research and development skills definition

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What are Research Skills and why are they important?

Most jobs actually require some level of problem-solving. You may come across an impediment and come up with a question that you must answer in order to proceed. To answer this question, you will almost certainly need to conduct some research. People with research skills can identify a problem, gather informational resources that can help address the problem, assess the quality and relevance of these resources, and come up with an effective solution to the problem.

By the way, to diversify your research paper process you can find unique research paper topics .

What is Research?

Internet Research is the practice of conducting research using Internet information, particularly free information on Internet-based educational resources (such as Internet discussion forums).

Simply put, research is the process of discovering new knowledge. This knowledge can be either the development of new concepts or the advancement of existing knowledge and theories, leading to a new understanding that was not previously known.

In fact, almost every profession or job necessitates some level of research and research skills. As long as you encounter a question, which is a natural occurrence in almost everything, you should encounter an opportunity to conduct research. When there is a need for research, strong research skills come in handy.

What are Research Skills?

Research skills enable you to focus on a specific goal, gather relevant information, and communicate your findings to others. We are taught from a young age to develop research skills, and for good reason.

Teachers in academia required answers to a series of topic-related questions in an essay. Similarly, your boss may eventually request that you investigate a work-related topic or figure out how to solve a problem.

Why are Research Skills Important?

Research skills are important in the workplace for a variety of reasons, including the ability for individuals and businesses to:

• Develop new processes and outcomes. You don't have to be involved in research and development to improve the way your team works. Any sensible employer will value your efforts in researching new processes that will make your job (and those of your team) more efficient.
• Personal Growth. People who have a knack and a passion for research are never satisfied with doing things the same way they've always done them. Organizations require independent thinkers who will seek their own answers and continually improve their skills. These employees will also learn new technologies more quickly.
• Customer relationship management. In almost every industry, being able to conduct research on your customer base is critical. It's difficult to move products or sell services if you don't know what people want. It is a valuable responsibility to research your customer base's interests, needs, and pain points.
• Cost Effective. Whether your organization is launching a new product or simply trying to cut costs, research is critical for identifying wasted resources and redirecting them to more worthy causes. Anyone who goes out of their way to find ways for the company to save money will be praised by their boss.
• Competitor Analysis. Knowing what your top competitors are up to is crucial for any company. If a company wants to stay functioning, it must research what works for its competitors, what they do better than you, and where it may improve its standing with the least amount of resources.

Types of Research Skills

Experienced researchers understand that conducting a worthwhile investigation necessitates a wide range of abilities. Consider which research abilities you have naturally and which you could improve.

Goal Setting

You must first know what you're looking for before you can conduct any form of productive research. Setting goals is a skill just like any other. It will be lot easier to construct a path there if you can imagine the conclusion you're aiming to attain by investing effort into research. Goal-setting skills include:

• Specificity
• Time-Management
• Planning ahead
• Organization
• Accountable

Data Collection

The collection of data is often the first thing to remember when thinking about the research process. It is a systematic process to collect and measure information on variables of interest that allows one to respond to research questions, to test hypothesis and to assess results.

Simply collecting facts and information on the internet can meet your needs for some purposes. More direct and popular research may be needed by others. You will be more impressive with your experience in different methods of data collection. Methods of data collection are:

• Questionnaires and surveys
• Observations
• Documents and records
• Focus groups
• Oral histories

Evaluate and Analyze Information and Sources

In research, it is important to find reliable information suitable for your task. Some tasks may require the use of certain types of sources, such as primary or secondary sources or certain types of journals, like scientific journals. You may need to restrict the numbers sources you use for other assignments.

In all cases, the information contained in your assignments should always be assessed. Knowing how to assess information helps you with research tasks and with your life's bigger decisions. Knowing where to go for information that is relevant, credible, and accurate can assist you in making informed decisions about graduate school, a new car purchase, financial aid opportunities, daycare options, and other topics.

• Published books
• Encyclopedias
• Scholarly journals
• Library catalogs

Using the internet to gather information

Search engines are used to find the majority of information on the Internet. A search engine is an online service that employs web robots to query millions of web pages and compile an index of the results. Internet users can then utilize these services to search the web for information. While it is beneficial to consult different sources, today's research is driven by good online research skills.

One of the greatest things about the internet is how much information it holds; unfortunately, getting to the data you need requires sifting through a lot of rubbish. Employers value the ability to efficiently utilise the large reservoir of knowledge available on the internet without getting lost in the clutter. The following are some examples of internet research skills:

• Source checking
• Searching relevant questions
• Exploring deeper than the first options
• Avoiding distraction
• Giving credit
• Organizing findings

Due to the sheer size of the World Wide Web, and with the rapid growth of indexed web pages, finding relevant and reliable information demands specialized training and Internet research skills . We provide a centralized virtual platform for knowledge professionals that use the Internet as a primary source of information. This AofIRS is more than just a virtual collaboration and networking platform for researchers and knowledge professionals. The website is filled with free, up-to-date content and reference material that is ideal for research.

Interviewing

Some research projects may demand a more hands-on approach than relying just on online resources. In the research process, being prepared with great interviewing skills can be really beneficial. Interviews can be a good way to get first-hand knowledge for your research, and knowing how to conduct an effective interview can help you improve your research skills. Interviewing abilities include:

• A plan of action
• Specific, pointed questions
• Respectfulness
• Considering the interview setting
• Actively Listening
• Taking notes

Report Writing

Report writing skills can help you in both your employment and your academic studies. In any case, the overall goal of a report is to transmit specific facts to its audience.

Communication is crucial for effective report writing. Your supervisor, professor, or general reader should comprehend your findings and conclusions clearly. Skills in report writing include:

• Formatting is important.
• Including a synopsis
• Keeping your focus on your main goal
• Developing a plan
• Proofreading\sDirectness

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking skills can help you a lot in the research process and in general as an employee. Your data analysis skills are referred to as critical thinking. When you're conducting research, you'll need to be able to interpret your findings and make rational judgments based on them. The following are examples of critical thinking skills:

• Observation
• Assessing issues
• Problem-solving
• Communication

Planning and Scheduling 

The development of baseline productivity and success standards is one of the most significant components of planning and scheduling. You won't know if you're meeting goals until you have a particular strategy in place with a specific desired outcome defined by a completion date.

It also makes time management considerably easy. Employers value planning and scheduling abilities because they suggest a well-prepared employee. Skills in planning and scheduling include:

• Setting objectives
• Identifying tasks
• Prioritizing
• Delegating if needed
• Time-management

Note-taking

Research involves sifting through and taking in lots of information. Taking thorough notes ensures that you do not overlook any findings and allows you to communicate these findings to your coworkers. Being able to take good notes aids in the summarization of research. Here are some examples of note-taking abilities:

• Using short-hand
• Keeping your goal in mind
• Emphasizing important points
• Reviewing notes afterward

Time Management

Unfortunately, we only have 24 measly hours in a day. In a professional setting, the ability to effectively manage this time is extremely valuable. Hiring managers look for candidates who can complete tasks within a specific time frame.

Strong time management skills imply that you can organize a strategy for breaking down larger tasks in a project and completing them by a deadline. Improving your time management skills can significantly boost the productivity of your research. Time management abilities include the following:

• Creating task outlines
• Thinking strategically
• Stress-management
• Utilizing resources
• Setting reasonable expectations
• Meeting deadlines

Other Helpful Research Skills

The definition of research skills is broad, and there are many traits that could help you in the research process. Consider some of the additional research skills below.

• Attention to detail
• Reading and writing skills
• Considering keywords
• Competitor comparison
• Multitasking
• Summarization
• Presentation

How to Improve Your Research Skills

The great thing about research skills is that many of us use them on a daily basis. When you use a search engine to find information on a topic, you are conducting research. However, there are more proactive ways to begin improving your research skills today:

• Make a distinction between source quality. A researcher's worst source determines how good they are. Start paying attention to the quality of the sources you're using, and be wary of anything you read until you've double-checked the attributions and works cited. Examine the author's bias, the author's research's alignment with the greater body of confirmed research in the subject, and the journal that sponsored or published the research.
• Verify information from several sources. It gets increasingly trustworthy when you can verify information from a variety of sources. If you want to strengthen your belief in one source, check if you can locate another that agrees with it. When you run into contradictions and conflicts in your study, you know you need to keep going until you reach a more definitive conclusion.
• Don't be influenced by confirmation bias. Confirmation bias occurs when a researcher expects a specific result and then searches for data to support that hypothesis, ignoring any sources that contradict or invalidate the researcher's initial idea. Be ready for unexpected responses and keep an open mind. Also, keep in mind that you might not be able to discover a definitive answer. It's preferable to provide the important points of your research to someone (such as your employer) and explain that it didn't lead to a concrete plan of action than to alter your data and give the answer you or your boss want to hear.
• Stay organized. You'll encounter a lot of material during the data gathering process, from webpages to PDFs to videos. To avoid losing something or not being able to properly mention something, it's critical that you maintain all of this information organized in some way. There are numerous methods for keeping your research project structured, but here are a few of the most common: Bookmarks in your browser, index cards, and an annotated bibliography that you update as you go are all useful tools.
• Develop your research skills. Professional certification will help you improve your research skills. CIRS™ (Certified Internet Research Specialist), is by far the only professional credential that meets this challenge. Professional researchers owe it to themselves to seek structured certification programs and stay in touch with new materials and tools that are available to transform research problems from very difficult or impossible to quick and simple tasks. We have developed a CIRS Certification (Certified Internet Research Specialist) to educate and train Online Researchers that now form a significantly large group of people involved in digital information research work.
• Get specific as you go. There's nothing wrong with commencing your investigation in a broad sense. After all, it's critical to become acquainted with the vocabulary and substance of the researcher's results before delving into the details. Orienting yourself to a new topic is an important step that will prevent you from being discouraged and working backwards.
• Learn how to spot a reliable source. Because not all sources are trustworthy, it's critical to be able to distinguish between the good and the bad. To find a trustworthy source, utilize your critical thinking and analytical skills to ask yourself the following questions: Is this source consistent with other sources I've discovered? Is the author a subject matter expert? Is there a conflict of interest in the author's point of view on this subject?

If you're ready to conduct research to enhance your search efforts, the following resources will be useful:

• Educational Search Engines for Students
• Top 100  Academic Search Engines
• 3 ways to help students do efficient online research

Live Classes Schedule

• JUN 14 CIRS Certification Internet Research Training Program Live Classes Online
• JUN 14 Web Search Methods & Techniques Live Training Live Classes Online

World's leading professional association of Internet Research Specialists - We deliver Knowledge, Education, Training, and Certification in the field of Professional Online Research. The AOFIRS is considered a major contributor in improving Web Search Skills and recognizes Online Research work as a full-time occupation for those that use the Internet as their primary source of information.

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Research Skills: What they are and Benefits

Research skills play a vital role in the success of any research project, enabling individuals to navigate the vast sea of information, analyze data critically, and draw meaningful conclusions. Whether conducting academic research, professional investigations, or personal inquiries, strong research skills are essential for obtaining accurate and reliable results.

LEARN ABOUT:   Research Process Steps

By understanding and developing these skills, individuals can embark on their research endeavors with confidence, integrity, and the capability to make meaningful contributions in their chosen fields. This article will explore the importance of research skills and discuss critical competencies necessary for conducting a research project effectively.

Content Index

What are Research Skills?

Important research skills for research project, benefits of research skills.

• Improving your Research Skills

Talk to Experts to Improve Skills

Research skills are the capability a person carries to create new concepts and understand the use of data collection. These skills include techniques, documentation, and interpretation of the collected data. Research is conducted to evaluate hypotheses and share the findings most appropriately. Research skills improve as we gain experience.

To conduct efficient research, specific research skills are essential. These skills are necessary for companies to develop new products and services or enhance existing products. To develop good research skills is important for both the individual as well as the company.

When undertaking a research project, one must possess specific important skills to ensure the project’s success and accuracy. Here are some essential research skills that are crucial for conducting a project effectively:

Time Management Skills:

Time management is an essential research skill; it helps you break down your project into parts and enables you to manage it easier. One can create a dead-line oriented plan for the research project and assign time for each task. Time management skills include setting goals for the project, planning and organizing functions as per their priority, and efficiently delegating these tasks.

Communication Skills:

These skills help you understand and receive important information and also allow you to share your findings with others in an effective manner. Active listening and speaking are critical skills for solid communication. A researcher must have good communication skills.

Problem-Solving:  

The ability to handle complex situations and business challenges and come up with solutions for them is termed problem-solving. To problem-solve, you should be able to fully understand the extent of the problem and then break it down into smaller parts. Once segregated into smaller chunks, you can start thinking about each element and analyze it to find a solution.

Information gathering and attention to detail:

Relevant information is the key to good research design . Searching for credible resources and collecting information from there will help you strengthen your research proposal and drive you to solutions faster. Once you have access to information, paying close attention to all the details and drawing conclusions based on the findings is essential.

Research Design and Methodology :

Understanding research design and methodology is essential for planning and conducting a project. Depending on the research question and objectives, researchers must select appropriate research methods, such as surveys, experiments, interviews, or case studies. Proficiency in designing research protocols, data collection instruments, and sampling strategies is crucial for obtaining reliable and valid results.

Data Collection and Analysis :

Researchers should be skilled in collecting and analyzing data accurately. It involves designing data collection instruments, collecting data through various methods, such as surveys or observations, and organizing and analyzing the collected data using appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques. Proficiency in using software tools like SPSS, Excel, or qualitative analysis software can be beneficial.

By developing and strengthening these research skills, researchers can enhance the quality and impact of their research process, contributing to good research skills in their respective fields.

Research skills are invaluable assets that can benefit individuals in various aspects of their lives. Here are some key benefits of developing and honing research skills:

Boosts Curiosity :

Curiosity is a strong desire to know things and a powerful learning driver. Curious researchers will naturally ask questions that demand answers and will stop in the search for answers. Interested people are better listeners and are open to listening to other people’s ideas and perspectives, not just their own.

Cultivates Self-awareness :

As well as being aware of other people’s subjective opinions, one must develop the importance of research skills and be mindful of the benefits of awareness research; we are exposed to many things while researching. Once we start doing research, the benefit from it reflects on the beliefs and attitudes and encourages them to open their minds to other perspectives and ways of looking at things.

Effective Communication:

Research skills contribute to practical communication skills by enhancing one’s ability to articulate ideas, opinions, and findings clearly and coherently. Through research, individuals learn to organize their thoughts, present evidence-based arguments, and effectively convey complex information to different audiences. These skills are crucial in academic research settings, professional environments, and personal interactions.

Personal and Professional Growth :

Developing research skills fosters personal and professional growth by instilling a sense of curiosity, intellectual independence, and a lifelong learning mindset. Research encourages individuals to seek knowledge, challenge assumptions, and embrace intellectual growth. These skills also enhance adaptability as individuals become adept at navigating and assimilating new information, staying updated with the latest developments, and adjusting their perspectives and strategies accordingly.

Academic Success:

Research skills are essential for academic research success. They enable students to conduct thorough literature reviews, gather evidence to support their arguments, and critically evaluate existing research. By honing their research skills, students can produce well-structured, evidence-based essays, projects, and dissertations demonstrating high academic research rigor and analytical thinking.

Professional Advancement:

Research skills are highly valued in the professional world. They are crucial for conducting market research, analyzing trends, identifying opportunities, and making data-driven decisions. Employers appreciate individuals who can effectively gather and analyze information, solve complex problems, and provide evidence-based recommendations. Research skills also enable professionals to stay updated with advancements in their field, positioning themselves as knowledgeable and competent experts.

Developing and nurturing research skills can significantly benefit individuals in numerous aspects of their lives, enabling them to thrive in an increasingly information-driven world.

Improving Your Research Skills

There are many things you can do to improve your research skills and utilize them in your research or day job. Here are some examples:

• Develop Information Literacy: Strengthening your information literacy skills is crucial for conducting thorough research. It involves identifying reliable sources, evaluating the credibility of information, and navigating different research databases.
• Enhance Critical Thinking: Critical thinking is an essential skill for effective research. It involves analyzing information, questioning assumptions, and evaluating arguments. Practice critical analysis by analyzing thoughtfully, identifying biases, and considering alternative perspectives.
• Master Research Methodologies: Familiarize yourself with different research methodologies relevant to your field. Whether it’s qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods research, realizing the strengths and limitations of each approach is crucial.
• Practice Effective Time Management: Research requires dedicated time and effort. Develop good time management skills to ensure that you allocate sufficient time for each stage of the research process, including planning, data collection, analysis, and writing.
• Embrace Collaboration: Collaborating with peers and colleagues can provide a fresh perspective and enrich your research experience. Engage in discussions, share ideas, and seek feedback from others. Collaborative projects allow for exchanging knowledge and skills.
• Continuously Update Your Knowledge: Stay informed about your field’s latest developments and advancements. Regularly read scholarly articles, attend conferences, and follow reputable sources of information to stay up to date with current research trends.

There is plenty of information available on the internet about every topic; hence, learning skills to know which information is relevant and credible is very important. Today most search engines have the feature of advanced search, and you can customize the search as per your preference. Once you learn this skill, it will help you find information. 

Experts possess a wealth of knowledge, experience, and insights that can significantly enhance your understanding and abilities in conducting research. Experts have often encountered numerous challenges and hurdles throughout their research journey and have developed effective problem-solving techniques. Engaging with experts is a highly effective approach to improving research skills.

Moreover, experts can provide valuable feedback and constructive criticism on your research work. They can offer fresh perspectives, identify areas for improvement, and help you refine your research questions, methodology, and analysis.

At QuestionPro, we can help you with the necessary tools to carry out your projects, and we have created the following free resources to help you in your professional growth:

• Survey Templates

Research skills are invaluable assets that empower individuals to navigate the ever-expanding realm of information, make informed decisions, and contribute to advancing knowledge. With advanced research tools and technologies like QuestionPro Survey Software, researchers have potent resources to conduct comprehensive surveys, gather data, and analyze results efficiently.

Where data-driven decision-making is crucial, research skills supported by advanced tools like QuestionPro are essential for researchers to stay ahead and make impactful contributions to their fields. By embracing these research skills and leveraging the capabilities of powerful survey software, researchers can unlock new possibilities, gain deeper insights, and pave the way for meaningful discoveries.

Authors : Gargi Ghamandi & Sandeep Kokane

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The Most Important Research Skills (With Examples)

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Research skills are the ability to find out accurate information on a topic. They include being able to determine the data you need, find and interpret those findings, and then explain that to others. Being able to do effective research is a beneficial skill in any profession, as data and research inform how businesses operate.

Whether you’re unsure of your research skills or are looking for ways to further improve them, then this article will cover important research skills and how to become even better at research.

Key Takeaways

Having strong research skills can help you understand your competitors, develop new processes, and build your professional skills in addition to aiding you in finding new customers and saving your company money.

Some of the most valuable research skills you can have include goal setting, data collection, and analyzing information from multiple sources.

You can and should put your research skills on your resume and highlight them in your job interviews.

What are research skills?

Why are research skills important, 12 of the most important research skills, how to improve your research skills, highlighting your research skills in a job interview, how to include research skills on your resume, resume examples showcasing research skills, research skills faqs.

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Research skills are the necessary tools to be able to find, compile, and interpret information in order to answer a question. Of course, there are several aspects to this. Researchers typically have to decide how to go about researching a problem — which for most people is internet research.

In addition, you need to be able to interpret the reliability of a source, put the information you find together in an organized and logical way, and be able to present your findings to others. That means that they’re comprised of both hard skills — knowing your subject and what’s true and what isn’t — and soft skills. You need to be able to interpret sources and communicate clearly.

Research skills are useful in any industry, and have applications in innovation, product development, competitor research, and many other areas. In addition, the skills used in researching aren’t only useful for research. Being able to interpret information is a necessary skill, as is being able to clearly explain your reasoning.

Research skills are used to:

Do competitor research. Knowing what your biggest competitors are up to is an essential part of any business. Researching what works for your competitors, what they’re doing better than you, and where you can improve your standing with the lowest resource expenditure are all essential if a company wants to remain functional.

Develop new processes and products. You don’t have to be involved in research and development to make improvements in how your team gets things done. Researching new processes that make your job (and those of your team) more efficient will be valued by any sensible employer.

Foster self-improvement. Folks who have a knack and passion for research are never content with doing things the same way they’ve always been done. Organizations need independent thinkers who will seek out their own answers and improve their skills as a matter of course. These employees will also pick up new technologies more easily.

Manage customer relationships. Being able to conduct research on your customer base is positively vital in virtually every industry. It’s hard to move products or sell services if you don’t know what people are interested in. Researching your customer base’s interests, needs, and pain points is a valuable responsibility.

Save money. Whether your company is launching a new product or just looking for ways to scale back its current spending, research is crucial for finding wasted resources and redirecting them to more deserving ends. Anyone who proactively researches ways that the company can save money will be highly appreciated by their employer.

Solve problems. Problem solving is a major part of a lot of careers, and research skills are instrumental in making sure your solution is effective. Finding out the cause of the problem and determining an effective solution both require accurate information, and research is the best way to obtain that — be it via the internet or by observation.

Determine reliable information. Being able to tell whether or not the information you receive seems accurate is a very valuable skill. While research skills won’t always guarantee that you’ll be able to tell the reliability of the information at first glance, it’ll prevent you from being too trusting. And it’ll give the tools to double-check .

Experienced researchers know that worthwhile investigation involves a variety of skills. Consider which research skills come naturally to you, and which you could work on more.

Data collection . When thinking about the research process, data collection is often the first thing that comes to mind. It is the nuts and bolts of research. How data is collected can be flexible.

For some purposes, simply gathering facts and information on the internet can fulfill your need. Others may require more direct and crowd-sourced research. Having experience in various methods of data collection can make your resume more impressive to recruiters.

Data collection methods include: Observation Interviews Questionnaires Experimentation Conducting focus groups

Analysis of information from different sources. Putting all your eggs in one source basket usually results in error and disappointment. One of the skills that good researchers always incorporate into their process is an abundance of sources. It’s also best practice to consider the reliability of these sources.

Are you reading about U.S. history on a conspiracy theorist’s blog post? Taking facts for a presentation from an anonymous Twitter account?

If you can’t determine the validity of the sources you’re using, it can compromise all of your research. That doesn’t mean just disregard anything on the internet but double-check your findings. In fact, quadruple-check. You can make your research even stronger by turning to references outside of the internet.

Examples of reliable information sources include: Published books Encyclopedias Magazines Databases Scholarly journals Newspapers Library catalogs

Finding information on the internet. While it can be beneficial to consulate alternative sources, strong internet research skills drive modern-day research.

One of the great things about the internet is how much information it contains, however, this comes with digging through a lot of garbage to get to the facts you need. The ability to efficiently use the vast database of knowledge that is on the internet without getting lost in the junk is very valuable to employers.

Internet research skills include: Source checking Searching relevant questions Exploring deeper than the first options Avoiding distraction Giving credit Organizing findings

Interviewing. Some research endeavors may require a more hands-on approach than just consulting internet sources. Being prepared with strong interviewing skills can be very helpful in the research process.

Interviews can be a useful research tactic to gain first-hand information and being able to manage a successful interview can greatly improve your research skills.

Interviewing skills involves: A plan of action Specific, pointed questions Respectfulness Considering the interview setting Actively Listening Taking notes Gratitude for participation

Report writing. Possessing skills in report writing can assist you in job and scholarly research. The overall purpose of a report in any context is to convey particular information to its audience.

Effective report writing is largely dependent on communication. Your boss, professor , or general reader should walk away completely understanding your findings and conclusions.

Report writing skills involve: Proper format Including a summary Focusing on your initial goal Creating an outline Proofreading Directness

Critical thinking. Critical thinking skills can aid you greatly throughout the research process, and as an employee in general. Critical thinking refers to your data analysis skills. When you’re in the throes of research, you need to be able to analyze your results and make logical decisions about your findings.

Critical thinking skills involve: Observation Analysis Assessing issues Problem-solving Creativity Communication

Planning and scheduling. Research is a work project like any other, and that means it requires a little forethought before starting. Creating a detailed outline map for the points you want to touch on in your research produces more organized results.

It also makes it much easier to manage your time. Planning and scheduling skills are important to employers because they indicate a prepared employee.

Planning and scheduling skills include: Setting objectives Identifying tasks Prioritizing Delegating if needed Vision Communication Clarity Time-management

Note-taking. Research involves sifting through and taking in lots of information. Taking exhaustive notes ensures that you will not neglect any findings later and allows you to communicate these results to your co-workers. Being able to take good notes helps summarize research.

Examples of note-taking skills include: Focus Organization Using short-hand Keeping your objective in mind Neatness Highlighting important points Reviewing notes afterward

Communication skills. Effective research requires being able to understand and process the information you receive, either written or spoken. That means that you need strong reading comprehension and writing skills — two major aspects of communication — as well as excellent listening skills.

Most research also involves showcasing your findings. This can be via a presentation. , report, chart, or Q&A. Whatever the case, you need to be able to communicate your findings in a way that educates your audience.

Communication skills include: Reading comprehension Writing Listening skills Presenting to an audience Creating graphs or charts Explaining in layman’s terms

Time management. We’re, unfortunately, only given 24 measly hours in a day. The ability to effectively manage this time is extremely powerful in a professional context. Hiring managers seek candidates who can accomplish goals in a given timeframe.

Strong time management skills mean that you can organize a plan for how to break down larger tasks in a project and complete them by a deadline. Developing your time management skills can greatly improve the productivity of your research.

Time management skills include: Scheduling Creating task outlines Strategic thinking Stress-management Delegation Communication Utilizing resources Setting realistic expectations Meeting deadlines

Using your network. While this doesn’t seem immediately relevant to research skills, remember that there are a lot of experts out there. Knowing what people’s areas of expertise and asking for help can be tremendously beneficial — especially if it’s a subject you’re unfamiliar with.

Your coworkers are going to have different areas of expertise than you do, and your network of people will as well. You may even know someone who knows someone who’s knowledgeable in the area you’re researching. Most people are happy to share their expertise, as it’s usually also an area of interest to them.

Networking involves: Remembering people’s areas of expertise Being willing to ask for help Communication Returning favors Making use of advice Asking for specific assistance

Attention to detail. Research is inherently precise. That means that you need to be attentive to the details, both in terms of the information you’re gathering, but also in where you got it from. Making errors in statistics can have a major impact on the interpretation of the data, not to mention that it’ll reflect poorly on you.

There are proper procedures for citing sources that you should follow. That means that your sources will be properly credited, preventing accusations of plagiarism. In addition, it means that others can make use of your research by returning to the original sources.

Attention to detail includes: Double checking statistics Taking notes Keeping track of your sources Staying organized Making sure graphs are accurate and representative Properly citing sources

As with many professional skills, research skills serve us in our day to day life. Any time you search for information on the internet, you’re doing research. That means that you’re practicing it outside of work as well. If you want to continue improving your research skills, both for professional and personal use, here are some tips to try.

Differentiate between source quality. A researcher is only as good as their worst source. Start paying attention to the quality of the sources you use, and be suspicious of everything your read until you check out the attributions and works cited.

Be critical and ask yourself about the author’s bias, where the author’s research aligns with the larger body of verified research in the field, and what publication sponsored or published the research.

Use multiple resources. When you can verify information from a multitude of sources, it becomes more and more credible. To bolster your faith in one source, see if you can find another source that agrees with it.

Don’t fall victim to confirmation bias. Confirmation bias is when a researcher expects a certain outcome and then goes to find data that supports this hypothesis. It can even go so far as disregarding anything that challenges the researcher’s initial hunch. Be prepared for surprising answers and keep an open mind.

Be open to the idea that you might not find a definitive answer. It’s best to be honest and say that you found no definitive answer instead of just confirming what you think your boss or coworkers expect or want to hear. Experts and good researchers are willing to say that they don’t know.

Stay organized. Being able to cite sources accurately and present all your findings is just as important as conducting the research itself. Start practicing good organizational skills , both on your devices and for any physical products you’re using.

Get specific as you go. There’s nothing wrong with starting your research in a general way. After all, it’s important to become familiar with the terminology and basic gist of the researcher’s findings before you dig down into all the minutia.

A job interview is itself a test of your research skills. You can expect questions on what you know about the company, the role, and your field or industry more generally. In order to give expert answers on all these topics, research is crucial.

Start by researching the company . Look into how they communicate with the public through social media, what their mission statement is, and how they describe their culture.

Pay close attention to the tone of their website. Is it hyper professional or more casual and fun-loving? All of these elements will help decide how best to sell yourself at the interview.

Next, research the role. Go beyond the job description and reach out to current employees working at your desired company and in your potential department. If you can find out what specific problems your future team is or will be facing, you’re sure to impress hiring managers and recruiters with your ability to research all the facts.

Finally, take time to research the job responsibilities you’re not as comfortable with. If you’re applying for a job that represents increased difficulty or entirely new tasks, it helps to come into the interview with at least a basic knowledge of what you’ll need to learn.

Research projects require dedication. Being committed is a valuable skill for hiring managers. Whether you’ve had research experience throughout education or a former job, including it properly can boost the success of your resume .

Consider how extensive your research background is. If you’ve worked on multiple, in-depth research projects, it might be best to include it as its own section. If you have less research experience, include it in the skills section .

Focus on your specific role in the research, as opposed to just the research itself. Try to quantify accomplishments to the best of your abilities. If you were put in charge of competitor research, for example, list that as one of the tasks you had in your career.

If it was a particular project, such as tracking the sale of women’s clothing at a tee-shirt company, you can say that you “directed analysis into women’s clothing sales statistics for a market research project.”

Ascertain how directly research skills relate to the job you’re applying for. How strongly you highlight your research skills should depend on the nature of the job the resume is for. If research looks to be a strong component of it, then showcase all of your experience.

If research looks to be tangential, then be sure to mention it — it’s a valuable skill — but don’t put it front and center.

Example #1: Academic Research

Simon Marks 767 Brighton Blvd. | Brooklyn, NY, 27368 | (683)-262-8883 | [email protected] Diligent and hardworking recent graduate seeking a position to develop professional experience and utilize research skills. B.A. in Biological Sciences from New York University. PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE Lixus Publishing , Brooklyn, NY Office Assistant- September 2018-present Scheduling and updating meetings Managing emails and phone calls Reading entries Worked on a science fiction campaign by researching target demographic Organizing calendars Promoted to office assistant after one year internship Mitch’s Burgers and Fries , Brooklyn, NY Restaurant Manager , June 2014-June 2018 Managed a team of five employees Responsible for coordinating the weekly schedule Hired and trained two employees Kept track of inventory Dealt with vendors Provided customer service Promoted to restaurant manager after two years as a waiter Awarded a $2.00/hr wage increase SKILLS Writing Scientific Research Data analysis Critical thinking Planning Communication RESEARCH Worked on an ecosystem biology project with responsibilities for algae collection and research (2019) Lead a group of freshmen in a research project looking into cell biology (2018) EDUCATION New York University Bachelors in Biological Sciences, September 2016-May 2020

Example #2: Professional Research

Angela Nichols 1111 Keller Dr. | San Francisco, CA | (663)-124-8827 |[email protected] Experienced and enthusiastic marketer with 7 years of professional experience. Seeking a position to apply my marketing and research knowledge. Skills in working on a team and flexibility. EXPERIENCE Apples amp; Oranges Marketing, San Francisco, CA Associate Marketer – April 2017-May 2020 Discuss marketing goals with clients Provide customer service Lead campaigns associated with women’s health Coordinating with a marketing team Quickly solving issues in service and managing conflict Awarded with two raises totaling $10,000 over three years Prestigious Marketing Company, San Francisco, CA Marketer – May 2014-April 2017 Working directly with clients Conducting market research into television streaming preferences Developing marketing campaigns related to television streaming services Report writing Analyzing campaign success statistics Promoted to Marketer from Junior Marketer after the first year Timberlake Public Relations, San Francisco, CA Public Relations Intern – September 2013–May 2014 Working cohesively with a large group of co-workers and supervisors Note-taking during meetings Running errands Managing email accounts Assisting in brainstorming Meeting work deadlines EDUCATION Golden Gate University, San Francisco, CA Bachelor of Arts in Marketing with a minor in Communications – September 2009 – May 2013 SKILLS Marketing Market research Record-keeping Teamwork Presentation. Flexibility

What research skills are important?

Goal-setting and data collection are important research skills. Additional important research skills include:

Using different sources to analyze information.

Finding information on the internet.

Interviewing sources.

Writing reports.

Critical thinking.

Planning and scheduling.

Note-taking.

Managing time.

How do you develop good research skills?

You develop good research skills by learning how to find information from multiple high-quality sources, by being wary of confirmation bias, and by starting broad and getting more specific as you go.

When you learn how to tell a reliable source from an unreliable one and get in the habit of finding multiple sources that back up a claim, you’ll have better quality research.

In addition, when you learn how to keep an open mind about what you’ll find, you’ll avoid falling into the trap of confirmation bias, and by staying organized and narrowing your focus as you go (rather than before you start), you’ll be able to gather quality information more efficiently.

What is the importance of research?

The importance of research is that it informs most decisions and strategies in a business. Whether it’s deciding which products to offer or creating a marketing strategy, research should be used in every part of a company.

Because of this, employers want employees who have strong research skills. They know that you’ll be able to put them to work bettering yourself and the organization as a whole.

Should you put research skills on your resume?

Yes, you should include research skills on your resume as they are an important professional skill. Where you include your research skills on your resume will depend on whether you have a lot of experience in research from a previous job or as part of getting your degree, or if you’ve just cultivated them on your own.

If your research skills are based on experience, you could put them down under the tasks you were expected to perform at the job in question. If not, then you should likely list it in your skills section.

University of the People – The Best Research Skills for Success

Association of Internet Research Specialists — What are Research Skills and Why Are They Important?

MasterClass — How to Improve Your Research Skills: 6 Research Tips

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Sky Ariella is a professional freelance writer, originally from New York. She has been featured on websites and online magazines covering topics in career, travel, and lifestyle. She received her BA in psychology from Hunter College.

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• Career Advice >
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• Research Skills

Empowering students to develop research skills

February 8, 2021

This post is republished from   Into Practice ,  a biweekly communication of Harvard’s  Office of the Vice Provost for Advances in Learning

Terence D. Capellini, Richard B Wolf Associate Professor of Human Evolutionary Biology, empowers students to grow as researchers in his Building the Human Body course through a comprehensive, course-long collaborative project that works to understand the changes in the genome that make the human skeleton unique. For instance, of the many types of projects, some focus on the genetic basis of why human beings walk on two legs. This integrative “Evo-Devo” project demands high levels of understanding of biology and genetics that students gain in the first half of class, which is then applied hands-on in the second half of class. Students work in teams of 2-3 to collect their own morphology data by measuring skeletons at the Harvard Museum of Natural History and leverage statistics to understand patterns in their data. They then collect and analyze DNA sequences from humans and other animals to identify the DNA changes that may encode morphology. Throughout this course, students go from sometimes having “limited experience in genetics and/or morphology” to conducting their own independent research. This project culminates in a team presentation and a final research paper.

The benefits: Students develop the methodological skills required to collect and analyze morphological data. Using the UCSC Genome browser  and other tools, students sharpen their analytical skills to visualize genomics data and pinpoint meaningful genetic changes. Conducting this work in teams means students develop collaborative skills that model academic biology labs outside class, and some student projects have contributed to published papers in the field. “Every year, I have one student, if not two, join my lab to work on projects developed from class to try to get them published.”

“The beauty of this class is that the students are asking a question that’s never been asked before and they’re actually collecting data to get at an answer.”

The challenges:  Capellini observes that the most common challenge faced by students in the course is when “they have a really terrific question they want to explore, but the necessary background information is simply lacking. It is simply amazing how little we do know about human development, despite its hundreds of years of study.” Sometimes, for instance, students want to learn about the evolution, development, and genetics of a certain body part, but it is still somewhat a mystery to the field. In these cases, the teaching team (including co-instructor Dr. Neil Roach) tries to find datasets that are maximally relevant to the questions the students want to explore. Capellini also notes that the work in his class is demanding and hard, just by the nature of the work, but students “always step up and perform” and the teaching team does their best to “make it fun” and ensure they nurture students’ curiosities and questions.

Takeaways and best practices

• Incorporate previous students’ work into the course. Capellini intentionally discusses findings from previous student groups in lectures. “They’re developing real findings and we share that when we explain the project for the next groups.” Capellini also invites students to share their own progress and findings as part of class discussion, which helps them participate as independent researchers and receive feedback from their peers.
• Assign groups intentionally.  Maintaining flexibility allows the teaching team to be more responsive to students’ various needs and interests. Capellini will often place graduate students by themselves to enhance their workload and give them training directly relevant to their future thesis work. Undergraduates are able to self-select into groups or can be assigned based on shared interests. “If two people are enthusiastic about examining the knee, for instance, we’ll match them together.”
• Consider using multiple types of assessments.  Capellini notes that exams and quizzes are administered in the first half of the course and scaffolded so that students can practice the skills they need to successfully apply course material in the final project. “Lots of the initial examples are hypothetical,” he explains, even grounded in fiction and pop culture references, “but [students] have to eventually apply the skills they learned in addressing the hypothetical example to their own real example and the data they generate” for the Evo-Devo project. This is coupled with a paper and a presentation treated like a conference talk.

Bottom line:  Capellini’s top advice for professors looking to help their own students grow as researchers is to ensure research projects are designed with intentionality and fully integrated into the syllabus. “You can’t simply tack it on at the end,” he underscores. “If you want this research project to be a substantive learning opportunity, it has to happen from Day 1.” That includes carving out time in class for students to work on it and make the connections they need to conduct research. “Listen to your students and learn about them personally” so you can tap into what they’re excited about. Have some fun in the course, and they’ll be motivated to do the work.

Introduction to research skills: Home

• Learning from lectures
• Managing your time
• Effective reading
• Evaluating Information
• Critical thinking
• Presentation skills
• Studying online
• Writing home
• Maths and Statistics Support
• Problem solving
• Maths skills by discipline
• Introduction to research skills
• Primary research
• Research methods
• Managing data
• Research ethics
• Citing and referencing
• Searching the literature
• What is academic integrity?
• Referencing software
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• Intellectual property and copyright
• Digital skills home

Research skills allow you to find information and use it effectively. It includes creating a strategy to gather facts and reach conclusions so that you can answer a question.

Starting your research

think about your topic – don’t be too vague or too specific (try mind mapping or keyword searching).

read broadly around your subject (don’t just use Google and Wikipedia). Think about a research question that is clearly structured and builds on literature already produced.

find information using the subject databases. View the Database Orientation Program to learn about databases and using search strategies to refine your search and limit results. View our library tutorial on planning your literature search and look at our library subject guides for resources on your specific topic.

Another good starting point for finding information is our library catalogue Library Search  which allows you to search across the library's electronic resources as well as major subject databases and indexes.

carry out a literature review . You may want to include journals, books, websites, grey literature or data and statistics for example. See the list of sources below for more information. Keep a record and organise your references and sources. If you are intending to carry out a systematic review then take a look at the systematic review page on our Research Support library guide.

evaluate your resources – use the CRAAP test (Currency, Relevancy, Authority, Accuracy, Purpose - watch the video, top right). 

reach considered conclusions and make recommendations where necessary.

Your research journey.

Why do I need research skills?

they enable you to locate appropriate information and evaluate it for quality and relevance

they allow you to make good use of information to resolve a problem

they give you the ability to synthesize and communicate your ideas in written and spoken formats

they foster critical thinking

they are highly transferable and can be adapted to many settings including the workplace

You can access more in depth information on areas such as primary research, literature reviews, research methods, and managing data, from the drop down headings under Research Skills on the Academic Skills home page. The related resources in the right-hand column of this page also contain useful supporting information.

• Conference proceedings
• Data & statistics
• Grey literature
• Official publications

Books are good for exploring new subject areas. They help define a topic and provide an in-depth account of a subject.

Scholarly books contain authoritative information including comprehensive accounts of research or scholarship and experts' views on themes and topics. Their bibliographies can lead readers to related books, articles and other sources. 

Details on the electronic books held by the University of Southampton can be found using the library catalogue .

Journals are quicker to publish than books and are often a good source of current information. They are useful when you require information to support an argument or original research written by subject experts.  The bibliographies at the end of journal articles should point you to other relevant research.

Academic journals go through a "peer-review" process. A peer-reviewed journal is one whose articles are checked by experts, so you can be more confident that the information they contain is reliable.

The Library's discovery service Library Search  is a good place to start when searching for journal articles and enables access to anything that is available electronically.

Newspapers enable you to follow current and historical events from multiple perspectives. They are an excellent record of political, social, cultural, and economic events and history.

Newspapers are popular rather than scholarly publications and their content needs to be treated with caution. For example, an account of a particular topic can be biased in favour of that newspaper’s political affiliation or point of view. Always double-check the data/statistics or any other piece of information that a newspaper has used to support an argument before you quote it in your own work.

The library subscribes to various resources which provide full-text access to both current and historical newspapers. Find out more about these on the Library's Newspaper Resources page.

Websites provide information about every topic imaginable, and many will be relevant to your studies.

Use websites with caution as anyone can publish on the Internet and therefore the quality of the information provided is variable. When you’re researching and come across a website you think might be useful, consider whether or not it provides information that is reliable and authoritative enough to use in your work.

Proceedings are collections of papers presented by researchers at academic conferences or symposia. They may be printed volumes or in electronic format.

You can use the information in conference proceedings with a high degree of confidence as the quality is ensured by having external experts read & review the papers before they are accepted in the proceedings.

Find the data and statistics you need, from economics to health, environment to oceanography - and everywhere between - http://library.soton.ac.uk/data .

Grey literature is the term given to non-traditional publications (material not published by mainstream publishers). For example - leaflets, reports, conference proceedings, government documents, preprints, theses, clinical trials, blogs, tweets, etc.. 

The majority of Grey literature is generally not peer-reviewed so it is very important to critically appraise any grey literature before using it.

Most aspects of life are touched by national governments, or by inter-governmental bodies such as the European Union or the United Nations.  Official publications are the documentary evidence of that interest. 

Our main printed collections and online services are for British and EU official publications, but we can give advice on accessing official publications from other places and organisations. Find out more from our web pages  http://library.soton.ac.uk/officialpublications .

Patents protect inventions - the owner can stop other people making, using or selling the item without their permission. This applies for a limited period and a separate application is needed for each country.

Patents can be useful since they contain full technical details on how an invention works. If you use an active patent outside of research - permission or a license is probably needed.

Related resources:

Checking for CRAAP - UMW New Media Archive

How to Develop a STRONG Research Question - Scribbr

Guide to dissertation and project writing - by University of Southampton (Enabling Services)

Guide to writing your dissertation - by the Royal Literary Fund  

Guidance on the Conduct of Narrative Synthesis in Systematic Reviews  - by ESRC Methods Programme

Guidelines for preparing a Research Proposal - by University of Southampton

Choosing good keywords - by the Open University

Developing a Research or Guided Question  - a self-guided tutorial produced by Arizona State University

Evaluating information - a 7 minute tutorial from the University of Southampton which covers thinking critically, and understanding how to find quality and reliable information.

Hints on conducting a literature review  - by the University of Toronto

Planning your literature search  - a short tutorial by the University of Southampton

Using Overleaf for scientific writing and publishing  -  a popular  LaTeX/Rich Text based online collaborative tool for students and researchers alike. It is designed to make the process of writing, editing, and producing scientific papers quicker and easier for authors. 

Systematic reviews  - by the University of Southampton. 

Create your own research proposal - by the University of Southampton

• Last Updated: Mar 13, 2024 3:14 PM
• URL: https://library.soton.ac.uk/sash/introduction-to-research-skills

Search form

Research and innovation menu, research and innovation, research skills development.

Willison & O’Regan (2007) believe that the development of research skills occurs on a continuum of knowledge production, from that which is new to the learner to fringe research that is new to everyone, or to move from “the commonly known, to the commonly not known, to the totally unknown" (p. 394). From this perspective, they developed a  Research Skills Development Framework   that outlines six facets of research and describes how each skill/activity manifests along a continuum based on the level of student autonomy.

Key Terms*:

• Prescribed Research –  highly structured directions and modeling from faculty
• Bounded Research –  boundaries set by and limited directions from faculty
• Scaffolded Research –  scaffolds placed by faculty shape the students’ research
• Student-initiated Research –  student-initiated research under the guidance of a faculty member
• Open Research –  independent student research that is guided by disciplinary standards

* Please see the  RSD Framework for a full description.

The Research Skills Development Framework is useful as both a conceptual and planning tool as well as an assessment mechanism.  It can be used to develop course and program activities that are appropriate for the level of research being conducted, it can help clarify learning outcomes, develop assessment measurements, and track student progress and development.

Equipped with an understanding of student development and research skills development, one can begin to conceptualize and plan undergraduate research activities that best suit the characteristics of the student population you are working with and/or the students that you are targeting to conduct research with – whether it be in a course or extra-curricular activity.

Next – Strategies 

• Willison, J.W. & O’Regan, K. (2007). Commonly known, commonly not known, totally unknown: A framework for students becoming researchers.  Higher Education Research and Development , 26, 393-409.

Mentoring Undergraduate Research Directory

Institute for Employment Research National Guidance Research Forum

Developing your research skills.

Developing Your Research Skills

Contribution from Jenny Bimrose, Warwick Institute for Employment Research (2003).

The following materials provide an introduction to some key issues for designing and progressing a research project in guidance through to successful completion.

Links to subsections: Contents

STAGE 1: Identifying a research need within a guidance (or related) context

Stage 2: reading for research, stage 3: selecting appropriating methods and procedures, stage 4: research models, traditions and approaches, stage 5: writing a research report.

Bibliography

Research in Practice website

Harvard Reference Style

This section will help you plan your research project.

1.1 Introduction

To carry out research, you will need to carry out a variety of tasks. Robson (1993:pxvii) identifies the main ones as:

deciding on the focus; developing the research question(s); choosing a research strategy; selecting the method(s); arranging the practicalities; collecting the data; preparing for, and carrying out analysis; reporting what you have found; and possibly acting on your findings There is no shortage of advice in books on how to approach your research (see the References and Bibliography sections - though, please note, that there are many other standard texts which contain the same type of general information). It is worth spending time reviewing the advice and suggestions contained in a selection of these texts, since learning from the experience of the experts who have written these texts can often save you time and effort in the longer term.

1.2 Objective: stage 1

The first stage in conducting successful research involves identifying a realistic and achievable research need which is relevant to your professional area, then undertaking some initial planning of your project.

By the end of this stage of your research project, you should have:

gathered and selected information from a variety of sources which is appropriate to your broad area of interest; synthesised this information to identify a research need; identified constraints associated with your chosen research focus together with possible solutions to potential problems they represent; considered likely trends related to the prospective research area; written a brief research proposal outlining your ideas for research (see 1.8 below).

1.3 Keeping a research diary

It is usual for initial ideas to change as you become more and more involved with the process of research. Because of this, it is worth keeping some informal notes about your progress, like a personal diary, which keeps a reasonably accurate record of key issues. These could include:

how and why you selected the particular focus for your study; difficulties anticipated and actually encountered; how and when difficulties are overcome; sources of inspiration; thoughts and feelings; insights and anxieties; critical turning points, etc. To ensure you do actually keep a diary, it’s important to select an approach to keeping a diary with which you feel comfortable. A small notebook would suffice or, alternatively, Blaxter et al (1996) suggest that diaries can also be kept on tape or a word processor. Whichever method of recording your choose, try to keep it readily accessible, so that ideas can be jotted down as and when they arise.

1.4 Models of research process

‘A rationale for the methods used to gather and process data, in what sequence and on what samples, taken together, constitutes a research methodology.’ Cryer, 1996: 45

The task of carrying out a research inquiry is complicated by the fact that there is no consensus about the way this should be done (Robson, 1993). A fundamental difference relates to the sequence and relationship of activities involved. One model says that you collect all the data before analysing it. One other model requires that data collection and analysis are intertwined. Another difference relates to views about the role of theory. Such differences can be categorised into two main traditions: quantitative (positivist, natural-science based, hypothetico-deductive) and qualitative (interpretative, ethnographic). The implications of adopting one as opposed to the other of these models are discussed later (4.5 and 4.6 below). However, whichever of these approaches (or combination of approaches) you decide to adopt, you will still need to develop your focus at an early stage of your research.

1.5 Selecting a topic

If you are reading this information, it is likely that you already have one (maybe several) idea(s) or a particular area of interest that you would like to research. To help you make your final selection, try to find out just how much has been written each topic. You probably won't have time to read extensively on each topic, so using a library catalogue can be a useful way of identifying relevant material. For example, try the catalogue linked to the careers library that can be accessed through this Forum). Additionally, talk to colleagues and others who might be interested. Discussing ideas about possible topics and the associated problems is an essential part of planning your research. Views may differ from (even conflict) with your own and you may be able to identify alternative approaches as a result of this process. For example, colleagues may be aware of sensitive aspects of certain topics that could cause difficulties at some stage. Use the discussion facility of the Forum to test out your ideas. If you are hoping to carry out research in your own employing organisation, early consultation with relevant individuals is essential to avoid later difficulties.

In selecting a topic, there is often a tendency to be over-ambitious. With limited resources (including time) at your disposal it’s important to prepare the ground carefully. Discussions and inquiries will help you select a topic which is likely to be of interest, which you have a good chance of completing and which may well have some practical application in a guidance context.

1.6 Ethical considerations

At a very early stage of your preparations to carry out research it is vital that you give serious thought to the ethical aspects of the enquiry you are proposing. Ethics refers to rules of conduct, and adopting an ethical approach involves conformity to a code or set of principles. Ethical problems can start at the very beginning of study. Some issues, which may be relevant to your research, are identified by Robson (1993:31):

Do individuals have the right not to take part? Even if they do, are there any overt or covert penalties for non-participation (e.g. 'it will look good on your reference if you have taken part in this study'). Do they know what they are letting themselves in for? Is their consent fully informed? Will individuals participating be protected, not only from any direct effects of the intervention, but also by the investigator ensuring that the reporting of the study maintains confidentiality? Is confidentiality always appropriate? If people have done something praiseworthy and put extra effort and time, should they get credit for this? Conversely, if inefficiency or malpractice is uncovered in your study, should the guilty ones be permitted to hide? What responsibility do investigators have for the knowledge they have acquired? Should those undertaking applied research target their knowledge and take responsibility for the consequences? These are just some examples. Each needs careful thought for your particular situation. Robson (1993: 32) lists ten questionable practices in social science research, relevant to a guidance context. These are:

Involving people without their knowledge or consent. Coercing them to participate. Withholding information about the true nature of the research. Otherwise deceiving the participant. Inducing them to commit acts diminishing their self-esteem. Violating rights of self-determination (e.g. in studies seeking to promote individual change). Exposing participants to physical or mental stress. Invading their privacy. Withholding benefits from some participants (e.g. in comparison groups). Not treating participants fairly, or with consideration, or with respect. He goes on to identify ethical principles relevant for 'action research' - one approach that you may choose to adopt, relevant to a guidance context, characterised by a collaborative effort between researcher and 'researched'. Ethical guidelines for this type of research emphasise the need for negotiation and involvement in the research process. These include:

Observe protocol: Ensure that the relevant persons, committees and authorities have been consulted and informed and that the necessary permission and approval has been obtained. Involve participants: Encourage those who have a stake in the improvement you envisage, shape the form of the work. Negotiate with those affected: Remember that not everyone will want to be directly involved. Your research should respect this. Report progress: Keep the work visible and remain open to suggestions to that both anticipated and unanticipated developments can be dealt with. All involved must have the opportunity to raise concerns with you. Negotiate descriptions of people's work. Always allow those described in your research to challenge your accounts on the grounds of fairness, relevance and accuracy. Negotiate reports for various levels of release. Different audiences demand different levels of reports. 1.7 Planning your research project

Bell (1993:23) provides a useful checklist for planning your project, which identifies the following stages:

Draw up a short list of topics; Select a broad topic for investigation; Refine the precise focus of the study; Decide on the aims and objectives; Draw up an initial project outline; Read enough to ensure you’re on the right lines; Devise a timetable to enable you to check that all stages will be covered and time allowed for writing. By the time you have completed all of these planning phases, you will be ready to write your Research Proposal.

1.8 Research proposal

It is good practice to produce a brief research proposal after your preliminary investigations. This need not be long or complicated, but helps order thoughts and organise subsequent action. It is also good preparation for when you may wish to submit a formal application for funding for research. It should include:

a statement of the research (including, aims and objectives), sources to be examined and identification of any potential ethical issues; a provisional timetable for carrying out the research and writing the report; a rationale for the research, which identifies probable outcomes (what you hope to achieve); a provisional outline of your research report, which can be expanded as your research progresses. Cryer (1996:51) identifies some examples of research outcomes, which are relevant to a guidance context:

A new product e.g. a book, a video, worksheets, etc. A development of or an improvement on something that already exists. A new theory. A reinterpretation of an existing theory. A new research tool or technique. A new model or perspective. An in-depth study. A critical analysis e.g. an analysis of the effects of a particular policy. A collection of general findings or conclusions.

Once you have written your research proposal, you are ready to move on to second stage of your research.

This section will help you focus on identifying and managing the reading materials for your research project.

2.1 Introduction

Carrying out any worthwhile research project will involve a significant amount of reading. The purpose of research is to extend and develop knowledge and understanding. Reading is an integral part of this process. Reading for research in guidance will probably involve reviewing or refreshing your current knowledge base (e.g. theories on which practice is based) as well as undertaking new reading. The types of skills required with reading for research (e.g. how to read, deciding what to read, how to interpret your reading) can be a source of anxiety, so the following sections have been designed to support and/or develop these skills.

2.2 Objective: stage 2

By the end of the second stage of your research you will be able to:

communicate effectively and clearly with others in the discipline area; develop information storage and retrieval strategies; develop skills relevant to library and resource use; develop skills relating to the organisation of reading, research time and tasks; use information to construct a rationale for your research project. 2.3 Information storage and retrieval strategies

For successful research, you will need to be familiar with the sound methods of keeping records and making notes. Whilst locating information for the first time can be difficult, re-locating it can be even more of a problem unless you have developed systematic record-keeping procedures. As well as keeping a record of useful sources, you should also keep a record of sources that proved to be of no interest (and why) to save valuable time later if you come across the same reference again. Remember that for all your sources, you need to record sufficient information for constructing your bibliography (see 2.7 below).

A number of texts on research suggest adopting a card index system (e.g. Bell, 1993 and Cryer, 1996). The merits of using different size cards are discussed (e.g. to contain more or less information) and the potential for keeping cards for various sources in different sections (e.g. cards on books in one section, cards on articles in another, etc.). Other methods could include using part of your 'Research Diary' (see 2.3 above), or using a computer to develop systems of recording.

Adopting a system may prove challenging because breaking off from reading an interesting report, article or chapter to record the necessary details requires a good deal of self-discipline – especially when you’re working under pressure. It is, however, worth persevering since your recording system will undoubtedly be a key feature of producing a high quality research report.

2.4 Reading for research

You may already have been involved in research connected with your professional role and this may have been undertaken without much direct reading (e.g. if you have been involved in administering questionnaires on someone's behalf). However, for research requiring more in-depth involvement, reading is essential since it will both be stimulated and informed by the knowledge acquired by your reading. Blaxter et al (1996:94) usefully suggest that reading should be undertaken at different stages of your research and for different purposes, as follows:

At the beginning of your research: to check what other research has been done, to focus your ideas and to explore the context for your project. During your research: to keep you interested and up to date with developments, to help you better understand the methods you are using and the field you are researching, and as a source of data. After your research: to see what impact your own work has had and to help you develop ideas for further research projects. Purposes of reading for your research are to familiarise yourself with:

research which has been undertaken on topics similar to your own; research methods being applied in ways which are similar to your own plans; accounts of the context relating to your project 2.5 Potential difficulties

One common difficulty is getting hold of relevant books, reports or journal articles. The careers library which can be accessed through this website, is one obvious source of relevant materials. However, remember that there is often competition for popular and scarce resources, so careful planning may be necessary to ensure you manage to access key texts for your research when you need them. It may also be necessary to negotiate access to libraries near to where you live. Local libraries can be very helpful - ordering specialist books on request – and you may be lucky enough to live near a University library, which often allow access to researchers. Wherever you access literature, you probably need to give some careful thought and planning to how and when you will access the material you wish to read.

Apart from libraries, you will need to use a wide variety of other sources for your reading. Your employer, colleagues, supervisors, friends, relations - even clients and research subjects - can prove to be a rich source of relevant material. The Internet can also produce relevant information and can be invaluable for identifying and locating possible material.

Blaxter et al (1996) identify four common concerns about reading for research:

the volume of literature: how do you get to grips with this? the variety of literature: how do you go about using the vast range of sources available? lack of boundaries: how do you decide which areas of literature are relevant? conflicting arguments: how do you assess and evaluate competing explanations? If you can identify with any, or all, of these concerns it is probably worth spending some time developing strategies for reading for research. Again, a number of texts that are readily available provide helpful hints on dealing with these sorts of problems. Some of these are summarised next.

2.6 Basic reading strategies

What to read Read as much as possible from as many sources as possible - books, journals, computer-based materials, reports, the popular media (daily and weekly press, magazines), memos, minutes, internal reports and even letters.

Remember that, even though it is important to be as up-to-date as possible, this does not preclude older sources like classic texts. Edited texts and literature reviews are also particularly useful for research purposes. The careers library accessed through this website is a rich source of this type of material since it contains historical collections of guidance materials. They can provide invaluable overviews of an area as well as excellent introductions to an area – though try to balance these with references to original materials where possible. Methodological accounts are also valuable sources.

Make sure you understand the extent to which the texts that you are using make use of original data:

primary sources: contain original data; secondary sources: contain discussions and interpretations of data, in which the author typically argues for a particular point of view; tertiary sources: presents information and references to the sources of that information. It’s best to try to draw from a mix of sources for your research report.

Making selections Familiarise yourself with key texts relevant to your research topic and then supplement with a broader, but selective, reading around the topic. Develop a selective approach by, for example:

Taking advice from available sources: for example from your colleagues or manager at work. Use the discussion section of this website under different section headings (e.g. Equal Opportunties; Improving Practice; Impact Analysis). Locating books or journals that appear relevant in a careers library by asking, browsing or using a catalogue. Keyword searches on computer-based catalogues are very useful. Following up interesting references from your original sources. Identifying key texts by noting those that are referred to repeatedly. Selective reading If you haven’t already done so, you will need to develop the skill of selective reading because you will not have time to read thoroughly all the written sources with which you need to be familiar. The following tips can help develop this skill:

record the author(s), title, publisher and date of the book, report or articles. Keep this safely and any notes you make on the content; look for an introduction, concluding chapter, abstract or executive summary. If it exists, read quickly, scanning the contents. If the book or report has a cover, the information printed there can be useful; with books and reports, look for the contents page. Identify any chapters that you think may be of particular relevance and focus on them, again starting from the introduction and/or conclusion. You can find your way through a chapter or section by using the sub-headings; in the text itself, key points will often be highlighted, or in the first or last paragraphs. Similarly, the first and last sentences of paragraphs are often used to indicate and summarise their contents. Remember - you should be able to understand the key points of a book or article in no more than five minutes. This should enable you to decide you need go no further, or decide which parts of the book or article you need to read in depth.

Critical reading This requires careful examination of what others have written (or said) on a particular subject. It is a difficult skill to develop but important for successful research. The types of questions you will need to ask as you are reading: does the author present convincing arguments or evidence to support assertions? Is information easy to find? Are the views expressed consistent? Are clear distinctions made between fact and opinion?

Blaxter et al (1996:106) suggest that critically sound sources:

go beyond mere descriptions by arguing their position - making a personal response to what has been written; relate different writings to each other, indicating their differences and contradictions, and highlighting what they are lacking; do not take what is written at face value; are explicit about the values and theories which inform and colour reading and writing; view research writing as contested terrain, within which alternative views and positions may be taken up; show an awareness of the power relations involved in research, and of where writers are coming from; use a particular language (e.g. the author asserts, argues, states, concludes or contends). 2.7 Referencing

There are several acceptable ways of recording sources and other information. The Harvard method is a common method that has various advantages. For example, it avoids footnotes and all sources mentioned appear at the end of your dissertation rather than at the end of each chapter. When sources are referred to in the text, only the name(s) of author(s) and year of publication appear. Even though there are different styles of referencing, they will probably contain the information identified below.

Books For all books you wish to include in your Bibliography, you will need the following information:

Author's surname and initials Year of publication (in brackets) Title (underlined) Edition, if relevant (in brackets) Place of publication Name of publisher

For example: Hodkinson, P., Sparkes, A.C. & Hodkinson, H. (1996) Triumphs and Tears: young people, markets and the transition from school to work, London, David Fulton Publishers.

References in the text should be given as follows:

Smith and Brown (1998:175) or (Smith and Brown, 1998:175)

Where there are three or more authors, only give the name of the first:

Smith et al. (1997:203) or (Smith et al., 1997:203)

When an author has published two or more items in one year, the references should be distinguished by:

Smith (1996a) Smith (1996b) and so on.

Where more than one reference has to be given at a single point in the text, they should be listed chronologically:

Brown (1986:47), Jones (1992:106) and Kaput (1997:427)

Articles and Chapters in Books quote the following:

Author's surname and initials Year of publication (in brackets) Title (in inverted commas or italics) Source of journal or book, that is: ~ Title of journal or book (underlined) ~ Volume number, issue and page numbers in journals

For example: Savickas, M.L. (1995) Current Theoretical Issues in Vocational Psychology: Convergence, Divergence, and Schism in Walsh, W.B. and Osipow, S.H. Handbook of Vocational Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice, (2nd ed) Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Articles in Journals quote the following:

Author's surname and initials Year of publication Title (inverted commas or italics) Title of journal (underlined) Volume number, issue and page numbers

For example: Betz, N.E., Harmon, L.W. & Borgen, F.H. (1996) The Relationships of Self-Efficacy for the Holland Themes to Gender, Occupational Group Membership, and Vocational Interests in Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 1, p90-98.

Citing Web Pages As with printed references, the title should be either in Italics or underlined. Note that round brackets are used for (year) and (edition). Where there is no year given on the web material, your would record this as (no date).

Note also that square brackets are used for [medium] and [access date]. The access date is the date you last accessed that reference. This is important, given the volatility of web material, because it offers some indication of the currency of the reference. Without your access date, there might be no intention of how old the material is.

Author/editor. (Year). Title (edition).[Type of medium].Producer (optional). Available Protocol (if applicable):Site/Path/File[Access date].

For example: Equal Opportunities Commission (2003) ‘The Development of Gender Roles in Young Children’. [Online]. Available: http://www.eoc.org.uk/PDF/gender_roles.pdf [2003, May 22].

Whichever method you select for your Bibliography and referencing, remember that it is important to be consistent.

This section will help you to decide how to collect the evidence you require for your research project.

3.1 Introduction

Once you have decided on a research topic, you will be able to decide how to collect the evidence you require. This section will be concerned with general issues associated with the selection of methods and appropriate procedures for the project.

3.2 Objectives: stage 3

By the end of this stage of your research project, you will be able to:

identify appropriate criteria by which to judge the validity of a guidance project; approximate and estimate time involved, necessary materials and the quantities in which they are required, costs of the research, etc.; identify design principles relevant to the chosen research area; identify the major issues or problems in the specific research area; demonstrate the ability to re-formulate research design in response to unexpected circumstances; synthesise material, evidence and arguments to select appropriate methods and procedures for the project. 3.3 Validity, Reliability and Relevance

When judging the quality of any research, reliability, validity and relevance are important.

The validity of research refers to the credibility of the results. Has the research actually done the things it claims to do? Does an item measure or describe what it is supposed to measure or describe? In considering these issues, it needs to be acknowledged that discussions about validity provoke controversy amongst researchers. Some have rejected the concept of validity as inapplicable since it implies the possession of knowledge that is absolutely certain and, in this sense, knowledge can never be certain. McLeod (1999) argues that the concepts of validity and reliability that have been developed for use in quantitative research can’t be applied in the same way in qualitative studies. Nevertheless, in deciding the value of our own and other research, we need to be able to make reasoned judgements about it as a new contribution to knowledge.

Measuring the extent of validity can become extremely involved and there are different levels at which the question of validity can be considered. Put simply, if your research is valid, then you are observing, identifying or measuring what you say you are. A rough guide would be to ask the question: ‘would another researcher using my research instrument get the same responses?’ Additionally, ask other people whether the questions or items you have devised are likely to achieve what you want. Three different aspects of validity are discussed below:

Plausibility:

How plausible is this claim: that is, do we judge it to be likely to true, given our existing knowledge? Some claims may be so plausible that we can reasonably accept them at face value without needing to know anything else.

Credibility:

Does it seems likely that the researcher's judgement of matters relating to the claim is accurate, given the nature of the phenomena concerned, the circumstances of the research, the characteristics of the researcher, etc.?

Where a claim is neither sufficiently plausible, nor sufficiently credible, then we require evidence. When examining the evidence, we need to employ much the same means to assess its validity as we applied to the claim itself (plausibility and credibility) - and may require even more evidence!

McLeod (1999:101) outlines nine criteria suitable for evaluating the validity of qualitative research, which include:

Sufficient contextualisation of the study: Since qualitative research is more concerned with developing knowledge that is relevant and useful at particular times and places, it is necessary to contextualise the study in its historical, social and cultural location.

Credibility of the researcher (reflexivity):A reflexive account of internal processes of research, covering, for example, how contact was made with informants, issues of trust and rapport, how mistakes and misconceptions were dealt with, whether there was agreement over goals and tasks.

Catalytic validity: Defined as the degree to which the research process reorients, focuses and energies participants. Implicit in this is the idea that research should empower those who take part in it.

McNiff (1992) discusses the issue of validity in relation to action research, and distinguishes three types: 1) self validation, 2) peer validation and 3) learner validation. Action research is an approach that often has particular appeal to researchers working on issues related to professional practice. Because much of what McNiff (1992) discusses is applicable to a careers guidance and counselling context, a summary of some of the points she makes on validity follows.

Self-validation: If you are researching within the broad area of guidance and counselling, you are likely to be involved in interpreting your own practice and in making decisions about improving it. The implication of self-validation in this context refers to the potential of these interpretations of your own practice being recognised. McNiff (1992:133) discusses how certain criteria justify an individual's claim to knowledge. They include:

Practice as a realisation of values: where guidance and counselling research starts with a declaration (spoken or written) of values – for example, 'my clients have a right to self-determination'. Often the research inquiry is stimulated because those values are being denied in practice. If clients are being denied the service you think they deserve, this is where a cycle of imagined solutions, implementation, observation, evaluation, re-planning is enacted. Intentional critical reflection: where research inquiry occurs as a result of critical reflection, a desire to explore an intuitive understanding of practice and communicate it to others. Disciplined enquiry: where a researcher demonstrates publicly that s/he has followed a system of disciplined enquiry in arriving at a hypothesis. Personal interpretation as a basis for dialogue: where individuals recognise the potential in their interpretations of their own practice. Peer validation: This relates to the notion that a claim to knowledge or expertise derived from practice must be validated externally. It is the process whereby your findings are made available to and scrutinised by others who can agree that these findings are of interest and could be useful to their own practice. This external validation can come from a number of sources, including colleagues, manager or supervisor, the wider guidance and counselling community, other students, etc. Peer validation can be effective in moving your ideas forward. Questions may be asked which provide new insights and ways of thinking about your research, and invariably you will gain more confidence to progress your research from the process of peer validation.

Client validation: It is particularly useful to get the reactions of the clients themselves. This may be presented in short, written statements, recordings (tape or video), reports, etc. For example, data about the use of labour market information by guidance practitioners could be collected during focus group discussions. This could be written up into a report that was circulated to the practitioners who were asked to validate the accuracy of the reports. The findings could then be circulated more widely to the guidance community who are asked to comment on the relevance of these findings to their own experiences. This represents a powerful chain of validation.

Overall, validation of research findings in a guidance and counselling or related context is likely to involve the development of self-knowledge followed by a genuine attempt to share that knowledge with others.

Reliability

Whatever procedure is used for collecting data for research, it should always be examined critically to assess to what extent it is likely to be reliable, as well as valid. Reliability is the extent to which a test or procedure produces similar results under constant conditions on all occasions. Bell (1993:65) suggests two questions to ask yourself when checking items on a questionnaire or interview schedule you may devise to collect data. They are:

would two interviewers using the schedule or procedure get a similar results? would an interviewer obtain a similar picture using the procedures on different occasions? There are a number of devices for checking reliability in scales and tests. For example:

test-retest method: administering the same test some time after the first; alternate forms method: where equivalent versions of the same items in the test are given and results correlated; split-half method: where the items in the test are split into two matched halves and scores then correlated. These methods are not always feasible or necessary, and there are disadvantages and problems associated with all three. Such mechanisms are not usually necessary unless you are attempting to produce a test or scale. The check for reliability will come at the stage of wording questions and piloting your research instrument(s).

A third criterion for judging research in the area of guidance and counselling is relevance. Since the purpose of any research inquiry is to extend knowledge and understanding, it follows that this must be communicated to a wider audience. When we communicate with people, they assume that we are telling them something that is likely to be of significance to them. It follows that what is communicated should be relevant in some way to the chosen audience. Who are the appropriate audiences for your research and what sort of relevance should your research have for them? Audiences for research reports vary. If you are undertaking a research project within your employing organisation, its primary audience is likely to be members of that organisation. Additionally, your research findings should have some relevance to other audiences. These may include other researchers, a particular practitioner audience or even a more general audience. Whatever audience(s) you select as your target(s), you will need to consider two aspects of the relevance of your research:

importance of the topic: must relate to an issue of importance to the intended audience; contribution to existing: must add something to our knowledge of the issue to knowledge which they relate. Research that merely confirms what is already beyond reasonable doubt makes no contribution to the existing knowledge base. 3.4 Access

No researcher can demand access to an institution, an organisation or to materials. People will be doing you a favour if they agree to help, and will need to know exactly what they will be asked to do, how much time they will be expected to give and what use will be made of the information they provide. They will have to be convinced of your integrity and of the value of your research before they decide whether or not to cooperate. Bell (1993:58) provides a useful checklist of points to consider when negotiating access, including:

Clear official channels by formally requesting permission to carry out your research as soon as you have an agreed project outline. Speak to the people who will be asked to co-operate. Maintain strict ethical standards at all times. Submit the project outline to the principal, senior staff member. Decide what you mean by anonymity and confidentiality. Decide who will receive a copy of the report and/or see drafts of interview transcripts. Inform participants what is to be done with the information they provide. Prepare an outline of intentions and conditions under which the study will be carried out to hand to participants. Be honest about the purpose of the study and about the conditions of the research. Remember that people who agreed to help are doing you a favour. Even when strict protocol is adhered to, things can go wrong. Blaxter et al identify the following strategies to consider if access is denied (1996:144):

approach other individuals. If one person refuses to be interviewed or answer a questionnaire, try approaching another person in a similar position or sharing similar characteristics; approach another institution; approach another individual within the same institution (more risky because of possible communication with the institution); try again later, when people are less busy. Attitudes may have changed, people may have moved on, and you may have more to show to demonstrate the value of your research; change your research strategy. This is probably something you should be prepared to do, and plan for, throughout the research process. It may involve using other, perhaps less sensitive, methods for collecting data, or focusing on a slightly different set of issues, or studying alternative groups or organisations. 3.5 Managing your research project

Constraints operate on any research process. This section discusses time and costs, as well as identifying some others which may well be relevant for the type of research you are planning.

Inevitably, the nature and extent of your data collection will be constrained by your access to various resources – in particular time. Whatever the competing demands for your time and attention, it is important to think about what strategies you need to develop to manage the new demands of your research project in parallel with all the established demands.

A key strategy for managing your time effectively is to be realistic, initially, about the methods you are going to use to collect data and the amount of data needed. One common problem with new researchers is over-ambition. Since it’s likely that you will have a limited timescale to complete and write up your research, it follows that the methods you select will have to be informed by these (and other) considerations. For example, time available will limit the amount of any cross-checking you can undertake, and the size of your research sample.

The costs of research can mount up, so it is advisable to undertake a rough costing of the methods of data collection and analysis that you have considered to make sure they are affordable. The process of costing research activities will be very useful if you are, at any stage of your professional career, ever likely to apply for research funding. For applications for external funding, a detailed costing has to be submitted, and if successful, it is likely that you will have to adhere fairly closely to the original costing submitted.

The costs of your research project could include:

travel costs to your research sites and/or libraries; costs of consumables, such as paper, tapes, batteries, etc.; equipment purchase or hire costs (e.g. word processor, tape recorder, software); book, report and journal purchases; photocopying, printing and binding costs; postage and email/telephone costs. Other constraints

In addition to time and costs, there are bound to be other constraints you need to take into account when designing your research: for example, the willingness of people to be interviewed or observed. If you need to observe meetings or training sessions, you will be limited by the schedule of meetings or training events that will take place during the data-collection phase of your project. If you need to research some aspect of guidance and counselling that requires involvement with schools, colleges or universities, you are likely to be constrained by examination timetables and vacations.

To manage your research project successfully, you will need to anticipate routine constraints affecting the research process. This will help you to develop strategies to cope with these limitations and avoid difficult situations arising in the first place.

3.6 Overcoming obstacles

The process of successful research will, inevitably, involve developing problem-solving techniques. Problems that may arise can range from those relating directly to the research process (for example, the response rate is very low), to problems in other areas in your life (for example, changing your job or falling ill). Blaxter et al (1996: 137) suggest the following ways of coping with difficulties:

remind yourself that the purpose of carrying out research, particularly as a new researcher, may be as much to develop your understanding of the research process and/or the use of particular research methods as to explore substantive issues; remember that it may be just as valid to write up your research in terms of, for example, the problems of gaining access to a particular group, or of getting an adequate response from that group once access has been gained; as part of writing your research report, reflect on your research strategy, explore what went wrong and why and include recommendations for improvement; view research as being about the skills you have learnt and developed on the way. Part of doing research is about appreciating what is involved and where it may be leading you; if you have time and resources, you may choose to redirect your research strategy when you become stuck.

This section will help you understand the broader context of guidance research including consideration of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

4.1 Introduction

This section examines the two major traditions of research methods: qualitative and quantitative. It discusses the dominant effect that one of these traditions (quantitative research) has had on current careers guidance and counselling practice and considers the value of piloting research.

4.2 Objectives: stage 4

distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research; outline some key issues from current practice which link with research method; describe the main features of qualitative research; describe the main features of quantitative research; pilot your research project. 4.3 Models of Research

The most common way of conceptualising the diversity of approaches to research is to distinguish between quantitative and qualitative models. It is this distinction that will be adopted here, though it should be stressed that this is a rather crude distinction that can be misleading. In reality, much social scientific research combines methods from the two traditions. So how are these two approaches different? Most obviously, quantitative research involves measurement on some numerical basis and usually employs statistical techniques, whereas qualitative research does not (at least to the same degree). Various other features of the research process are also associated with the different traditions. For example, quantitative research favours structured forms of data, which can consist of frequency counts or other types of measurements. In contrast, the data that qualitative researchers typically deal with are verbal descriptions in natural language often collected from an interview or some type of recorded conversation (for example, using audio tapes). They deal more in meanings, experiences and descriptions. This type of data cannot be directly subjected to counting or measuring, though, of course, they can subsequently be presented so that they can be analysed quantitatively.

Other differences have already been identified in 1.4 above. For example, the sequence and relationship of activities involved. A quantitative approach requires that the researcher collects all the data before analysing it. A qualitative approach requires that data collection and analysis are intertwined. One other important difference relates to views about the role of theory. These and other differences will be discussed in more detail later.

Methods of data collection are also varied. Some are clearly associated with quantitative research (for example, the scientific experiment) and other with qualitative research (for example, participant observation). Others are shared by both traditions (for example, questionnaires and interviews) though the precise design of the research instrument and the approach adopted by the researcher are likely to differ. There is a vast literature available on research methods. You will need to spend time reading about different methods and, once you have an idea of your research focus and methods, you will need to spend time researching issues related to different designs (for example, of questionnaires). Whichever approach (or combination of approaches) you choose to adopt for your research project and whatever methods, remember the underlying purpose is to extend knowledge and understanding about some aspect of careers guidance and counselling. As May (1996:3) expresses it more generally, the purpose of all research is:

'to understand and explain social phenomena, to focus attention on particular issues and to challenge conventionally held beliefs about the social and natural worlds'.

4.4 Research Traditions in Guidance and Counselling

Current Practice

The theories which underpin current careers guidance and counselling practice have come mainly from North America. Varied accounts exist which identify the main influences in the development of this body of knowledge (for example, Arthur et al,1989, Brown et al, 1990, Seligman, 1994, Scharf, 1997 and Zunker, 1998,). Despite disagreements about the particular strands of influence, there is agreement that Frank Parsons was the founding father of the vocational guidance movement. A seminal work by Parsons entitled Choosing a Vocation was published posthumously in 1909. His ideas about how people choose jobs came from differential psychology and were initially referred to as the 'talent matching' approach. They later developed into what became known as the 'trait and factor' theory of occupational choice, and were developed by theorists who had a major impact on practice such as John Holland (1966,1973, 1992) and Alec Rodger (1952). Parsons' core concept was that of 'matching'. He suggested that occupational choice occurs when people have achieved:

an accurate understanding of their individual traits (e.g. personal abilities, aptitudes, interests, etc.); a knowledge of jobs and the labour market and then made a rational and objective judgement about the relationship between these two groups of facts. A key assumption is that it is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs which can then be matched to achieve a 'good fit'. It is when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities, they perform best, and productivity is highest.

This theory of occupational choice has dominated careers guidance and counselling practice for nearly a century, partly because of its practical appeal. It provides careers guidance and counselling practitioners with a clear rationale and framework for practice. Additionally, the underlying philosophy has suited policy makers since it lends itself to the servicing of labour market requirements. Consequently, it has been embraced enthusiastically by policy makers and barely questioned by the majority of practitioners.

The theory contains, however, fatal flaws. Scharf (1997) reminds us that:

There is little research supporting or refuting trait and factor theory itself as a viable theory of career development. Rather, the research that has been done, of which there is a large amount, has related traits and factors to one another or has established the validity and reliability of measurements of traits and factors.' (p26).

There was no viable theoretical alternative during the first half of this century to this 'best fit' theory of occupational choice, and it was not until the 1950's and 1960's that theories originating from other academic disciplines such as sociology, and other branches of psychology like developmental psychology emerged as serious alternatives. Theories which were developed from these academic disciplines emphasised the context in which occupational 'choice' occurred and the importance of the maturation process of individuals, respectively. Since this time, the theories careers guidance practitioners have used to inform their practice have expanded dramatically. Whichever theories actually inform current practice, there is emerging consensus around the inadequacies of these theories. In particular, researchers are questioning the relevance of current theory for particular sectors of society.

Adequacy of Current Practice

There is a growing critique of the current practice of careers guidance and counselling which is based on theory derived from quantitative research methods. For example, Osipow and Littlejohn (1995) discuss serious weaknesses in applying current theory to Minority ethnic groups. They argue that a major problem is the manner in which all current theories use concepts which 'assume cultures that are relatively affluent and have good opportunities for education, upward mobility and family support and encouragement' (p255). Many members of minority ethnic groups, they argue, do not have access to these privileges.

Hackett (1997) identifies several problems in trying to apply current theory to girls and women: 'I am suggesting the need for formal testing of competing models as well as attempts at unification and integration....we also need to incorporate issues of sexism, racism and their interaction, along with considerations of relational orientation, support and barriers into all our developing conceptions of women's career psychology’ (p187).

Savickas (1995) relates current problems with theory to the more fundamental issue of different philosophical origins reflected in the two approaches to research. He identifies inherent tensions which arise from the academic traditions of different theories: 'sharp lines have been drawn on which philosophy of science to choose' (p15). He concludes that 'vocational psychology could benefit simultaneously from refinements forged within the distinct career theories, from advances produced by convergence among career macrotheories and from break-throughs induced by divergence in work-role microtheory' (p29).

Implications for Research Methods

Theories informing current guidance and counselling policy practice have been developed mainly by psychologists operating from scientific positivist paradigms of research using quantitative methods. What, then, are the concerns now being expressed about the limitations of this research method?

Taking just one example of careers guidance and counselling for girls and women, Harmon & Meara (1994) discuss the limitations of experimentally designed empirical inquiry that meets the criterion of internal validity for both policy and practice. They argue that 'those who are interested in career counselling for women seem to be swimming against this tide in an attempt to integrate science and practice' (p362).

Hackett (1997) reviews some of the criticisms made about the existing literature on women's career development which include research methodologies which have been used. In particular, she argues that there is a need to move beyond 'simple correlational designs' (p184) and suggests that qualitative research methods 'are highly appropriate in attempts of this sort to truly understand the experiences of a group that has received insufficient attention' (p185). She discusses the need to triangulate across different data sources using focus groups, diaries, archival documents, or observations, concluding that 'future research on this model will also benefit from the integration of qualitative and quantitative methods' (p186).

Others have also discussed the type of research methods which should be used for future research inquiry. For example, Rainey and Borders (1997) advocate the use of narratives, constructivist methods or other qualitative approaches to examine environmental factors for girls and women (p169). Edwards and Payne (1997) state simply that there is a need 'to embrace ideas from a wider moorland of study than is presently the case' (p537).

Overall, then, there is a growing consensus that scientific research methods from within a positivist paradigm have been found to be wanting in several respects. Knowledge and understanding built up from a particular approach to research needs to be complemented with knowledge and understanding derived from different ways of investigating social phenomenon.

4.5 Quantitative Research

'Quantitative research is concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric form. It tends to emphasise relatively large-scale and representative sets of data, and is often........... presented or perceived as being about the gathering of facts.' (Blaxter et al (1996:60).

Quantitative or traditional experimental approaches set out to quantify and measure the contributions of different factors to phenomenon (for example, occupational choice behaviour). It can be useful if you want to compare things, like test scores under different conditions or behaviour under different conditions. However, this approach to research has certain disadvantages for small scale studies. For example, you would need a large enough sample to ensure your data is statistically significant. Additionally, your sample must be representative so that you can be confident of getting the same pattern of results again when you repeat the same procedures on a different population. Only then would you be able to generalise your findings to a wider sample than the one you are testing.

Robson (1993:19) summarises the five sequential steps which are commonly regarded as typifying the 'scientific' or quantitative approach to research. These involve:

Deducing a hypothesis (a testable proposition about the relationship between two or more events or concepts) from theory. Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms (i.e. ones indicating exactly how the variables are to be measured) which propose a relationship between two specific variables. Testing this operational hypothesis. This will involve an experiment or some other form of empirical enquiry. Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry. It will either tend to confirm the theory or indicate the need for its modification. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of the findings. An attempt is then made to verify the revised theory by going back to the first step and repeating the whole cycle. So, adopting a quantitative approach to research involves searching for causal relationships which are conceptualised in terms of the interaction of 'variables', some of which (independent variables) are seen as the cause of other (dependent variables). It will invariably involve designing and using standardized research instruments (for example, tests, questionnaires, attitude scales) so that numerical data can be collected which will then be manipulated using statistical techniques.

Some suitable data for this research method already exists in the form of published or unpublished statistics. Often, though, researchers have to produce the data they need for analysis themselves. For example, from a laboratory experiment or from psychometric or personality tests which have been administered to relatively large groups of participants. As previously indicated, if responses to unstructured questionnaires can be coded and then counted in some way, this may also be a source of quantitative data.

4.6 Qualitative research

'Qualitative research is concerned with collecting and analysing information in as many forms, chiefly non-numeric, as possible. It tends to focus on exploring, in as much detail as possible, smaller numbers of instances or examples which are seen as being interesting or illuminating, and aims to achieve 'depth' rather than 'breadth'.' (Blaxter et al.,1996:60).

Qualitative research is concerned with life as it is lived, things as they happen or situations as they are constructed in the day-to-day course of events. Qualitative researchers seek lived experiences in real situations, try not to disturb the scene and to be unobtrusive in their methods. This is to ensure that data and analysis will closely reflect what is happening. Qualitative researchers are also interested in 'natural' experiments. For example, when ordinary processes are disrupted, basic rules and norms are thrown into relief. Usually, these types of rules and norms are tacit and understood, perhaps subconsciously, by people in a particular situation. A recent example relevant to guidance in the UK is the recent is the introduction of Personnel Advisers to work with disaffected young people in the Connexions service. Reformed organisational structures, different relations with schools, colleges, Youth Services, Social Services, Youth Offending Teams, and Educational Welfare Officers, different working practices with clients (e.g. over a two year period) are all examples of natural experiments which would be legitimate areas for research inquiry using a qualitative approach.

When studying in this way, it is important not to start off with too many preconceptions about what you might find. It is necessary to maintain an openness, not pre-judging issues and not even settling for the first (even second) impressions formed. Guesses might be made, tested along the way and abandoned, changed or revised in the light of later discoveries. This mode of study will have implications for the relationship fostered with the subjects in the research (refer to 'ethics' in 1.6, and 'access' in 3.4).

Six characteristics of qualitative research are identified by Blaxter et al (1996:61):

Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. A qualitative researcher therefore immerses her/himself in the setting. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural; nothing is predefined or taken for granted. Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives. Qualitative researchers attend to the experience as a whole, not as separate variables. The aim of qualitative research is to understand experience as unified. Qualitative methods are appropriate to the above statements. There is no one general method. For many qualitative researchers, the process entails appraisal about what was studied. This approach to research, therefore, involves considered selection and interpretation. It is therefore important to make the choice of focus for study principled and clear as well as being careful to make only reasonable claims in the research report or dissertation. In addition to making the basis of selections and methods clear, the researcher needs to include some biographical information because s/he cannot be regarded as an objective recorder of absolute truths, but rather a participant in the research process.

4.7 Piloting

Piloting is the process whereby you try out the research techniques and methods you have in mind to see how well they work in practice. This enables you modify your plans before you commit too much time to one procedure. If you have spent time thinking about and planning your research project, you may be tempted to believe that you are clear about what you are doing. However, the value of piloting research cannot be overestimated. Things rarely work out the way you expect - respondents can answer a questionnaire or interpret an interview question in ways that you can never anticipate! Taking time to run a pilot can save you time, frustration and even anguish in the end.

In a small scale study, even an informal pilot can prove invaluable. Try out a couple of interviews, get some friends to fill out your questionnaires, go and observe some organisational activities - or whatever else you have in mind for the data collection phase of your project. You will almost certainly gain from doing this, even if it is a more accurate idea of the time collecting data can take. If you do this early enough, you can change your strategy before it's too late!

This section provides guidelines to help structure a research report.

When writing the main body of your research report, the following points may help with the structure:

Introduction:

Use your introduction to: set the context of your study (including information about your own role); explain why you approached your study in the way you did; what you hope to demonstrate by your results; and justify your approach with reasoned argument based on relevant theory and research evidence.

Literature Review:

The literature review should employ a critical, analytical approach with an understanding of (relevant) competing perspectives. It must go beyond a descriptive account and should be logically and coherently organised. Your review should demonstrate a detailed knowledge of original sources and the field together with your understanding of main theoretical and methodological issues. Do not be afraid to add your own ideas, especially if your study challenges established wisdom.

Research Method:

The purpose of this section is to enable your reader to understand exactly what you did as part of the research process, together with the results and your interpretation of their meaning. It should include sufficient details to enable the reader to understand:

the overall design of the study; details of participants (e.g. age, gender, experience, occupational role, etc.); research instruments used; procedures used in the study. This section should also contain a description of the overall purpose, summary of content, structure and justification of why this particular approach was used. If an instrument (e.g. questionnaire) was designed especially for your study, you should also include details of its piloting and include the final version as an appendix. Issues of validity and reliability should also be addressed.

Your results should be presented in a form that enables the reader to understand exactly what your data consists of and sources. It should also identify any trends that have emerged and (where relevant) statistical techniques used as well as the results of these analyses. Finally, this section should address the way(s) in which the data illuminate your research question(s).

It is likely that the results section will be the most difficult to write. If your have undertaken a qualitative study or have huge quantities of data, then you may need to include some discussion and not just description in this section. You should not include extensive ‘raw’ data and the results must be organised, summarised and selective. Where appropriate, tables or diagrams should be used to summarise your results. It may not even be possible to include all the results, as this may overwhelm your reader and obscure your main findings.

Discussion:

The purpose of this section is to:

present your interpretation of your results; justify your interpretation by anticipating counter arguments; and urge caution in accepting your interpretation where there are defects in the design and execution of the study. Few applied studies can be perfect, so demonstrate your awareness of flaws and weaknesses in your work and your understanding of how you might improve on your research. It is also important to comment on any practical difficulties you may have encountered, especially those out of your control. In summary, adopt a ‘reflective practitioner’ approach in reviewing the research process as a whole.

Your discussion should also highlight links between your own research and the literature review and evaluate your study's contribution to professional guidance practice.

Conclusion:

Your conclusion should present a summary of what you have achieved in your research project, without containing any new material. It should also suggest the implications of the findings, identify future related research and emphasise issues which require further research or investigation.

The 'Harvard Reference Style' is one system of referencing sources used internationally by scholars and researchers. At Coventry University the Centre for Academic Writing have produced a website and downloadable guide to this system which may be of interest. It includes sections on referencing new technology sources such as websites and emails. The link address is: http://home.ched.coventry.ac.uk/caw/harvard/index.htm

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What Is Research and Development?

• Understanding R&D
• Types of R&D
• Pros and Cons
• Considerations
• R&D vs. Applied Research
• R&D Tax Credits

The Bottom Line

• Business Essentials

What Is Research and Development (R&D)?

Investopedia / Ellen Lindner

Research and development (R&D) is the series of activities that companies undertake to innovate. R&D is often the first stage in the development process that results in market research product development, and product testing.

Key Takeaways

• Research and development represents the activities companies undertake to innovate and introduce new products and services or to improve their existing offerings.
• R&D allows a company to stay ahead of its competition by catering to new wants or needs in the market.
• Companies in different sectors and industries conduct R&D—pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, and technology companies generally spend the most.
• R&D is often a broad approach to exploratory advancement, while applied research is more geared towards researching a more narrow scope.
• The accounting for treatment for R&D costs can materially impact a company's income statement and balance sheet.

Understanding Research and Development (R&D)

The concept of research and development is widely linked to innovation both in the corporate and government sectors. R&D allows a company to stay ahead of its competition. Without an R&D program, a company may not survive on its own and may have to rely on other ways to innovate such as engaging in mergers and acquisitions (M&A) or partnerships. Through R&D, companies can design new products and improve their existing offerings.

R&D is distinct from most operational activities performed by a corporation. The research and/or development is typically not performed with the expectation of immediate profit. Instead, it is expected to contribute to the long-term profitability of a company. R&D may often allow companies to secure intellectual property, including patents , copyrights, and trademarks as discoveries are made and products created.

Companies that set up and employ departments dedicated entirely to R&D commit substantial capital to the effort. They must estimate the risk-adjusted return on their R&D expenditures, which inevitably involves risk of capital. That's because there is no immediate payoff, and the return on investment (ROI) is uncertain. As more money is invested in R&D, the level of capital risk increases. Other companies may choose to outsource their R&D for a variety of reasons including size and cost.

Companies across all sectors and industries undergo R&D activities. Corporations experience growth through these improvements and the development of new goods and services. Pharmaceuticals, semiconductors , and software/technology companies tend to spend the most on R&D. In Europe, R&D is known as research and technical or technological development.

Many small and mid-sized businesses may choose to outsource their R&D efforts because they don't have the right staff in-house to meet their needs.

Types of Research and Development (R&D)

There are several different types of R&D that exist in the corporate world and within government. The type used depends entirely on the entity undertaking it and the results can differ.

Basic Research

There are business incubators and accelerators, where corporations invest in startups and provide funding assistance and guidance to entrepreneurs in the hope that innovations will result that they can use to their benefit.

M&As and partnerships are also forms of R&D as companies join forces to take advantage of other companies' institutional knowledge and talent.

Applied Research

One R&D model is a department staffed primarily by engineers who develop new products —a task that typically involves extensive research. There is no specific goal or application in mind with this model. Instead, the research is done for the sake of research.

Development Research

This model involves a department composed of industrial scientists or researchers, all of who are tasked with applied research in technical, scientific, or industrial fields. This model facilitates the development of future products or the improvement of current products and/or operating procedures.

The largest companies may also be the ones that drive the most R&D spend. For example, Amazon has reported $1.147 billion of research and development value on its 2023 annual report.

Advantages and Disadvantages of R&D

There are several key benefits to research and development. It facilitates innovation, allowing companies to improve existing products and services or by letting them develop new ones to bring to the market.

Because R&D also is a key component of innovation, it requires a greater degree of skill from employees who take part. This allows companies to expand their talent pool, which often comes with special skill sets.

The advantages go beyond corporations. Consumers stand to benefit from R&D because it gives them better, high-quality products and services as well as a wider range of options. Corporations can, therefore, rely on consumers to remain loyal to their brands. It also helps drive productivity and economic growth.

Disadvantages

One of the major drawbacks to R&D is the cost. First, there is the financial expense as it requires a significant investment of cash upfront. This can include setting up a separate R&D department, hiring talent, and product and service testing, among others.

Innovation doesn't happen overnight so there is also a time factor to consider. This means that it takes a lot of time to bring products and services to market from conception to production to delivery.

Because it does take time to go from concept to product, companies stand the risk of being at the mercy of changing market trends . So what they thought may be a great seller at one time may reach the market too late and not fly off the shelves once it's ready.

Facilitates innovation

Improved or new products and services

Expands knowledge and talent pool

Increased consumer choice and brand loyalty

Economic driver

Financial investment

Shifting market trends

R&D Accounting

R&D may be beneficial to a company's bottom line, but it is considered an expense . After all, companies spend substantial amounts on research and trying to develop new products and services. As such, these expenses are often reported for accounting purposes on the income statement and do not carry long-term value.

There are certain situations where R&D costs are capitalized and reported on the balance sheet. Some examples include but are not limited to:

• Materials, fixed assets, or other assets have alternative future uses with an estimable value and useful life.
• Software that can be converted or applied elsewhere in the company to have a useful life beyond a specific single R&D project.
• Indirect costs or overhead expenses allocated between projects.
• R&D purchased from a third party that is accompanied by intangible value. That intangible asset may be recorded as a separate balance sheet asset.

R&D Considerations

Before taking on the task of research and development, it's important for companies and governments to consider some of the key factors associated with it. Some of the most notable considerations are:

• Objectives and Outcome: One of the most important factors to consider is the intended goals of the R&D project. Is it to innovate and fill a need for certain products that aren't being sold? Or is it to make improvements on existing ones? Whatever the reason, it's always important to note that there should be some flexibility as things can change over time.
• Timing: R&D requires a lot of time. This involves reviewing the market to see where there may be a lack of certain products and services or finding ways to improve on those that are already on the shelves.
• Cost: R&D costs a great deal of money, especially when it comes to the upfront costs. And there may be higher costs associated with the conception and production of new products rather than updating existing ones.
• Risks: As with any venture, R&D does come with risks. R&D doesn't come with any guarantees, no matter the time and money that goes into it. This means that companies and governments may sacrifice their ROI if the end product isn't successful.

Research and Development vs. Applied Research

Basic research is aimed at a fuller, more complete understanding of the fundamental aspects of a concept or phenomenon. This understanding is generally the first step in R&D. These activities provide a basis of information without directed applications toward products, policies, or operational processes .

Applied research entails the activities used to gain knowledge with a specific goal in mind. The activities may be to determine and develop new products, policies, or operational processes. While basic research is time-consuming, applied research is painstaking and more costly because of its detailed and complex nature.

R&D Tax Credits

The IRS offers a R&D tax credit to encourage innovation and significantly reduction their tax liability. The credit calls for specific types of spend such as product development, process improvement, and software creation.

Enacted under Section 41 of the Internal Revenue Code, this credit encourages innovation by providing a dollar-for-dollar reduction in tax obligations. The eligibility criteria, expanded by the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes (PATH) Act of 2015, now encompass a broader spectrum of businesses. The credit tens to benefit small-to-midsize enterprises.

To claim R&D tax credits, businesses must document their qualifying expenses and complete IRS Form 6765 (Credit for Increasing Research Activities). The credit, typically ranging from 6% to 8% of annual qualifying expenses, offers businesses a direct offset against federal income tax liabilities. Additionally, businesses can claim up to $250,000 per year against their payroll taxes.

Example of Research and Development (R&D)

One of the more innovative companies of this millennium is Apple Inc. As part of its annual reporting, it has the following to say about its research and development spend:

In 2023, Apple reported having spent $29.915 billion. This is 8% of their annual total net sales. Note that Apple's R&D spend was reported to be higher than the company's selling, general and administrative costs (of $24.932 billion).

Note that the company doesn't go into length about what exactly the R&D spend is for. According to the notes, the company's year-over-year growth was "driven primarily by increases in headcount-related expenses". However, this does not explain the underlying basis carried from prior years (i.e. materials, patents, etc.).

Research and development refers to the systematic process of investigating, experimenting, and innovating to create new products, processes, or technologies. It encompasses activities such as scientific research, technological development, and experimentation conducted to achieve specific objectives to bring new items to market.

What Types of Activities Can Be Found in Research and Development?

Research and development activities focus on the innovation of new products or services in a company. Among the primary purposes of R&D activities is for a company to remain competitive as it produces products that advance and elevate its current product line. Since R&D typically operates on a longer-term horizon, its activities are not anticipated to generate immediate returns. However, in time, R&D projects may lead to patents, trademarks, or breakthrough discoveries with lasting benefits to the company. 

Why Is Research and Development Important?

Given the rapid rate of technological advancement, R&D is important for companies to stay competitive. Specifically, R&D allows companies to create products that are difficult for their competitors to replicate. Meanwhile, R&D efforts can lead to improved productivity that helps increase margins, further creating an edge in outpacing competitors. From a broader perspective, R&D can allow a company to stay ahead of the curve, anticipating customer demands or trends.

There are many things companies can do in order to advance in their industries and the overall market. Research and development is just one way they can set themselves apart from their competition. It opens up the potential for innovation and increasing sales. However, it does come with some drawbacks—the most obvious being the financial cost and the time it takes to innovate.

Amazon. " 2023 Annual Report ."

Internal Revenue Service. " Research Credit ."

Internal Revenue Service. " About Form 6765, Credit for Increasing Research Activities ."

Apple. " 2023 Annual Report ."

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Developing Scientific Thinking and Research Skills Through the Research Thesis or Dissertation

• First Online: 22 September 2019

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• Gina Wisker 3 , 4  

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This chapter explores higher level scientific thinking skills that research students need to develop during their research learning journeys towards their dissertation/thesis at postgraduate levels, and also final year undergraduate (Australian honours year) dissertation. A model of four quadrants is introduced. Practice and experience-informed examples are presented to show how higher order skills can be realised and embedded so that they become established ways of thinking, researching, creating, and expressing knowledge and understanding.

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Wisker, G. (2019). Developing Scientific Thinking and Research Skills Through the Research Thesis or Dissertation. In: Murtonen, M., Balloo, K. (eds) Redefining Scientific Thinking for Higher Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24215-2_9

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