collecting data by doing your own surveys or observations.

• Secondary research definition:

In secondary research, you’re looking at existing data from other researchers, such as academic journals, government agencies or national statistics.

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When to use primary vs secondary research

Primary research and secondary research both offer value in helping you gather information.

Each research method can be used alone to good effect. But when you combine the two research methods, you have the ingredients for a highly effective market research strategy. Most research combines some element of both primary methods and secondary source consultation.

So assuming you’re planning to do both primary and secondary research – which comes first? Counterintuitive as it sounds, it’s more usual to start your research process with secondary research, then move on to primary research.

Secondary research can prepare you for collecting your own data in a primary research project. It can give you a broad overview of your research area, identify influences and trends, and may give you ideas and avenues to explore that you hadn’t previously considered.

Given that secondary research can be done quickly and inexpensively, it makes sense to start your primary research process with some kind of secondary research. Even if you’re expecting to find out what you need to know from a survey of your target market, taking a small amount of time to gather information from secondary sources is worth doing.

Primary research

Primary market research is original research carried out when a company needs timely, specific data about something that affects its success or potential longevity.

Primary research data collection might be carried out in-house by a business analyst or market research team within the company, or it may be outsourced to a specialist provider, such as an agency or consultancy. While outsourcing primary research involves a greater upfront expense, it’s less time consuming and can bring added benefits such as researcher expertise and a ‘fresh eyes’ perspective that avoids the risk of bias and partiality affecting the research data.

Primary research gives you recent data from known primary sources about the particular topic you care about, but it does take a little time to collect that data from scratch, rather than finding secondary data via an internet search or library visit.

Primary research involves two forms of data collection:

• Exploratory research This type of primary research is carried out to determine the nature of a problem that hasn’t yet been clearly defined. For example, a supermarket wants to improve its poor customer service and needs to understand the key drivers behind the customer experience issues. It might do this by interviewing employees and customers, or by running a survey program or focus groups.
• Conclusive research This form of primary research is carried out to solve a problem that the exploratory research – or other forms of primary data – has identified. For example, say the supermarket’s exploratory research found that employees weren’t happy. Conclusive research went deeper, revealing that the manager was rude, unreasonable, and difficult, making the employees unhappy and resulting in a poor employee experience which in turn led to less than excellent customer service. Thanks to the company’s choice to conduct primary research, a new manager was brought in, employees were happier and customer service improved.

Examples of primary research

All of the following are forms of primary research data.

• Customer satisfaction survey results
• Employee experience pulse survey results
• NPS rating scores from your customers
• A field researcher’s notes
• Data from weather stations in a local area
• Recordings made during focus groups

Primary research methods

There are a number of primary research methods to choose from, and they are already familiar to most people. The ones you choose will depend on your budget, your time constraints, your research goals and whether you’re looking for quantitative or qualitative data.

A survey can be carried out online, offline, face to face or via other media such as phone or SMS. It’s relatively cheap to do, since participants can self-administer the questionnaire in most cases. You can automate much of the process if you invest in good quality survey software.

Primary research interviews can be carried out face to face, over the phone or via video calling. They’re more time-consuming than surveys, and they require the time and expense of a skilled interviewer and a dedicated room, phone line or video calling setup. However, a personal interview can provide a very rich primary source of data based not only on the participant’s answers but also on the observations of the interviewer.

Focus groups

A focus group is an interview with multiple participants at the same time. It often takes the form of a discussion moderated by the researcher. As well as taking less time and resources than a series of one-to-one interviews, a focus group can benefit from the interactions between participants which bring out more ideas and opinions. However this can also lead to conversations going off on a tangent, which the moderator must be able to skilfully avoid by guiding the group back to the relevant topic.

Secondary research

Secondary research is research that has already been done by someone else prior to your own research study.

Secondary research is generally the best place to start any research project as it will reveal whether someone has already researched the same topic you’re interested in, or a similar topic that helps lay some of the groundwork for your research project.

Even if your preliminary secondary research doesn’t turn up a study similar to your own research goals, it will still give you a stronger knowledge base that you can use to strengthen and refine your research hypothesis. You may even find some gaps in the market you didn’t know about before.

The scope of secondary research resources is extremely broad. Here are just a few of the places you might look for relevant information.

Books and magazines

A public library can turn up a wealth of data in the form of books and magazines – and it doesn’t cost a penny to consult them.

Market research reports

Secondary research from professional research agencies can be highly valuable, as you can be confident the data collection methods and data analysis will be sound

Scholarly journals, often available in reference libraries

Peer-reviewed journals have been examined by experts from the relevant educational institutions, meaning there has been an extra layer of oversight and careful consideration of the data points before publication.

Government reports and studies

Public domain data, such as census data, can provide relevant information for your research project, not least in choosing the appropriate research population for a primary research method. If the information you need isn’t readily available, try contacting the relevant government agencies.

White papers

Businesses often produce white papers as a means of showcasing their expertise and value in their field. White papers can be helpful in secondary research methods, although they may not be as carefully vetted as academic papers or public records.

Trade or industry associations

Associations may have secondary data that goes back a long way and offers a general overview of a particular industry. This data collected over time can be very helpful in laying the foundations of your particular research project.

Private company data

Some businesses may offer their company data to those conducting research in return for fees or with explicit permissions. However, if a business has data that’s closely relevant to yours, it’s likely they are a competitor and may flat out refuse your request.

Learn more about secondary research

Examples of secondary research data

These are all forms of secondary research data in action:

• A newspaper report quoting statistics sourced by a journalist
• Facts from primary research articles quoted during a debate club meeting
• A blog post discussing new national figures on the economy
• A company consulting previous research published by a competitor

Secondary research methods

Literature reviews.

A core part of the secondary research process, involving data collection and constructing an argument around multiple sources. A literature review involves gathering information from a wide range of secondary sources on one topic and summarising them in a report or in the introduction to primary research data.

Content analysis

This systematic approach is widely used in social science disciplines. It uses codes for themes, tropes or key phrases which are tallied up according to how often they occur in the secondary data. The results help researchers to draw conclusions from qualitative data.

Data analysis using digital tools

You can analyse large volumes of data using software that can recognise and categorise natural language. More advanced tools will even be able to identify relationships and semantic connections within the secondary research materials.

Comparing primary vs secondary research

We’ve established that both primary research and secondary research have benefits for your business, and that there are major differences in terms of the research process, the cost, the research skills involved and the types of data gathered. But is one of them better than the other?

The answer largely depends on your situation. Whether primary or secondary research wins out in your specific case depends on the particular topic you’re interested in and the resources you have available. The positive aspects of one method might be enough to sway you, or the drawbacks – such as a lack of credible evidence already published, as might be the case in very fast-moving industries – might make one method totally unsuitable.

Here’s an at-a-glance look at the features and characteristics of primary vs secondary research, illustrating some of the key differences between them.

What are the pros and cons of primary research?

Primary research provides original data and allows you to pinpoint the issues you’re interested in and collect data from your target market – with all the effort that entails.

Benefits of primary research:

• Tells you what you need to know, nothing irrelevant
• Yours exclusively – once acquired, you may be able to sell primary data or use it for marketing
• Teaches you more about your business
• Can help foster new working relationships and connections between silos
• Primary research methods can provide upskilling opportunities – employees gain new research skills

Limitations of primary research:

• Lacks context from other research on related subjects
• Can be expensive
• Results aren’t ready to use until the project is complete
• Any mistakes you make in in research design or implementation could compromise your data quality
• May not have lasting relevance – although it could fulfil a benchmarking function if things change

What are the pros and cons of secondary research?

Secondary research relies on secondary sources, which can be both an advantage and a drawback. After all, other people are doing the work, but they’re also setting the research parameters.

Benefits of secondary research:

• It’s often low cost or even free to access in the public domain
• Supplies a knowledge base for researchers to learn from
• Data is complete, has been analysed and checked, saving you time and costs
• It’s ready to use as soon as you acquire it

Limitations of secondary research

• May not provide enough specific information
• Conducting a literature review in a well-researched subject area can become overwhelming
• No added value from publishing or re-selling your research data
• Results are inconclusive – you’ll only ever be interpreting data from another organisation’s experience, not your own
• Details of the research methodology are unknown
• May be out of date – always check carefully the original research was conducted

Related resources

Business research methods 12 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, business research 10 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, video in qualitative research 10 min read, correlation research 11 min read, request demo.

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