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• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Venturing into Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide to Getting Started

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In this commentary, we offer an introduction to qualitative research. Our goal is to provide guidance so that others can avoid common missteps and benefit from our lessons learned. We explain what qualitative data and research are, the value of qualitative research, and features that make qualitative research excellent, as well as how qualitative data can be collected and used to study undergraduate research. Our advice and recommendations are targeted at researchers who, like us, were first trained in fields with tendencies to overlook or underestimate qualitative research and its contributions. We share examples from our own and others’ research related to undergraduate research settings. We provide a table of resources researchers may find useful as they continue to learn about and conduct qualitative studies.

Introduction

We both started our scholarly journeys as biologists. As we trained, we both grew interested in researching undergraduate education and we transitioned to doing education research. We quickly came to realize that our training in experimental approaches and quantitative methods was woefully insufficient to study the diversity of ways students think, believe, value, feel, behave, and change in a variety of learning environments and educational systems.

For instance, there are established ways to quantify some educational variables, but not others. In addition, there may be phenomena at play that we haven’t thought of or that might be counterintuitive, which could lead us to quantify things that end up being irrelevant or meaningless. Herein lies the power of qualitative research. Qualitative research generates new knowledge by enabling rich, multifaceted descriptions of phenomena of interest, known as constructs (i.e., latent, unobservable variables), and producing possible explanations of how phenomena are occurring (i.e., mechanisms or relationships between constructs in different contexts and situations with different individuals and groups).

In this essay, we aim to offer an approachable explanation of qualitative research, including the types of questions that qualitative research is suited to address, the characteristics of robust qualitative research, and guidance on how to get started. We use examples from our own and others’ research to illustrate our explanations, and we cite references where readers can learn more. We expect Scholarship and Practice of Undergraduate Research (SPUR) readers from disciplines with a tradition of qualitative research might question why we would write this piece and what makes us qualified to do so. There are many scholars with much more qualitative research expertise than we have. Yet, we think we can offer a unique perspective to SPUR readers who are new to qualitative research or coming from disciplines where qualitative research is unfamiliar or undervalued. We have both designed, conducted, and published qualitative research in the context of undergraduate education and research experiences. We draw upon this experience in the recommendations we offer here.

Doing qualitative research involves acknowledging your “positionality,” or how your own background, lived experiences, and philosophical understandings of research influence how you approach and interpret the work (e.g., Hampton, Reeping, and Ozkan 2021; Holmes and Darwin 2020). Our positionalities have influenced our approach to this article and qualitative research generally. I (MAP) first learned about qualitative research from my undergraduate academic adviser. She invited me to help her implement and evaluate a capstone course in which groups of microbiology undergraduates engaged in a semester-long research project to address problems faced by community organizations (Watson, Willford, and Pfeifer 2018). At the time, I wasn’t aware of the long-standing history of qualitative research or its different forms and approaches. I just knew that reading quote data helped me understand human experiences in a way that survey numbers did not. Since my introduction to qualitative research, I’ve been fortunate to receive formal training. I consider my most valuable lessons about qualitative research to be through the practical experience of doing qualitative research and being mentored by qualitative researchers.

When I (ELD) first learned about qualitative research, I thought it meant words – perhaps collected through surveys, focus groups, interviews, or class recordings. I thought qualitative research would be easy – it was just words after all, and I had been using words almost my whole life. I assumed if I collected some words and summarized what I thought they meant (think word cloud), I would be doing qualitative research. As we will elaborate here, this is a limited view of what qualitative research is and what qualitative research can accomplish. When I began presenting qualitative research, I found it helpful to draw analogies to qualitative studies in natural science and medical disciplines. For instance, in the field of biology, the invention of technologies (e.g., lenses, microscopes) allowed for detailed observation and rich descriptions of cells (i.e., qualitative research) that led to the development of cell theory, the establishment of the field of cell biology, and quantitative research on cell structure, function, and dysfunction. In my own field of neuroscience, Henry Moliason, known as HM, was the focus of qualitative case study because he lost the ability to form new long-term memories due to a surgical treatment for severe epilepsy. Rich (i.e., comprehensive and detailed) description of Mr. Moliason’s memory impairment was the basis for hippocampal function being proposed as the main mechanism through which memories are formed. These examples of “non-numbery” research that produce influential descriptions and testable mechanisms helped me recognize the potential value and impact of qualitative research.

Types of Qualitative Research Questions

Qualitative research is useful for addressing two main types of questions: descriptive and mechanistic. Descriptive questions ask what is happening, for whom, and in what circumstances. Mechanistic questions ask how a phenomenon of interest happening. Here we explain each type of question and highlight some example studies conducted in the context of undergraduate research.

Descriptive Questions

Descriptive research seeks to elucidate details that enhance our overall understanding of a particular phenomenon—it answers questions about what a phenomenon is, including its defining features (i.e., dimensions) and what makes it distinct from other phenomena (Loeb et al. 2017). Descriptive research can also reveal who experiences the phenomenon, as well as when and where a phenomenon occurs (Loeb et al. 2017). Details like these serve as a starting point for future research, policy development, and enhanced practice. For instance, Hunter, Laursen, and Seymour (2007) carried out a qualitative study that identified and described the benefits of undergraduate research from the perspectives of both students and faculty. This work prompted calls for expansion of undergraduate research nationally and led to numerous quantitative studies (Gentile, Brenner, and Stephens 2017). Among these were quantitative studies from our group on the influences of research mentors on undergraduate researchers (Aikens et al. 2016, 2017; Joshi, Aikens, and Dolan 2019). Although these studies were framed to identify beneficial outcomes, we observed that undergraduates who had less favorable experiences with mentors were opting not to participate in our studies. Given this observation and the dearth of research on negative experiences in undergraduate research, we carried out a descriptive qualitative study of the dimensions (i.e., the what) of negative mentoring—that is, problematic or ineffective mentoring—in undergraduate life science research (Limeri et al. 2019). This study revealed that negative mentoring in undergraduate research included the absence of support from mentors and actively harmful mentor behaviors. These results served as the basis for practical guidance on how to curtail negative mentoring and its effects and for ongoing quantitative research. We use this study as the basis for the extended examples highlighted in Table 1.

Descriptive research is also suited to investigating the experiences of groups that are marginalized or minoritized in higher education. These studies offer insights into student experiences that may be otherwise overlooked or masked in larger quantitative studies (Vaccaro et al. 2015). For example, descriptive qualitative research shed light on how Black women in undergraduate and graduate STEM programs recognized and responded to structural racism, sexism, and race-gender bias. This research identified how high-achieving Black STEM students experienced racial battle fatigue and offered program-level suggestions for how to better support Black students (McGee and Bentley 2017). Descriptive qualitative research of deaf students involved in undergraduate research revealed that lack of awareness of Deaf culture of research mentors as well as lack of communication hindered students’ research experiences (Majocha et al. 2018). This research led to recommendations for research programs, research mentors, and students themselves. Another descriptive qualitative study showed how Latine students’ science identity changed over time when involved in an undergraduate research program (Vasquez-Salgado et al. 2023). Specifically, Vasguez-Salgado and colleagues identified patterns in students’ science identity through three waves of data collection spanning 18 months. Students’ identities showed consistent or fast achievement of feeling like a scientist, gradual achievement of feeling like a scientist, achievement adjustment of feeling like a scientist at one point and less so later in the program, or never feeling like a scientist. Together, these and other studies have generated knowledge that raises questions for future research and informs our collective efforts to make undergraduate research more accessible and inclusive.

Mechanistic Questions

Mechanistic qualitative research aims to address questions of how or why a phenomenon occurs. In the context of undergraduate research, an investigator may seek to understand how or why a particular practice or program design affects students. Recently, we conducted a mechanistic qualitative study that aimed, in part, to understand how early career researchers (undergraduate, postbaccalaureate, and graduate students) conceptualized their science identity (Pfeifer et al. 2023). Previous research theorized that someone is more likely to identify as a scientist if they are interested in science, believe they are competent in and can perform science, and feel recognized by others for their scientific aptitude or accomplishments (Carlone and Johnson 2007; Hazari et al. 2010; Potvin and Hazari 2013). However, this theory is somewhat limited in that it does not fully explain how context affects science identity or how science identity evolves, especially as researchers advance in their scientific training (Hazari et al. 2020; Kim and Sinatra 2018). To address this, we integrated science identity theory with research on professional identity development to design our study (Pratt, Rockmann, and Kaufmann 2006). We analyzed data from two national samples, including open-ended survey responses from 548 undergraduates engaged in research training and interview data from 30 early career researchers in the natural sciences. We found that they conceptualized science identity as a continuum that encompassed being a science student, being a science researcher, and being a career researcher. How students saw their science identity depended on how they viewed the purpose of their daily research, the level of intellectual responsibility they have for their research, and the extent of their autonomy in their research. We consider these findings to be hypotheses that can be tested quantitatively to better understand science identity dynamics in research training contexts. By asking this mechanistic question about science identity, we sought to add to and refine existing theory.

Key Attributes of Qualitative Research

For any type of research to be meaningful, it must possess some degree of rigor—what qualitative researchers call trustworthiness (Morse et al. 2002; Yilmaz 2013). Qualitative research is more trustworthy if it is characterized by credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Creswell and Poth 2016; Lincoln and Guba 1985). For instance, like accuracy and precision in quantitative research, do qualitative findings reflect what is being studied and are the interpretations true to the data (credibility)? Similar to reproducibility in quantitative research, how can qualitative research findings be applied to similar contexts (transferability)? Like validity in quantitative research, to what degree are the framing, methods, and findings of qualitative research appropriate given the aims (dependability)? Similar to the idea of replicability in quantitative research, if the same analytic tools were applied to the same data set could similar findings be reached by someone outside the original research team (confirmability)? The exact dimensions of trustworthiness, how trustworthiness manifests in the research process, the best ways to achieve trustworthiness, and how to talk about trustworthiness in research products are the subject of ongoing and often-spirited debate (e.g., Gioia et al. 2022; Mays and Pope 2020; Morse et al. 2002; Ritchie et al. 2013; Tracy 2010; Welch 2018; Yadav 2022). Central to these dialogues is the fact that qualitative research is composed of different philosophical approaches that emerged and evolved from diverse social science fields (Creswell and Poth 2016; Ritchie et al. 2013). Identifying universally agreed-upon criteria and the means to achieve these criteria is complex.

In our own work, we have found Tracy’s (2010) eight criteria for excellent qualitative research particularly useful. These criteria have helped us design studies, make decisions during the course of research, and articulate in our papers how our research seeks to achieve trustworthiness (e.g., Pfeifer, Cordero, and Stanton 2023). The full list of criteria is: worthy topic, rich rigor, sincerity, credibility, resonance, significant contribution, ethical conduct, and meaningful coherence (Tracy 2010). These criteria borrow from and build on the presented concepts of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. In our view, these criteria are presented and described in a way that makes sense to us and fits our approach to research. Here we highlight two criteria that may be particularly relevant if you are new to qualitative research.

Worthy Topics

As scholars familiar with undergraduate research and scholarly inquiry, SPUR readers are well-positioned to design studies that address research questions that are significant and timely in the context of undergraduate research. The first step in doing qualitative research (or any research) is to figure out what you want to study. You’ll want to select a topic that you find interesting, relevant, or otherwise compelling so you are motivated to spend time and effort investigating it. One way to find a topic is to notice what is happening in your environment and your work. What are you observing about undergraduate research? Something about students who participate (or not)? Something about colleagues who work with undergraduate researchers (or not)? Something about the design, implementation, or outcomes of the research experience? Something about the programmatic or institutional context? For a topic to be worthy of research, it should be interesting to you and to others. Consider sharing your observations with a few critical friends (i.e., trusted colleagues who will give you honest feedback) about whether they find your observations interesting or worth your time and energy to explore.

Like other human research, qualitative studies must adhere to basic ethical principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects 1978). Respect for persons means treating all people as autonomous and protecting individuals with diminished autonomy (e.g., students whom we teach and assess). Beneficence involves treating people in an ethical manner, including respecting their decisions, protecting them from harm, and securing their well-being. Justice refers to the balance between benefiting from research and bearing its burdens; in other words, people should be able to benefit from research and should not be expected to bear the burden of research if they cannot benefit. Although it is beyond the scope of this essay to provide guidance on how to adhere to these principles, it is important to recognize that qualitative methods like interviewing can be highly personal and sometimes powerful experiences for both participants (and researchers). Investigators should carefully consider how their participants may be affected by data collection. For example, you may interview or survey participants about a personally difficult or painful experience. Do you then bear responsibility for helping them find support to navigate these difficulties? What if a participant reveals to you a serious mental health issue or physical safety concern? These situations occurred during our negative mentoring studies. We provided information to participants about where they could seek counseling or support for specific issues that can occur with mentors, such as harassment and discrimination.

Certainly not all qualitative data collection brings up these issues, but it can and does happen more frequently than you might expect. Your institutional review board (IRB), collaborators, and critical friends can be helpful resources when planning for and navigating tough scenarios like this. If working with an IRB is new to you, we recommend finding colleagues at your institution who have conducted IRB-reviewed research and asking them for guidance and examples. Some IRBs offer training for individuals new to developing human research protocols, and there are likely to be templates for everything from recruitment letters to consent forms to study information. We have found the process of developing IRB protocols helps refine research questions and study plans. Furthermore, IRB review is needed before you collect data that will be used for your study; IRBs rarely if ever allow for retrospective review and approval. In our experience, these studies are likely to be determined as exempt from IRB review because they involve minimal risk and use standard educational research procedures. However, the IRB is still responsible for making this determination and is a valuable partner for helping investigators navigate sensitive or complex situations that occur in human research.

Getting Started with Qualitative Research

Now that you have a sense of the purposes of qualitative research and what features help to ensure its quality, you are probably wondering how to do it. We want to emphasize that there are entire programs of study, whole courses, and lengthy texts that aim to teach qualitative research. We cannot come close to describing what can be learned from these more substantial resources. With this is mind, we share our own process of carrying out qualitative research as an example that others might find helpful to follow. We outline this “how to” as a series of steps, but qualitative research (like all research) is iterative and dynamic (University of California Museum of Paleontology 2022). Feel free to read through the steps in a linear fashion but then move in non-linear ways through the various steps. Extended discussion of each of these steps with examples from our research on negative mentoring is provided in Table 1 along with an abridged list of our go-to references.

Observe, Search, and Read

For a topic to be worthy of qualitative research (or any research), it should also have the potential to address a knowledge gap. After we identify a “worthy topic,” we try to find as much information about that topic as possible (Dolan 2013). We read, then we keep reading, and then we read some more. This may seem obvious, but we find that investing time reading literature can save us a lot of time designing, conducting, and writing up a study on a phenomenon that is already well known or understood by others and just not (yet) by us. To help us in our searching, we will sometimes reach out to colleagues in related fields to describe the phenomenon we are interested in studying and see if they have terms that they use to describe the phenomenon or theories they think are related. Theory informs our research questions, study designs, analytic approaches, and interpretation and reporting of findings, and enables alignment among all of these elements of research (e.g., Grant and Osanloo 2014; Luft et al. 2022; Spangler and Williams 2019). Theory also serves as a touchstone for connecting our findings to larger bodies of knowledge and communicating these connections in a way that promotes collective understanding of whatever we are investigating.

Formulate a Question

Once you have selected a topic and identified a knowledge gap, consider research questions that, if answered, would address the knowledge gap. Recall that qualitative research is suited to questions that require a descriptive (what) or mechanistic (how) answer.

Decide on a Study Design

Just like quantitative research, qualitative research has characteristic approaches, designs, and methodologies, each of which has affordances and constraints (Creswell and Poth 2016; Merriam 2014; Miles, Huberman, and Saldana 2014). Creswell and Poth provide a valuable resource for learning more about different types of qualitative research study designs, including which designs are suited to address which kinds of research questions. Given the labor intensiveness of qualitative data collection and analysis, it is critical to think carefully about how to recruit and select study participants. What this looks like and who might be appropriate study participants will depend on many factors, including the knowledge gap, research question, study design, and methods. Questions that can be helpful to ask are: Who do I need to study to answer my research question? What should the study participants have in common? In what ways should study participants vary to provide rich, complex, and varied insight into what I am studying? To whom do I want to generalize my findings, keeping in mind the qualitative nature of the work?

Based on the answers to these questions, you may opt for purposeful sampling in which you collect data only from participants who meet the characteristics you decide upon given the aims of your study. In this case, you will likely send a screening survey to potential participants to determine what their characteristics of interest are, which will help you decide if you will invite them for further data collection or not. A purposeful sample contrasts with a convenience sample where essentially any person who agrees to participate in the study will be selected for further data collection.

Collect and Analyze Data Systematically

Qualitative data can be collected in a variety of ways, including surveys, interviews, and focus groups, as well as audio and video recordings of learning experiences such as class sessions. To decide which method(s) to use for data collection, it is helpful to consider what you aim to learn from study participants. Surveys tend to be easier to distribute to a larger sample, but may elicit shorter or shallower responses, which are challenging to interpret because there is less information (i.e., words) and no opportunity to clarify with participants. Focus groups can be effective for quickly gathering input from a group of participants. However, social dynamics may result in one or a few people dominating the discussion, or “group think,” when people agree with one another rather than providing their own unique perspectives. Interviews with individuals can be a rich and varied data source because each participant has time and space to offer their own distinct perspective. Interviews also allow for follow-up questions that are difficult through survey methods. Yet, conducting interviews skillfully—avoiding leading questions and ensuring that the line of questioning yields the desired data—takes a lot of thought and practice. Kvale (1996) offers detailed guidance on how to design and carry out research interviews. Observing an expert interviewer and having them observe and give feedback as you interview can help improve your skills. Audio and video recordings of learning experiences like class sessions or group work can provide a plethora of information (e.g., verbal and nonverbal exchanges among students or between students and instructors) in a more natural setting than surveys or interviews. Yet deciding what information will serve as data to answer your research question, or how that large body of data will be systematically analyzed, can be cumbersome.

Regardless of the data collection method, you’ll need to decide how much data to collect. There is no one right sample size. A good rule of thumb is collecting data until you reach “saturation,” which is the notion that the same ideas are coming up repeatedly and that no new ideas are emerging during data collection. This means that your data collection and analysis are likely to overlap in time, with some data collection then some analysis and then more data collection.

Analytic methods in qualitative research vary widely in their interpretive complexity. As natural scientists, we favor sticking close to the data and analyzing using a method called qualitative content analysis. Content analysis involves taking quotes or segments of text and capturing their meaning with short words or phrases called codes. The process of developing codes and systematically applying them to a dataset is called coding. Coding is highly iterative and time-consuming because it typically requires multiple, careful passes through the dataset to ensure all codes have been evenly applied to all data. In a recent study, we spent 10 to 15 person-hours to code a single interview, and about 400 person-hours to complete coding for a 30-participant study. The time involved in coding depends on what is being studied, the type of coding, and who is coding the data. Saldaña (2016) provides excellent guidance on the coding process, including various ways of making sense of codes by grouping them into themes. Content analysis is just one approach to qualitative data analysis. We encourage you to learn more about different forms of qualitative approaches and choose what works best for you, including your skill level, research goals, and data (e.g., Creswell and Poth 2016; Starks and Brown Trinidad 2007).

Interpret and Write Results

There are many ways to effectively write up results, often called findings, from qualitative research. Because qualitative research involves extensive interpretation, it can sometimes be easier to integrate the results and discussion of a qualitative paper. Integration allows the interpretation (discussion) to be directly supported by the evidence in the form of quotations (results). The conclusions of the paper should avoid repeating the results and instead comment on the implications and applications of the findings: why they matter and what to do as a result. Because qualitative data are quotations rather than numbers, qualitative papers tend to be longer than papers presenting quantitative studies. That said, qualitative papers should still aim to be succinct. For instance, depending on the approach and methods, quotations can be lightly edited to remove extra words or filler language (e.g., um, uh) that is a natural part of language but otherwise irrelevant to the findings. Presenting only the most pertinent part of a quotation not only facilitates succinctness, but helps readers attend to the specific evidence that supports the claims being made. Another strategy to shorten qualitative papers is to present some findings in supplemental materials.

Final Recommendations

In closing our article, we offer some advice that we wish we knew when we began conducting qualitative research. We hope that these recommendations will help you think through issues that are likely emerge as you delve deeper into qualitative analysis, both as a producer and a consumer of qualitative research.

Consensus Coding in Qualitative Analysis

In qualitative analysis, we work to ensure that the analysis yields trustworthy findings by coding to consensus, meaning that the analytic team reaches 100 percent agreement on the application of each code to the data. Any disagreement between coders is discussed until a resolution is resolved. In some cases, these discussions may result in a code description being redefined. Redefinition of a code requires that all data previously coded using the original code be reanalyzed to ensure fit with the revised definition. As you might imagine, coding to consensus can be time-consuming. Yet, in our experience, the time invested in coding to consensus is well spent because the analysis yields deeper insights about the data and phenomenon being investigated. We also see coding to consensus as a great way to take advantage of the diverse viewpoints that team members bring to our research. By coding to consensus, we consider multiple interpretations of the data throughout the analysis process. We are well-positioned to develop theory (as appropriate for our study design) as a team because we all have engaged in meaningful conversations about our findings throughout analysis.

Some qualitative research relies on a calculated measure of intercoder reliability (ICR) instead of coding to consensus. ICR values indicate how often a set of coders agree on the application of a code in the dataset. This quantification of coding is tempting because we love numbers, yet it can also be problematic (O’Connor and Joffe 2020). For instance, aiming for high ICR can create situations when coders are pressured to agree with each other rather than bringing their own unique perspective to the coding process (e.g., Belur et al. 2018; Morse 1997). Quantifying qualitative work also can imply a false precision in the analysis. In some research, ICR is calculated partway through the analysis to determine whether an “acceptable” level of agreement has been reached, at which point the remainder of the data are coded by just one researcher. This approach of using ICR as a cut-off runs counter to what many argue is the value of qualitative research: generating new theoretical understandings informed by multiple perspectives.

Using Numbers in Qualitative Analysis

Although numbers certainly have a place in qualitative analysis (Sandelowski 2001), we encourage researchers to move beyond word clouds or frequency counts of codes and themes in their results for two reasons. First, a code or theme that is infrequently observed in the data set can still be important to the phenomenon being studied. As an analogy, consider making qualitative observations of living cells under a typical light microscope. We would most frequently see a relatively stationary cell that is punctuated by a relatively rare cell division or mitosis. If we only reported stationary observations in findings, we would overlook describing mitosis, one of the most dynamic and fundamental processes that cells display. Second, given limited sample sizes, it may be that a unique and important code or theme is reported by only one participant in the data set. In fact, rare observations can serve as “a-ha moments” that lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. These rare observations also may inspire new studies about topics that were not initially anticipated; this speaks to the value of qualitative research.

Closing Thoughts

We encourage readers to continue to learn about qualitative research as there is much that could not be addressed in a single article. For instance, we did not introduce how philosophical stances, like how someone views the nature of truth or what counts as evidence, influence the research process. (Creswell and Poth 2016). For now, we will close with one final piece of advice. We both became better qualitative researchers by working with mentors and collaborators who have this expertise. We encourage you to find colleagues in your networks or at your institutions who may be interested in being a collaborator, mentor, or critical friend. The complexity of students and their experiences lend themselves to qualitative approaches. We hope this article might serve as an impetus for you to learn more about qualitative research and even start your own investigations.

Data Availability Statement

The data included in this commentary have been published in an open-access journal under a Creative Commons license. Citations are included in the text.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors have no conflicts of interest to report.

Acknowledgments

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under award number OCE-2019589. This is the National Science Foundation’s Center for Chemical Currencies of a Microbial Planet (C-Comp) publication #026. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. We thank Patricia Mabrouk for inviting us to contribute this commentary. We thank members of the Biology Education Research Group at the University of Georgia and Daniel Dries, Joseph Provost, and Verónica Segarra for their thoughtful feedback on manuscript drafts.

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Mariel A. Pfeifer

University of Georgia, [email protected]

Mariel A. Pfeifer is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Georgia’s SPREE (Social Psychology of Research Experiences and Education) Lab. Her passion for biology education research was sparked by her experiences as an undergraduate teaching assistant, a pre-service science teacher, and a disability services coordinator. Soon Pfeifer will begin her new role as an assistant professor of biology at the University of Mississippi.

Erin L. Dolan is a professor of biochemistry and molecular biology and Georgia Athletic Association Professor of Innovative Science Education at the University of Georgia As a graduate student, Dolan volunteered in K–12 schools, which inspired her pursuit of a biology education career. She teaches introductory biology and her research group, the SPREE Lab, works to delineate features of undergraduate and graduate research that influence students’ career decisions.

More Articles in this Issue

Table of contents – fall 2023, quantifying equity in the american theater: student research at the intersection of performance and data analysis.

Dramatic literature courses in the undergraduate theater curriculum traditionally include the study of plays: their structure and themes. In a course titled Contemporary Female Playwrights at Davidson College, the learning goals go beyond script analysis and include strategies for documenting and redressing the underrepresentation of female and BIPOC playwrights in American theater.

Building Research Skills through an Undergraduate Research Project on Local Community

This research aims to build economic research skills and stimulate students’ interest in the local economy through data-based undergraduate research in entry-level economics courses. The authors developed two assignments and one student survey assessing students’ learning outcomes and implemented them in two introductory-level classes from fall 2019 to fall 2021. The survey responses confirmed that the assignments positively affected students’ primary research skills and increased students’ interest in local economic issues. The study also provides empirical evidence that undergraduate research can be carried out in both face-to-face and online classes. It confirms the positive contribution of exposing students to the research culture early in their academic journey by improving students’ skills in collecting, processing, and interpreting data on the local economy.

Fulfilling the Land-Grant Mission in Undergraduate Research in English Studies

The pandemic provided a natural experiment to test an alternative approach to teaching a traditional classroom-based research methods course; as teachers, we should not wait for such interventions but try out various strategies for effectiveness. Remote mentoring is entirely feasible for successful undergraduate research experiences. This is a particularly crucial finding in the humanities, which relies very much on discussion-based formats rather than lectures for its courses. Faculty have learned new technologies, such as Zoom, to ensure that meaningful interactions would occur.

Making Research Accessible for All through a Fully Online Cancer Genomics CURE

Course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs) can engage large numbers of students and provide a structured environment in which to learn valuable research skills. The ability to implement laboratory-based CUREs was hindered by the COVID-19 pandemic, generating a greater need for online options. A pilot study of an adaptation of a fully online cancer genomics CURE is described here. Students utilized freely available databases such as cBioPortal to develop novel scientific questions, generate and analyze data, collaborate with peers, and present their findings in an online environment. This format preserved the defining aspects of CUREs while promoting student ownership over their projects. Although the most common challenge was developing a hypothesis, students valued peer and instructor feedback throughout the process as well as flexible formats for communicating their research findings.

Laboratory-Based Undergraduate Research Experiences (LUREs):  Evidence of Effectiveness from the Social Sciences

The impact of undergraduate research experiences (UREs) is supported by evidence from physical and life science fields, especially when student-apprentices work in traditional laboratories. Within social sciences specifically, some excellent student outcomes associated with UREs adhere to non–lab-based modalities like course-based research experiences (CUREs). Here, the authors evaluate the laboratory-based undergraduate research experiences (LUREs) as a potentially valuable approach for incorporating social science undergraduates in research. Using comparative analysis of survey data from students completing three types of social science-based UREs (n = 235), individual research experiences (IREs), CUREs, or LUREs, students perceived gains overall regardless of the type of experience, with some indication that LUREs are the most effective.

SUREbyts: Presenting Early-Year Undergraduate Students with Videos on Research Topics

Undergraduate research initiatives such as mentoring programs, conferences, and journals typically focus on the later stages of undergraduate studies. It is not unusual for a student to reach the final year of their program without developing their awareness of research within their discipline or their institution. SUREbyts is a project that provides first- and second-year undergraduate students with access to research through video recordings of professional researchers and research students discussing their own research, with each video structured around a research question with a set of possible solutions. This article presents the successes and challenges faced by the project’s initial implementation in six higher education institutions in Ireland and offers advice to institutions globally that are considering engaging their students with research in this way.

Systematic Review of Outcomes for Faculty Mentors in Undergraduate Research

Significant research has highlighted the benefits and outcomes of mentored research experiences for undergraduate students. Substantially less empirical research has examined the benefits and outcomes of these experiences for the other member of the mentoring dyad: the mentors themselves. To address this gap, a systematic review of 1,915 articles was conducted. After review, 16 articles were determined relevant. Articles were categorized based on design and theoretical framework. Further analysis revealed three categorizations: faculty mentor outcomes, barriers to mentorship of undergraduate research students, and supporting factors associated with mentorship of students. Results indicate that faculty mentors in undergraduate research contexts face more barriers to mentorship than supporting factors. Three lines of inquiry are proposed for future researchers.

Undergraduate Research: Why and How Do We Mentor?

Our advocacy for undergraduate research, mentorship, and equity is strengthened by being explicit about why they are vital. Research mentors guide undergraduates in learning how to learn, in evaluating evidence, and in discovering talents and career interests. Our mission can be extended by bringing a research perspective to the courses we teach. Effective mentorship involves appreciating individual differences while having shared goals. As mentors, we aim to provide undergraduates with opportunities to participate in research that can lead to discovering new knowledge. Students can build on this experience to become proactive in making a difference. The global future depends on today’s undergraduates, who are tomorrow’s decision-makers, innovators, and leaders.

Step Up for SPUR

This editorial details observations from a departing associate editor of SPUR about the experience of working on the journal. The author contextualizes this work within the academic journal editorial process, focusing on specific challenges in recruiting reviewers for the peer review process. The author stresses the importance of broad participation from the undergraduate research community, including submitting articles to SPUR , accepting requests to review manuscripts, and participating in the editorial board, all to ensure the sustainability and intellectual vitality of the journal.

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SPUR advances knowledge and understanding of novel and effective approaches to mentored undergraduate research, scholarship, and creative inquiry by publishing high-quality, rigorously peer reviewed studies written by scholars and practitioners of undergraduate research, scholarship, and creative inquiry. The SPUR Journal is a leading CUR member benefit. Gain access to all electronic articles by joining CUR.

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For Researchers

• Learn about Research

What is a qualitative research study?

A qualitative study is one that collects and looks at qualitative data – essentially, words! Researchers will talk to people to learn about their thoughts, beliefs, and experiences in their own words. This information can help researchers, healthcare providers, and people who design policies and programs know things like:

• What life is like for people impacted by a health condition
• How people feel about social issues
• How to design programs so that they fit with people’s lives.

How are qualitative research studies different from other types of studies?

Sometimes, questions are best answered by clinical trials or by looking at statistics or numbers. These kinds of studies are called quantitative research. Other times, questions are best answered by hearing about people’s experiences and perspectives in their own words. This is where qualitative studies come in!

For example, let’s say we want to study we want to better understand people’s exercise habits.

In a quantitative study, meaning one focused on numbers, we might study questions like:

• What percent of people exercise regularly?
• What is the average number of minutes people exercise each week?
• How do these numbers vary between people of different socioeconomic statuses?

In a qualitative study, we might study questions like:

• How do people feel about exercise?
• What things prevent people from exercising?
• What strategies help people exercise?

Together, these questions can paint a richer picture of what is happening. If we know that some groups of people exercise less than others, we don’t necessarily know why that is the case. If we talk to people directly, we can better understand their experiences, challenges they face, and strategies that are helpful. This information may help us design more effective programs to encourage exercising.

How is a qualitative research study conducted?

In qualitative research, we study the experiences, stories, and perspectives that people share with researchers – this is qualitative data . Usually, researchers will collect qualitative data by talking to people through interviews or focus groups. Interviews are one-on-one conversations where researchers ask people about their experiences and thoughts related to a certain topic. Focus groups are similar, except that the conversation happens with a group of people. Interviews and focus groups can happen in-person or virtually (over the phone or on an online platform like Zoom). Researchers usually record these conversations so that they can transcribe them, meaning write them out word for word. Generally, they will remove people’s names and other identifying information from the transcripts. Then they review the de-identified transcript data and identify concepts or themes from across all the conversations.

While this is the most common type of qualitative study, there are lots of other ways to do qualitative research too! For example, researchers can study what people write in journals or surveys, or even look at drawings or photos people have created about their experiences.

How is qualitative research shared?

Researchers will summarize the information they learned from their conversations, often by writing a report or paper. This summary will not include people’s names but might include quotations or stories people shared. This lets healthcare providers, researchers, and others better understand how people think and feel about different topics. This understanding can help us develop and improve healthcare delivery, programs, and policies. Participating in a qualitative research study is a great way to share your story and contribute to improving health!

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview

Basics of qualitative research

Types, aspects, examples, benefits and challenges, how qualitative research complements quantitative research, how is qualitative research reported.

• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews
• Research question
• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework
• Data collection
• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research
• Case studies
• Ethnographical research

Ethical considerations

• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is an essential approach in various academic disciplines and professional fields, as it seeks to understand and interpret the meanings, experiences, and social realities of people in their natural settings. This type of research employs an array of qualitative methods to gather and analyze non-numerical data, such as words, images, and behaviors, and aims to generate in-depth and contextualized insights into the phenomena under study.

Qualitative research is designed to address research questions that focus on understanding the "why" and "how" of human behavior, experiences, and interactions, rather than just the "what" or "how many" that quantitative methods typically seek to answer. The main purpose of qualitative research is to gain a rich and nuanced understanding of people's perspectives, emotions, beliefs, and motivations in relation to specific issues, situations, or phenomena.

Characteristics of qualitative research

Several key characteristics distinguish qualitative research from other types of research, such as quantitative research:

Naturalistic settings : Qualitative researchers collect data in the real-world settings where the phenomena of interest occur, rather than in controlled laboratory environments. This allows researchers to observe and understand the participants' behavior, experiences, and social interactions in their natural context.

Inductive approach : Unlike quantitative research, which often follows a deductive approach , qualitative research begins with the collection of data and then seeks to develop theories, concepts, or themes that emerge from the data. This inductive approach enables researchers to stay open to new insights and unexpected findings.

Holistic perspective : Qualitative research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under study by considering multiple dimensions, such as the social, cultural, historical, and psychological aspects that shape people's experiences and behavior.

Subjectivity and interpretation : Epistemology plays a crucial role in qualitative research. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their biases, assumptions, and values , and to consider how these may influence their data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

Flexibility : Qualitative research methods are often flexible and adaptable, allowing researchers to refine their research questions , sampling strategies, or data collection techniques as new insights and perspectives emerge during the research process.

Key principles of qualitative research

Qualitative research is guided by several fundamental principles that shape its approach, methods, and analysis:

Empathy and reflexivity : Qualitative researchers strive to empathize with the participants and to understand their perspectives, experiences, and emotions from their viewpoint. This requires researchers to be attentive, open-minded, and sensitive to the participants' verbal and non-verbal cues. At the same, qualitative researchers critically reflect on their participants’ perspectives, experiences, and emotions to develop their findings and conclusions, instead of taking these at face value. In addition, it is important for the researcher to reflect on how their own role and viewpoint may be shaping the research.

Trustworthiness : Establishing trustworthiness in qualitative research involves demonstrating credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Researchers can enhance trustworthiness by using various strategies, such as triangulation, member checking , peer debriefing , and reflexivity .

Iterative analysis : Qualitative data analysis is an ongoing and iterative process, in which researchers continually review, compare, and revise their interpretations as they collect and analyze more data. This iterative process allows researchers to refine their understanding of the phenomena and to develop more robust and nuanced theories, concepts, or themes.

Rich description : Providing detailed, vivid, and context-sensitive descriptions of the data is essential in qualitative research. Rich descriptions help convey the complexity and nuances of the phenomena under study, and enable readers to assess the relevance and transferability of the findings to other settings or populations.

What are the common types of qualitative research?

Qualitative research is an umbrella term for various methodologies that focus on understanding and interpreting human experiences, behaviors, and social phenomena within their context. These approaches seek to gather in-depth, rich data through the analysis of language, actions, and expressions. Five common types of qualitative research are narrative research , phenomenology , grounded theory , ethnography , and case study .

Narrative research : This approach focuses on the stories and experiences of individuals, aiming to understand their lives and personal perspectives. Researchers can collect data through interviews, letters, diaries, or autobiographies, and analyze these narratives to identify recurring themes, patterns, and meanings . Narrative research can be valuable for exploring individual identities, cultural beliefs, and historical events.

Phenomenology : Phenomenology seeks to understand the essence of a particular phenomenon by analyzing the experiences and perceptions of individuals who have gone through that phenomenon . Researchers can explore participants' thoughts, feelings, and experiences through in-depth interviews, observations, or written materials. The goal is to describe the commonalities and variations in these experiences, ultimately revealing the underlying structures and meaning of the phenomenon under study.

Grounded theory : This inductive research method aims to generate new theories by systematically collecting and analyzing data. Researchers begin with an open-ended research question and gather data through observations, interviews, and document analysis . They then use a process of coding and constant comparison to identify patterns, categories, and relationships in the data. This iterative process continues until a comprehensive, grounded theory emerges that is based in the recollected data and explains the topic of interest.

Ethnography : Ethnographic research involves the in-depth study of a specific cultural or social group, focusing on understanding its members' behaviors, beliefs, and interactions. Researchers immerse themselves in the group's environment, often for extended periods, to observe and participate in daily activities. They can collect data through field notes, interviews, and document analysis, aiming to provide a holistic and nuanced understanding of the group's cultural practices and social dynamics.

Case study : A case study is an in-depth examination of a specific instance, event, organization, or individual within its real-life context. Researchers use multiple sources of data, such as interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts to build a rich, detailed understanding of the case. Case study research can be used to explore complex phenomena, generate new hypotheses , or evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or policies.

What are the purposes of qualitative research?

Qualitative research presents outcomes that emerge from the process of collecting and analyzing qualitative data. These outcomes often involve generating new theories, developing or challenging existing theories, and proposing practical implications based on actionable insights. The products of qualitative research contribute to a deeper understanding of human experiences, social phenomena, and cultural contexts. Qualitative research can also be a powerful complement to quantitative research.

Generating new theory : One of the primary goals of qualitative research is to develop new theories or conceptual frameworks that help explain previously unexplored or poorly understood phenomena. By conducting in-depth investigations and analyzing rich data, researchers can identify patterns, relationships, and underlying structures that form the basis of novel theoretical insights.

Developing or challenging existing theory : Qualitative research can also contribute to the refinement or expansion of existing theories by providing new perspectives, revealing previously unnoticed complexities, or highlighting areas where current theories may be insufficient or inaccurate. By examining the nuances and context-specific details of a phenomenon, researchers can generate evidence that supports, contradicts, or modifies existing theoretical frameworks .

Proposing practical implications : Qualitative research often yields actionable insights that can inform policy, practice, and intervention strategies. By delving into the lived experiences of individuals and communities, researchers can identify factors that contribute to or hinder the effectiveness of certain approaches, uncovering opportunities for improvement or innovation. The insights gained from qualitative research can be used to design targeted interventions, develop context-sensitive policies, or inform the professional practices of practitioners in various fields.

Enhancing understanding and empathy : Qualitative research promotes a deeper understanding of human experiences, emotions, and perspectives, fostering empathy and cultural sensitivity. By engaging with diverse voices and experiences, researchers can develop a more nuanced appreciation of the complexities of human behavior and social dynamics, ultimately contributing to more compassionate and inclusive societies.

Informing mixed-methods research : The products of qualitative research can also be used in conjunction with quantitative research, as part of a mixed-methods approach . Qualitative findings can help generate hypotheses for further testing, inform the development of survey instruments , or provide context and explanation for quantitative results. Combining the strengths of both approaches can lead to more robust and comprehensive understanding of complex research questions .

What are some examples of qualitative research?

Qualitative research can be conducted across various scientific fields, exploring diverse topics and phenomena. Here are six brief descriptions of qualitative studies that can provide researchers with ideas for their own projects:

Exploring the lived experiences of refugees : A phenomenological study could be conducted to investigate the lived experiences and coping strategies of refugees in a specific host country. By conducting in-depth interviews with refugees and analyzing their narratives , researchers can gain insights into the challenges they face, their resilience, and the factors that contribute to successful integration into their new communities.

Understanding the dynamics of online communities : An ethnographic study could be designed to explore the culture and social dynamics of a particular online community or social media platform. By immersing themselves in the virtual environment, researchers can observe patterns of interaction, communication styles, and shared values among community members, providing a nuanced understanding of the factors that influence online behavior and group dynamics.

Examining the impact of gentrification on local communities : A case study could be conducted to explore the impact of gentrification on a specific neighborhood or community. Researchers can collect data through interviews with residents, local business owners, and policymakers, as well as analyzing relevant documents and media coverage. The study can shed light on the effects of gentrification on housing affordability, social cohesion, and cultural identity, informing policy and urban planning decisions.

Studying the career trajectories of women in STEM fields : A narrative research project can be designed to investigate the career experiences and pathways of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. By collecting and analyzing the stories of women at various career stages, researchers can identify factors that contribute to their success, as well as barriers and challenges they face in male-dominated fields.

Evaluating the effectiveness of a mental health intervention : A qualitative study can be conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific mental health intervention, such as a mindfulness-based program for reducing stress and anxiety. Researchers can gather data through interviews and focus groups with program participants, exploring their experiences, perceived benefits, and suggestions for improvement. The findings can provide valuable insights for refining the intervention and informing future mental health initiatives.

Investigating the role of social media in political activism : A qualitative study using document analysis and visual methods could explore the role of social media in shaping political activism and public opinion during a specific social movement or election campaign. By analyzing user-generated content, such as tweets, posts, images, and videos, researchers can examine patterns of communication, mobilization, and discourse, shedding light on the ways in which social media influences political engagement and democratic processes.

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What are common qualitative research methods?

Qualitative research methods are techniques used to collect, analyze, and interpret data in qualitative studies. These methods prioritize the exploration of meaning, context, and individual experiences. Common qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups, observations, document analysis, and visual methods.

Interviews : Interviews involve one-on-one conversations between the researcher and the participant. They can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, depending on the level of guidance provided by the researcher. Interviews allow for in-depth exploration of participants' experiences, thoughts, and feelings, providing rich and detailed data for analysis.

Focus groups : Focus groups are group discussions facilitated by a researcher, usually consisting of 6-12 participants. They enable researchers to explore participants' collective perspectives, opinions, and experiences in a social setting. Focus groups can generate insights into group dynamics, cultural norms, and shared understandings, as participants interact and respond to each other's viewpoints.

Observations : Observational research involves the systematic collection of data through watching and recording people, events, or behaviors in their natural settings. Researchers can take on different roles, such as participant-observer or non-participant observer, depending on their level of involvement. Observations provide valuable information about context, social interactions, and non-verbal communication, which can help researchers understand the nuances of a particular phenomenon.

Document analysis : Document analysis is the examination of written or visual materials, such as letters, diaries, reports, newspaper articles, photographs, or videos. This method can provide insights into historical or cultural contexts, individual perspectives, and organizational processes. Researchers may use content analysis, discourse analysis, or other analytic techniques to interpret the meaning and significance of these documents.

Visual methods : Visual methods involve the use of visual materials, such as photographs, drawings, or videos, to explore and represent participants' experiences and perspectives. Techniques like photo elicitation, where participants are asked to take or select photographs related to the research topic and discuss their meaning, can encourage reflection and stimulate discussion. Visual methods can be particularly useful in capturing non-verbal information, promoting cross-cultural understanding, and engaging with hard-to-reach populations.

Importance of qualitative research and qualitative data analysis

Qualitative research and qualitative data analysis play a vital role in advancing knowledge, informing policies, and improving practices in various fields, such as education, healthcare, business, and social work. The unique insights and in-depth understanding generated through qualitative research can accomplish a number of goals.

Inform decision-making

Qualitative research helps decision-makers better understand the needs, preferences, and concerns of different stakeholders, such as customers, employees, or community members. This can lead to more effective and tailored policies, programs, or interventions that address real-world challenges.

Enhance innovation

By exploring people's experiences, motivations, and aspirations, qualitative research can uncover new ideas, opportunities, and trends that can drive innovation in products, services, or processes.

Foster empathy and cultural competence

Qualitative research can increase our empathy and understanding of diverse populations, cultures, and contexts. This can enhance our ability to communicate, collaborate, and work effectively with people from different backgrounds.

Complement quantitative research

Qualitative research can complement quantitative research by providing rich contextual information and in-depth insights into the underlying mechanisms, processes, or factors that may explain the patterns or relationships observed in quantitative data.

Facilitate social change

Qualitative research can give voice to marginalized or underrepresented groups, highlight social injustices or inequalities, and inspire actions and reforms that promote social change and well-being.

Challenges of conducting qualitative research

While qualitative research offers valuable insights and understanding of human experiences, it also presents some challenges that researchers must navigate. Acknowledging and addressing these challenges can help ensure the rigor, credibility, and relevance of qualitative research. In this section, we will discuss some common challenges that researchers may encounter when conducting qualitative research and offer suggestions on how to overcome them.

Subjectivity and bias

One of the primary challenges in qualitative research is managing subjectivity and potential biases that may arise from the researcher's personal beliefs, values, and experiences. Since qualitative research relies on the researcher's interpretation of the data , there is a risk that the researcher's subjectivity may influence the findings.

Researchers can minimize the impact of subjectivity and bias by maintaining reflexivity , or ongoing self-awareness and critical reflection on their role, assumptions, and influences in the research process. This may involve keeping a reflexive journal, engaging in peer debriefing , and discussing potential biases with research participants during member checking .

Data collection and quality

Collecting high-quality data in qualitative research can be challenging, particularly when dealing with sensitive topics, hard-to-reach populations, or complex social phenomena. Ensuring the trustworthiness of qualitative data collection is essential to producing credible and meaningful findings.

Researchers can enhance data quality by employing various strategies, such as purposive or theoretical sampling, triangulation of data sources, methods or researchers, and establishing rapport and trust with research participants.

Data analysis and interpretation

The analysis and interpretation of qualitative data can be a complex, time-consuming, and sometimes overwhelming process. Researchers must make sense of large amounts of diverse and unstructured data, while also ensuring the rigor, transparency, and consistency of their analysis.

Researchers can facilitate data analysis and interpretation by adopting systematic and well-established approaches, such as thematic analysis , grounded theory , or content analysis . Utilizing qualitative data analysis software , like ATLAS.ti, can also help manage and analyze data more efficiently and rigorously.

Qualitative research often involves exploring sensitive issues or working with vulnerable populations, which raises various ethical considerations , such as privacy, confidentiality , informed consent , and potential harm to participants.

Researchers should be familiar with the ethical guidelines and requirements of their discipline, institution, or funding agency, and should obtain ethical approval from relevant review boards or committees before conducting the research. Researchers should also maintain open communication with participants, respect their autonomy and dignity, and protect their well-being throughout the research process.

Generalizability and transferability

Qualitative research typically focuses on in-depth exploration of specific cases or contexts, which may limit the generalizability or transferability of the findings to other settings or populations. However, the goal of qualitative research is not to produce statistically generalizable results but rather to provide a rich, contextualized, and nuanced understanding of the phenomena under study.

Researchers can enhance the transferability of their findings by providing rich descriptions of the research context, participants, and methods, and by discussing the potential applicability or relevance of the findings to other settings or populations. Readers can then assess the transferability of the findings based on the similarity of their own context to the one described in the research.

By addressing these challenges and adopting rigorous and transparent research practices, qualitative researchers can contribute valuable and meaningful insights that advance knowledge, inform policies, and improve practices in various fields and contexts.

Qualitative and quantitative research approaches are often seen as distinct and even opposing paradigms. However, these two approaches can be complementary, providing a more comprehensive understanding of complex social phenomena when combined. In this section, we will discuss how qualitative research can complement quantitative research and enhance the overall depth, breadth, and rigor of research findings.

Exploring and understanding context

Quantitative research excels at identifying patterns, trends, and relationships among variables using numerical data, while qualitative research provides rich and nuanced insights into the context, meaning, and underlying processes that shape these patterns or relationships. By integrating qualitative research with quantitative research, researchers can explore not only the "what" or "how many" but also the "why" and "how" of the phenomena under study.

For example, a quantitative study in health services research might reveal a correlation between social media usage and mental health outcomes, while a qualitative study could help explain the reasons behind this correlation by exploring users' experiences, motivations, and perceptions of social media. Qualitative and quantitative data in this case complement each other to contribute to a more robust theory and more informed policy implications.

Generating and refining hypotheses

Qualitative research can inform the development and refinement of hypotheses for quantitative research by identifying new concepts, variables, or relationships that emerge from the data. This can lead to more focused, relevant, and innovative quantitative research questions and hypotheses. For instance, a qualitative study on employee motivation might uncover the importance of meaningful work and supportive relationships with supervisors as key factors influencing motivation. These findings could then be incorporated into a quantitative study to test the relationships between these factors and employee motivation.

Validating and triangulating findings

Combining qualitative and quantitative research methods can enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of research findings through validation and triangulation. Validation involves comparing the findings from different methods to assess their consistency and convergence, while triangulation involves using multiple methods, data sources, or researchers to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under study.

For example, a researcher might use both quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews in a mixed methods research design to assess the effectiveness of a health intervention. If both methods yield similar findings, this can increase confidence in the results. If the findings differ, the researcher can further investigate the reasons for these discrepancies and refine their understanding of the intervention's effectiveness.

Enhancing communication and dissemination

Qualitative research can enhance the communication and dissemination of quantitative research findings by providing vivid narratives, case studies, or examples that bring the data to life and make it more accessible and engaging for diverse audiences, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the public.

For example, a quantitative study on the impact of a community-based program might report the percentage of participants who experienced improvements in various outcomes. By adding qualitative data, such as quotes or stories from participants, the researcher can illustrate the human impact of the program and make the findings more compelling and relatable.

In conclusion, qualitative research can complement and enrich quantitative research in various ways, leading to a more comprehensive, contextualized, and rigorous understanding of complex social phenomena. By integrating qualitative and quantitative research methods, researchers can harness the strengths of both approaches to produce more robust, relevant, and impactful findings that inform theory, policy, and practice.

Qualitative research findings are typically reported in various formats, depending on the audience, purpose, and context of the research. Common ways to report qualitative research include dissertations, journal articles, market research reports, and needs assessment reports. Each format has its own structure and emphasis, tailored to meet the expectations and requirements of its target audience.

Dissertations and theses : Doctoral,master's, or bachelor students often conduct qualitative research as part of their dissertation or thesis projects. In this format, researchers provide a comprehensive account of their research questions , methodology, data collection , data analysis , and findings. Dissertations are expected to make a significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge and demonstrate the researcher's mastery of the subject matter.

Journal articles : Researchers frequently disseminate their qualitative research findings through articles published in academic journals . These articles are typically structured in a way that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, and discussion sections. In addition, articles often undergo a peer-review process before being published in the academic journal. Journal articles focus on communicating the study's purpose, methods, and findings in a concise and coherent manner, providing enough detail for other researchers to evaluate the rigor and validity of the research so that they can cite the article and build on it in their own studies.

Market research reports : Market research often employs qualitative methods to gather insights into consumer behavior, preferences, and attitudes. Market research reports present the findings of these studies to clients, typically businesses or organizations interested in understanding their target audience or market trends. These reports focus on providing actionable insights and recommendations based on the qualitative data, helping clients make informed decisions and develop effective marketing strategies.

Needs assessment reports : Needs assessment is a process used to identify gaps or areas of improvement in a specific context, such as healthcare, education, or social services. Qualitative research methods can be used to collect data on the needs, challenges, and experiences of the target population. Needs assessment reports present the findings of this research, highlighting the identified needs and providing recommendations for addressing them. These reports are used by organizations and policymakers to inform the development and implementation of targeted interventions and policies.

Other formats : In addition to the aforementioned formats, qualitative research findings can also be reported in conference presentations, white papers, policy briefs, blog posts, or multimedia presentations. The choice of format depends on the target audience and the intended purpose of the research, as well as the researcher's preferences and resources. Regardless of the format, it is important for researchers to present their findings in a clear, accurate, and engaging manner, ensuring that their work is accessible and relevant to their audience.

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What is Qualitative Research? Methods, Types, Approaches and Examples

Qualitative research is a type of method that researchers use depending on their study requirements. Research can be conducted using several methods, but before starting the process, researchers should understand the different methods available to decide the best one for their study type. The type of research method needed depends on a few important criteria, such as the research question, study type, time, costs, data availability, and availability of respondents. The two main types of methods are qualitative research and quantitative research. Sometimes, researchers may find it difficult to decide which type of method is most suitable for their study. Keeping in mind a simple rule of thumb could help you make the correct decision. Quantitative research should be used to validate or test a theory or hypothesis and qualitative research should be used to understand a subject or event or identify reasons for observed patterns.  

Qualitative research methods are based on principles of social sciences from several disciplines like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. In this method, researchers try to understand the feelings and motivation of their respondents, which would have prompted them to select or give a particular response to a question. Here are two qualitative research examples :  

• Two brands (A & B) of the same medicine are available at a pharmacy. However, Brand A is more popular and has higher sales. In qualitative research , the interviewers would ideally visit a few stores in different areas and ask customers their reason for selecting either brand. Respondents may have different reasons that motivate them to select one brand over the other, such as brand loyalty, cost, feedback from friends, doctor’s suggestion, etc. Once the reasons are known, companies could then address challenges in that specific area to increase their product’s sales.  
• A company organizes a focus group meeting with a random sample of its product’s consumers to understand their opinion on a new product being launched.  

Table of Contents

What is qualitative research? 1

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data. The findings of qualitative research are expressed in words and help in understanding individuals’ subjective perceptions about an event, condition, or subject. This type of research is exploratory and is used to generate hypotheses or theories from data. Qualitative data are usually in the form of text, videos, photographs, and audio recordings. There are multiple qualitative research types , which will be discussed later.  

Qualitative research methods 2

Researchers can choose from several qualitative research methods depending on the study type, research question, the researcher’s role, data to be collected, etc.  

The following table lists the common qualitative research approaches with their purpose and examples, although there may be an overlap between some.  

Types of qualitative research 3,4

The data collection methods in qualitative research are designed to assess and understand the perceptions, motivations, and feelings of the respondents about the subject being studied. The different qualitative research types include the following:  

• In-depth or one-on-one interviews : This is one of the most common qualitative research methods and helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event. These interviews are usually conversational and encourage the respondents to express their opinions freely. Semi-structured interviews, which have open-ended questions (where the respondents can answer more than just “yes” or “no”), are commonly used. Such interviews can be either face-to-face or telephonic, and the duration can vary depending on the subject or the interviewer. Asking the right questions is essential in this method so that the interview can be led in the suitable direction. Face-to-face interviews also help interviewers observe the respondents’ body language, which could help in confirming whether the responses match.  
• Document study/Literature review/Record keeping : Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.  
• Focus groups : Usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic. Focus groups ensure constructive discussions to understand the why, what, and, how about the topic. These group meetings need not always be in-person. In recent times, online meetings are also encouraged, and online surveys could also be administered with the option to “write” subjective answers as well. However, this method is expensive and is mostly used for new products and ideas.  
• Qualitative observation : In this method, researchers collect data using their five senses—sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This method doesn’t include any measurements but only the subjective observation. For example, “The dessert served at the bakery was creamy with sweet buttercream frosting”; this observation is based on the taste perception.  

Qualitative research : Data collection and analysis

• Qualitative data collection is the process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research.  
• The data collected are usually non-numeric and subjective and could be recorded in various methods, for instance, in case of one-to-one interviews, the responses may be recorded using handwritten notes, and audio and video recordings, depending on the interviewer and the setting or duration.  
• Once the data are collected, they should be transcribed into meaningful or useful interpretations. An experienced researcher could take about 8-10 hours to transcribe an interview’s recordings. All such notes and recordings should be maintained properly for later reference.  
• Some interviewers make use of “field notes.” These are not exactly the respondents’ answers but rather some observations the interviewer may have made while asking questions and may include non-verbal cues or any information about the setting or the environment. These notes are usually informal and help verify respondents’ answers.  

2. Qualitative data analysis 

• This process involves analyzing all the data obtained from the qualitative research methods in the form of text (notes), audio-video recordings, and pictures.  
• Text analysis is a common form of qualitative data analysis in which researchers examine the social lives of the participants and analyze their words, actions, etc. in specific contexts. Social media platforms are now playing an important role in this method with researchers analyzing all information shared online.   

There are usually five steps in the qualitative data analysis process: 5

• Prepare and organize the data  
• Transcribe interviews  
• Collect and document field notes and other material  
• Review and explore the data  
• Examine the data for patterns or important observations  
• Develop a data coding system  
• Create codes to categorize and connect the data  
• Assign these codes to the data or responses  
• Review the codes  
• Identify recurring themes, opinions, patterns, etc.  
• Present the findings  
• Use the best possible method to present your observations  

The following table 6 lists some common qualitative data analysis methods used by companies to make important decisions, with examples and when to use each. The methods may be similar and can overlap.  

Characteristics of qualitative research methods 4

• Unstructured raw data : Qualitative research methods use unstructured, non-numerical data , which are analyzed to generate subjective conclusions about specific subjects, usually presented descriptively, instead of using statistical data.  
• Site-specific data collection : In qualitative research methods , data are collected at specific areas where the respondents or researchers are either facing a challenge or have a need to explore. The process is conducted in a real-world setting and participants do not need to leave their original geographical setting to be able to participate.  
• Researchers’ importance : Researchers play an instrumental role because, in qualitative research , communication with respondents is an essential part of data collection and analysis. In addition, researchers need to rely on their own observation and listening skills during an interaction and use and interpret that data appropriately.  
• Multiple methods : Researchers collect data through various methods, as listed earlier, instead of relying on a single source. Although there may be some overlap between the qualitative research methods , each method has its own significance.  
• Solving complex issues : These methods help in breaking down complex problems into more useful and interpretable inferences, which can be easily understood by everyone.  
• Unbiased responses : Qualitative research methods rely on open communication where the participants are allowed to freely express their views. In such cases, the participants trust the interviewer, resulting in unbiased and truthful responses.  
• Flexible : The qualitative research method can be changed at any stage of the research. The data analysis is not confined to being done at the end of the research but can be done in tandem with data collection. Consequently, based on preliminary analysis and new ideas, researchers have the liberty to change the method to suit their objective.  

When to use qualitative research   4

The following points will give you an idea about when to use qualitative research .  

• When the objective of a research study is to understand behaviors and patterns of respondents, then qualitative research is the most suitable method because it gives a clear insight into the reasons for the occurrence of an event.  
• A few use cases for qualitative research methods include:  
• New product development or idea generation  
• Strengthening a product’s marketing strategy  
• Conducting a SWOT analysis of product or services portfolios to help take important strategic decisions  
• Understanding purchasing behavior of consumers  
• Understanding reactions of target market to ad campaigns  
• Understanding market demographics and conducting competitor analysis  
• Understanding the effectiveness of a new treatment method in a particular section of society  

A qualitative research method case study to understand when to use qualitative research 7

Context : A high school in the US underwent a turnaround or conservatorship process and consequently experienced a below average teacher retention rate. Researchers conducted qualitative research to understand teachers’ experiences and perceptions of how the turnaround may have influenced the teachers’ morale and how this, in turn, would have affected teachers’ retention.  

Method : Purposive sampling was used to select eight teachers who were employed with the school before the conservatorship process and who were subsequently retained. One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with these teachers. The questions addressed teachers’ perspectives of morale and their views on the conservatorship process.  

Results : The study generated six factors that may have been influencing teachers’ perspectives: powerlessness, excessive visitations, loss of confidence, ineffective instructional practices, stress and burnout, and ineffective professional development opportunities. Based on these factors, four recommendations were made to increase teacher retention by boosting their morale.  

Advantages of qualitative research 1

• Reflects real-world settings , and therefore allows for ambiguities in data, as well as the flexibility to change the method based on new developments.  
• Helps in understanding the feelings or beliefs of the respondents rather than relying only on quantitative data.  
• Uses a descriptive and narrative style of presentation, which may be easier to understand for people from all backgrounds.  
• Some topics involving sensitive or controversial content could be difficult to quantify and so qualitative research helps in analyzing such content.  
• The availability of multiple data sources and research methods helps give a holistic picture.  
• There’s more involvement of participants, which gives them an assurance that their opinion matters, possibly leading to unbiased responses.   

Disadvantages of qualitative research 1

• Large-scale data sets cannot be included because of time and cost constraints.  
• Ensuring validity and reliability may be a challenge because of the subjective nature of the data, so drawing definite conclusions could be difficult.  
• Replication by other researchers may be difficult for the same contexts or situations.  
• Generalization to a wider context or to other populations or settings is not possible.  
• Data collection and analysis may be time consuming.  
• Researcher’s interpretation may alter the results causing an unintended bias.  

Differences between qualitative research and quantitative research 1

Frequently asked questions on qualitative research  

Q: how do i know if qualitative research is appropriate for my study  .

A: Here’s a simple checklist you could use:  

• Not much is known about the subject being studied.  
• There is a need to understand or simplify a complex problem or situation.  
• Participants’ experiences/beliefs/feelings are required for analysis.  
• There’s no existing hypothesis to begin with, rather a theory would need to be created after analysis.  
• You need to gather in-depth understanding of an event or subject, which may not need to be supported by numeric data.  

Q: How do I ensure the reliability and validity of my qualitative research findings?  

A: To ensure the validity of your qualitative research findings you should explicitly state your objective and describe clearly why you have interpreted the data in a particular way. Another method could be to connect your data in different ways or from different perspectives to see if you reach a similar, unbiased conclusion.   

To ensure reliability, always create an audit trail of your qualitative research by describing your steps and reasons for every interpretation, so that if required, another researcher could trace your steps to corroborate your (or their own) findings. In addition, always look for patterns or consistencies in the data collected through different methods.  

Q: Are there any sampling strategies or techniques for qualitative research ?   

A: Yes, the following are few common sampling strategies used in qualitative research :  

1. Convenience sampling  

Selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.  

2. Purposive sampling  

Participants are grouped according to predefined criteria based on a specific research question. Sample sizes are often determined based on theoretical saturation (when new data no longer provide additional insights).  

3. Snowball sampling  

Already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.  

4. Quota sampling  

While designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.  

Q: What ethical standards need to be followed with qualitative research ?  

A: The following ethical standards should be considered in qualitative research:  

• Anonymity : The participants should never be identified in the study and researchers should ensure that no identifying information is mentioned even indirectly.  
• Confidentiality : To protect participants’ confidentiality, ensure that all related documents, transcripts, notes are stored safely.  
• Informed consent : Researchers should clearly communicate the objective of the study and how the participants’ responses will be used prior to engaging with the participants.  

Q: How do I address bias in my qualitative research ?  

  A: You could use the following points to ensure an unbiased approach to your qualitative research :  

• Check your interpretations of the findings with others’ interpretations to identify consistencies.  
• If possible, you could ask your participants if your interpretations convey their beliefs to a significant extent.  
• Data triangulation is a way of using multiple data sources to see if all methods consistently support your interpretations.  
• Contemplate other possible explanations for your findings or interpretations and try ruling them out if possible.  
• Conduct a peer review of your findings to identify any gaps that may not have been visible to you.  
• Frame context-appropriate questions to ensure there is no researcher or participant bias.

We hope this article has given you answers to the question “ what is qualitative research ” and given you an in-depth understanding of the various aspects of qualitative research , including the definition, types, and approaches, when to use this method, and advantages and disadvantages, so that the next time you undertake a study you would know which type of research design to adopt.  

References:  

• McLeod, S. A. Qualitative vs. quantitative research. Simply Psychology [Accessed January 17, 2023]. www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html    
• Omniconvert website [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://www.omniconvert.com/blog/qualitative-research-definition-methodology-limitation-examples/  
• Busetto L., Wick W., Gumbinger C. How to use and assess qualitative research methods. Neurological Research and Practice [Accessed January 19, 2023] https://neurolrespract.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42466-020-00059  
• QuestionPro website. Qualitative research methods: Types & examples [Accessed January 16, 2023]. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/qualitative-research-methods/  
• Campuslabs website. How to analyze qualitative data [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://baselinesupport.campuslabs.com/hc/en-us/articles/204305675-How-to-analyze-qualitative-data  
• Thematic website. Qualitative data analysis: Step-by-guide [Accessed January 20, 2023]. https://getthematic.com/insights/qualitative-data-analysis/  
• Lane L. J., Jones D., Penny G. R. Qualitative case study of teachers’ morale in a turnaround school. Research in Higher Education Journal . https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1233111.pdf  
• Meetingsnet website. 7 FAQs about qualitative research and CME [Accessed January 21, 2023]. https://www.meetingsnet.com/cme-design/7-faqs-about-qualitative-research-and-cme     
• Qualitative research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Khoury College of Computer Sciences. Northeastern University. https://course.ccs.neu.edu/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf  

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research in Psychology

Anabelle Bernard Fournier is a researcher of sexual and reproductive health at the University of Victoria as well as a freelance writer on various health topics.

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

• Key Differences

Quantitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods.

• How They Relate

In psychology and other social sciences, researchers are faced with an unresolved question: Can we measure concepts like love or racism the same way we can measure temperature or the weight of a star? Social phenomena⁠—things that happen because of and through human behavior⁠—are especially difficult to grasp with typical scientific models.

At a Glance

Psychologists rely on quantitative and quantitative research to better understand human thought and behavior.

• Qualitative research involves collecting and evaluating non-numerical data in order to understand concepts or subjective opinions.
• Quantitative research involves collecting and evaluating numerical data. 

This article discusses what qualitative and quantitative research are, how they are different, and how they are used in psychology research.

Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research

In order to understand qualitative and quantitative psychology research, it can be helpful to look at the methods that are used and when each type is most appropriate.

Psychologists rely on a few methods to measure behavior, attitudes, and feelings. These include:

• Self-reports , like surveys or questionnaires
• Observation (often used in experiments or fieldwork)
• Implicit attitude tests that measure timing in responding to prompts

Most of these are quantitative methods. The result is a number that can be used to assess differences between groups.

However, most of these methods are static, inflexible (you can't change a question because a participant doesn't understand it), and provide a "what" answer rather than a "why" answer.

Sometimes, researchers are more interested in the "why" and the "how." That's where qualitative methods come in.

Qualitative research is about speaking to people directly and hearing their words. It is grounded in the philosophy that the social world is ultimately unmeasurable, that no measure is truly ever "objective," and that how humans make meaning is just as important as how much they score on a standardized test.

Used to develop theories

Takes a broad, complex approach

Answers "why" and "how" questions

Explores patterns and themes

Used to test theories

Takes a narrow, specific approach

Answers "what" questions

Explores statistical relationships

Quantitative methods have existed ever since people have been able to count things. But it is only with the positivist philosophy of Auguste Comte (which maintains that factual knowledge obtained by observation is trustworthy) that it became a "scientific method."

The scientific method follows this general process. A researcher must:

• Generate a theory or hypothesis (i.e., predict what might happen in an experiment) and determine the variables needed to answer their question
• Develop instruments to measure the phenomenon (such as a survey, a thermometer, etc.)
• Develop experiments to manipulate the variables
• Collect empirical (measured) data
• Analyze data

Quantitative methods are about measuring phenomena, not explaining them.

Quantitative research compares two groups of people. There are all sorts of variables you could measure, and many kinds of experiments to run using quantitative methods.

These comparisons are generally explained using graphs, pie charts, and other visual representations that give the researcher a sense of how the various data points relate to one another.

Basic Assumptions

Quantitative methods assume:

• That the world is measurable
• That humans can observe objectively
• That we can know things for certain about the world from observation

In some fields, these assumptions hold true. Whether you measure the size of the sun 2000 years ago or now, it will always be the same. But when it comes to human behavior, it is not so simple.

As decades of cultural and social research have shown, people behave differently (and even think differently) based on historical context, cultural context, social context, and even identity-based contexts like gender , social class, or sexual orientation .

Therefore, quantitative methods applied to human behavior (as used in psychology and some areas of sociology) should always be rooted in their particular context. In other words: there are no, or very few, human universals.

Statistical information is the primary form of quantitative data used in human and social quantitative research. Statistics provide lots of information about tendencies across large groups of people, but they can never describe every case or every experience. In other words, there are always outliers.

Correlation and Causation

A basic principle of statistics is that correlation is not causation. Researchers can only claim a cause-and-effect relationship under certain conditions:

• The study was a true experiment.
• The independent variable can be manipulated (for example, researchers cannot manipulate gender, but they can change the primer a study subject sees, such as a picture of nature or of a building).
• The dependent variable can be measured through a ratio or a scale.

So when you read a report that "gender was linked to" something (like a behavior or an attitude), remember that gender is NOT a cause of the behavior or attitude. There is an apparent relationship, but the true cause of the difference is hidden.

Pitfalls of Quantitative Research

Quantitative methods are one way to approach the measurement and understanding of human and social phenomena. But what's missing from this picture?

As noted above, statistics do not tell us about personal, individual experiences and meanings. While surveys can give a general idea, respondents have to choose between only a few responses. This can make it difficult to understand the subtleties of different experiences.

Quantitative methods can be helpful when making objective comparisons between groups or when looking for relationships between variables. They can be analyzed statistically, which can be helpful when looking for patterns and relationships.

Qualitative data are not made out of numbers but rather of descriptions, metaphors, symbols, quotes, analysis, concepts, and characteristics. This approach uses interviews, written texts, art, photos, and other materials to make sense of human experiences and to understand what these experiences mean to people.

While quantitative methods ask "what" and "how much," qualitative methods ask "why" and "how."

Qualitative methods are about describing and analyzing phenomena from a human perspective. There are many different philosophical views on qualitative methods, but in general, they agree that some questions are too complex or impossible to answer with standardized instruments.

These methods also accept that it is impossible to be completely objective in observing phenomena. Researchers have their own thoughts, attitudes, experiences, and beliefs, and these always color how people interpret results.

Qualitative Approaches

There are many different approaches to qualitative research, with their own philosophical bases. Different approaches are best for different kinds of projects. For example:

• Case studies and narrative studies are best for single individuals. These involve studying every aspect of a person's life in great depth.
• Phenomenology aims to explain experiences. This type of work aims to describe and explore different events as they are consciously and subjectively experienced.
• Grounded theory develops models and describes processes. This approach allows researchers to construct a theory based on data that is collected, analyzed, and compared to reach new discoveries.
• Ethnography describes cultural groups. In this approach, researchers immerse themselves in a community or group in order to observe behavior.

Qualitative researchers must be aware of several different methods and know each thoroughly enough to produce valuable research.

Some researchers specialize in a single method, but others specialize in a topic or content area and use many different methods to explore the topic, providing different information and a variety of points of view.

There is not a single model or method that can be used for every qualitative project. Depending on the research question, the people participating, and the kind of information they want to produce, researchers will choose the appropriate approach.

Interpretation

Qualitative research does not look into causal relationships between variables, but rather into themes, values, interpretations, and meanings. As a rule, then, qualitative research is not generalizable (cannot be applied to people outside the research participants).

The insights gained from qualitative research can extend to other groups with proper attention to specific historical and social contexts.

Relationship Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

It might sound like quantitative and qualitative research do not play well together. They have different philosophies, different data, and different outputs. However, this could not be further from the truth.

These two general methods complement each other. By using both, researchers can gain a fuller, more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.

For example, a psychologist wanting to develop a new survey instrument about sexuality might and ask a few dozen people questions about their sexual experiences (this is qualitative research). This gives the researcher some information to begin developing questions for their survey (which is a quantitative method).

After the survey, the same or other researchers might want to dig deeper into issues brought up by its data. Follow-up questions like "how does it feel when...?" or "what does this mean to you?" or "how did you experience this?" can only be answered by qualitative research.

By using both quantitative and qualitative data, researchers have a more holistic, well-rounded understanding of a particular topic or phenomenon.

Qualitative and quantitative methods both play an important role in psychology. Where quantitative methods can help answer questions about what is happening in a group and to what degree, qualitative methods can dig deeper into the reasons behind why it is happening. By using both strategies, psychology researchers can learn more about human thought and behavior.

Gough B, Madill A. Subjectivity in psychological science: From problem to prospect . Psychol Methods . 2012;17(3):374-384. doi:10.1037/a0029313

Pearce T. “Science organized”: Positivism and the metaphysical club, 1865–1875 . J Hist Ideas . 2015;76(3):441-465.

Adams G. Context in person, person in context: A cultural psychology approach to social-personality psychology . In: Deaux K, Snyder M, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology . Oxford University Press; 2012:182-208.

Brady HE. Causation and explanation in social science . In: Goodin RE, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Political Science. Oxford University Press; 2011. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199604456.013.0049

Chun Tie Y, Birks M, Francis K. Grounded theory research: A design framework for novice researchers .  SAGE Open Med . 2019;7:2050312118822927. doi:10.1177/2050312118822927

Reeves S, Peller J, Goldman J, Kitto S. Ethnography in qualitative educational research: AMEE Guide No. 80 . Medical Teacher . 2013;35(8):e1365-e1379. doi:10.3109/0142159X.2013.804977

Salkind NJ, ed. Encyclopedia of Research Design . Sage Publishing.

Shaughnessy JJ, Zechmeister EB, Zechmeister JS.  Research Methods in Psychology . McGraw Hill Education.

By Anabelle Bernard Fournier Anabelle Bernard Fournier is a researcher of sexual and reproductive health at the University of Victoria as well as a freelance writer on various health topics.

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What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks an in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives. Rather than by logical and statistical procedures, qualitative researchers use multiple systems of inquiry for the study of human phenomena including biography, case study, historical analysis, discourse analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology.

University of Utah College of Nursing, (n.d.). What is qualitative research? [Guide] Retrieved from  https://nursing.utah.edu/research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitative-research.php#what 

The following video will explain the fundamentals of qualitative research.

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Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

• Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
• Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

• Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
• Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
• Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
• Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
• Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

• Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
• Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

• Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
• Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
• Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
• Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

• Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
• Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
• Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
• Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
• Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

• Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
• Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
• Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
• Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

• Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
• Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
• Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
• Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
• Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

• Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
• Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
• Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

Also see Research Methods

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The Guide to Qualitative Research: Methods, Types, and Examples

Daniel Ndukwu

Qualitative research is an important part of any project. It gives you insights that quantitative research can’t hope to match.

To receive the benefits that qualitative research can bring to the table, it’s essential to do it properly. That’s easier said than done.

This in-depth guide will give you a better understanding of qualitative research, how it can be used, the methods for carrying it out, and its limitations.

Table of Contents

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is the process of gathering non-numerical data that helps you understand the deeper meaning behind a topic. It can help you decipher the motivations, thought processes, and opinions of people who are experiencing the problem or situation.

For example, an entrepreneur wants to start a shoe brand targeted at a younger demographic. They know younger people spend more money on name-brand basketball shoes. Qualitative research will help them understand the motivations and thought processes behind why those shoes are appealing.

With the help of capable marketing teams and mentors , they can use this data to craft communication plans that will resonate with their audience.

The data gained helps develop better hypotheses, confirm or disprove theories, and informs quantitative research studies. There are multiple quantitative research methods that are ideal for certain situations and this guide delves deeper into those data collection processes .

Keep in mind that qualitative research gives you descriptive data that must then be analyzed and interpreted. This process is much more difficult than a quantitative analysis which is why many organizations opt to skip it entirely.

What’s the purpose of qualitative research?

Qualitative research was popularized by psychologists and sociologists who were unhappy with the scientific method in use.

In the legal industry, understanding qualitative insights can significantly enhance strategies for law firm SEO , helping firms to better align their services with client needs.

Traditional scientific methods were only able to tell what was happening but failed to understand why.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, seeks to find the deeper meaning behind actions and situations. For example, you may realize a relationship between two things exist like poverty and lower literacy rates. It’s qualitative data that can help you understand why this relationship exists.

In the diverse landscape of qualitative research its application extends beyond conventional fields offering valuable insights in specialized areas take for instance the legal sector where understanding nuanced human experiences is crucial a cerebral palsy lawyer leveraging qualitative research delves deeper into the multifaceted experiences of individuals and families impacted by cerebral palsy this methodical approach aids in comprehending the broader social emotional and economic ramifications thereby guiding more compassionate and effective legal representation.

When should qualitative research be used

There’s a simple stress test to understand whether qualitative research or quantitative research should be used. Ask yourself the following questions:

• Do you have a clear understanding of the problem? If not, use it;
• Do you understand the reasons that contribute to the problem or situation? If not, use it;
• Are the attitudes of the people who experience or display the behavior clear to you? If not, use it;
• Have you already analyzed first-person accounts or research related to the topic? If not, use it.

Qualitative research vs quantitative research

There’s a big difference between the two types of research. For the most part, qualitative research is exploratory. You’re trying to figure out the reasons behind situations and form a clearer hypothesis. Those hypotheses are then tested with further qualitative or quantitative research.

Quantitative research focuses on collecting numerical data that can be used to quantify the magnitude of a situation. The data gained can be organized and statistical analysis carried out.

For example, qualitative research may tell you that people in lower-income areas drop out of school and have lower literacy rates. Quantitative research can tell you the percentage of people that end up dropping out of school within a given population.

As you can see, they work together to give you a holistic understanding of a market or problem.

Qualitative research data collection Methods

We’ve written an in-depth guide about the data collection methods you can use for both quantitative and qualitative research. This section will give you a quick overview of the data collection methods available.

The first data collection method and the most common are surveys. More specifically, surveys with open-ended questions . These give your respondents the opportunity to explain things with their own words.

Another benefit of surveys, especially with online survey tools like KyLeads is that you can quickly distribute your survey to a huge audience. This can cut down on your costs while still giving you the insights you need.

There are two problems with surveys. The first one is that you’re unable to ask relevant clarifying questions. Some of the data you collect may be unclear and lead you to the wrong conclusions.

The second problem is that respondents, unless adequately incentivized, may abandon the survey or give inadequate answers. This is known as survey fatigue and is a challenge when you have longer surveys. You can mitigate the effects by placing the most important questions first.

Focus groups

A focus group involves 3 – 10 people and a specialized moderator. Groups larger than ten should be broken up and those fewer than three won’t be able to deliver the insights you need.

The benefits of a focus group come from the ability to recreate specific situations or test scenarios before they happen. To get the most out of the focus group, it’s important to carefully select the participants based on their demographic and psychographic profiles .

The advantage of a focus group is that the information is insightful and comes from multiple people within your target market. The disadvantage is that groupthink can be a real problem.

You can prevent groupthink by having people write their opinions down before voicing them and even assigning one person to play devil’s advocate. Don’t discourage divergent opinions or perspectives.

Another challenge is that focus groups are expensive compared to other methods listed here. The participants are usually paid for their time and it requires things like meeting space and specialized staff.

Interviews are an old staple of qualitative research and are almost as common as surveys. Interviews can be conducted over the phone, in person, or even through a video conference. The important part is that they’re real-time and you can ask clarifying questions so you don’t draw the wrong conclusions.

There are multiple types of interviews. You can use structured interviews, unstructured interviews, or semi-structured interviews. Keep in mind that the structured interview may not be the best option if you’re doing exploratory =research.

Observation/immersion

This is the process of observing the ongoing behavior of an individual or group. It’s most prevalent in social sciences and marketing applications. This data collection method is the most passive and may not be ideal when doing initial exploratory research. You may be drawing conclusions on incomplete information.

There is an option of participating actively in what you’re observing. Keep in mind that this is frowned upon because the researcher may accidentally introduce biases. The biggest disadvantage is that some things simply can’t be observed by a researcher without interaction.

Try to use team collaboration to cut down on the biases that will be introduced. Compare notes and, as much as possible, look at things objectively. A teammate is invaluable for this kind of exercise.

Pros and cons of qualitative research

Qualitative research is powerful and has many benefits but it also has multiple disadvantages you should be aware of before jumping in.

• Get a deep understanding of the behaviors and attitudes of your target group
• You can get those insights from smaller samples sizes
• As long as you choose the right aspects to focus on and groups to work with, the insights can have much wider applications.
• Helps reduce biases because you’re doing exploratory research to get a baseline of information
• Most qualitative research is fluid meaning it adapts to the inputs to get a better understanding of the overall situation
• The data itself is subjective because it’s based on the experiences and biases of the respondents
• It’s more expensive than quantitative research
• It can take much longer to go through the more involved data collection methods like focus groups and interviews
• It’s more difficult to analyze and often requires people with specialized skills
• It’s nonnumerical in nature so statistical analysis cannot be applied to the data
• Results can’t be easily replicated following the scientific method

Qualitative research can be a powerful tool in your arsenal but there are many things to take into consideration. It tends to take longer to collect the data and analyze it. It’s also more expensive than most quantitative research methods.

Before diving into a qualitative research strategy, define clear goals, a timeframe for completion, and the kind of information you need to solve your problem.

Let me know what you think in the comments and don’t forget to share.

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Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

Saul Mcleod, PhD

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What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research , on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis .

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded .

Key Features

• Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
• Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
• The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
• The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
• The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
• Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
• Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
• Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
• Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

• Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
• The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
• The design of the study is determined before it begins.
• For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
• Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
• Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
• Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
• Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

• Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
• Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
• Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
• Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
• Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

• Mixed methods research
• Designing qualitative research
• Methods of data collection and analysis
• Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
• Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
• Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
• Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
• Using the framework method for the analysis of
• Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
• Content Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis

The science and art of asking good questions in qualitative research

February 17, 2022 Hannah Ogundipe Akinbode Lessons learnt , Methods toolkit , Qualitative Research 0

By Hannah Ogundipe Akinbode, Research Manager

Gaining a better understanding of the student experience through research is something all universities should continually want to do. This increased awareness should inform and change practice and enable students to develop as learners to get the most from their time at university. Usually pitted against the other, the choice between quantitative and qualitative methods depends upon the research purpose, aims and design. Whilst it is considered more time consuming, qualitative research can be particularly useful to understand the feelings and reasons behind presented statistical data. It is necessary to carry out for a thorough, deeper insight [i] into students’ lived experiences, and of their: academics, support services and extra-curricular activities. Conducting better in-depth qualitative research requires the ability to ask good questions and to listen. Without qualitative research, we can’t genuinely ascertain what students think and feel about the issues that affect them which can impact how well the support offered by institutions to students meets their needs.

Things to consider when developing good questions. A science and an art

Quality qualitative research is possible, and the key to conducting good qualitative research is asking good questions; this is both a science and an art. Within my role as a Research Manager I methodically apply the principles below.

Be clear and define: Try to cut out the unnecessary use of complex terms. Where you feel the use of key concepts is appropriate be sure to explain what they mean.

Sequence of questions: Start with easier questions or statements to help your participants feel comfortable. Assess flow of questions and consider if there is a logical sequence.

Pilot study: Test questions with a small group before your full-scale research to check questions are answerable.

Emotive language: When speaking keep away from using emotive language that shows your feelings towards a topic. Be sure to consider your body language.

Leading questions: Avoid leading questions.

Double-barrelled questions: Asking double barrelled questions is a common pitfall such as e.g. What challenges do BME students face when transitioning from school to university, and how does this affect academic performance, making friends and finding support?

Active listening is essential when navigating the time to stray or stay

It is good practice to go into a focus group or interview with a topic guide to lead the discussion. Part of the art and toolbox of a qualitative researcher is knowing when to stray and develop questioning not necessarily in line with your topic guide. Employing the skill of active listening is not only an important sign of respect to whomever is speaking, but you as the researcher become more informed on what your participants share. Which helps you ask better questions and ultimately conduct better research. Listening for the subtleties in what students say helps deepen understanding and enables you to seek clarification on unclear answers. As well as provide the opportunity to dig deeper into a specific comment that may be particularly interesting to, or repeated by participants. Active listening informs the extent you as researcher are able to use a participant’s own words to capture what was said more accurately and enables you to ask relevant and linked questions – a skill that gets better with practice.

Phrase questions in a way that gets the most out of your participants

Helping participants feel comfortable is foundational to qualitative research and has a big impact on how much students will want to share. We always want to find out how to improve the services we run, but this can sometimes be hard to translate into questions that are able to be well understood, and deeply answered by students. Consider the ease participants taking part in research will have discussing the subject matter – current experiences are easier to discuss than past or future ones. Be creative in your phrasing. Include some direct questions and think about how you can ask the same question in a different way. Remember, we can utilise the stimulus of video and pictures as part of our qualitative research toolkit as we see fit.

Scenarios are another tool and can be good to include when there is potential difficulty with asking a question directly. Considering this practical example (below), both questions are valid and are asking about improving welcome week in a different way.

A . Do you have any suggestions for how welcome week can be improved?

B . Imagine you are part of the student experience improvement group for your faculty and have been asked to improve welcome week for first years. What things will you think about?

Going with option B a scenario-based question allows students to have a more accessible starting point to answer the question more easily. Additionally, students are likely to reflect on and mention aspects of their experiences of welcome week when answering the scenario giving an extra layer of detail.

Dig deeper with follow up questions

Once you’ve drafted questions and decided on the ones that most clearly answer your research questions, then, decide on some specifying and follow up questions. A few classics we love to use are: Can you tell me more about?, why?, why not?, has this been your experience?, what do you mean by?

Not just for the sake of research. Research findings must be used to impact real change

Yes, it’s important to ground research in theory but, not just for the sake of it. We research to enact and impact real tangible change for students. Conducting meaningful qualitative research and robust analysis is a crucial part of the process to promote a more positive higher education experience for students, and to improve overall outcomes for them. This is an essential goal of our work as practitioners.

Case study: how qualitative research informed our current RCT for girls from low-income backgrounds  

In summer 2021, we interviewed a group of year 12 students (who identified as female and working-class). Many students reported feeling overwhelmed with choices about university, not having a process of comparing universities because they mostly stored information in their heads, and not having people they feel they could speak to (this supported findings from earlier interviews with King’s students in their first year) [ii] . We’re now designing a Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT) which will test a decision processing and reflection module, providing support for such students to make the ‘right choices for them’ when considering university. The findings from this RCT have the potential to directly impact the approach of our widening participation work at King’s. To hear more about the RCT project titled ‘Navigating Your University Choices’ – you can contact What Works at  [email protected] .

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[i] Bryman, A., Clark T., Foster, L., Sloan, L. (2021) Bryman’s Social Research Methods. 6 th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press

[ii] https://blogs.kcl.ac.uk/behaviouralinsights/2019/05/16/helping-working-class-females-find-their-place-at-university/#_edn2

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• 1 University of Nebraska Medical Center
• 2 GDB Research and Statistical Consulting
• 3 GDB Research and Statistical Consulting/McLaren Macomb Hospital
• PMID: 29262162
• Bookshelf ID: NBK470395

Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypothenar to further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. It answers the hows and whys instead of how many or how much. It could be structured as a standalone study, purely relying on qualitative data, or part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data. This review introduces the readers to some basic concepts, definitions, terminology, and applications of qualitative research.

Qualitative research, at its core, asks open-ended questions whose answers are not easily put into numbers, such as "how" and "why." Due to the open-ended nature of the research questions, qualitative research design is often not linear like quantitative design. One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to explain processes and patterns of human behavior that can be difficult to quantify. Phenomena such as experiences, attitudes, and behaviors can be complex to capture accurately and quantitatively. In contrast, a qualitative approach allows participants themselves to explain how, why, or what they were thinking, feeling, and experiencing at a particular time or during an event of interest. Quantifying qualitative data certainly is possible, but at its core, qualitative data is looking for themes and patterns that can be difficult to quantify, and it is essential to ensure that the context and narrative of qualitative work are not lost by trying to quantify something that is not meant to be quantified.

However, while qualitative research is sometimes placed in opposition to quantitative research, where they are necessarily opposites and therefore "compete" against each other and the philosophical paradigms associated with each other, qualitative and quantitative work are neither necessarily opposites, nor are they incompatible. While qualitative and quantitative approaches are different, they are not necessarily opposites and certainly not mutually exclusive. For instance, qualitative research can help expand and deepen understanding of data or results obtained from quantitative analysis. For example, say a quantitative analysis has determined a correlation between length of stay and level of patient satisfaction, but why does this correlation exist? This dual-focus scenario shows one way in which qualitative and quantitative research could be integrated.

Copyright © 2024, StatPearls Publishing LLC.

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Conflict of interest statement

Disclosure: Steven Tenny declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Janelle Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Grace Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

• Introduction
• Issues of Concern
• Clinical Significance
• Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
• Review Questions

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Open-Ended Questions in Qualitative Research: Strategies, Examples, and Best Practices

Table of content, understanding open-ended questions, designing open-ended questions, types of open-ended questions, conducting interviews and focus groups with open-ended questions, analyzing and interpreting open-ended responses, challenges and limitations of using open-ended questions, best practices for using open-ended questions in qualitative research, definition of open-ended questions.

Open-ended questions are a research tool that allows for a wide range of possible answers and encourages respondents to provide detailed and personalized responses. These types of questions typically begin with phrases such as “ How ,” “ What ,” or “ Why “, and require the respondent to provide their thoughts and opinions.

Open-ended questions are crucial in the following scenarios:

Understanding complex phenomena : When a topic is complex, multi-faceted, or difficult to measure with numerical data, qualitative research can provide a more nuanced and detailed understanding.

Studying subjective experiences: When the focus is on people’s perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, or experiences, qualitative research is better suited to capture the richness and diversity of their perspectives.

Developing theories: When a researcher wants to develop a model or theory to explain a phenomenon, qualitative research can provide a rich source of data to support the development of such hypotheses.

Evaluating programs or interventions: Qualitative research can help to evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions by collecting feedback from participants, stakeholders, or experts.

Researchers use open-ended methods in research, interviews, counseling, and other situations that may require detailed and in-depth responses.

Benefits of Using Open-Ended Questions in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is most appropriate when the research question is exploratory, complex, subjective, theoretical, or evaluative. These questions are valuable in qualitative research for the following reasons:

More In-depth Responses

Open-ended questions allow participants to share their experiences and opinions in their own words, often leading to more in-depth and detailed responses.  For example, if a researcher is studying cancer survivors’ experiences, an open-ended question like, “Can you tell me about your experience with cancer?” may elicit a more detailed and nuanced response than a closed-ended question like “Did you find your cancer diagnosis to be difficult?”

Flexibility

Open-ended questions give the participant flexibility to respond to the questions in a way that makes sense to them, often revealing vital information that the researcher may have overlooked.

Better Understanding

Open-ended questions provide the researcher with a better understanding of the participant’s perspectives, beliefs, attitudes, and experiences, which is crucial in gaining insights into complex issues.

Uncovering New Insights

Open-ended questions can often lead to unexpected responses and reveal new information. When participants freely express themselves in their own words, they may bring up topics or perspectives that the researcher had not considered.

Building Rapport

Open-ended questions help build rapport with the participant, allowing the researcher to show interest in the participant’s responses and provide a space for them to share their experiences without feeling judged. This can lead to a positive research experience for participants, which may increase the likelihood of their continued participation in future studies.

Validating or Challenging Existing Theories

By allowing participants to provide their own perspectives and experiences, researchers can compare and contrast these responses with existing theories to see if they align or diverge. If the data from participants align with existing hypotheses, this can provide additional support for this data. On the other hand, if the information diverges from existing theories, this can indicate a need for further investigation or revision of the existing data.

Avoiding Bias and Preconceived Notions

Researchers may unintentionally guide participants towards a particular answer or perspective when using close-ended questions. This can introduce bias into the data and limit the range of responses that participants provide. By using open-ended questions, researchers can avoid this potential source of bias and allow participants to express their unique perspectives.

Differences Between Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions

Open-ended questions encourage numerous responses and allow respondents to provide their thoughts and opinions. “ What ,” “ How, ” or “ Why ” are some of the words used to phrase open-ended questions and are designed to elicit more detailed and expansive answers. Researchers use open-ended questions in ethnography, interviews , and focus groups to gather comprehensive information and participants’ insights.

Some examples of open-ended questions include:

• What do you think about the current state of the economy?
• How do you feel about global warming?
• Why did you choose to pursue a career in law?

On the other hand, closed-ended questions only allow for a limited set of responses and are typically answered with a “Yes” or “No” or a specific option from a list of multiple choices. These questions are handy in surveys, customer service interactions and questionnaires to collect quantitative data that can be easily analyzed and quantified. They are significant when you want to gather specific information hastily or when you need to confirm or deny a particular fact.

Some examples of closed-ended questions include:

• What was your shopping experience with our company like?
• Have you ever traveled to Europe before?
• Which of these brands do you prefer: Nike, Adidas, or Puma?

Both open-ended and closed-ended questions have their place in research and communication. Open-ended questions can provide rich and detailed information, while closed-ended questions can provide specific and measurable data. The appropriate question type typically depends on the research or communication goals, context and the information required.

Designing open-ended questions requires careful consideration and planning. Open-ended questions elicit more than just a simple “yes” or “no” response and instead allow for a broad range of answers that provide insight into the respondent’s thoughts, feelings, or experiences. When designing open-ended questions in qualitative research, it is critical to consider the best practices below:

Before designing your questions, you must predetermine what you want to learn from your respondents. This, in turn, will help you craft clear and concise questions that are relevant to your research goals. Use simple language and avoid technical terms or jargon that might confuse respondents.

Avoid leading or biased language that could influence and limit the respondents’ answers. Instead, use neutral wording that allows participants to share their authentic thoughts and opinions. For example, instead of asking, “Did you enjoy the food you ate?” ask, “What was your experience at the restaurant?”

One of the advantages of open-ended questions is that they allow respondents to provide detailed and personalized responses. Encourage participants to elaborate on their answers by asking follow-up questions or probing for additional information.

One can deliver open-ended questions in various formats, including interviews, surveys, and focus groups. Consider which one is most appropriate for your research goals and target audience. Additionally, before using your questions in a survey or interview, test them with a small group of people to make sure they are clear and functional.

Open-ended questions give a participant the freedom to answer without restriction. Furthermore, these questions evoke detailed responses from participants, unlike close-ended questions that tend to lead to one-word answers.

Open-Ended Questions Categories

When a researcher wants to explore a topic or phenomenon that is not well understood, qualitative research can help generate hypotheses and insights. For instance, “Can you tell me more about your thoughts on animal poaching in Africa?” or “What is your opinion on the future of social media in business?”

Researchers use these questions to prompt respondents to think more deeply about a particular topic or experience, sometimes using anecdotes related to a specific topic. For example, “What did you learn from that experience?” or “How do you think you could have handled that situation differently?

Researchers use probing questions to gain deeper insight into a participant’s response. These questions aim to understand the reasoning and emotion behind a particular answer. For example, “What did you learn from that mistake?” or “How do you think you could have handled that situation differently?

These questions get more information or clarify a point. For example, “Can you explain that further?” or “Can you give me an example?”

These questions ask the respondents to imagine a hypothetical scenario and provide their thoughts or reactions. Examples of hypothetical questions include “What would you do if you won the lottery?” or “How do you think society would be different if everyone had access to free healthcare?”

These questions ask the respondent to describe something in detail, such as a person, place, or event. Examples of descriptive questions include “Can you tell me about your favorite vacation?” or “How would you describe your ideal job?”

When preparing for an interview , it is important to understand the types of interviews available, what topics will be covered, and how to ask open-ended questions.

Questions should be asked in terms of past, present, and future experiences and should be worded in such a way as to invite a more detailed response from the participant. It is also important to establish a clear sequence of questions so that all topics are addressed without interrupting the flow of conversation.

Planning and Preparing For Interviews and Focus Groups

Before starting an interview or focus group, creating a list of topics or areas you want to explore during your research is essential. Consider what questions will help you gain the most insight into the topic.

Once you’ve identified the topics, you can create more specific questions that will be used to guide the conversation. It can be helpful to categorize your questions into themes to ensure all topics are addressed during the interview.

As you write your questions, aim to keep them as open-ended as possible so that the participant has space to provide detailed feedback. Avoid leading questions and try to avoid yes or no answers. Also, allow participants to provide any additional thoughts they may have on the topic.

Let’s say you’re researching customer experience with an online store. Your broad topic categories might be customer service, product selection, ease of use, and shipping. Your questions could cover things like:

• How satisfied are you with the customer service?
• What do you think about the product selection?
• Is it easy to find the products you’re looking for?

 Best Practices

During the conversation, only one person can talk at a time, and everyone should be able to contribute. To ensure participants understand the questions being asked, try asking them in multiple ways.

It is also important to pause briefly and review the question that has just been discussed before moving on. In addition, brief pauses and silences before and after asking a new question may help facilitate the discussion. If participants begin talking about something that may be an answer to a different question during the discussion, then feel free to allow the conversation to go in that direction.

With these strategies, examples, and best practices in mind, you can ensure that your interviews and focus groups are successful.

Tips For Asking Open-Ended Questions During Interviews and Focus Groups

Asking open-ended questions during interviews and focus groups is critical to qualitative research. Open-ended questions allow you to explore topics in-depth, uncover deeper insights, and gain valuable participant feedback.

However, crafting your questions with intention and purpose is important to ensure that you get the most out of your research.

Start With General Questions

When crafting open-ended questions for interviews or focus groups, it’s important to start with general questions and move towards more specific ones. This strategy helps you uncover various perspectives and ideas before getting into the details.

Using neutral language helps to avoid bias and encourages honest answers from participants. It’s important to determine the goal of the focus group or interview before asking any questions. These findings will help guide your conversation and keep it on track.

Use of Engagement Questions

To get the conversation started during interviews or focus groups, engagement questions are a great way to break the ice. These types of questions can be about anything from personal experiences to interests.

For example: “How did you get here, and what was one unusual thing you saw on your way in?”, “What do you like to do to unwind in your free time?” or “When did you last purchase a product from this line?”.

Use of Exploratory Questions

Exploratory questions about features are also useful in this type of research. Questions such as: “What features would you talk about when recommending this product to a friend?”, “If you could change one thing about this product, what would you change?”, or “Do you prefer this product or that product, and why?” all help to uncover participants’ opinions and preferences.

Exploratory questions about experiences are also helpful; questions such as: “Tell me about a time you experienced a mishap when using this product?” help to identify potential problems that need to be addressed.

Researchers can gain valuable insights from participants by using these tips for asking open-ended questions during interviews and focus groups.

Strategies For Active Listening and Follow-Up Questioning

Active listening is an important skill to possess when conducting qualitative research. It’s essential to ensure you understand and respond to the person you are interviewing effectively. Here are some strategies for active listening and follow-up questioning:

Pay Attention to Non-Verbal Cues

It is important to pay attention to non-verbal cues such as body language and voice when listening. Pay attention to their facial expressions and tone of voice to better understand what they are saying. Make sure not to interrupt the other person, as this can make them feel like their opinions aren’t being heard.

Listen Without Judging or Jumping to Conclusions

It is important to listen without judgment or jumping to conclusions. Don’t plan what to say next while listening, as this will stop you from understanding what the other person is saying.

Use Non-Verbal Signals to Show That You’re Listening

Nodding, smiling, and making small noises like “yes” and “uh huh” can show that you are listening. These signals can help the person feel more comfortable and open up more.

Don’t Impose Your Opinions or Solutions

When interviewing someone, it is important not to impose your opinions or solutions. It is more important to understand the other person and try to find common ground than it is to be right.

Stay Focused While Listening

Finally, it is critical to stay focused while listening. Don’t let yourself get distracted by your own thoughts or daydreaming. Remain attentive and listen with an open mind.

These are all key elements in effectively gathering data and insights through qualitative research.

Qualitative research depends on understanding the context and content of the responses to open-ended questions. Analyzing and interpreting these responses can be challenging for researchers, so it’s important to have a plan and strategies for getting the most value out of open-ended responses.

Strategies For Coding and Categorizing Responses

Coding qualitative data categorizes and organizes responses to open-ended questions in a research study. It is an essential part of the qualitative data analysis process and helps identify the responses’ patterns, themes, and trends.

Thematic Analysis and Qualitative Data Analysis Software

These are two methods for automated coding of customer feedback. Thematic analysis is the process of identifying patterns within qualitative data. This process can be done by manually sorting through customer feedback or using a software program to do the work for you.

Qualitative data analysis software also facilitates coding by providing powerful visualizations that allow users to identify trends and correlations between different customer responses.

Manual Coding

Manual coding is another method of coding qualitative data, where coders sort through responses and manually assign labels based on common themes. Coding the qualitative data, it makes it easier to interpret customer feedback and draw meaningful conclusions from it.

Coding customer feedback helps researchers make data-driven decisions based on customer satisfaction. It helps quantify the common themes in customer language, making it easier to interpret and analyze customer feedback accurately.

Strategies for manual coding include using predetermined codes for common words or phrases and assigning labels to customers’ responses according to certain categories. Examples of best practices for coding include using multiple coders to review responses for accuracy and consistency and creating a library of codes for ease of use.

Identifying Themes and Patterns in Responses

These processes involve reviewing the responses and searching for commonalities regarding words, phrases, topics, or ideas. Doing so can help researchers to gain a better understanding of the material they are analyzing.

There are several strategies that researchers can use when it comes to identifying themes and patterns in open-ended responses.

Manual Scan

One strategy is manually scanning the data and looking for words or phrases that appear multiple times.

Automatic Scan

Another approach is to use qualitative analysis software that can provide coding, categorization, and data analysis.

For example, if a survey asked people about their experience with a product, a researcher could look for common phrases such as “it was easy to use” or “I didn’t like it.” The researcher could then look for patterns regarding how frequently these phrases were used.

Concept Indicator Model

This model is an important part of the coding process in classic grounded theory. It involves a continuous process of exploring and understanding open-ended responses, which can often lead to the development of new conceptual ideas.

Coding Process

The coding process is broken down into two parts: substantive coding and theoretical coding. Substantive coding involves organizing data into meaningful categories, while theoretical coding looks at how those categories relate.

Forms of Coding

Within the concept indicator model are two forms of coding: open coding and selective coding. Open coding is used to explore responses without predetermined theories or preconceived ideas. It is an iterative process involving connecting categories and generating tentative conclusions.

On the other hand, selective coding uses predetermined theories or ideas to guide data analysis.

The concept indicator model also uses a cycling approach known as constant comparison and theoretical sampling. Constant comparison is the process of constantly comparing new data with previous data until saturation is reached.

Theoretical sampling involves examining different data types to determine which ones will be more useful for exploring the concepts and relationships under investigation.

Gaining experience and confidence in exploring and confirming conceptual ideas is essential for success in the concept indicator model.

Strategies such as brainstorming and creating examples can help analysts better understand the various concepts that emerge from the data.

Best practices such as involving multiple coders in the process, triangulating data from different sources, and including contextual information can also help increase the accuracy and reliability of coding results.

Interpreting and Analyzing Open-Ended Responses in Relation to Your Research Questions

• Ensure Objectives are Met: For any study or project, you must ensure your objectives are met. To achieve this, the responses to open-ended questions must be categorized according to their subject, purpose, and theme. This step will help in recognizing patterns and drawing out commonalities.
• Choose A Coding Method: Once you have identified the themes, you must choose a coding method to interpret and analyze the data.

There are various coding strategies that can be employed. For example, a directed coding strategy will help you focus on the themes you have identified in your research objectives. In contrast, an axial coding method can be used to connect related concepts together. With a coding method, it will be easier to make sense of the responses.

Use Narrative Analysis

This process involves looking for story elements such as plot, characters, setting, and conflict in the text. It can be useful for identifying shared experiences or values within a group.

By looking for these narrative elements, you can better understand how individuals perceive their own experiences and those of others.

Analyze the Findings

However, to understand the meanings that the responses may have, it is also important to analyze them. This stage is where techniques such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and textual analysis come in.

These methods provide valuable insights into how the responses are related to each other and can help uncover potential connections and underlying motivations.

Summarize Your Findings

Once you have interpreted and analyzed the data, it is time to decide on your key findings. For example, you can summarize your findings according to different themes, discuss any implications of your research or suggest ways in which further research can be carried out.

These strategies provide valuable insights into the qualitative data collected from open-ended questions. However, to ensure that the data’s most effective outcomes are obtained, you need to familiarize yourself with the best practices in qualitative research.

Open-ended questions have the potential to generate rich and nuanced data in qualitative research. However, they also present certain challenges and limitations that researchers and educators need to be aware of.

We will now explore some of the challenges associated with using open-ended questions, including potential biases and subjectivity in responses, social desirability bias, and response bias.

We will also discuss strategies to address these challenges, such as balancing open-ended and closed-ended questions in research design. By understanding these limitations and employing best practices, researchers and educators can use open-ended questions to gather meaningful data and insights.

Addressing potential biases and subjectivity in responses

When we use open-ended questions in qualitative research, it’s crucial to be mindful of potential biases and subjectivity in responses. It’s natural for participants to bring their own experiences and beliefs to the table, which can impact their answers and skew the data. To tackle these challenges, we can take several steps to ensure that our research findings are as accurate and representative as possible.

One way to minimize subjectivity is to use neutral and unbiased language when framing our questions. By doing so, we can avoid leading or loaded questions that could influence participants’ responses. We can also use multiple methods to verify data and check responses, like conducting follow-up interviews or comparing responses with existing literature.

Another important consideration is to be open and transparent about the research process and participants’ rights. Addressing these biases also includes providing informed consent and guaranteeing confidentiality so that participants feel comfortable sharing their genuine thoughts and feelings. By recruiting diverse participants and ensuring that our data is representative and inclusive, we can also reduce potential biases and increase the validity of our findings.

By tackling biases and subjectivity in responses head-on, we can gather reliable and insightful data that can inform future research and enhance teaching methods.

Dealing with social desirability bias and response bias

In qualitative research, social desirability bias and response bias can pose significant challenges when analyzing data. Social desirability bias occurs when participants tend to respond in ways that align with social norms or expectations, rather than expressing their true feelings or beliefs. Response bias, on the other hand, happens when participants provide incomplete or inaccurate information due to factors like memory lapse or misunderstanding of the question.

To address these biases, researchers can use various strategies to encourage participants to be more candid and honest in their responses.

For instance, researchers can create a safe and supportive environment that fosters trust and openness, allowing participants to feel comfortable sharing their true thoughts and experiences. Researchers can also use probing techniques to encourage participants to elaborate on their answers, helping to uncover underlying beliefs and attitudes.

It’s also a good idea to mix up the types of questions you ask, utilizing both open-ended and closed-ended inquiries to get a variety of responses. Closed-ended questions can aid in the verification or confirmation of participants’ comments, but open-ended questions allow for a more in-depth investigation of themes and encourage participants to submit extensive and personal responses.

Balancing open-ended and closed-ended questions in your research design

An appropriate combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions is essential for developing an effective research design. Open-ended questions allow participants to provide detailed, nuanced responses and offer researchers the opportunity to uncover unexpected insights.

However, too many open-ended questions can make analysis challenging and time-consuming. Closed-ended questions, on the other hand, can provide concise and straightforward data that’s easy to analyze but may not capture the complexity of participants’ experiences.

Balancing the use of open-ended and closed-ended questions necessitates a careful evaluation of the study objectives, target audience, and issue under examination. Researchers must also consider the available time and resources for analysis.

When designing a research study, it’s essential to prioritize the research goals and choose questions that align with those goals. Careful selection of questions guarantees that the data gathered is pertinent and adds to a greater knowledge of the topic under consideration. Researchers should also consider the participants’ backgrounds and experiences and select questions that are appropriate and sensitive to their needs. Furthermore, adopting a mix of open-ended and closed-ended questions can assist researchers in triangulating data, which allows them to cross-validate their findings by comparing results from multiple sources or techniques.

Lastly, we will be exploring the best practices for utilizing open-ended questions in qualitative research. We cover a range of helpful tips and strategies for creating a research design that fosters rich and nuanced data while maintaining the integrity of your research.

Building an effective connection with your research participants, developing carefully developed research questions that align with your research objectives, remaining flexible and adaptable in your approach, and prioritizing ethical considerations throughout your research process are some of the key best practices we explore.

Building Rapport with Participants

Building rapport with research participants is an essential component of conducting effective qualitative research. Building rapport is all about creating trust and providing a comfortable environment where participants can feel free to share their thoughts and experiences.

The first thing a researcher should do is to introduce themselves and make the participant understand why the research is significant.  Additionally, active listening is critical in building rapport. Listening attentively to your participants’ responses and asking follow-up questions can demonstrate your interest in their experiences and perspective.

Maintaining a nonjudgmental, impartial position is also essential in developing rapport. Participants must feel free to express their opinions and experiences without fear of being judged or prejudiced.

Using respectful language, maintaining eye contact, and nodding along to participants’ responses can show that you are invested in their stories and care about their experiences.

Overall, establishing rapport with participants is an ongoing process that requires attention, care, and empathy.

Developing clear research questions

In research, developing clear research questions is an essential component of qualitative research using open-ended questions. The research questions provide a clear direction for the research process, enabling researchers to gather relevant and insightful data.

To create effective research questions, they must be specific, concise, and aligned with the overall research objectives. It is crucial to avoid overly broad or narrow questions that could impact the validity of the research.

Additionally, researchers should use language that is easy to understand. Researchers should avoid any technical jargon that may lead to confusion.

The order of the questions is also significant; they should flow logically, building on each other and ensuring they make sense. By developing clear research questions, researchers can collect and analyze data in a more effective and meaningful manner.                      

Maintaining a flexible and adaptable approach

When conducting qualitative research, maintaining a flexible and adaptable approach is crucial. Flexibility enables researchers to adjust their research methods and questions to ensure they capture rich and nuanced data that can answer their research questions.

However, staying adaptable can be a daunting task, as researchers may need to modify their research approach based on participants’ responses or unforeseen circumstances.

To maintain flexibility, researchers must have a clear understanding of their research questions and goals, while also remaining open to modifying their methods if necessary. It is also essential to keep detailed notes and regularly reflect on research progress to determine if adjustments are needed.

Staying adaptable is equally important as it requires researchers to be responsive to changes in participants’ attitudes and perspectives. Being able to pivot research direction and approach based on participant feedback is critical to achieving accurate and meaningful results.

Maintaining a flexible and adaptive strategy allows researchers to collect the most extensive and accurate data possible, resulting in a more in-depth understanding of the research topic. While it can be challenging to remain flexible and adaptable, doing so will ultimately lead to more robust research findings and greater insights into the topic at hand.

Being aware of ethical considerations

When conducting research, It is critical to remember the ethical aspects that control how individuals interact with one another in society and how these factors affect research. Ethical considerations refer to the principles or standards that should guide research to ensure it is conducted in an honest, transparent, and respectful manner.

Before beginning the study, researchers must obtain informed consent from participants. Obtaining consent means providing clear and comprehensive information about the research, its purpose, what participation entails, and the potential risks and benefits. Researchers must ensure that participants understand the information and voluntarily consent to participate.

Protecting the privacy and confidentiality of participants must be essential for researchers. They should look into safeguarding personal information, using pseudonyms or codes to protect identities, and securing any identifying information collected.

Researchers must avoid asking questions that are too personal, sensitive, or potentially harmful. If harm or distress occurs, researchers should provide participants with appropriate support and referral to relevant services.

Using open-ended questions in qualitative research presents both challenges and benefits. To address potential limitations, researchers should remain objective and neutral, create a safe and non-judgmental space, and use probing techniques. Best practices include building rapport, developing clear research questions, and being flexible. Open-ended questions offer the benefits of revealing rich and nuanced data, allowing for flexibility, and building rapport with participants. Ethical considerations must also be a top priority.

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• v.56(1); 2023 Jan

Qualitative Research in Healthcare: Necessity and Characteristics

1 Department of Preventive Medicine, Ulsan University Hospital, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Ulsan, Korea

2 Ulsan Metropolitan City Public Health Policy’s Institute, Ulsan, Korea

3 Department of Nursing, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea

Eun Young Choi

4 College of Nursing, Sungshin Women’s University, Seoul, Korea

Seung Gyeong Jang

5 Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea

Quantitative and qualitative research explore various social phenomena using different methods. However, there has been a tendency to treat quantitative studies using complicated statistical techniques as more scientific and superior, whereas relatively few qualitative studies have been conducted in the medical and healthcare fields. This review aimed to provide a proper understanding of qualitative research. This review examined the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research to help researchers select the appropriate qualitative research methodology. Qualitative research is applicable in following cases: (1) when an exploratory approach is required on a topic that is not well known, (2) when something cannot be explained fully with quantitative research, (3) when it is necessary to newly present a specific view on a research topic that is difficult to explain with existing views, (4) when it is inappropriate to present the rationale or theoretical proposition for designing hypotheses, as in quantitative research, and (5) when conducting research that requires detailed descriptive writing with literary expressions. Qualitative research is conducted in the following order: (1) selection of a research topic and question, (2) selection of a theoretical framework and methods, (3) literature analysis, (4) selection of the research participants and data collection methods, (5) data analysis and description of findings, and (6) research validation. This review can contribute to the more active use of qualitative research in healthcare, and the findings are expected to instill a proper understanding of qualitative research in researchers who review qualitative research reports and papers.

Graphical abstract

INTRODUCTION

The definition of research varies among studies and scholars, and it is difficult to devise a single definition. The Oxford English Dictionary defines research as “a careful study of a subject, especially in order to discover new facts or information about it” [ 1 ], while Webster’s Dictionary defines research as “studious inquiry or examination - especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws” [ 2 ]. Moreover, research is broadly defined as the process of solving unsolved problems to broaden human knowledge [ 3 ]. A more thorough understanding of research can be gained by examining its types and reasons for conducting it.

The reasons for conducting research may include practical goals, such as degree attainment, job promotion, and financial profit. Research may be based on one’s own academic curiosity or aspiration or guided by professors or other supervisors. Academic research aims can be further divided into the following: (1) accurately describing an object or phenomenon, (2) identifying general laws and establishing well-designed theories for understanding and explaining a certain phenomenon, (3) predicting future events based on laws and theories, and (4) manipulating causes and conditions to induce or prevent a phenomenon [ 3 ].

The appropriate type of research must be selected based on the purpose and topic. Basic research has the primary purpose of expanding the existing knowledge base through new discoveries, while applied research aims to solve a real problem. Descriptive research attempts to factually present comparisons and interpretations of findings based on analyses of the characteristics, progression, or relationships of a certain phenomenon by manipulating the variables or controlling the conditions. Experimental or analytical research attempts to identify causal relationships between variables through experiments by arbitrarily manipulating the variables or controlling the conditions [ 3 ]. In addition, research can be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the data collection and analytical methods. Quantitative research relies on statistical analyses of quantitative data obtained primarily through investigation and experiment, while qualitative research uses specific methodologies to analyze qualitative data obtained through participant observations and in-depth interviews. However, as these types of research are not polar opposites and the criteria for classifying research types are unclear, there is some degree of methodological overlap.

What is more important than differentiating types of research is identifying the appropriate type of research to gain a better understanding of specific questions and improve problems encountered by people in life. An appropriate research type or methodology is essential to apply findings reliably. However, quantitative research based on the philosophical ideas of empiricism and positivism has been the mainstay in the field of healthcare, with academic advancement achieved through the application of various statistical techniques to quantitative data [ 4 ]. In particular, there has been a tendency to treat complicated statistical techniques as more scientific and superior, with few qualitative studies in not only clinical medicine, but also primary care and social medicine, which are relatively strongly influenced by the social sciences [ 5 , 6 ].

Quantitative and qualitative research use different ways of exploring various social phenomena. Both research methodologies can be applied individually or in combination based on the research topic, with mixed quantitative and qualitative research methodologies becoming more widespread in recent years [ 7 ]. Applying these 2 methods through a virtuous cycle of integration from a complementary perspective can provide a more accurate understanding of human phenomena and solutions to real-world problems.

This review aimed to provide a proper understanding of qualitative research to assist researchers in selecting the appropriate research methodology. Specifically, this review examined the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research, the applicability of qualitative research, and the data sources collected and analyzed in qualitative research.

COMPARISON OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

A clearer understanding of qualitative research can be obtained by comparing qualitative and quantitative research, with which people are generally familiar [ 8 , 9 ]. Quantitative research focuses on testing the validity of hypotheses established by the researcher to identify the causal relationships of a specific phenomenon and discovering laws to predict that phenomenon ( Table 1 ). Therefore, it emphasizes controlling the influence of variables that may interfere with the process of identifying causality and laws. In contrast, qualitative research aims to discover and explore new hypotheses or theories based on a deep understanding of the meaning of a specific phenomenon. As such, qualitative research attempts to accept various environmental factors naturally. In quantitative research, importance is placed on the researcher acting as an outsider to take an objective view by keeping a certain distance from the research subject. In contrast, qualitative research encourages looking inside the research subjects to understand them deeply, while also emphasizing the need for researchers to take an intersubjective view that is formed and shared based on a mutual understanding with the research subjects.

Comparison of methodological characteristics between quantitative research and qualitative research

The data used in quantitative research can be expressed as numerical values, and data accumulated through questionnaire surveys and tests are often used in analyses. In contrast, qualitative research uses narrative data with words and images collected through participant observations, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions used in the analyses. Quantitative research data are measured repeatedly to enhance their reliability, while the analyses of such data focus on superficial aspects of the phenomenon of interest. Qualitative research instead focuses on obtaining deep and rich data and aims to identify the specific contents, dynamics, and processes inherent within the phenomenon and situation.

There are clear distinctions in the advantages, disadvantages, and goals of quantitative and qualitative research. On one hand, quantitative research has the advantages of reliability and generalizability of the findings, and advances in data collection and analysis methods have increased reliability and generalizability. However, quantitative research presents difficulties with an in-depth analysis of dynamic phenomena that cannot be expressed by numbers alone and interpreting the results analyzed in terms numbers. On the other hand, qualitative research has the advantage of validity, which refers to how accurately or appropriately a phenomenon was measured. However, qualitative research also has the disadvantage of weak generalizability, which determines whether an observed phenomenon applies to other cases.

APPLICATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS USEFULNESS IN THE HEALTHCARE FIELD

Qualitative research cannot be the solution to all problems. A specific methodology should not be applied to all situations. Therefore, researchers need to have a good understanding of the applicability of qualitative research. Generally, qualitative research is applicable in following cases: (1) when an exploratory approach is required on a topic that is not well known, (2) when something cannot be explained fully with quantitative research, (3) when it is necessary to newly present a specific view on a research topic that is difficult to explain with existing views, (4) when it is inappropriate to present the rationale or theoretical proposition for designing hypotheses, as in quantitative research, and (5) when conducting research that requires detailed descriptive writing with literary expressions [ 7 ]. In particular, qualitative research is useful for opening new fields of research, such as important topics that have not been previously examined or whose significance has not been recognized. Moreover, qualitative research is advantageous for examining known topics from a fresh perspective.

In the healthcare field, qualitative research is conducted on various topics considering its characteristics and strengths. Quantitative research, which focuses on hypothesis validation, such as the superiority of specific treatments or the effectiveness of specific policies, and the generalization of findings, has been the primary research methodology in the field of healthcare. Qualitative research has been mostly applied for studies such as subjective disease experiences and attitudes with respect to health-related patient quality of life [ 10 - 12 ], experiences and perceptions regarding the use of healthcare services [ 13 - 15 ], and assessments of the quality of care [ 16 , 17 ]. Moreover, qualitative research has focused on vulnerable populations, such as the elderly, children, disabled [ 18 - 20 ], minorities, and socially underprivileged with specific experiences [ 21 , 22 ].

For instance, patient safety is considered a pillar of quality of care, which is an aspect of healthcare with increasing international interest. The ultimate goal of patient safety research should be the improvement of patient safety, for which it is necessary to identify the root causes of potential errors and adverse events. In such cases, qualitative rather than quantitative research is often required. It is also important to identify whether there are any barriers when applying measures for enhancing patient safety to clinical practice. To identify such barriers, qualitative research is necessary to observe healthcare workers directly applying the solutions step-by-step during each process, determine whether there are difficulties in applying the solutions to relevant stakeholders, and ask how to improve the process if there are difficulties.

Patient safety is a very broad topic, and patient safety issues could be categorized into preventing, recognizing, and responding to patient safety issues based on related metrics [ 23 ]. Responding to issues that pertain to the handling of patient safety incidents that have already occurred has received relatively less interest than other categories of research on this topic, particularly in Korea. Until 2017, almost no research was conducted on the experiences of and difficulties faced by patients and healthcare workers who have been involved in patient safety incidents. This topic can be investigated using qualitative research.

A study in Korea investigated the physical and mental suffering experienced during the process of accepting disability and medical litigation by a patient who became disabled due to medical malpractice [ 21 ]. Another qualitative case study was conducted with participants who lost a family member due to a medical accident and identified psychological suffering due to the incident, as well as secondary psychological suffering during the medical litigation process, which increased the expandability of qualitative research findings [ 24 ]. A quantitative study based on these findings confirmed that people who experienced patient safety incidents had negative responses after the incidents and a high likelihood of sleep or eating disorders, depending on their responses [ 25 ].

A study that applied the grounded theory to examine the second victim phenomenon, referring to healthcare workers who have experienced patient safety incidents, and presented the response stages experienced by second victims demonstrated the strength of qualitative research [ 26 ]. Subsequently, other studies used questionnaire surveys on physicians and nurses to quantify the physical, mental, and work-related difficulties experienced by second victims [ 27 , 28 ]. As such, qualitative research alone can produce significant findings; however, combining quantitative and qualitative research produces a synergistic effect. In the healthcare field, which remains unfamiliar with qualitative research, combining these 2 methodologies could both enhance the validity of research findings and facilitate open discussions with other researchers [ 29 ].

In addition, qualitative research has been used for diverse sub-topics, including the experiences of patients and guardians with respect to various diseases (such as cancer, myocardial infarction, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, depression, falls, and dementia), awareness of treatment for diabetes and hypertension, the experiences of physicians and nurses when they come in contact with medical staff, awareness of community health environments, experiences of medical service utilization by the general public in medically vulnerable areas, the general public’s awareness of vaccination policies, the health issues of people with special types of employment (such as delivery and call center workers), and the unmet healthcare needs of persons with vision or hearing impairment.

GENERAL WORKFLOW OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Rather than focusing on deriving objective information, qualitative research aims to discern the quality of a specific phenomenon, obtaining answers to “why” and “how” questions. Qualitative research aims to collect data multi-dimensionally and provide in-depth explanations of the phenomenon being researched. Ultimately, the purpose of qualitative research is set to help researchers gain an understanding of the research topic and reveal the implications of the research findings. Therefore, qualitative research is generally conducted in the following order: (1) selection of a research topic and question, (2) selection of a theoretical framework and methods, (3) literature analysis, (4) selection of the research participants (or participation target) and data collection methods, (5) data analysis and description of findings, and (6) research validation ( Figure 1 ) [ 30 ]. However, unlike quantitative research, in which hypothesis setting and testing take place unidirectionally, a major characteristic of qualitative research is that the process is reversible and research methods can be modified. In other words, the research topic and question could change during the literature analysis process, and theoretical and analytical methods could change during the data collection process.

General workflow of qualitative research.

Selection of a Research Topic and Question

As with any research, the first step in qualitative research is the selection of a research topic and question. Qualitative researchers can select a research topic based on their interests from daily life as a researcher, their interests in issues within the healthcare field, and ideas from the literature, such as academic journals. The research question represents a more specific aspect of the research topic. Before specifically starting to conduct research based on a research topic, the researcher should clarify what is being researched and determine what research would be desirable. When selecting a research topic and question, the research should ask: is the research executable, are the research topic and question worth researching, and is this a research question that a researcher would want to research?

Selection of Theoretical Framework and Methods

A theoretical framework refers to the thoughts or attitudes that a researcher has about the phenomenon being researched. Selecting the theoretical framework first could help qualitative researchers not only in selecting the research purpose and problem, but also in carrying out various processes, including an exploration of the precedent literature and research, selection of the data type to be collected, data analysis, and description of findings. In qualitative research, theoretical frameworks are based on philosophical ideas, which affect the selection of specific qualitative research methods. Representative qualitative research methods include the grounded theory, which is suitable for achieving the goal of developing a theory that can explain the processes involved in the phenomenon being researched; ethnographic study, which is suitable for research topics that attempt to identify and interpret the culture of a specific group; phenomenology, which is suitable for research topics that attempt to identify the nature of research participants’ experiences or the phenomenon being researched; case studies, which aim to gain an in-depth understanding of a case that has unique characteristics and can be differentiated from other cases; action research, which aims to find solutions to problems faced by research participants, with the researchers taking the same position as the participants; and narrative research, which is suitable for research topics that attempt to interpret the entire life or individual experiences contained within the stories of research participants. Other methodologies include photovoice research, consensual qualitative research, and auto-ethnographic research.

Literature Analysis

Literature analysis results can be helpful in specifically selecting the research problem, theoretical framework, and research methods. The literature analysis process compels qualitative researchers to contemplate the new knowledge that their research will add to the academic field. A comprehensive literature analysis is encouraged both in qualitative and quantitative research, and if the prior literature related to the subject to be studied is insufficient, it is sometimes evaluated as having low research potential or research value. Some have claimed that a formal literature review should not be performed before the collection of field data, as it could create bias, thereby interfering with the investigation. However, as the qualitative research process is cyclic rather than unidirectional, the majority believes that a literature review can be performed at any time. Moreover, an ethical review prior to starting the research is a requirement; therefore, the research protocol must be prepared and submitted for review and approval prior to conducting the research. To prepare research protocols, the existing literature must be analyzed at least to a certain degree. Nonetheless, qualitative researchers must keep in mind that their emotions, bias, and expectations may interject themselves during the literature review process and should strive to minimize any bias to ensure the validity of the research.

Selection of the Research Participants and Data Collection Methods

The subjects of qualitative research are not necessarily humans. It is more important to find the research subject(s) from which the most in-depth answers to the research problem can be obtained. However, the subjects in most qualitative studies are humans, as most research question focus on humans. Therefore, it is important to obtain research participants with sufficient knowledge, experience, and attitudes to provide the most appropriate answers to the research question. Quantitative research, which views generalizability as a key research goal, emphasizes the selection of research participants (i.e., the research sample that can represent the study’s population of interest), whereas qualitative research emphasizes finding research participants who can best describe and demonstrate the phenomenon of interest.

In qualitative research, the participant selection method is referred to as purposeful sampling (or purposive sampling), which can be divided into various types. Sampling methods have various advantages, disadvantages, and characteristics. For instance, unique sampling (extreme case sampling) has the advantage of being able to obtain interesting research findings by researching phenomena that have previously received little or no interest, and the disadvantage of deriving research findings that are interesting to only some readers if the research is conducted on an overly unique situation. Maximum variation sampling, also referred to as theoretical sampling, is commonly used in qualitative research based on the grounded theory. Selecting the appropriate participant sampling method that suits the purpose of research is crucial ( Table 2 ).

Sampling methods of selecting research participants in qualitative research

Once the researcher has decided how to select study participants, the data collection methods must be determined. Just as with participant sampling, various data collection methods are available, all of which have various advantages and disadvantages; therefore, the method must be selected based on the research question and circumstances. Unlike quantitative research, which usually uses a single data source and data collection method, the use of multiple data sources and data collection methods is encouraged in qualitative research [ 30 ]. Using a single data source and data collection method could cause data collection to be skewed by researcher bias; therefore, using multiple data sources and data collection methods is ideal. In qualitative research, the following data types are commonly used: (1) interview data obtained through one-on-one in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, (2) observational data from various observation levels, (3) documented data collected from personal or public documents, and (4) image data, such as photographs and videos.

Interview data are the most commonly used data source in qualitative research [ 31 ]. In qualitative research, an interview refers to communication that takes place based on a clear sense of purpose of acquiring certain information, unlike conversations that typically take place in daily life. The level of data acquired through interviews varies significantly depending on the researcher’s personal qualifications and abilities, as well as his or her level of interest and knowledge regarding the research topic. Therefore, interviewers must be trained to go beyond simply identifying the clearly expressed experiences of research participants to exploring their inner experiences and emotions [ 32 ]. Interview data can be classified based on the level of structuralization of the data collection method, sample size, and interview method. The characteristics of each type of interview are given in Table 3 .

Detailed types of interview methods according to the characteristics of in-depth interviews and focus group discussion

Observations, which represent a key data collection method in anthropology, refer to a series of actions taken by the researcher in search of a deep understanding by systematically examining the appearances of research participants that take place in natural situations [ 33 ]. Observations can be categorized as participant and non-participant, insider and outsider, disguised and undisguised, short- and long-term, and structured and unstructured. However, a line cannot be drawn clearly to differentiate these categories, and the degree of each varies along a single spectrum. Therefore, it is necessary for a qualitative researcher to select the appropriate data collection method based on the circumstances and characteristics of the research topic.

Various types of document data can be used in qualitative research. Personal documents include diaries, letters, and autobiographies, while public documents include legal documents, public announcements, and civil documents. Online documents include emails and blog or bulletin board postings, while other documents include graffiti. All these document types may be used as data sources in qualitative research. In addition, image data acquired by the research participant or researcher, such as photographs and videos, serve as useful data sources in qualitative research. Such data sources are relatively objective and easily accessible, while they contain a significant amount of qualitative meaning despite the low acquisition cost. While some data may have been collected for research purposes, other data may not have been originally produced for research. Therefore, the researcher must not distort the original information contained in the data source and must verify the accuracy and authenticity of the data source in advance [ 30 ].

This review examined the characteristics of qualitative research to help researchers select the appropriate qualitative research methodology and identify situations suitable for qualitative research in the healthcare field. In addition, this paper analyzed the selection of the research topic and problem, selection of the theoretical framework and methods, literature analysis, and selection of the research participants and data collection methods. A forthcoming paper will discuss more specific details regarding other qualitative research methodologies, such as data analysis, description of findings, and research validation. This review can contribute to the more active use of qualitative research in the healthcare field, and the findings are expected to instill a proper understanding of qualitative research in researchers who review and judge qualitative research reports and papers.

Ethics Statement

Since this study used secondary data source, we did not seek approval from the institutional review board. We also did not have to ask for the consent of the participants.

Acknowledgments

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors have no conflicts of interest associated with the material presented in this paper.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Conceptualization: Pyo J, Lee W, Choi EY, Jang SG, Ock M. Data curation: Pyo J, Ock M. Formal analysis: Pyo J, Ock M. Funding acquisition: None. Validation: Lee W, Choi EY, Jang SG. Writing - original draft: Pyo J, Ock M. Writing - review & editing: Pyo J, Lee W, Choi EY, Jang SG, Ock M.

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Article Contents

Introduction, challenging some common methodological assumptions about online qualitative surveys, ten practical tips for designing, implementing and analysing online qualitative surveys, acknowledgements, conflict of interest statement, data availability, ethical approval.

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Methodological and practical guidance for designing and conducting online qualitative surveys in public health

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Samantha L Thomas, Hannah Pitt, Simone McCarthy, Grace Arnot, Marita Hennessy, Methodological and practical guidance for designing and conducting online qualitative surveys in public health, Health Promotion International , Volume 39, Issue 3, June 2024, daae061, https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daae061

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Online qualitative surveys—those surveys that prioritise qualitative questions and interpretivist values—have rich potential for researchers, particularly in new or emerging areas of public health. However, there is limited discussion about the practical development and methodological implications of such surveys, particularly for public health researchers. This poses challenges for researchers, funders, ethics committees, and peer reviewers in assessing the rigour and robustness of such research, and in deciding the appropriateness of the method for answering different research questions. Drawing and extending on the work of other researchers, as well as our own experiences of conducting online qualitative surveys with young people and adults, we describe the processes associated with developing and implementing online qualitative surveys and writing up online qualitative survey data. We provide practical examples and lessons learned about question development, the importance of rigorous piloting strategies, use of novel techniques to prompt detailed responses from participants, and decisions that are made about data preparation and interpretation. We consider reviewer comments, and some ethical considerations of this type of qualitative research for both participants and researchers. We provide a range of practical strategies to improve trustworthiness in decision-making and data interpretation—including the importance of using theory. Rigorous online qualitative surveys that are grounded in qualitative interpretivist values offer a range of unique benefits for public health researchers, knowledge users, and research participants.

Public health researchers are increasingly using online qualitative surveys.

There is still limited practical and methodological information about the design and implementation of these studies.

Building on Braun and Clarke (2013) , Terry and Braun (2017) and Braun et al . (2021) , we reflect on the methodological and practical lessons we have learnt from our own experience with conducting online qualitative surveys.

We provide guidance and practical examples about the design, implementation and analysis processes.

We argue that online qualitative surveys have rich potential for public health researchers and can be an empowering and engaging way to include diverse populations in qualitative research.

Public health researchers mostly engage in experiential (interpretive) qualitative approaches ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ). These approaches are ‘centred on the exploration of participants’ subjective experiences and sense-making’ [( Braun and Clarke, 2021c ), p. 39]. Given the strong focus in public health on social justice, power and inequality, researchers proactively use the findings from these qualitative studies—often in collaboration with lived experience experts and others who are impacted by key decisions ( Reed et al ., 2024 )—to advocate for changes to public health policy and practice. There is also an important level of theoretical, methodological and empirical reflection that is part of the public health researcher’s role. For example, as qualitative researchers actively construct and interpret meaning from data, they constantly challenge their assumptions, their way of knowing and their way of ‘doing’ research ( Braun and Clarke, 2024 ). This reflexive practice also includes considering how to develop more inclusive opportunities for people to participate in research and to share their opinions and experiences about the issues that matter to them.

While in-depth interviews and focus groups provide rich and detailed narratives that are central to understanding people’s lives, these forms of data collection may sometimes create practical barriers for both researchers and participants. For example, they can be time consuming, and the power dynamics associated with face-to-face interviews (even in online settings) may make them less accessible for groups that are marginalized or stigmatized ( Edwards and Holland, 2020 ). While some population subgroups (and contexts) may suit (or require) face-to-face qualitative data collection approaches, others may lend themselves to different forms of data collection. Young people, for example, may be keen to be civically involved in research about the issues that matter to them, such as the climate crisis, but they may find it more convenient and comfortable using anonymized digital technologies to do so ( Arnot et al ., 2024b ). As such, part of our reflexive practice as public health researchers must be to explore, and be open to, a range of qualitative methodological approaches that could be more convenient, less intimidating and more engaging for a diverse range of population subgroups. This includes thinking about pragmatic ways of operationalizing qualitative data collection methods. How can we develop methods and engagement strategies that enable us to gain insights from a diverse range of participants about new issues or phenomenon that may pose threats to public health, or look at existing issues in new ways?

Advancements in online data collection methods have also created new options for researchers and participants about how they can be involved in qualitative studies ( Hensen et al ., 2021 ; Chen, 2023 ; Fan et al ., 2024 ). Online qualitative surveys—those surveys that prioritize qualitative values and questions—have rich potential for qualitative researchers. Braun and Clarke (2013 , p. 135) state that qualitative surveys:

…consist of a series of open-ended questions about a topic, and participants type or hand-write their responses to each question. They are self-administered; a researcher-administered qualitative survey would basically be an interview.

While these types of studies are increasingly utilized in public health, researchers have highlighted that there is still relatively limited discussion about the methodological and practical implications of these surveys ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ). This poses challenges for qualitative public health researchers, funders, ethics committees and peer reviewers in assessing the purpose, rigour and contribution of such research, and in deciding the appropriateness of the method for answering different research questions.

Using examples from online qualitative surveys that we have been involved in, this article discusses a range of methodological and practical lessons learnt from developing, implementing and analysing data from these types of surveys. While we do not claim to have all the answers, we aim to develop and extend on the methodological and practical guidance from Braun and Clarke (2013) , Terry and Braun (2017) and Braun et al . (2021) about the potential for online qualitative surveys. This includes how they can provide a rigorous ‘wide-angle picture’ [( Toerien and Wilkinson, 2004 ), p. 70] from a diverse range of participants about contemporary public health phenomena.

Figure 1 aims to develop and extend on the key points made by Braun and Clarke (2013) , Terry and Braun (2017) and Braun et al . (2021) , which provide the methodological and empirical foundation for our article.

: Methodological considerations in conducting online qualitative surveys.

Harnessing interpretivist approaches and qualitative values in online qualitative surveys

Online qualitative surveys take many forms. They may be fully qualitative or qualitative dominant—mostly qualitative with some quantitative questions ( Terry and Braun, 2017 ). There are also many different ways of conducting these studies—from using a smaller number of questions that engage specific population groups or knowledge users in understanding detailed experiences  ( Hennessy and O’Donoghue, 2024 ), to a larger number of questions (which may use market research panel providers to recruit participants), that seek broader opinions and attitudes about public health issues ( Marko et al ., 2022a ; McCarthy et al ., 2023 ; Arnot et al ., 2024a ). However, based on our experiences of applying for grant funding and conducting, publishing and presenting these studies, there are still clear misconceptions and uncertainties about these types of  surveys.

One of the concerns raised about online qualitative surveys is how they are situated within broader qualitative values and approaches. This includes whether they can provide empirically innovative, rigorous, rich and theoretically grounded qualitative contributions to knowledge. Our experience is that online qualitative surveys have the most potential when they harness the values of interpretivist ‘Big Q’ approaches to collect information from a diverse range of participants about their experiences, opinions and practices ( Braun et al ., 2021 ). The distinction between positivist (small q) and interpretivist (Big Q) approaches to online qualitative surveys is an important one that requires some initial methodological reflection, particularly in considering the (largely unhelpful) critiques that are made about the rigour and usefulness of these surveys. These critiques often overlook the theoretical underpinnings and qualitative values inherent in such surveys. For example, while there may be a tendency to think of surveys and survey data as atheoretical and descriptive, the use of theory is central in informing online qualitative surveys. For example, Varpio and Ellaway (2021 , p. 343) explain that theory can ‘offer explanations and detailed premises that we can wrestle with, agree with, disagree with, reject and/or accept’. This includes the research design, the approach to data collection and analysis, the interpretation of findings and the conclusions that are drawn. Theory is also important in helping researchers to engage in reflexive practice. The use of theory is essential in progressing online qualitative surveys beyond description and towards in-depth interpretation and explanations—thus facilitating a deeper understanding of the studied phenomenon ( Collins and Stockton, 2018 ; Jamie and Rathbone, 2022 ).

Considering the assumptions that online qualitative surveys can only collect ‘thin’ data

The main assumptions about online qualitative surveys are that they can only collect ‘thin’ textual data, and that they are not flexible enough as a data collection tool for researchers to prompt or ask follow-up questions or to co-create detailed and rich data with participants ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Clarke, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ). While we acknowledge that the type of data that is collected in these types of studies is different from those in in-depth interview studies, these surveys may be a more accessible and engaging way to collect rich insights from a diverse range of participants who may otherwise not participate in qualitative research ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ). Despite this, peer reviewers can question the depth of information that may be collected in these studies. Assumptions about large but ‘thin’ datasets may also mean that researchers, funders and reviewers take (and perhaps expect) a more positivist approach to the design and analytical processes associated with these surveys. For example, the multiple topics and questions, larger sample sizes, and the generally smaller textual responses that online qualitative surveys generate may lead researchers to approach these surveys using more descriptive and atheoretical paradigms. This approach may focus on ‘measuring’ phenomena, using variables, developing thinner analytical description and adding numerical values to the number of responses for different categories or themes.

We have found that assumptions can also impact the review processes associated with these types of studies, receiving critiques from those with both positivist and interpretivist positions. Positivist critiques focus on matters associated with whether the samples are ‘representative’, and the flaws associated with ‘self-selecting convenience’ samples. Critiques from interpretivist colleagues question why such large sample sizes are needed for qualitative studies, seeing surveys as a less rigorous method for gaining rich and meaningful data. For example, we have had reviewers query the scope and depth of the analysis of the data that we present from these studies because they are concerned that the type of data collected lacks depth and does not fully contextualize and explain how participants think about issues. We have also had reviewers request that we should return to the study to collect quantitative data to supplement the qualitative findings of the survey. They also question how ‘representative’ the samples are of population groups. These comments, of course, are not unique to online qualitative surveys but do highlight the difficulty that reviewers may have in placing and situating these types of studies in broader qualitative approaches. With this in mind, we have also found that some reviewers can ask for additional information to justify both the use of online qualitative surveys and why we have chosen these over other qualitative approaches. For example, reviewers have asked us to justify why we have chosen an online qualitative survey and also to explain what we may have missed out on by not conducting in-depth interviews or quantitative or mixed methods surveys instead.

Requests for ‘numbers’ and ‘strategies to minimize bias’

While there is now a general understanding that attributing ‘numbers’ to qualitative data is largely unhelpful and inappropriate ( Chowdhury, 2015 ), there may be expectations that the larger sample sizes associated with online qualitative surveys enable researchers to provide numerical indicators of data. Rather than focusing on the ‘artfully interpretive’ techniques used to analyse and construct themes from the data ( Finlay, 2021 ), we have found that reviewers often ask us to provide numerical information about how many people provided different responses to different questions (or constructed themes), and the number at which ‘saturation’ was determined. Reviewer feedback that we have received about analytical processes has asked for detailed explanations about why attempts to ‘minimize bias’ (including calculations of inter-rater reliability and replicability of data quality) were not used. This demonstrates that peer reviewers may misinterpret the interpretivist values that guide online qualitative surveys, asking for information that is essentially ‘meaningless’ in qualitative paradigms in which researchers’ subjectivity ‘sculpts’ the knowledge that is produced ( Braun and Clarke, 2021a ).

The benefits and limitations of online qualitative surveys for participants, researchers and knowledge users

As well as a ‘wide-angle picture’ [( Toerien and Wilkinson, 2004 ), p. 70] on phenomenon, online qualitative surveys can also: (i) generate both rich and focused data about perceptions and practices, and (ii) have multiple participatory and practical advantages—including helping to overcome barriers to research participation ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ). For researchers , online qualitative surveys can be a more cost-effective alternative ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 )—they are generally more time-efficient and less labour-intensive (particularly if working with market research companies to recruit panels). They are also able to reach a broad range of participants—such as those who are geographically dispersed ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ), and those who may not have internet connectivity that is reliable enough to complete online interviews (a common issue for individuals living in regional or rural settings) ( de Villiers et al ., 2022 ). We are also more able to engage young people in qualitative research through online surveys, perhaps partly due to extensive panel company databases but also because they may be a more accessible and familiar way for young people to participate in research. The ability to quickly investigate new public health threats from the perspective of lived experience can also provide important information for researchers, providing justification for new areas of research focus, including setting agendas and advocating for the need for funding (or policy attention). Collecting data from a diverse range of participants—including from those who hold views that we may see as less ‘politically acceptable’, or inconsistent with our own public health reasoning about health and equity—is important in situating and contextualizing community attitudes towards particular issues.

For participants , benefits include having a degree of autonomy and control over their participation, including completing the survey at a time and place that suits them, and the anonymous nature of participation (that may be helpful for people from highly stigmatized groups). Participants can take time to reflect on their responses or complete the survey, and may feel more able to ‘talk back’ to the researcher about the framing of questions or the purpose of the research ( Braun et al ., 2021 ). We would also add that a benefit of these types of studies is that participants can also drop out of the study easily if the survey does not interest them or meet their expectations—something that we think might be more onerous or uncomfortable for participants in an interview or focus group.

For knowledge users, including advocates, service providers and decision-makers, qualitative research provides an important form of evidence, and the ‘wide-angle picture' [( Toerien and Wilkinson, 2004 ), p. 70] on issues from a diverse range of individuals in a community or population can be a powerful advocacy tool. Online qualitative surveys can also provide rapid insights into how changes to policy and practice may impact population subgroups in different ways.

There are, of course, some limitations associated with online qualitative surveys ( Braun et al ., 2021 ; Marko et al ., 2022b ). For example, there is no ability to engage individuals in a ‘traditional’ conversation or to prompt or probe meaning in the interactive ways that we are familiar with in interview studies. There is less ability to refine the questions that we ask participants in an iterative way throughout a study based on participant responses (particularly when working with market research panel companies). There may also be barriers associated with written literacy, access to digital technologies and stable internet connections ( Braun et al ., 2021 ). They may also not be the most suitable for individuals who have different ways of ‘knowing, being and doing’ qualitative research—including Indigenous populations [( Kennedy et al ., 2022 ), p. 1]. All of these factors should be taken into consideration when deciding whether online qualitative surveys are an appropriate way of collecting data. Finally, while these types of surveys can collect data quickly ( Marko et al ., 2022b ), there can also be additional decision-making processes related to data preparation and inclusion that can be time-consuming.

There are a range of practical considerations that can improve the rigour, trustworthiness and quality of online qualitative survey data. Again, developing and expanding on ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al ., 2021 ), Figure 2 gives an overview of some key practical considerations associated with the design, implementation and analysis of these surveys. We would also note that before starting your survey design, you should be aware that people may use different types of technology to complete the survey, and in different spaces. For example, we cannot assume that people will be sitting in front of a computer or laptop at home or in the office, with people more likely to complete surveys on a mobile phone, perhaps on a train or bus on the way to work or school.

: Top ten practical tips for conducting online qualitative surveys.

Survey design

Creating an appropriate and accessible structure

The first step in designing an online qualitative survey is to plan the structure of your survey. This step is important because the structure influences the way that participants interact with and participate through the survey. The survey structure helps to create an ‘environment’ that helps participants to share their perspectives, prompt their views and develop their ideas ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ). Similar to an interview study, the structure of the survey guides participants from one set of questions (and topics) to the next. It is important to consider the ordering of topics to enable participants to complete a survey that has a logical flow, introduces participants to concepts and allows them to develop their depth of responses.

Before participants start the survey, we provide a clear and simple lay language summary of the survey. Because many individuals will be familiar with completing quantitative surveys, we include a welcoming statement and reiterate the qualitative nature of the survey, stating that their answers can be about their own experiences:

Thank you for agreeing to take part in this survey about [topic] . This survey involves writing responses to questions rather than checking boxes.

We then clearly reiterate the purpose of the survey, providing a short description of the topic that we are investigating. We state that we do not seek to collect any data that is identifiable, that we are interested in participants perspectives, that there are no right or wrong answers, and that participants can withdraw from the survey at any time without giving a reason.

Similar to Braun et al . (2021) , we start our surveys with questions about demographic and related characteristics (which we often call ‘ participant/general characteristics ’). These can be discrete choice questions, but can also utilize open text—for example, in relation to gender identity. We have found that there is always a temptation with surveys to ask many questions about the demographic characteristics of participants. However, we caution that too many questions can be intrusive for participants and can take away valuable time from open-text questions, which are the core focus of the survey. We recommend asking participant characteristic and demographic questions that situate and contextualize the sample ( Elliott et al ., 1999 ).

We generally start the open-text sections of these surveys by asking broad introductory questions about the topic. This might include questions such as: ‘Please describe the main reasons you drink alcohol ’, and ‘W hat do you think are the main impacts of climate change on the world? ’ We have found that these types of questions get participants used to responding to open-text questions relevant to the study’s research questions and aims. For each new topic of investigation (which are based on our theoretical concepts and overall study aims and research questions), we provide a short explanation about what we will ask participants. We also use tools and text to signpost participant progress through the survey. This can be a valuable way to avoid high attrition rates where participants exit the survey because they are getting fatigued and are unclear when the survey will end:

Great! We are just over half-way through the survey.

We ask more detailed questions that are more aligned with our theoretical concepts in the middle of the survey. For example, we may start with broad questions about a harmful industry and their products (such as gambling, vaping or alcohol) and then in the middle of the survey ask more detailed questions about the commercial determinants of health and the specific tactics that these industries use (for example, about product design, political tactics, public relations strategies or how these practices may influence health and equity). In relation to these more complex questions, it is particularly important that we reiterate that there are no wrong answers and try to include encouraging text throughout the survey:

There are no right or wrong answers—we are curious to hear your opinions .

We always try to end the survey on a positive. While these types of questions depend on the study, we try to ask questions which enable participants to reflect on what could be done to address or improve an issue. This might include their attitudes about policy, or what they would say to those in positions of power:

What do you think should be done to protect young people from sports betting advertising on social media? If there was one thing that could be done to prevent young people from being exposed to the risks associated with alcohol, cigarettes, vaping, or gambling, what would it be? If you could say one thing to politicians about climate change, what would it be?

Finally, we ask participants if there is anything we have missed or if they have anything else to add, sometimes referred to as a ‘clean-up’ question ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ). The following provides a few examples of how we have framed these questions in some of our studies:

Is there anything you would like to say about alcohol, cigarettes, vaping, and gambling products that we have not covered? Is there anything we haven’t asked you about the advertising of alcohol to women that you would like us to know?

Considering the impact of the length of the survey on responses

The length of the survey (both the number of questions and the time it takes an individual to complete the survey) is guided by a range of methodological and practical considerations and will vary between studies ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ). Many factors will influence completion times. We try to give individuals a guide at the start of the survey about how long we think it will take to complete the survey (for example, between 20 and 30 minutes). We highlight that it may take people a little longer or shorter and that people are able to leave their browser open or save the survey and come back to finish it later. For our first few online qualitative surveys, we found that we asked lots of questions because we felt less in control of being able to prompt or ask follow-up questions from participants. However, we have learned that less is more! Asking too many questions may lead to more survey dropouts, and may significantly reduce the textual quality of the information that you receive from participants ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Clarke, 2017 ). This includes considering how the survey questions might lead to repetition, which may be annoying for participants, leading to responses such as ‘like I’ve already said’ , ‘I’ve already answered that’ or ‘see above’ .

Providing clear and simple guidance

When designing an online qualitative survey, we try to think of ways to make participation in the survey engaging. We do not want individuals to feel that we are ‘mining’ them for data. Rather we want to demonstrate that we are genuinely interested in their perspectives and views. We use a range of mechanisms to do this. Because there is no opportunity to verbally explain or clarify concepts to participants, there is a particular need to ensure that the language used is clear and accessible ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Clarke, 2017 ). If language or concepts are complex, you are more likely to receive ‘I don’t know’ responses to your questions. We need to remember that participants have a range of written and comprehension skills, and inclusive and accessible language is important. We also never try to assume a level of knowledge about an issue (unless we have specifically asked for participants who are aware and engaged in an issue—such as women who drink alcohol) ( Pitt et al ., 2023 ). This includes avoiding highly technical or academic language and not making assumptions that the individuals completing the survey will understand concepts in the same way that researchers do ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ). Clearly explaining concepts or using text or images to prompt memories can help to overcome this:

Some big corporations (such as the tobacco, vaping, alcohol, junk food, or gambling industries) sponsor women's sporting teams or clubs, or other events. You might see sponsor logos on sporting uniforms, or at sporting grounds, or sponsoring a concert or arts event.

At all times, we try to centre the language that we use with the population from which we are seeking responses. Advisory groups can be particularly helpful in framing language for different population subgroups. We often use colloquial language, even if it might not be seen as the ‘correct’ academic language or terminology. Where possible, we also try to define theoretical concepts in a clear and easy to understand way. For example, in our study investigating parent perceptions of the impact of harmful products on young people, we tried to clearly define ‘normalization’:

In this section we ask you about some of the perceived health impacts of the above products on young people. We also ask you about the normalisation of these products for young people. When we talk about normalisation, we are thinking about the range of factors that might make these products more acceptable for young people to use. These factors might include individual factors, such as young people being attracted to risk, the influence of family or peers, the accessibility and availability of these products, or the way the industry advertises and promotes these products.

Using innovative approaches to improve accessibility and prompt responses

Online qualitative surveys can include features beyond traditional question-and-answer formats ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ). For example, we often use a range of photo elicitation techniques (using images or videos) to make surveys more accessible to participate in, address different levels of literacy, and overcome the assumption that we are not able to ‘prompt’ responses. These types of visual methodologies enable a collaborative and creative research experience by asking the participant to reflect on aspects of the visual materials, such as symbolic representations, and discuss these in relation to the research objectives ( Glaw et al ., 2017 ). The combination of visual images and clear descriptions helps to provide a focus for responses about different issues, as well as prompting nuanced information such as participant memories and emotions ( Glaw et al ., 2017 ). We use different types of visuals in our studies, such as photographs (including of the public health issues we’re investigating); screenshots from websites and social media posts (including newspaper headlines) and videos (including short videos from social media sites such as TikTok) ( Arnot et al ., 2024b ). For example, when talking about government responses to the climate crisis, we used a photograph of former Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison holding a piece of coal in the Australian parliament to prompt participants’ thinking about the government’s relationship with fossil fuels and to provide a focal point for their answer. However, we would caution against using any images that may be confronting for participants or deliberately provocative. The purpose of using visuals must always be in the interests of the participants—to clarify, prompt and reflect on concepts. Ethics committees should carefully review the images used in surveys to ensure that they have a clear purpose and are unlikely to cause any discomfort.

Survey implementation

Thinking carefully about your criteria for recruitment

Determining the sample size of online qualitative studies is not an exact science. The sample sizes for recent studies have ranged from n = 46 in a study about pregnancy loss ( Hennessy and O’Donoghue, 2024 ), to n = 511 in a study with young people about the climate crisis ( Arnot et al ., 2023b ). We follow ‘rules of thumb’ [( Braun and Clarke, 2021b ), p. 211] which try to balance the needs of the research and data richness with key practical considerations (such as funding and time constraints), funder expectations, discipline-specific norms and our knowledge and experience of designing and implementing online qualitative surveys. However, we have found that peer reviewers expect much more justification of sample sizes than they do for other types of qualitative research. Robust justification of sample sizes are often needed to prevent any ‘concerns’ that reviewers may raise. Our response to these reviews often reiterates that our focus (as with all qualitative research) is not to produce a ‘generalisable’ or ‘representative’ sample but to recruit participants who will help to provide ‘rich, complex and textured data’ [( Terry and Braun, 2017 ), p. 15] about an issue. Instead of focusing on data saturation, a contested concept which is incongruent with reflexive thematic analysis in particular ( Braun and Clarke, 2021b ), we find it useful to consider information power to determine the sample size for these surveys ( Malterud et al ., 2016 ). Information power prioritizes the adequacy, quality and variability of the data collected over the number of participants.

Recruitment for online qualitative surveys can be influenced by a range of factors. Monetary and time constraints will impact the size and, if using market research company panels, the specificity of participant quotas. Recruitment strategies must be developed to ensure that the data provides enough information to answer the research questions of the study. For our research purposes, we often try to ensure that participants with a range of socio-demographic characteristics are invited to participate in the sample. We set soft quotas for age, gender and geographic location to ensure some diversity. We have found that some population subgroups may also be recruited more easily than others—although this may depend on the topic of the survey. For example, we have found that quotas for women and those living in metropolitan areas may fill more quickly. In these scenarios, the research team must weigh up the timelines associated with recruitment and data collection (e.g. How long do we want to run data collection for? How much of our budget can be spent on achieving a more equally split sample? Are quotas necessary?) versus the purpose and goals of the research (i.e. to generate ideas rather than data representativeness), and the study-specific aims and research questions.

There are, of course, concerns about not being able to ‘see’ the people that are completing these surveys. There is an increasing focus in the academic literature on ‘false’ respondents, particularly in quantitative online surveys ( Levi et al ., 2021 ; Wang et al ., 2023 ). This will be an important ongoing discussion for qualitative researchers, and we do not claim to have the answers for how to overcome these issues. For example, some individuals may say that they meet the inclusion criteria to access the survey, while others may not understand or misinterpret the inclusion criteria. There is also a level of discomfort about who and how we judge who may be a ‘legitimate’ participant or not. However, we can talk practically about some of the strategies that we use to ensure the rigour of data. For example, we find that screening questions can provide a ‘double-check’ in relation to inclusion criteria and can also help with ensuring that there is consistency between the information an individual provides about how they meet the inclusion criteria and subsequent responses. For example, in a recent survey of parents of young people, a participant stated that they were 18 years old and were a parent to a 16-year-old and 15-year-old. Their overall responses were inconsistent with being a parent of children these ages. Similarly, in our gambling studies, people may tick that they have gambled in the last year but then in subsequent questions say they have not gambled at all. This highlights the importance of checking data across all questions, although it should be noted that time and cost constraints associated with comprehensively scanning the data for such responses are not always feasible and can result in overlooking these participants.

Ensuring that there are strategies to create agency and engage participants in the research

One of the benefits of online qualitative surveys compared to traditional quantitative surveys is the scope for participants to explain their answers and to disagree with the research team’s position. An indication that participants are feeling able to do this is when they are asked for any additional comments at the end of the survey. For example, in a survey about women’s attitudes towards alcohol marketing, the following participant concluded the survey by writing: ‘I think you have covered everything. I think that you need to stop shaming women for having fun’. Other participants demonstrate their engagement and interest in the survey by reaffirming the perspectives they have shared throughout the survey. For example, in a study with young people on climate, participants responded at the end that ‘it’s one of the few things I actually care about’ , while another commented on the quality of the survey questions, stating, ‘I think this survey did a great job with probing questions to prompt all the thoughts I have on it’ .

We also think that online qualitative surveys may lead to less social desirability in participants’ responses. Participants seem less wary about communicating less politically correct opinions than they may do in a face-to-face interview. For example, at times, participants communicate attitudes that may not align with public health values (e.g. supporting personal responsibility, anti-nanny state, and neoliberal ideologies of health and wellbeing), that we rarely see communicated to us in in-depth interview or focus group studies. We would argue that these perspectives are valuable for public health researchers because they capture a different community voice that may not otherwise be represented in research. This may show where there is a lack of support for health interventions and policy reforms and may indicate where further awareness-raising needs to occur. These types of responses also contribute to reflexive practice by challenging our assumptions and positions about how we think people should think or feel about responses to particular public health issues. Examples of such responses from our surveys include:

"Like I have already said, if you try to hide it you will only make it more attractive. This nanny-state attitude of the elite drives me crazy. People must be allowed to decide for themselves."

Ethical issues for participants and researchers

Researchers should also be aware that some of the ethical issues associated with online qualitative surveys may be different from those in in-depth interviews—and it is important that these are explained in any ethical consideration of the study. Providing a clear and simply worded Plain Language Statement (in written or video form) is important in establishing informed consent and willingness to participate. While participants are given information about who to contact if they have further questions about the study, this may be an extra step for participants, and they may not feel as able to ask for clarification about the study. Because of this, we try to provide multiple examples of the types of questions that we will ask, as well as providing downloadable support details (for example, for mental health support lines). A positive aspect of surveys is that participants are able to easily ignore recruitment notices to participate in the study. They are also able to stop the survey at any time by exiting out of the browser if they feel discomfort without having to give a reason in person to a researcher.

While the anonymous nature of the survey may be empowering for some participants ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al. , 2021 ), it can also make it difficult for researchers to ascertain if people need any further support after completing the survey. Participants may also fill in surveys with someone else and may be influenced about how they should respond to questions (with the exception of some studies in which people may require assistance from someone to type their responses). Because of the above, some researchers, ethics committees and funders may be more cautious about using these studies for highly sensitive subjects. However, we would argue that the important point is that the studies follow ethical principles and take the lack of direct contact with participants into the ethical considerations of the study. It is also important to ensure that platforms used to collect survey data are trusted and secure. Here, we would argue that universities have an obligation to investigate and, where possible, approve survey providers to ensure that researchers are using platforms that meet rigorous standards for data and privacy.

It is also important to note that there may be responses from participants that may be challenging ( Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun and Clarke, 2021 ). Online spaces are rife with trolling due to their anonymous nature, and online surveys are not immune to this behaviour. Naturally, this leads to some silly responses—‘ Deakin University is responsible for all of this ’, but researchers should also be aware that the anonymity of surveys can (although in our experience not often) lead to responses that may cause discomfort for the researchers. For example, when asked if participants had anything else to add to a climate survey ( Arnot et al ., 2024c ), one responded ‘ nope, but you sure asked a lot of dumbass questions’ . Just as with interview-based studies, there must be processes built into the research for debriefing—particularly for students and early career researchers—as well as clear decisions about whether to include or exclude these types of responses when preparing the dataset for analysis and in writing up the results from the survey.

The importance of piloting the survey

Because of the lack of ability to explain and clarify concepts, piloting is particularly important ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ; Braun et al. , 2021 ) to ensure that: (i) the technical aspects of the survey work as intended; (ii) the survey is eliciting quality responses (with limited ‘nonsensical’ responses such as random characters); (iii) the survey responses indicate comprehension of the survey questions; and (vi) there is not a substantial number of people who ‘drop-out’ of the study. Typically, we pilot our survey with 10% of the intended sample size. After piloting, we often change question wording, particularly to address questions that elicit very small text responses, the length of the survey and sometimes refine definitions or language to ensure increased comprehension. Researchers should remember that changes to the survey questions may need to be reviewed by ethics committees before launching the full survey. It is important to build in time for piloting and the revision of the survey to ensure you get this right as once you launch the full survey, there is no going back!

Survey analysis and write-up

Preparing the dataset

Once launching the full survey, the quality of data and types of responses you receive in these types of surveys can vary. There is very limited transparency around how the dataset was prepared (more familiar to some as ‘data cleaning’) in published papers, including the decisions about which (if any) participants (or indeed responses) were excluded from the dataset and why. Nonsensical responses can be common—and can take a range of forms ( Figure 3 ). These can include random numbers or letters, a chunk of text that has been copied and pasted from elsewhere, predictive text or even repeat emojis. In one study, we had a participant quote the script of The Bee Movie in response to questions.

: Visual examples of nonsensical responses in online qualitative surveys.

Part of our familiarization with the dataset [Phase One in Braun and Clarke’s reflexive approach to thematic analysis ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Braun et al ., 2021 )] includes preparing the dataset for analysis. We use this phase to help make decisions about what to include and exclude from the final dataset. While a row of emojis in the data file can easily be spotted and removed from the dataset, sometimes responses can look robust until you read, become familiar and engage with the data. For example, when asked about what they thought about collective climate action ( Arnot et al ., 2023a , 2024c ), some participants entered random yet related terms such as ‘ plastic ’, or repeated similar phrases across multiple questions:

“ why do we need paper straws ”, “ paper straws are terrible ”, “ papers straws are bad for you ”, “ paper straws are gross .”

Participants can also provide comprehensive answers for the first few questions and then nonsensical responses for the rest, which may also be due to question fatigue [( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ), p. 138]. Therefore, it is important to closely go through each participant’s response to ensure they have attempted to provide bone-fide responses. For example, in one of our young people and climate surveys ( Arnot et al ., 2023a , 2024c ), one participant responded genuinely to the first half of the survey before their quality dropped dramatically:

“I can’t even be bothered to read that question ”, “ why so many questions ”, “ bro too many sections. ”

Some market research panel providers may complete an initial quality screen of data. However, this does not replace the need for the research teams’ own data preparation processes. Researchers should ensure they are checking that responses are coherent—for example, not giving information that contradicts or is not credible. In our more recent studies, we have increasingly seen responses cut and pasted from ChatGPT and other AI tools—providing a new challenge in assessing the quality of responses. If you are seeing these types of responses, it might be an opportunity to think about the style and suitability of the questions being asked. For example, the use of AI tools might suggest that people are finding it difficult to answer questions or may feel that they have to present a ‘correct’ answer. We would also note that because of the volume of data in these surveys, the preparation of data involves multiple members of the team. In many cases, decisions need to be made about participants who may not have provided authentic responses across the survey. The research team should make clear in any paper their decisions about their choices to include or exclude participants from the study. There is a careful balancing act that can require assessing the quality of the participants’ responses across the whole dataset to determine if the overall quality of responses contributes to the research.

Navigating the volume of data and writing up results

Finally, discussions about how to navigate the volume of data that these types of studies produce could be a standalone paper. In general, principles of reflexive practices apply to the analysis of data from these studies. However, as a starting point, here are a few considerations when approaching these datasets.

We would argue that online qualitative surveys lend themselves to some types of analytical approaches over others—for example, reflexive thematic analysis, as compared to grounded theory or interpretive phenomenological analysis (though it can be used with these) ( Braun and Clarke, 2013 ; Terry and Braun, 2017 ).

While initial familiarization, coding and analysis can focus on specific questions and associated responses, it is important to analyse the dataset as a whole (or as clusters associated with particular topics) as participants may provide relevant data to a topic under multiple questions ( Terry and Braun, 2017 ). We initially focus our coding on specific questions or a group of survey questions under a topic of investigation. Once we have developed and constructed preliminary themes from the data associated with these clusters of questions, we then move to looking at responses across the dataset as we review themes further.

Researchers should think carefully about how to manage the data—which may not be available as ‘individual participant transcripts’ but rather as a ‘whole’ dataset in an Excel spreadsheet. Some may prefer qualitative data analysis software (QDAS) to manage and navigate data. However, many of us find that Excel (and particularly the use of labelled Tabs) is useful in grouping data and moving from codes to constructing themes.

As with all rigorous qualitative research, coding and theme development should be guided by the research questions. A clear record of decision-making about analytical choices (and being reflexive about these) should be kept. In any write-up, we would recommend that researchers are clear about which survey questions they used in the analysis [researchers could consider providing a supplementary file of some or all of the survey questions—see, for example Hennessy and O’Donoghue (2024) ].

In writing up the results, researchers should still seek to present a rich description of the data, as demonstrated in the presentation of results in the following papers ( Marko et al ., 2022a , 2022b ; McCarthy et al ., 2023 ; Pitt et al ., 2023 ; Hennessy and O’Donoghue, 2024 ). We have found the use of tables with additional examples of quotes as they relate to themes and subthemes can be a practical way of providing the reader with further examples of the data, particularly when constrained by journal word count limits [see, for example, Table 2 in Arnot et al ., (2024c) ]. However, these tables do not replace a full and complete presentation of the interpretation of the data.

This article offers methodological reflections and practical guidance around online qualitative survey design, implementation and analysis. While online qualitative surveys engage participants in a different type of conversation, they have design features that enable the collection of rich data. We recognize that we have much to learn and that while no survey of ours has been perfect, each new experience with developing and conducting online qualitative surveys has brought new understandings and lessons for future studies. In recognizing that we are learning, we also feel that our experience to date could be valuable for progressing the conversation about the rigour of online qualitative surveys and maximizing this method for public health gains.

H.P. is funded through a VicHealth Postdoctoral Research Fellowship. S.M. is funded through a Deakin University Faculty of Health Deans Postdoctoral Fellowship. G.A. is funded by an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. M.H. is funded through an Irish Research Council Government of Ireland Postdoctoral Fellowship Award [GOIPD/2023/1168].

The pregnancy loss study was funded by the Irish Research Council through its New Foundations Awards and in partnership with the Irish Hospice Foundation as civil society partner [NF/2021/27123063].

S.T. is Editor in Chief of Health Promotion International, H.P. is a member of the Editorial Board of Health Promotion International, S.M. and G.A. are Social Media Coordinators for Health Promotion International, M.H. is an Associate Editor for Health Promotion International. They were not involved in the review process or in any decision-making on the manuscript.

The data used in this study are not available.

Ethical approval for studies conducted by Deakin University include the climate crisis (HEAG-H 55_2020, HEAG-H 162_2021); parents perceptions of harmful industries on young people (HEAG-H 158_2022); women and alcohol marketing (HEAG-H 123_2022) and gambling (HEAG 227_2020).

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Human Subjects Office

Medical terms in lay language.

Please use these descriptions in place of medical jargon in consent documents, recruitment materials and other study documents. Note: These terms are not the only acceptable plain language alternatives for these vocabulary words.

This glossary of terms is derived from a list copyrighted by the University of Kentucky, Office of Research Integrity (1990).

For clinical research-specific definitions, see also the Clinical Research Glossary developed by the Multi-Regional Clinical Trials (MRCT) Center of Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard  and the Clinical Data Interchange Standards Consortium (CDISC) .

Alternative Lay Language for Medical Terms for use in Informed Consent Documents

A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I  J  K   L   M   N   O   P   Q   R   S   T   U   V   W  X  Y  Z

ABDOMEN/ABDOMINAL body cavity below diaphragm that contains stomach, intestines, liver and other organs ABSORB take up fluids, take in ACIDOSIS condition when blood contains more acid than normal ACUITY clearness, keenness, esp. of vision and airways ACUTE new, recent, sudden, urgent ADENOPATHY swollen lymph nodes (glands) ADJUVANT helpful, assisting, aiding, supportive ADJUVANT TREATMENT added treatment (usually to a standard treatment) ANTIBIOTIC drug that kills bacteria and other germs ANTIMICROBIAL drug that kills bacteria and other germs ANTIRETROVIRAL drug that works against the growth of certain viruses ADVERSE EFFECT side effect, bad reaction, unwanted response ALLERGIC REACTION rash, hives, swelling, trouble breathing AMBULATE/AMBULATION/AMBULATORY walk, able to walk ANAPHYLAXIS serious, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction ANEMIA decreased red blood cells; low red cell blood count ANESTHETIC a drug or agent used to decrease the feeling of pain, or eliminate the feeling of pain by putting you to sleep ANGINA pain resulting from not enough blood flowing to the heart ANGINA PECTORIS pain resulting from not enough blood flowing to the heart ANOREXIA disorder in which person will not eat; lack of appetite ANTECUBITAL related to the inner side of the forearm ANTIBODY protein made in the body in response to foreign substance ANTICONVULSANT drug used to prevent seizures ANTILIPEMIC a drug that lowers fat levels in the blood ANTITUSSIVE a drug used to relieve coughing ARRHYTHMIA abnormal heartbeat; any change from the normal heartbeat ASPIRATION fluid entering the lungs, such as after vomiting ASSAY lab test ASSESS to learn about, measure, evaluate, look at ASTHMA lung disease associated with tightening of air passages, making breathing difficult ASYMPTOMATIC without symptoms AXILLA armpit

BENIGN not malignant, without serious consequences BID twice a day BINDING/BOUND carried by, to make stick together, transported BIOAVAILABILITY the extent to which a drug or other substance becomes available to the body BLOOD PROFILE series of blood tests BOLUS a large amount given all at once BONE MASS the amount of calcium and other minerals in a given amount of bone BRADYARRHYTHMIAS slow, irregular heartbeats BRADYCARDIA slow heartbeat BRONCHOSPASM breathing distress caused by narrowing of the airways

CARCINOGENIC cancer-causing CARCINOMA type of cancer CARDIAC related to the heart CARDIOVERSION return to normal heartbeat by electric shock CATHETER a tube for withdrawing or giving fluids CATHETER a tube placed near the spinal cord and used for anesthesia (indwelling epidural) during surgery CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) brain and spinal cord CEREBRAL TRAUMA damage to the brain CESSATION stopping CHD coronary heart disease CHEMOTHERAPY treatment of disease, usually cancer, by chemical agents CHRONIC continuing for a long time, ongoing CLINICAL pertaining to medical care CLINICAL TRIAL an experiment involving human subjects COMA unconscious state COMPLETE RESPONSE total disappearance of disease CONGENITAL present before birth CONJUNCTIVITIS redness and irritation of the thin membrane that covers the eye CONSOLIDATION PHASE treatment phase intended to make a remission permanent (follows induction phase) CONTROLLED TRIAL research study in which the experimental treatment or procedure is compared to a standard (control) treatment or procedure COOPERATIVE GROUP association of multiple institutions to perform clinical trials CORONARY related to the blood vessels that supply the heart, or to the heart itself CT SCAN (CAT) computerized series of x-rays (computerized tomography) CULTURE test for infection, or for organisms that could cause infection CUMULATIVE added together from the beginning CUTANEOUS relating to the skin CVA stroke (cerebrovascular accident)

DERMATOLOGIC pertaining to the skin DIASTOLIC lower number in a blood pressure reading DISTAL toward the end, away from the center of the body DIURETIC "water pill" or drug that causes increase in urination DOPPLER device using sound waves to diagnose or test DOUBLE BLIND study in which neither investigators nor subjects know what drug or treatment the subject is receiving DYSFUNCTION state of improper function DYSPLASIA abnormal cells

ECHOCARDIOGRAM sound wave test of the heart EDEMA excess fluid collecting in tissue EEG electric brain wave tracing (electroencephalogram) EFFICACY effectiveness ELECTROCARDIOGRAM electrical tracing of the heartbeat (ECG or EKG) ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCE an imbalance of minerals in the blood EMESIS vomiting EMPIRIC based on experience ENDOSCOPIC EXAMINATION viewing an  internal part of the body with a lighted tube  ENTERAL by way of the intestines EPIDURAL outside the spinal cord ERADICATE get rid of (such as disease) Page 2 of 7 EVALUATED, ASSESSED examined for a medical condition EXPEDITED REVIEW rapid review of a protocol by the IRB Chair without full committee approval, permitted with certain low-risk research studies EXTERNAL outside the body EXTRAVASATE to leak outside of a planned area, such as out of a blood vessel

FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the branch of federal government that approves new drugs FIBROUS having many fibers, such as scar tissue FIBRILLATION irregular beat of the heart or other muscle

GENERAL ANESTHESIA pain prevention by giving drugs to cause loss of consciousness, as during surgery GESTATIONAL pertaining to pregnancy

HEMATOCRIT amount of red blood cells in the blood HEMATOMA a bruise, a black and blue mark HEMODYNAMIC MEASURING blood flow HEMOLYSIS breakdown in red blood cells HEPARIN LOCK needle placed in the arm with blood thinner to keep the blood from clotting HEPATOMA cancer or tumor of the liver HERITABLE DISEASE can be transmitted to one’s offspring, resulting in damage to future children HISTOPATHOLOGIC pertaining to the disease status of body tissues or cells HOLTER MONITOR a portable machine for recording heart beats HYPERCALCEMIA high blood calcium level HYPERKALEMIA high blood potassium level HYPERNATREMIA high blood sodium level HYPERTENSION high blood pressure HYPOCALCEMIA low blood calcium level HYPOKALEMIA low blood potassium level HYPONATREMIA low blood sodium level HYPOTENSION low blood pressure HYPOXEMIA a decrease of oxygen in the blood HYPOXIA a decrease of oxygen reaching body tissues HYSTERECTOMY surgical removal of the uterus, ovaries (female sex glands), or both uterus and ovaries

IATROGENIC caused by a physician or by treatment IDE investigational device exemption, the license to test an unapproved new medical device IDIOPATHIC of unknown cause IMMUNITY defense against, protection from IMMUNOGLOBIN a protein that makes antibodies IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE drug which works against the body's immune (protective) response, often used in transplantation and diseases caused by immune system malfunction IMMUNOTHERAPY giving of drugs to help the body's immune (protective) system; usually used to destroy cancer cells IMPAIRED FUNCTION abnormal function IMPLANTED placed in the body IND investigational new drug, the license to test an unapproved new drug INDUCTION PHASE beginning phase or stage of a treatment INDURATION hardening INDWELLING remaining in a given location, such as a catheter INFARCT death of tissue due to lack of blood supply INFECTIOUS DISEASE transmitted from one person to the next INFLAMMATION swelling that is generally painful, red, and warm INFUSION slow injection of a substance into the body, usually into the blood by means of a catheter INGESTION eating; taking by mouth INTERFERON drug which acts against viruses; antiviral agent INTERMITTENT occurring (regularly or irregularly) between two time points; repeatedly stopping, then starting again INTERNAL within the body INTERIOR inside of the body INTRAMUSCULAR into the muscle; within the muscle INTRAPERITONEAL into the abdominal cavity INTRATHECAL into the spinal fluid INTRAVENOUS (IV) through the vein INTRAVESICAL in the bladder INTUBATE the placement of a tube into the airway INVASIVE PROCEDURE puncturing, opening, or cutting the skin INVESTIGATIONAL NEW DRUG (IND) a new drug that has not been approved by the FDA INVESTIGATIONAL METHOD a treatment method which has not been proven to be beneficial or has not been accepted as standard care ISCHEMIA decreased oxygen in a tissue (usually because of decreased blood flow)

LAPAROTOMY surgical procedure in which an incision is made in the abdominal wall to enable a doctor to look at the organs inside LESION wound or injury; a diseased patch of skin LETHARGY sleepiness, tiredness LEUKOPENIA low white blood cell count LIPID fat LIPID CONTENT fat content in the blood LIPID PROFILE (PANEL) fat and cholesterol levels in the blood LOCAL ANESTHESIA creation of insensitivity to pain in a small, local area of the body, usually by injection of numbing drugs LOCALIZED restricted to one area, limited to one area LUMEN the cavity of an organ or tube (e.g., blood vessel) LYMPHANGIOGRAPHY an x-ray of the lymph nodes or tissues after injecting dye into lymph vessels (e.g., in feet) LYMPHOCYTE a type of white blood cell important in immunity (protection) against infection LYMPHOMA a cancer of the lymph nodes (or tissues)

MALAISE a vague feeling of bodily discomfort, feeling badly MALFUNCTION condition in which something is not functioning properly MALIGNANCY cancer or other progressively enlarging and spreading tumor, usually fatal if not successfully treated MEDULLABLASTOMA a type of brain tumor MEGALOBLASTOSIS change in red blood cells METABOLIZE process of breaking down substances in the cells to obtain energy METASTASIS spread of cancer cells from one part of the body to another METRONIDAZOLE drug used to treat infections caused by parasites (invading organisms that take up living in the body) or other causes of anaerobic infection (not requiring oxygen to survive) MI myocardial infarction, heart attack MINIMAL slight MINIMIZE reduce as much as possible Page 4 of 7 MONITOR check on; keep track of; watch carefully MOBILITY ease of movement MORBIDITY undesired result or complication MORTALITY death MOTILITY the ability to move MRI magnetic resonance imaging, diagnostic pictures of the inside of the body, created using magnetic rather than x-ray energy MUCOSA, MUCOUS MEMBRANE moist lining of digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts MYALGIA muscle aches MYOCARDIAL pertaining to the heart muscle MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION heart attack

NASOGASTRIC TUBE placed in the nose, reaching to the stomach NCI the National Cancer Institute NECROSIS death of tissue NEOPLASIA/NEOPLASM tumor, may be benign or malignant NEUROBLASTOMA a cancer of nerve tissue NEUROLOGICAL pertaining to the nervous system NEUTROPENIA decrease in the main part of the white blood cells NIH the National Institutes of Health NONINVASIVE not breaking, cutting, or entering the skin NOSOCOMIAL acquired in the hospital

OCCLUSION closing; blockage; obstruction ONCOLOGY the study of tumors or cancer OPHTHALMIC pertaining to the eye OPTIMAL best, most favorable or desirable ORAL ADMINISTRATION by mouth ORTHOPEDIC pertaining to the bones OSTEOPETROSIS rare bone disorder characterized by dense bone OSTEOPOROSIS softening of the bones OVARIES female sex glands

PARENTERAL given by injection PATENCY condition of being open PATHOGENESIS development of a disease or unhealthy condition PERCUTANEOUS through the skin PERIPHERAL not central PER OS (PO) by mouth PHARMACOKINETICS the study of the way the body absorbs, distributes, and gets rid of a drug PHASE I first phase of study of a new drug in humans to determine action, safety, and proper dosing PHASE II second phase of study of a new drug in humans, intended to gather information about safety and effectiveness of the drug for certain uses PHASE III large-scale studies to confirm and expand information on safety and effectiveness of new drug for certain uses, and to study common side effects PHASE IV studies done after the drug is approved by the FDA, especially to compare it to standard care or to try it for new uses PHLEBITIS irritation or inflammation of the vein PLACEBO an inactive substance; a pill/liquid that contains no medicine PLACEBO EFFECT improvement seen with giving subjects a placebo, though it contains no active drug/treatment PLATELETS small particles in the blood that help with clotting POTENTIAL possible POTENTIATE increase or multiply the effect of a drug or toxin (poison) by giving another drug or toxin at the same time (sometimes an unintentional result) POTENTIATOR an agent that helps another agent work better PRENATAL before birth PROPHYLAXIS a drug given to prevent disease or infection PER OS (PO) by mouth PRN as needed PROGNOSIS outlook, probable outcomes PRONE lying on the stomach PROSPECTIVE STUDY following patients forward in time PROSTHESIS artificial part, most often limbs, such as arms or legs PROTOCOL plan of study PROXIMAL closer to the center of the body, away from the end PULMONARY pertaining to the lungs

QD every day; daily QID four times a day

RADIATION THERAPY x-ray or cobalt treatment RANDOM by chance (like the flip of a coin) RANDOMIZATION chance selection RBC red blood cell RECOMBINANT formation of new combinations of genes RECONSTITUTION putting back together the original parts or elements RECUR happen again REFRACTORY not responding to treatment REGENERATION re-growth of a structure or of lost tissue REGIMEN pattern of giving treatment RELAPSE the return of a disease REMISSION disappearance of evidence of cancer or other disease RENAL pertaining to the kidneys REPLICABLE possible to duplicate RESECT remove or cut out surgically RETROSPECTIVE STUDY looking back over past experience

SARCOMA a type of cancer SEDATIVE a drug to calm or make less anxious SEMINOMA a type of testicular cancer (found in the male sex glands) SEQUENTIALLY in a row, in order SOMNOLENCE sleepiness SPIROMETER an instrument to measure the amount of air taken into and exhaled from the lungs STAGING an evaluation of the extent of the disease STANDARD OF CARE a treatment plan that the majority of the medical community would accept as appropriate STENOSIS narrowing of a duct, tube, or one of the blood vessels in the heart STOMATITIS mouth sores, inflammation of the mouth STRATIFY arrange in groups for analysis of results (e.g., stratify by age, sex, etc.) STUPOR stunned state in which it is difficult to get a response or the attention of the subject SUBCLAVIAN under the collarbone SUBCUTANEOUS under the skin SUPINE lying on the back SUPPORTIVE CARE general medical care aimed at symptoms, not intended to improve or cure underlying disease SYMPTOMATIC having symptoms SYNDROME a condition characterized by a set of symptoms SYSTOLIC top number in blood pressure; pressure during active contraction of the heart

TERATOGENIC capable of causing malformations in a fetus (developing baby still inside the mother’s body) TESTES/TESTICLES male sex glands THROMBOSIS clotting THROMBUS blood clot TID three times a day TITRATION a method for deciding on the strength of a drug or solution; gradually increasing the dose T-LYMPHOCYTES type of white blood cells TOPICAL on the surface TOPICAL ANESTHETIC applied to a certain area of the skin and reducing pain only in the area to which applied TOXICITY side effects or undesirable effects of a drug or treatment TRANSDERMAL through the skin TRANSIENTLY temporarily TRAUMA injury; wound TREADMILL walking machine used to test heart function

UPTAKE absorbing and taking in of a substance by living tissue

VALVULOPLASTY plastic repair of a valve, especially a heart valve VARICES enlarged veins VASOSPASM narrowing of the blood vessels VECTOR a carrier that can transmit disease-causing microorganisms (germs and viruses) VENIPUNCTURE needle stick, blood draw, entering the skin with a needle VERTICAL TRANSMISSION spread of disease

WBC white blood cell