objectives for a research paper

21 Research Objectives Examples (Copy and Paste)

Research objectives refer to the definitive statements made by researchers at the beginning of a research project detailing exactly what a research project aims to achieve.

These objectives are explicit goals clearly and concisely projected by the researcher to present a clear intention or course of action for his or her qualitative or quantitative study. 

Research objectives are typically nested under one overarching research aim. The objectives are the steps you’ll need to take in order to achieve the aim (see the examples below, for example, which demonstrate an aim followed by 3 objectives, which is what I recommend to my research students).

Research Objectives vs Research Aims

Research aim and research objectives are fundamental constituents of any study, fitting together like two pieces of the same puzzle.

The ‘research aim’ describes the overarching goal or purpose of the study (Kumar, 2019). This is usually a broad, high-level purpose statement, summing up the central question that the research intends to answer.

Example of an Overarching Research Aim:

“The aim of this study is to explore the impact of climate change on crop productivity.” 

Comparatively, ‘research objectives’ are concrete goals that underpin the research aim, providing stepwise actions to achieve the aim.

Objectives break the primary aim into manageable, focused pieces, and are usually characterized as being more specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

Examples of Specific Research Objectives:

1. “To examine the effects of rising temperatures on the yield of rice crops during the upcoming growth season.” 2. “To assess changes in rainfall patterns in major agricultural regions over the first decade of the twenty-first century (2000-2010).” 3. “To analyze the impact of changing weather patterns on crop diseases within the same timeframe.”

The distinction between these two terms, though subtle, is significant for successfully conducting a study. The research aim provides the study with direction, while the research objectives set the path to achieving this aim, thereby ensuring the study’s efficiency and effectiveness.

How to Write Research Objectives

I usually recommend to my students that they use the SMART framework to create their research objectives.

SMART is an acronym standing for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. It provides a clear method of defining solid research objectives and helps students know where to start in writing their objectives (Locke & Latham, 2013).

Each element of this acronym adds a distinct dimension to the framework, aiding in the creation of comprehensive, well-delineated objectives.

Here is each step:

• Specific : We need to avoid ambiguity in our objectives. They need to be clear and precise (Doran, 1981). For instance, rather than stating the objective as “to study the effects of social media,” a more focused detail would be “to examine the effects of social media use (Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter) on the academic performance of college students.”
• Measurable: The measurable attribute provides a clear criterion to determine if the objective has been met (Locke & Latham, 2013). A quantifiable element, such as a percentage or a number, adds a measurable quality. For example, “to increase response rate to the annual customer survey by 10%,” makes it easier to ascertain achievement.
• Achievable: The achievable aspect encourages researchers to craft realistic objectives, resembling a self-check mechanism to ensure the objectives align with the scope and resources at disposal (Doran, 1981). For example, “to interview 25 participants selected randomly from a population of 100” is an attainable objective as long as the researcher has access to these participants.
• Relevance : Relevance, the fourth element, compels the researcher to tailor the objectives in alignment with overarching goals of the study (Locke & Latham, 2013). This is extremely important – each objective must help you meet your overall one-sentence ‘aim’ in your study.
• Time-Bound: Lastly, the time-bound element fosters a sense of urgency and prioritization, preventing procrastination and enhancing productivity (Doran, 1981). “To analyze the effect of laptop use in lectures on student engagement over the course of two semesters this year” expresses a clear deadline, thus serving as a motivator for timely completion.

You’re not expected to fit every single element of the SMART framework in one objective, but across your objectives, try to touch on each of the five components.

Research Objectives Examples

1. Field: Psychology

Aim: To explore the impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance in college students.

• Objective 1: To compare cognitive test scores of students with less than six hours of sleep and those with 8 or more hours of sleep.
• Objective 2: To investigate the relationship between class grades and reported sleep duration.
• Objective 3: To survey student perceptions and experiences on how sleep deprivation affects their cognitive capabilities.

2. Field: Environmental Science

Aim: To understand the effects of urban green spaces on human well-being in a metropolitan city.

• Objective 1: To assess the physical and mental health benefits of regular exposure to urban green spaces.
• Objective 2: To evaluate the social impacts of urban green spaces on community interactions.
• Objective 3: To examine patterns of use for different types of urban green spaces. 

3. Field: Technology

Aim: To investigate the influence of using social media on productivity in the workplace.

• Objective 1: To measure the amount of time spent on social media during work hours.
• Objective 2: To evaluate the perceived impact of social media use on task completion and work efficiency.
• Objective 3: To explore whether company policies on social media usage correlate with different patterns of productivity.

4. Field: Education

Aim: To examine the effectiveness of online vs traditional face-to-face learning on student engagement and achievement.

• Objective 1: To compare student grades between the groups exposed to online and traditional face-to-face learning.
• Objective 2: To assess student engagement levels in both learning environments.
• Objective 3: To collate student perceptions and preferences regarding both learning methods.

5. Field: Health

Aim: To determine the impact of a Mediterranean diet on cardiac health among adults over 50.

• Objective 1: To assess changes in cardiovascular health metrics after following a Mediterranean diet for six months.
• Objective 2: To compare these health metrics with a similar group who follow their regular diet.
• Objective 3: To document participants’ experiences and adherence to the Mediterranean diet.

6. Field: Environmental Science

Aim: To analyze the impact of urban farming on community sustainability.

• Objective 1: To document the types and quantity of food produced through urban farming initiatives.
• Objective 2: To assess the effect of urban farming on local communities’ access to fresh produce.
• Objective 3: To examine the social dynamics and cooperative relationships in the creating and maintaining of urban farms.

7. Field: Sociology

Aim: To investigate the influence of home offices on work-life balance during remote work.

• Objective 1: To survey remote workers on their perceptions of work-life balance since setting up home offices.
• Objective 2: To conduct an observational study of daily work routines and family interactions in a home office setting.
• Objective 3: To assess the correlation, if any, between physical boundaries of workspaces and mental boundaries for work in the home setting.

8. Field: Economics

Aim: To evaluate the effects of minimum wage increases on small businesses.

• Objective 1: To analyze cost structures, pricing changes, and profitability of small businesses before and after minimum wage increases.
• Objective 2: To survey small business owners on the strategies they employ to navigate minimum wage increases.
• Objective 3: To examine employment trends in small businesses in response to wage increase legislation.

9. Field: Education

Aim: To explore the role of extracurricular activities in promoting soft skills among high school students.

• Objective 1: To assess the variety of soft skills developed through different types of extracurricular activities.
• Objective 2: To compare self-reported soft skills between students who participate in extracurricular activities and those who do not.
• Objective 3: To investigate the teachers’ perspectives on the contribution of extracurricular activities to students’ skill development.

10. Field: Technology

Aim: To assess the impact of virtual reality (VR) technology on the tourism industry.

• Objective 1: To document the types and popularity of VR experiences available in the tourism market.
• Objective 2: To survey tourists on their interest levels and satisfaction rates with VR tourism experiences.
• Objective 3: To determine whether VR tourism experiences correlate with increased interest in real-life travel to the simulated destinations.

11. Field: Biochemistry

Aim: To examine the role of antioxidants in preventing cellular damage.

• Objective 1: To identify the types and quantities of antioxidants in common fruits and vegetables.
• Objective 2: To determine the effects of various antioxidants on free radical neutralization in controlled lab tests.
• Objective 3: To investigate potential beneficial impacts of antioxidant-rich diets on long-term cellular health.

12. Field: Linguistics

Aim: To determine the influence of early exposure to multiple languages on cognitive development in children.

• Objective 1: To assess cognitive development milestones in monolingual and multilingual children.
• Objective 2: To document the number and intensity of language exposures for each group in the study.
• Objective 3: To investigate the specific cognitive advantages, if any, enjoyed by multilingual children.

13. Field: Art History

Aim: To explore the impact of the Renaissance period on modern-day art trends.

• Objective 1: To identify key characteristics and styles of Renaissance art.
• Objective 2: To analyze modern art pieces for the influence of the Renaissance style.
• Objective 3: To survey modern-day artists for their inspirations and the influence of historical art movements on their work.

14. Field: Cybersecurity

Aim: To assess the effectiveness of two-factor authentication (2FA) in preventing unauthorized system access.

• Objective 1: To measure the frequency of unauthorized access attempts before and after the introduction of 2FA.
• Objective 2: To survey users about their experiences and challenges with 2FA implementation.
• Objective 3: To evaluate the efficacy of different types of 2FA (SMS-based, authenticator apps, biometrics, etc.).

15. Field: Cultural Studies

Aim: To analyze the role of music in cultural identity formation among ethnic minorities.

• Objective 1: To document the types and frequency of traditional music practices within selected ethnic minority communities.
• Objective 2: To survey community members on the role of music in their personal and communal identity.
• Objective 3: To explore the resilience and transmission of traditional music practices in contemporary society.

16. Field: Astronomy

Aim: To explore the impact of solar activity on satellite communication.

• Objective 1: To categorize different types of solar activities and their frequencies of occurrence.
• Objective 2: To ascertain how variations in solar activity may influence satellite communication.
• Objective 3: To investigate preventative and damage-control measures currently in place during periods of high solar activity.

17. Field: Literature

Aim: To examine narrative techniques in contemporary graphic novels.

• Objective 1: To identify a range of narrative techniques employed in this genre.
• Objective 2: To analyze the ways in which these narrative techniques engage readers and affect story interpretation.
• Objective 3: To compare narrative techniques in graphic novels to those found in traditional printed novels.

18. Field: Renewable Energy

Aim: To investigate the feasibility of solar energy as a primary renewable resource within urban areas.

• Objective 1: To quantify the average sunlight hours across urban areas in different climatic zones. 
• Objective 2: To calculate the potential solar energy that could be harnessed within these areas.
• Objective 3: To identify barriers or challenges to widespread solar energy implementation in urban settings and potential solutions.

19. Field: Sports Science

Aim: To evaluate the role of pre-game rituals in athlete performance.

• Objective 1: To identify the variety and frequency of pre-game rituals among professional athletes in several sports.
• Objective 2: To measure the impact of pre-game rituals on individual athletes’ performance metrics.
• Objective 3: To examine the psychological mechanisms that might explain the effects (if any) of pre-game ritual on performance.

20. Field: Ecology

Aim: To investigate the effects of urban noise pollution on bird populations.

• Objective 1: To record and quantify urban noise levels in various bird habitats.
• Objective 2: To measure bird population densities in relation to noise levels.
• Objective 3: To determine any changes in bird behavior or vocalization linked to noise levels.

21. Field: Food Science

Aim: To examine the influence of cooking methods on the nutritional value of vegetables.

• Objective 1: To identify the nutrient content of various vegetables both raw and after different cooking processes.
• Objective 2: To compare the effect of various cooking methods on the nutrient retention of these vegetables.
• Objective 3: To propose cooking strategies that optimize nutrient retention.

The Importance of Research Objectives

The importance of research objectives cannot be overstated. In essence, these guideposts articulate what the researcher aims to discover, understand, or examine (Kothari, 2014).

When drafting research objectives, it’s essential to make them simple and comprehensible, specific to the point of being quantifiable where possible, achievable in a practical sense, relevant to the chosen research question, and time-constrained to ensure efficient progress (Kumar, 2019). 

Remember that a good research objective is integral to the success of your project, offering a clear path forward for setting out a research design , and serving as the bedrock of your study plan. Each objective must distinctly address a different dimension of your research question or problem (Kothari, 2014). Always bear in mind that the ultimate purpose of your research objectives is to succinctly encapsulate your aims in the clearest way possible, facilitating a coherent, comprehensive and rational approach to your planned study, and furnishing a scientific roadmap for your journey into the depths of knowledge and research (Kumar, 2019). 

Kothari, C.R (2014). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques . New Delhi: New Age International.

Kumar, R. (2019). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners .New York: SAGE Publications.

Doran, G. T. (1981). There’s a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management’s goals and objectives. Management review, 70 (11), 35-36.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013). New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance . New York: Routledge.

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• Aims and Objectives – A Guide for Academic Writing
• Doing a PhD

One of the most important aspects of a thesis, dissertation or research paper is the correct formulation of the aims and objectives. This is because your aims and objectives will establish the scope, depth and direction that your research will ultimately take. An effective set of aims and objectives will give your research focus and your reader clarity, with your aims indicating what is to be achieved, and your objectives indicating how it will be achieved.

Introduction

There is no getting away from the importance of the aims and objectives in determining the success of your research project. Unfortunately, however, it is an aspect that many students struggle with, and ultimately end up doing poorly. Given their importance, if you suspect that there is even the smallest possibility that you belong to this group of students, we strongly recommend you read this page in full.

This page describes what research aims and objectives are, how they differ from each other, how to write them correctly, and the common mistakes students make and how to avoid them. An example of a good aim and objectives from a past thesis has also been deconstructed to help your understanding.

What Are Aims and Objectives?

Research aims.

A research aim describes the main goal or the overarching purpose of your research project.

In doing so, it acts as a focal point for your research and provides your readers with clarity as to what your study is all about. Because of this, research aims are almost always located within its own subsection under the introduction section of a research document, regardless of whether it’s a thesis , a dissertation, or a research paper .

A research aim is usually formulated as a broad statement of the main goal of the research and can range in length from a single sentence to a short paragraph. Although the exact format may vary according to preference, they should all describe why your research is needed (i.e. the context), what it sets out to accomplish (the actual aim) and, briefly, how it intends to accomplish it (overview of your objectives).

To give an example, we have extracted the following research aim from a real PhD thesis:

Example of a Research Aim

The role of diametrical cup deformation as a factor to unsatisfactory implant performance has not been widely reported. The aim of this thesis was to gain an understanding of the diametrical deformation behaviour of acetabular cups and shells following impaction into the reamed acetabulum. The influence of a range of factors on deformation was investigated to ascertain if cup and shell deformation may be high enough to potentially contribute to early failure and high wear rates in metal-on-metal implants.

Note: Extracted with permission from thesis titled “T he Impact And Deformation Of Press-Fit Metal Acetabular Components ” produced by Dr H Hothi of previously Queen Mary University of London.

Research Objectives

Where a research aim specifies what your study will answer, research objectives specify how your study will answer it.

They divide your research aim into several smaller parts, each of which represents a key section of your research project. As a result, almost all research objectives take the form of a numbered list, with each item usually receiving its own chapter in a dissertation or thesis.

Following the example of the research aim shared above, here are it’s real research objectives as an example:

Example of a Research Objective

• Develop finite element models using explicit dynamics to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion, initially using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum.
• Investigate the number, velocity and position of impacts needed to insert a cup.
• Determine the relationship between the size of interference between the cup and cavity and deformation for different cup types.
• Investigate the influence of non-uniform cup support and varying the orientation of the component in the cavity on deformation.
• Examine the influence of errors during reaming of the acetabulum which introduce ovality to the cavity.
• Determine the relationship between changes in the geometry of the component and deformation for different cup designs.
• Develop three dimensional pelvis models with non-uniform bone material properties from a range of patients with varying bone quality.
• Use the key parameters that influence deformation, as identified in the foam models to determine the range of deformations that may occur clinically using the anatomic models and if these deformations are clinically significant.

It’s worth noting that researchers sometimes use research questions instead of research objectives, or in other cases both. From a high-level perspective, research questions and research objectives make the same statements, but just in different formats.

Taking the first three research objectives as an example, they can be restructured into research questions as follows:

Restructuring Research Objectives as Research Questions

• Can finite element models using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum together with explicit dynamics be used to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion?
• What is the number, velocity and position of impacts needed to insert a cup?
• What is the relationship between the size of interference between the cup and cavity and deformation for different cup types?

Difference Between Aims and Objectives

Hopefully the above explanations make clear the differences between aims and objectives, but to clarify:

• The research aim focus on what the research project is intended to achieve; research objectives focus on how the aim will be achieved.
• Research aims are relatively broad; research objectives are specific.
• Research aims focus on a project’s long-term outcomes; research objectives focus on its immediate, short-term outcomes.
• A research aim can be written in a single sentence or short paragraph; research objectives should be written as a numbered list.

How to Write Aims and Objectives

Before we discuss how to write a clear set of research aims and objectives, we should make it clear that there is no single way they must be written. Each researcher will approach their aims and objectives slightly differently, and often your supervisor will influence the formulation of yours on the basis of their own preferences.

Regardless, there are some basic principles that you should observe for good practice; these principles are described below.

Your aim should be made up of three parts that answer the below questions:

• Why is this research required?
• What is this research about?
• How are you going to do it?

The easiest way to achieve this would be to address each question in its own sentence, although it does not matter whether you combine them or write multiple sentences for each, the key is to address each one.

The first question, why , provides context to your research project, the second question, what , describes the aim of your research, and the last question, how , acts as an introduction to your objectives which will immediately follow.

Scroll through the image set below to see the ‘why, what and how’ associated with our research aim example.

Note: Your research aims need not be limited to one. Some individuals per to define one broad ‘overarching aim’ of a project and then adopt two or three specific research aims for their thesis or dissertation. Remember, however, that in order for your assessors to consider your research project complete, you will need to prove you have fulfilled all of the aims you set out to achieve. Therefore, while having more than one research aim is not necessarily disadvantageous, consider whether a single overarching one will do.

Research Objectives

Each of your research objectives should be SMART :

• Specific – is there any ambiguity in the action you are going to undertake, or is it focused and well-defined?
• Measurable – how will you measure progress and determine when you have achieved the action?
• Achievable – do you have the support, resources and facilities required to carry out the action?
• Relevant – is the action essential to the achievement of your research aim?
• Timebound – can you realistically complete the action in the available time alongside your other research tasks?

In addition to being SMART, your research objectives should start with a verb that helps communicate your intent. Common research verbs include:

Table of Research Verbs to Use in Aims and Objectives

Last, format your objectives into a numbered list. This is because when you write your thesis or dissertation, you will at times need to make reference to a specific research objective; structuring your research objectives in a numbered list will provide a clear way of doing this.

To bring all this together, let’s compare the first research objective in the previous example with the above guidance:

Checking Research Objective Example Against Recommended Approach

Research Objective:

1. Develop finite element models using explicit dynamics to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion, initially using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum.

Checking Against Recommended Approach:

Q: Is it specific? A: Yes, it is clear what the student intends to do (produce a finite element model), why they intend to do it (mimic cup/shell blows) and their parameters have been well-defined ( using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum ).

Q: Is it measurable? A: Yes, it is clear that the research objective will be achieved once the finite element model is complete.

Q: Is it achievable? A: Yes, provided the student has access to a computer lab, modelling software and laboratory data.

Q: Is it relevant? A: Yes, mimicking impacts to a cup/shell is fundamental to the overall aim of understanding how they deform when impacted upon.

Q: Is it timebound? A: Yes, it is possible to create a limited-scope finite element model in a relatively short time, especially if you already have experience in modelling.

Q: Does it start with a verb? A: Yes, it starts with ‘develop’, which makes the intent of the objective immediately clear.

Q: Is it a numbered list? A: Yes, it is the first research objective in a list of eight.

Mistakes in Writing Research Aims and Objectives

1. making your research aim too broad.

Having a research aim too broad becomes very difficult to achieve. Normally, this occurs when a student develops their research aim before they have a good understanding of what they want to research. Remember that at the end of your project and during your viva defence , you will have to prove that you have achieved your research aims; if they are too broad, this will be an almost impossible task. In the early stages of your research project, your priority should be to narrow your study to a specific area. A good way to do this is to take the time to study existing literature, question their current approaches, findings and limitations, and consider whether there are any recurring gaps that could be investigated .

Note: Achieving a set of aims does not necessarily mean proving or disproving a theory or hypothesis, even if your research aim was to, but having done enough work to provide a useful and original insight into the principles that underlie your research aim.

2. Making Your Research Objectives Too Ambitious

Be realistic about what you can achieve in the time you have available. It is natural to want to set ambitious research objectives that require sophisticated data collection and analysis, but only completing this with six months before the end of your PhD registration period is not a worthwhile trade-off.

3. Formulating Repetitive Research Objectives

Each research objective should have its own purpose and distinct measurable outcome. To this effect, a common mistake is to form research objectives which have large amounts of overlap. This makes it difficult to determine when an objective is truly complete, and also presents challenges in estimating the duration of objectives when creating your project timeline. It also makes it difficult to structure your thesis into unique chapters, making it more challenging for you to write and for your audience to read.

Fortunately, this oversight can be easily avoided by using SMART objectives.

Hopefully, you now have a good idea of how to create an effective set of aims and objectives for your research project, whether it be a thesis, dissertation or research paper. While it may be tempting to dive directly into your research, spending time on getting your aims and objectives right will give your research clear direction. This won’t only reduce the likelihood of problems arising later down the line, but will also lead to a more thorough and coherent research project.

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Research Aims, Objectives & Questions

The “Golden Thread” Explained Simply (+ Examples)

By: David Phair (PhD) and Alexandra Shaeffer (PhD) | June 2022

The research aims , objectives and research questions (collectively called the “golden thread”) are arguably the most important thing you need to get right when you’re crafting a research proposal , dissertation or thesis . We receive questions almost every day about this “holy trinity” of research and there’s certainly a lot of confusion out there, so we’ve crafted this post to help you navigate your way through the fog.

Overview: The Golden Thread

• What is the golden thread
• What are research aims ( examples )
• What are research objectives ( examples )
• What are research questions ( examples )
• The importance of alignment in the golden thread

What is the “golden thread”?  

The golden thread simply refers to the collective research aims , research objectives , and research questions for any given project (i.e., a dissertation, thesis, or research paper ). These three elements are bundled together because it’s extremely important that they align with each other, and that the entire research project aligns with them.

Importantly, the golden thread needs to weave its way through the entirety of any research project , from start to end. In other words, it needs to be very clearly defined right at the beginning of the project (the topic ideation and proposal stage) and it needs to inform almost every decision throughout the rest of the project. For example, your research design and methodology will be heavily influenced by the golden thread (we’ll explain this in more detail later), as well as your literature review.

The research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread) define the focus and scope ( the delimitations ) of your research project. In other words, they help ringfence your dissertation or thesis to a relatively narrow domain, so that you can “go deep” and really dig into a specific problem or opportunity. They also help keep you on track , as they act as a litmus test for relevance. In other words, if you’re ever unsure whether to include something in your document, simply ask yourself the question, “does this contribute toward my research aims, objectives or questions?”. If it doesn’t, chances are you can drop it.

Alright, enough of the fluffy, conceptual stuff. Let’s get down to business and look at what exactly the research aims, objectives and questions are and outline a few examples to bring these concepts to life.

Research Aims: What are they?

Simply put, the research aim(s) is a statement that reflects the broad overarching goal (s) of the research project. Research aims are fairly high-level (low resolution) as they outline the general direction of the research and what it’s trying to achieve .

Research Aims: Examples  

True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording “this research aims to…”, “this research seeks to…”, and so on. For example:

“This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.”   “This study sets out to assess the interaction between student support and self-care on well-being in engineering graduate students”  

As you can see, these research aims provide a high-level description of what the study is about and what it seeks to achieve. They’re not hyper-specific or action-oriented, but they’re clear about what the study’s focus is and what is being investigated.

Need a helping hand?

Research Objectives: What are they?

The research objectives take the research aims and make them more practical and actionable . In other words, the research objectives showcase the steps that the researcher will take to achieve the research aims.

The research objectives need to be far more specific (higher resolution) and actionable than the research aims. In fact, it’s always a good idea to craft your research objectives using the “SMART” criteria. In other words, they should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound”.

Research Objectives: Examples  

Let’s look at two examples of research objectives. We’ll stick with the topic and research aims we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic:

To observe the retail HR employees throughout the digital transformation. To assess employee perceptions of digital transformation in retail HR. To identify the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR.

And for the student wellness topic:

To determine whether student self-care predicts the well-being score of engineering graduate students. To determine whether student support predicts the well-being score of engineering students. To assess the interaction between student self-care and student support when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students.

  As you can see, these research objectives clearly align with the previously mentioned research aims and effectively translate the low-resolution aims into (comparatively) higher-resolution objectives and action points . They give the research project a clear focus and present something that resembles a research-based “to-do” list.

Research Questions: What are they?

Finally, we arrive at the all-important research questions. The research questions are, as the name suggests, the key questions that your study will seek to answer . Simply put, they are the core purpose of your dissertation, thesis, or research project. You’ll present them at the beginning of your document (either in the introduction chapter or literature review chapter) and you’ll answer them at the end of your document (typically in the discussion and conclusion chapters).  

The research questions will be the driving force throughout the research process. For example, in the literature review chapter, you’ll assess the relevance of any given resource based on whether it helps you move towards answering your research questions. Similarly, your methodology and research design will be heavily influenced by the nature of your research questions. For instance, research questions that are exploratory in nature will usually make use of a qualitative approach, whereas questions that relate to measurement or relationship testing will make use of a quantitative approach.  

Let’s look at some examples of research questions to make this more tangible.

Research Questions: Examples  

Again, we’ll stick with the research aims and research objectives we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic (which would be qualitative in nature):

How do employees perceive digital transformation in retail HR? What are the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR?  

And for the student wellness topic (which would be quantitative in nature):

Does student self-care predict the well-being scores of engineering graduate students? Does student support predict the well-being scores of engineering students? Do student self-care and student support interact when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students?  

You’ll probably notice that there’s quite a formulaic approach to this. In other words, the research questions are basically the research objectives “converted” into question format. While that is true most of the time, it’s not always the case. For example, the first research objective for the digital transformation topic was more or less a step on the path toward the other objectives, and as such, it didn’t warrant its own research question.  

So, don’t rush your research questions and sloppily reword your objectives as questions. Carefully think about what exactly you’re trying to achieve (i.e. your research aim) and the objectives you’ve set out, then craft a set of well-aligned research questions . Also, keep in mind that this can be a somewhat iterative process , where you go back and tweak research objectives and aims to ensure tight alignment throughout the golden thread.

The importance of strong alignment 

Alignment is the keyword here and we have to stress its importance . Simply put, you need to make sure that there is a very tight alignment between all three pieces of the golden thread. If your research aims and research questions don’t align, for example, your project will be pulling in different directions and will lack focus . This is a common problem students face and can cause many headaches (and tears), so be warned.

Take the time to carefully craft your research aims, objectives and research questions before you run off down the research path. Ideally, get your research supervisor/advisor to review and comment on your golden thread before you invest significant time into your project, and certainly before you start collecting data .  

Recap: The golden thread

In this post, we unpacked the golden thread of research, consisting of the research aims , research objectives and research questions . You can jump back to any section using the links below.

As always, feel free to leave a comment below – we always love to hear from you. Also, if you’re interested in 1-on-1 support, take a look at our private coaching service here.

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39 Comments

Thank you very much for your great effort put. As an Undergraduate taking Demographic Research & Methodology, I’ve been trying so hard to understand clearly what is a Research Question, Research Aim and the Objectives in a research and the relationship between them etc. But as for now I’m thankful that you’ve solved my problem.

Well appreciated. This has helped me greatly in doing my dissertation.

An so delighted with this wonderful information thank you a lot.

so impressive i have benefited a lot looking forward to learn more on research.

I am very happy to have carefully gone through this well researched article.

Infact,I used to be phobia about anything research, because of my poor understanding of the concepts.

Now,I get to know that my research question is the same as my research objective(s) rephrased in question format.

I please I would need a follow up on the subject,as I intends to join the team of researchers. Thanks once again.

Thanks so much. This was really helpful.

I know you pepole have tried to break things into more understandable and easy format. And God bless you. Keep it up

i found this document so useful towards my study in research methods. thanks so much.

This is my 2nd read topic in your course and I should commend the simplified explanations of each part. I’m beginning to understand and absorb the use of each part of a dissertation/thesis. I’ll keep on reading your free course and might be able to avail the training course! Kudos!

Thank you! Better put that my lecture and helped to easily understand the basics which I feel often get brushed over when beginning dissertation work.

This is quite helpful. I like how the Golden thread has been explained and the needed alignment.

This is quite helpful. I really appreciate!

The article made it simple for researcher students to differentiate between three concepts.

Very innovative and educational in approach to conducting research.

I am very impressed with all these terminology, as I am a fresh student for post graduate, I am highly guided and I promised to continue making consultation when the need arise. Thanks a lot.

A very helpful piece. thanks, I really appreciate it .

Very well explained, and it might be helpful to many people like me.

Wish i had found this (and other) resource(s) at the beginning of my PhD journey… not in my writing up year… 😩 Anyways… just a quick question as i’m having some issues ordering my “golden thread”…. does it matter in what order you mention them? i.e., is it always first aims, then objectives, and finally the questions? or can you first mention the research questions and then the aims and objectives?

Thank you for a very simple explanation that builds upon the concepts in a very logical manner. Just prior to this, I read the research hypothesis article, which was equally very good. This met my primary objective.

My secondary objective was to understand the difference between research questions and research hypothesis, and in which context to use which one. However, I am still not clear on this. Can you kindly please guide?

In research, a research question is a clear and specific inquiry that the researcher wants to answer, while a research hypothesis is a tentative statement or prediction about the relationship between variables or the expected outcome of the study. Research questions are broader and guide the overall study, while hypotheses are specific and testable statements used in quantitative research. Research questions identify the problem, while hypotheses provide a focus for testing in the study.

Exactly what I need in this research journey, I look forward to more of your coaching videos.

This helped a lot. Thanks so much for the effort put into explaining it.

What data source in writing dissertation/Thesis requires?

What is data source covers when writing dessertation/thesis

This is quite useful thanks

I’m excited and thankful. I got so much value which will help me progress in my thesis.

where are the locations of the reserch statement, research objective and research question in a reserach paper? Can you write an ouline that defines their places in the researh paper?

Very helpful and important tips on Aims, Objectives and Questions.

Thank you so much for making research aim, research objectives and research question so clear. This will be helpful to me as i continue with my thesis.

Thanks much for this content. I learned a lot. And I am inspired to learn more. I am still struggling with my preparation for dissertation outline/proposal. But I consistently follow contents and tutorials and the new FB of GRAD Coach. Hope to really become confident in writing my dissertation and successfully defend it.

As a researcher and lecturer, I find splitting research goals into research aims, objectives, and questions is unnecessarily bureaucratic and confusing for students. For most biomedical research projects, including ‘real research’, 1-3 research questions will suffice (numbers may differ by discipline).

Awesome! Very important resources and presented in an informative way to easily understand the golden thread. Indeed, thank you so much.

Well explained

The blog article on research aims, objectives, and questions by Grad Coach is a clear and insightful guide that aligns with my experiences in academic research. The article effectively breaks down the often complex concepts of research aims and objectives, providing a straightforward and accessible explanation. Drawing from my own research endeavors, I appreciate the practical tips offered, such as the need for specificity and clarity when formulating research questions. The article serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers, offering a concise roadmap for crafting well-defined research goals and objectives. Whether you’re a novice or an experienced researcher, this article provides practical insights that contribute to the foundational aspects of a successful research endeavor.

A great thanks for you. it is really amazing explanation. I grasp a lot and one step up to research knowledge.

I really found these tips helpful. Thank you very much Grad Coach.

I found this article helpful. Thanks for sharing this.

thank you so much, the explanation and examples are really helpful

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• Writing Tips

How to Write Research Objectives

3-minute read

• 22nd November 2021

Writing a research paper, thesis, or dissertation ? If so, you’ll want to state your research objectives in the introduction of your paper to make it clear to your readers what you’re trying to accomplish. But how do you write effective research objectives? In this post, we’ll look at two key topics to help you do this:

• How to use your research aims as a basis for developing objectives.
• How to use SMART criteria to refine your research objectives.

For more advice on how to write strong research objectives, see below.

Research Aims and Objectives

There is an important difference between research aims and research objectives:

• A research aim defines the main purpose of your research. As such, you can think of your research aim as answering the question “What are you doing?”
• Research objectives (as most studies will have more than one) are the steps you will take to fulfil your aims. As such, your objectives should answer the question “How are you conducting your research?”

For instance, an example research aim could be:

This study will investigate the link between dehydration and the incidence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in intensive care patients in Australia.

To develop a set of research objectives, you would then break down the various steps involved in meeting said aim. For example:

This study will investigate the link between dehydration and the incidence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in intensive care patients in Australia. To achieve this, the study objectives w ill include:

• Replicat ing a small Singaporean study into the role of dehydration in UTIs in hospital patients (Sepe, 2018) in a larger Australian cohort.
• Trialing the use of intravenous fluids for intensive care patients to prevent dehydration.
• Assessing the relationship between the age of patients and quantities of intravenous fluids needed to counter dehydration.

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Note that the objectives don’t go into any great detail here. The key is to briefly summarize each component of your study. You can save details for how you will conduct the research for the methodology section of your paper.

Make Your Research Objectives SMART

A great way to refine your research objectives is to use SMART criteria . Borrowed from the world of project management, there are many versions of this system. However, we’re going to focus on developing specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and timebound objectives.

In other words, a good research objective should be all of the following:

• S pecific – Is the objective clear and well-defined?
• M easurable – How will you know when the objective has been achieved? Is there a way to measure the thing you’re seeking to do?
• A chievable – Do you have the support and resources necessary to undertake this action? Are you being overly ambitious with this objective?
• R elevant – Is this objective vital for fulfilling your research aim?
• T imebound – Can this action be realistically undertaken in the time you have?

If you follow this system, your research objectives will be much stronger.

Expert Research Proofreading

Whatever your research aims and objectives, make sure to have your academic writing proofread by the experts!

Our academic editors can help you with research papers and proposals , as well as any other scholarly document you need checking. And this will help to ensure that your academic writing is always clear, concise, and precise.

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• Defining Research Objectives: How To  Write Them

Almost all industries use research for growth and development. Research objectives are how researchers ensure that their study has direction and makes a significant contribution to growing an industry or niche.

Research objectives provide a clear and concise statement of what the researcher wants to find out. As a researcher, you need to clearly outline and define research objectives to guide the research process and ensure that the study is relevant and generates the impact you want.

In this article, we will explore research objectives and how to leverage them to achieve successful research studies.

What Are Research Objectives?

Research objectives are what you want to achieve through your research study. They guide your research process and help you focus on the most important aspects of your topic.

You can also define the scope of your study and set realistic and attainable study goals with research objectives. For example, with clear research objectives, your study focuses on the specific goals you want to achieve and prevents you from spending time and resources collecting unnecessary data.

However, sticking to research objectives isn’t always easy, especially in broad or unconventional research. This is why most researchers follow the SMART criteria when defining their research objectives.

Understanding SMART Criteria in Research

Think of research objectives as a roadmap to achieving your research goals, with the SMART criteria as your navigator on the map.

SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. These criteria help you ensure that your research objectives are clear, specific, realistic, meaningful, and time-bound.

Here’s a breakdown of the SMART Criteria:

Specific : Your research objectives should be clear: what do you want to achieve, why do you want to achieve it, and how do you plan to achieve it? Avoid vague or broad statements that don’t provide enough direction for your research.

Measurable : Your research objectives should have metrics that help you track your progress and measure your results. Also, ensure the metrics are measurable with data to verify them.

Achievable : Your research objectives should be within your research scope, timeframe, and budget. Also, set goals that are challenging but not impossible.

Relevant: Your research objectives should be in line with the goal and significance of your study. Also, ensure that the objectives address a specific issue or knowledge gap that is interesting and relevant to your industry or niche.

Time-bound : Your research objectives should have a specific deadline or timeframe for completion. This will help you carefully set a schedule for your research activities and milestones and monitor your study progress.

Characteristics of Effective Research Objectives

Clarity : Your objectives should be clear and unambiguous so that anyone who reads them can understand what you intend to do. Avoid vague or general terms that could be taken out of context.

Specificity : Your objectives should be specific and address the research questions that you have formulated. Do not use broad or narrow objectives as they may restrict your field of research or make your research irrelevant.

Measurability : Define your metrics with indicators or metrics that help you determine if you’ve accomplished your goals or not. This will ensure you are tracking the research progress and making interventions when needed.

Also, do use objectives that are subjective or based on personal opinions, as they may be difficult to accurately verify and measure.

Achievability : Your objectives should be realistic and attainable, given the resources and time available for your research project. You should set objectives that match your skills and capabilities, they can be difficult but not so hard that they are realistically unachievable.

For example, setting very difficult make you lose confidence, and abandon your research. Also, setting very simple objectives could demotivate you and prevent you from closing the knowledge gap or making significant contributions to your field with your research.

Relevance : Your objectives should be relevant to your research topic and contribute to the existing knowledge in your field. Avoid objectives that are unrelated or insignificant, as they may waste your time or resources.

Time-bound : Your objectives should be time-bound and specify when you will complete them. Have a realistic and flexible timeframe for achieving your objectives, and track your progress with it. 

Steps to Writing Research Objectives

Identify the research questions.

The first step in writing effective research objectives is to identify the research questions that you are trying to answer. Research questions help you narrow down your topic and identify the gaps or problems that you want to address with your research.

For example, if you are interested in the impact of technology on children’s development, your research questions could be:

• What is the relationship between technology use and academic performance among children?
• Are children who use technology more likely to do better in school than those who do not?
• What is the social and psychological impact of technology use on children?

Brainstorm Objectives

Once you have your research questions, you can brainstorm possible objectives that relate to them. Objectives are more specific than research questions, and they tell you what you want to achieve or learn in your research.

You can use verbs such as analyze, compare, evaluate, explore, investigate, etc. to express your objectives. Also, try to generate as many objectives as possible, without worrying about their quality or feasibility at this stage.

Prioritize Objectives

Once you’ve brainstormed your objectives, you’ll need to prioritize them based on their relevance and feasibility. Relevance is how relevant the objective is to your research topic and how well it fits into your overall research objective.

Feasibility is how realistic and feasible the objective is compared to the time, money, and expertise you have. You can create a matrix or ranking system to organize your objectives and pick the ones that matter the most.

Refine Objectives

The next step is to refine and revise your objectives to ensure clarity and specificity. Start by ensuring that your objectives are consistent and coherent with each other and with your research questions. 

Make Objectives SMART

A useful way to refine your objectives is to make them SMART, which stands for specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound. 

• Specific : Objectives should clearly state what you hope to achieve.
• Measurable : They should be able to be quantified or evaluated.
• Achievable : realistic and within the scope of the research study.
• Relevant : They should be directly related to the research questions.
• Time-bound : specific timeframe for research completion.

Review and Finalize Objectives

The final step is to review your objectives for coherence and alignment with your research questions and aim. Ensure your objectives are logically connected and consistent with each other and with the purpose of your study.

You also need to check that your objectives are not too broad or too narrow, too easy or too hard, too many or too few. You can use a checklist or a rubric to evaluate your objectives and make modifications.

Examples of Well-Written Research Objectives

Example 1- Psychology

Research question: What are the effects of social media use on teenagers’ mental health?

Objective : To determine the relationship between the amount of time teenagers in the US spend on social media and their levels of anxiety and depression before and after using social media.

What Makes the Research Objective SMART?

The research objective is specific because it clearly states what the researcher hopes to achieve. It is measurable because it can be quantified by measuring the levels of anxiety and depression in teenagers. 

Also, the objective is achievable because the researcher can collect enough data to answer the research question. It is relevant because it is directly related to the research question. It is time-bound because it has a specific deadline for completion.

Example 2- Marketing

Research question : How can a company increase its brand awareness by 10%?

Objective : To develop a marketing strategy that will increase the company’s sales by 10% within the next quarter.

How Is this Research Objective SMART?

The research states what the researcher hopes to achieve ( Specific ). You can also measure the company’s reach before and after the marketing plan is implemented ( Measurable ).

The research objective is also achievable because you can develop a marketing plan that will increase awareness by 10% within the timeframe. The objective is directly related to the research question ( Relevant ). It is also time-bound because it has a specific deadline for completion.

Research objectives are a well-designed roadmap to completing and achieving your overall research goal. 

However, research goals are only effective if they are well-defined and backed up with the best practices such as the SMART criteria. Properly defining research objectives will help you plan and conduct your research project effectively and efficiently.

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Crafting Clear Pathways: Writing Objectives in Research Papers

Struggling to write research objectives? Follow our easy steps to learn how to craft effective and compelling objectives in research papers.

Are you struggling to define the goals and direction of your research? Are you losing yourself while doing research and tend to go astray from the intended research topic? Fear not, as many face the same problem and it is quite understandable to overcome this, a concept called research objective comes into play here.

In this article, we’ll delve into the world of the objectives in research papers and why they are essential for a successful study. We will be studying what they are and how they are used in research.

What is a Research Objective?

A research objective is a clear and specific goal that a researcher aims to achieve through a research study. It serves as a roadmap for the research, providing direction and focus. Research objectives are formulated based on the research questions or hypotheses, and they help in defining the scope of the study and guiding the research design and methodology. They also assist in evaluating the success and outcomes of the research.

Types of Research Objectives

There are typically three main types of objectives in a research paper:

• Exploratory Objectives: These objectives are focused on gaining a deeper understanding of a particular phenomenon, topic, or issue. Exploratory research objectives aim to explore and identify new ideas, insights, or patterns that were previously unknown or poorly understood. This type of objective is commonly used in preliminary or qualitative studies.
• Descriptive Objectives: Descriptive objectives seek to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors, or attributes of a specific population, event, or phenomenon. The purpose is to provide a comprehensive and accurate account of the subject of study. Descriptive research objectives often involve collecting and analyzing data through surveys, observations, or archival research.
• Explanatory or Causal Objectives: Explanatory objectives aim to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables or factors. These objectives focus on understanding why certain events or phenomena occur and how they are related to each other. 

Also Read: What are the types of research?

Steps for Writing Objectives in Research Paper

1. identify the research topic:.

Clearly define the subject or topic of your research. This will provide a broad context for developing specific research objectives.

2. Conduct a Literature Review

Review existing literature and research related to your topic. This will help you understand the current state of knowledge, identify any research gaps, and refine your research objectives accordingly.

3. Identify the Research Questions or Hypotheses

Formulate specific research questions or hypotheses that you want to address in your study. These questions should be directly related to your research topic and guide the development of your research objectives.

4. Focus on Specific Goals

Break down the broader research questions or hypothesis into specific goals or objectives. Each objective should focus on a particular aspect of your research topic and be achievable within the scope of your study.

5. Use Clear and Measurable Language

Write your research objectives using clear and precise language. Avoid vague terms and use specific and measurable terms that can be observed, analyzed, or measured.

6. Consider Feasibility

Ensure that your research objectives are feasible within the available resources, time constraints, and ethical considerations. They should be realistic and attainable given the limitations of your study.

7. Prioritize Objectives

If you have multiple research objectives, prioritize them based on their importance and relevance to your overall research goals. This will help you allocate resources and focus your efforts accordingly.

8. Review and Refine

Review your research objectives to ensure they align with your research questions or hypotheses, and revise them if necessary. Seek feedback from peers or advisors to ensure clarity and coherence.

Tips for Writing Objectives in Research Paper

1. be clear and specific.

Clearly state what you intend to achieve with your research. Use specific language that leaves no room for ambiguity or confusion. This ensures that your objectives are well-defined and focused.

2. Use Action Verbs

Begin each research objective with an action verb that describes a measurable action or outcome. This helps make your objectives more actionable and measurable.

3. Align with Research Questions or Hypotheses

Your research objectives should directly address the research questions or hypotheses you have formulated. Ensure there is a clear connection between them to maintain coherence in your study.

4. Be Realistic and Feasible

Set research objectives that are attainable within the constraints of your study, including available resources, time, and ethical considerations. Unrealistic objectives may undermine the validity and reliability of your research.

5. Consider Relevance and Significance

Your research objectives should be relevant to your research topic and contribute to the broader field of study. Consider the potential impact and significance of achieving the objectives.

SMART Goals for Writing Research Objectives

To ensure that your research objectives are well-defined and effectively guide your study, you can apply the SMART framework. SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. Here’s how you can make your research objectives SMART:

• Specific : Clearly state what you want to achieve in a precise and specific manner. Avoid vague or generalized language. Specify the population, variables, or phenomena of interest.
• Measurable : Ensure that your research objectives can be quantified or observed in a measurable way. This allows for objective evaluation and assessment of progress.
• Achievable : Set research objectives that are realistic and attainable within the available resources, time, and scope of your study. Consider the feasibility of conducting the research and collecting the necessary data.
• Relevant : Ensure that your research objectives are directly relevant to your research topic and contribute to the broader knowledge or understanding of the field. They should align with the purpose and significance of your study.
• Time-bound : Set a specific timeframe or deadline for achieving your research objectives. This helps create a sense of urgency and provides a clear timeline for your study.

Examples of Research Objectives

Here are some examples of research objectives from various fields of study:

• To examine the relationship between social media usage and self-esteem among young adults aged 18-25 in order to understand the potential impact on mental well-being.
• To assess the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based intervention in reducing stress levels and improving coping mechanisms among individuals diagnosed with anxiety disorders.
• To investigate the factors influencing consumer purchasing decisions in the e-commerce industry, with a focus on the role of online reviews and social media influencers.
• To analyze the effects of climate change on the biodiversity of coral reefs in a specific region, using remote sensing techniques and field surveys.

Importance of Research Objectives

Research objectives play a crucial role in the research process and hold significant importance for several reasons:

• Guiding the Research Process: Research objectives provide a clear roadmap for the entire research process. They help researchers stay focused and on track, ensuring that the study remains purposeful and relevant. 
• Defining the Scope of the Study: Research objectives help in determining the boundaries and scope of the study. They clarify what aspects of the research topic will be explored and what will be excluded. 
• Providing Direction for Data Collection and Analysis: Research objectives assist in identifying the type of data to be collected and the methods of data collection. They also guide the selection of appropriate data analysis techniques. 
• Evaluating the Success of the Study: Research objectives serve as benchmarks for evaluating the success and outcomes of the research. They provide measurable criteria against which the researcher can assess whether the objectives have been met or not. 
• Enhancing Communication and Collaboration: Clearly defined research objectives facilitate effective communication and collaboration among researchers, advisors, and stakeholders. 

Common Mistakes to Avoid While Writing Research Objectives

When writing research objectives, it’s important to be aware of common mistakes and pitfalls that can undermine the effectiveness and clarity of your objectives. Here are some common mistakes to avoid:

• Vague or Ambiguous Language: One of the key mistakes is using vague or ambiguous language that lacks specificity. Ensure that your research objectives are clearly and precisely stated, leaving no room for misinterpretation or confusion.
• Lack of Measurability: Research objectives should be measurable, meaning that they should allow for the collection of data or evidence that can be quantified or observed. Avoid setting objectives that cannot be measured or assessed objectively.
• Lack of Alignment with Research Questions or Hypotheses: Your research objectives should directly align with the research questions or hypotheses you have formulated. Make sure there is a clear connection between them to maintain coherence in your study.
• Overgeneralization : Avoid writing research objectives that are too broad or encompass too many variables or phenomena. Overgeneralized objectives may lead to a lack of focus or feasibility in conducting the research.
• Unrealistic or Unattainable Objectives: Ensure that your research objectives are realistic and attainable within the available resources, time, and scope of your study. Setting unrealistic objectives may compromise the validity and reliability of your research.

In conclusion, research objectives are integral to the success and effectiveness of any research study. They provide a clear direction, focus, and purpose, guiding the entire research process from start to finish. By formulating specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound objectives, researchers can define the scope of their study, guide data collection and analysis, and evaluate the outcomes of their research.

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About Sowjanya Pedada

Sowjanya is a passionate writer and an avid reader. She holds MBA in Agribusiness Management and now is working as a content writer. She loves to play with words and hopes to make a difference in the world through her writings. Apart from writing, she is interested in reading fiction novels and doing craftwork. She also loves to travel and explore different cuisines and spend time with her family and friends.

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How to Write Objectives in a Research Proposal

Last Updated: April 30, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Felipe Corredor . Felipe is a Senior College Admissions Consultant at American College Counselors with over seven years of experience. He specializes in helping clients from all around the world gain admission into America's top universities through private, one-on-one consulting. He helps guide clients through the entire college admissions process and perfect every aspect of their college applications. Felipe earned a Bachelor's Degree from the University of Chicago and recently received his MBA. There are 9 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 127,125 times.

A research proposal is a detailed outline for a significant research project. They’re common for class assignments, capstone papers, grant applications, and even job applications in some fields, so it's possible you'll have to prepare one at some point. The objectives are a very important part of a research proposal because they outline where the project is headed and what it will accomplish. Developing objectives can be a little tricky, so take some time to consider them. Then work on wording them carefully so your readers understand your goals. With clear objectives, your research proposal will be much stronger.

Brainstorming Your Objectives

• For example, your research question might be “What is the effect of prolonged TV-watching on children?” You can then use that question to build your study around.
• Narrow down your research topic if it’s too broad. A broad research topic makes breaking the objectives down much more difficult. A research question like “How can we save the environment?” is a huge question. Something like “What safety measures would prevent ocean pollution?” is more specific and attainable. [2] X Research source

• Remember that in most cases, you shouldn’t state that your study will prove or disprove something exactly since you haven’t done the work yet. Don’t say “This study proves that honey is not an effective treatment for acne.” Instead, make it something like “This study will demonstrate whether or not honey is an effective treatment for acne.”

• If your research question was “What is the effect of prolonged TV-watching on children?” then there are a few categories you could look at. Objectives wrapped up within that question might be: 1) the incidence of eyestrain among children who watch a lot of TV, 2) their muscular development, 3) their level of socialization with other children. Design your objectives around answering these questions.

• You could always state in your research proposal that you plan to design future experiments or studies to answer additional questions. Most experiments leave unanswered questions and subsequent studies try to tackle them.

• A general objective might be "Establish the effect of diet on mental health." Some specific goals in that project could be 1) Determine if processed foods make depression worse, 2) Identify foods that improve mood, 3) Measure if portion sizes have an impact on mood.
• Not all research proposals want you to divide between general and specific goals. Remember to follow the instructions for the proposal you're writing.

• The best goals align with each letter in the SMART acronym. The weaker ones are missing some letters. For example, you might come up with a topic that’s specific, measurable, and time-bound, but not realistic or attainable. This is a weak objective because you probably can’t achieve it.
• Think about the resources at your disposal. Some objectives might be doable with the right equipment, but if you don’t have that equipment, then you can’t achieve that goal. For example, you might want to map DNA structures, but you can’t view DNA without an electron microscope.
• Ask the same question for your entire project. Is it attainable overall? You don’t want to try to achieve too much and overwhelm yourself.
• The specific words in this acronym sometimes change, but the sentiment is the same. Your objectives should overall be clear and specific, measurable, feasible, and limited by time.

Using the Right Language

• Verbs like use, understand, or study is vague and weak. Instead, choose words like calculate, compare, and assess.
• Your objective list might read like this: 1) Compare the muscle development of children who play video games to children who don’t, 2) Assess whether or not video games cause eyestrain, 3) Determine if videogames inhibit a child’s socialization skills.
• Some proposals use the infinitive form of verbs, like “to measure” or “to determine.” This is also fine but refer to the proposal instructions to see if this is correct.

• You can further explain your objectives further in the research proposal. No need to elaborate a lot when you’re just listing them.
• If you’re having trouble shortening an objective to 1 sentence, then you probably need to split it into 2 objectives. It might also be too complicated for this project.

• For example, “Determine if sunlight is harmful” is too vague. Instead, state the objective as “Determine if prolonged sun exposure increases subjects’ risk of skin cancer.”
• It’s helpful to let someone else read your proposal and see if they understand the objectives. If they’re confused, then you need to be more specific.

• For example, don’t say “Measure the effect of radiation on living tissue.” Instead, say “Determine what level of radiation is dangerous to living tissue.”
• Remember, don’t state the objectives as you’ve already done the experiments. They’re still not answered.

Writing the Objectives

• This is a common format for research proposals, but not universal. Always follow the format that the instructions provided.
• Depending on how long your introduction has to be, you might also list the objectives there. This depends on whether or not you have room.

• At the very least, the abstract should list the general objective. This tells the readers what your study is working towards.

• In some research projects, the general objective is called a long-term goal instead. Adjust your language to the proposal requirements.
• Some proposals directions may just want the specific objectives rather than a division between the general and specific ones. Don’t divide them if the instructions tell you not to.

• Your introduction may be as follows: "My long-term objective with this project is determining whether or not prolonged video-game playing is harmful to children under 5. I will accomplish this aim by meeting the following objectives: 1) Compare the muscle development of children who play videogames to children who don’t 2) Assess whether or not videogames cause eyestrain 3) Determine if videogames inhibit a child’s socialization skills"
• The specific objectives are usually listed as a bullet or numbered points. However, follow the instructions given.

Research Proposal Templates

Expert Q&A

• It’s always a good idea to let someone else read your research proposals and make sure they’re clear. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Proofread! A great proposal could be ruined by typos and errors. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Some proposal instructions are very specific, and applicants that don’t follow the format are eliminated. Always follow the instructions given to stay within the requirements. Thanks Helpful 3 Not Helpful 0

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• ↑ https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-assets/15490_book_item_15490.pdf
• ↑ https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/research-aims-and-objectives/
• ↑ https://www.uh.edu/~lsong5/documents/A%20sample%20proposal%20with%20comment.pdf
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3282423/
• ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/evaluation/pdf/brief3b.pdf
• ↑ https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=231&section=8.6.2
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6398294/
• ↑ https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0601009.pdf
• ↑ https://www.bpcc.edu/institutional-advancement-grants/how-to-write-goals-and-objectives-for-grant-proposals

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Writing the Research Objectives: 5 Straightforward Examples

The research objective of a research proposal or scientific article defines the direction or content of a research investigation. Without the research objectives, the proposal or research paper is in disarray. It is like a fisherman riding on a boat without any purpose and with no destination in sight. Therefore, at the beginning of any research venture, the researcher must be clear about what he or she intends to do or achieve in conducting a study.

How do you define the objectives of a study? What are the uses of the research objective? How would a researcher write this essential part of the research? This article aims to provide answers to these questions.

Table of Contents

Definition of a research objective.

A research objective describes, in a few words, the result of the research project after its implementation. It answers the question,

“ What does the researcher want or hope to achieve at the end of the research project.”  

The research objective provides direction to the performance of the study.

What are the Uses of the Research Objective?

The uses of the research objective are enumerated below:

• serves as the researcher’s guide in identifying the appropriate research design,
• identifies the variables of the study, and
• specifies the data collection procedure and the corresponding analysis for the data generated.

The research design serves as the “blueprint” for the research investigation. The University of Southern California describes the different types of research design extensively. It details the data to be gathered, data collection procedure, data measurement, and statistical tests to use in the analysis.

The variables of the study include those factors that the researcher wants to evaluate in the study. These variables narrow down the research to several manageable components to see differences or correlations between them.

Specifying the data collection procedure ensures data accuracy and integrity . Thus, the probability of error is minimized. Generalizations or conclusions based on valid arguments founded on reliable data strengthens research findings on particular issues and problems.

In data mining activities where large data sets are involved, the research objective plays a crucial role. Without a clear objective to guide the machine learning process, the desired outcomes will not be met.

How is the Research Objective Written?

A research objective must be achievable, i.e., it must be framed keeping in mind the available time, infrastructure required for research, and other resources.

Before forming a research objective, you should read about all the developments in your area of research and find gaps in knowledge that need to be addressed. Readings will help you come up with suitable objectives for your research project.

5 Examples of Research Objectives

The following examples of research objectives based on several published studies on various topics demonstrate how the research objectives are written:

• This study aims to find out if there is a difference in quiz scores between students exposed to direct instruction and flipped classrooms (Webb and Doman, 2016).
• This study seeks to examine the extent, range, and method of coral reef rehabilitation projects in five shallow reef areas adjacent to popular tourist destinations in the Philippines (Yeemin et al ., 2006).
• This study aims to investigate species richness of mammal communities in five protected areas over the past 20 years (Evans et al ., 2006).
• This study aims to clarify the demographic, epidemiological, clinical, and radiological features of 2019-nCoV patients with other causes of pneumonia (Zhao et al ., 2020).
• This research aims to assess species extinction risks for sample regions that cover some 20% of the Earth’s terrestrial surface.

Finally, writing the research objectives requires constant practice, experience, and knowledge about the topic investigated. Clearly written objectives save time, money, and effort.

Once you have a clear idea of your research objectives, you can now develop your conceptual framework which is a crucial element of your research paper as it guides the flow of your research. The conceptual framework will help you develop your methodology and statistical tests.

I wrote a detailed, step-by-step guide on how to develop a conceptual framework with illustration in my post titled “ Conceptual Framework: A Step by Step Guide on How to Make One. “

Evans, K. L., Rodrigues, A. S., Chown, S. L., & Gaston, K. J. (2006). Protected areas and regional avian species richness in South Africa.  Biology letters ,  2 (2), 184-188.

Thomas, C. D., Cameron, A., Green, R. E., Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L. J., Collingham, Y. C., … & Hughes, L. (2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature, 427(6970), 145-148.

Webb, M., & Doman, E. (2016). Does the Flipped Classroom Lead to Increased Gains on Learning Outcomes in ESL/EFL Contexts?. CATESOL Journal, 28(1), 39-67.

Yeemin, T., Sutthacheep, M., & Pettongma, R. (2006). Coral reef restoration projects in Thailand.  Ocean & Coastal Management ,  49 (9-10), 562-575.

Zhao, D., Yao, F., Wang, L., Zheng, L., Gao, Y., Ye, J., Guo, F., Zhao, H. & Gao, R. (2020). A comparative study on the clinical features of COVID-19 pneumonia to other pneumonias, Clinical Infectious Diseases , ciaa247, https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa247

© 2020 March 23 P. A. Regoniel Updated 17 November 2020 | Updated 18 January 2024

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Dr. Regoniel, a faculty member of the graduate school, served as consultant to various environmental research and development projects covering issues and concerns on climate change, coral reef resources and management, economic valuation of environmental and natural resources, mining, and waste management and pollution. He has extensive experience on applied statistics, systems modelling and analysis, an avid practitioner of LaTeX, and a multidisciplinary web developer. He leverages pioneering AI-powered content creation tools to produce unique and comprehensive articles in this website.

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Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

• Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
• Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

• Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
• Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

• Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
• Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

• Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
• Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
• Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
• Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

• Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

• Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
• Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

• Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
• Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
• Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
• Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
• Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
• Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
• Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

• To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
• To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
• To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
• To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
• To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
• To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
• To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
• To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
• To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

• To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
• To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
• To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
• To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
• To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

• Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
• Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
• Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
• Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
• Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
• Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
• Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
• Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

About the author.

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research Aims and Objectives: The dynamic duo for successful research

Picture yourself on a road trip without a destination in mind — driving aimlessly, not knowing where you’re headed or how to get there. Similarly, your research is navigated by well-defined research aims and objectives. Research aims and objectives are the foundation of any research project. They provide a clear direction and purpose for the study, ensuring that you stay focused and on track throughout the process. They are your trusted navigational tools, leading you to success.

Understanding the relationship between research objectives and aims is crucial to any research project’s success, and we’re here to break it down for you in this article. Here, we’ll explore the importance of research aims and objectives, understand their differences, and delve into the impact they have on the quality of research.

Understanding the Difference between Research Aims and Objectives

In research, aims and objectives are two important components but are often used interchangeably. Though they may sound similar, they are distinct and serve different purposes.

Research Aims:

Research aims are broad statements that describe the overall purpose of your study. They provide a general direction for your study and indicate the intended achievements of your research. Aims are usually written in a general and abstract manner describing the ultimate goal of the research.

Research Objectives:

Research objectives are specific, measurable, and achievable goals that you aim to accomplish within a specified timeframe. They break down the research aims into smaller, more manageable components and provide a clear picture of what you want to achieve and how you plan to achieve it.

In the example, the objectives provide specific targets that must be achieved to reach the aim. Essentially, aims provide the overall direction for the research while objectives provide specific targets that must be achieved to accomplish the aims. Aims provide a broad context for the research, while the objectives provide smaller steps that the researcher must take to accomplish the overall research goals. To illustrate, when planning a road trip, your research aim is the destination you want to reach, and your research objectives are the specific routes you need to take to get there.

Aims and objectives are interconnected. Objectives play a key role in defining the research methodology, providing a roadmap for how you’ll collect and analyze data, while aim is the final destination, which represents the ultimate goal of your research. By setting specific goals, you’ll be able to design a research plan that helps you achieve your objectives and, ultimately, your research aim.

Importance of Well-defined Aims and Objectives

The impact of clear research aims and objectives on the quality of research cannot be understated. But it’s not enough to simply have aims and objectives. Well-defined research aims and objectives are important for several reasons:

• Provides direction: Clear aims and well-defined objectives provide a specific direction for your research study, ensuring that the research stays focused on a specific topic or problem. This helps to prevent the research from becoming too broad or unfocused, and ensures that the study remains relevant and meaningful.
• Guides research design: The research aim and objectives help guide the research design and methodology, ensuring that your study is designed in a way that will answer the research questions and achieve the research objectives.
• Helps with resource allocation: Clear research aims and objectives helps you to allocate resources effectively , including time, financial resources, human resources, and other required materials. With a well-defined aim and objectives, you can identify the resources required to conduct the research, and allocate them in a way that maximizes efficiency and productivity.
• Assists in evaluation: Clearly specified research aims and objectives allow for effective evaluation of your research project’s success. You can assess whether the research has achieved its objectives, and whether the aim has been met. This evaluation process can help to identify areas of the research project that may require further attention or modification.
• Enhances communication: Well-defined research aims and objectives help to enhance communication among the research team, stakeholders, funding agencies, and other interested parties. Clear aims and objectives ensure that everyone involved in your research project understands the purpose and goals of the study. This can help to foster collaboration and ensure that everyone is working towards the same end goal.

How to Formulate Research Aims and Objectives

Formulating effective research aims and objectives involves a systematic process to ensure that they are clear, specific, achievable, and relevant. Start by asking yourself what you want to achieve through your research. What impact do you want your research to have? Once you have a clear understanding of your aims, you can then break them down into specific, achievable objectives. Here are some steps you can follow when developing research aims and objectives:

• Identify the research question : Clearly identify the questions you want to answer through your research. This will help you define the scope of your research. Understanding the characteristics of a good research question will help you generate clearer aims and objectives.
• Conduct literature review : When defining your research aim and objectives, it’s important to conduct a literature review to identify key concepts, theories, and methods related to your research problem or question. Conducting a thorough literature review can help you understand what research has been done in the area and what gaps exist in the literature.
• Identify the research aim: Develop a research aim that summarizes the overarching goal of your research. The research aim should be broad and concise.
• Develop research objectives: Based on your research questions and research aim, develop specific research objectives that outline what you intend to achieve through your research. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
• Use action verbs: Use action verbs such as “investigate,” “examine,” “analyze,” and “compare” to describe your research aims and objectives. This makes them more specific and measurable.
• Ensure alignment with research question: Ensure that the research aim and objectives are aligned with the research question. This helps to ensure that the research remains focused and that the objectives are specific enough to answer your research question.
• Refine and revise: Once the research aim and objectives have been developed, refine and revise them as needed. Seek feedback from your colleagues, mentors, or supervisors to ensure that they are clear, concise, and achievable within the given resources and timeframe.
• Communicate: After finalizing the research aim and objectives, they should be communicated to the research team, stakeholders, and other interested parties. This helps to ensure that everyone is working towards the same end goal and understands the purpose of the study.

Common Pitfalls to Avoid While Formulating Aims and Objectives

There are several common mistakes that researchers can make when writing research aims and objectives. These include:

• Being too broad or vague: Aims and objectives that are too general or unclear can lead to confusion and lack of focus. It is important to ensure that the aims and objectives are concise and clear.
• Being too narrow or specific: On the other hand, aims and objectives that are too narrow or specific may limit the scope of the research and make it difficult to draw meaningful conclusions or implications.
• Being too ambitious: While it is important to aim high, being too ambitious with the aims and objectives can lead to unrealistic expectations and can be difficult to achieve within the constraints of the research project.
• Lack of alignment: The aims and objectives should be directly linked to the research questions being investigated. Otherwise, this will lead to a lack of coherence in the research project.
• Lack of feasibility: The aims and objectives should be achievable within the constraints of the research project, including time, budget, and resources. Failing to consider feasibility may cause compromise of the research quality.
• Failing to consider ethical considerations: The aims and objectives should take into account any ethical considerations, such as ensuring the safety and well-being of study participants.
• Failing to involve all stakeholders: It’s important to involve all relevant stakeholders, such as participants, supervisors, and funding agencies, in the development of the aims and objectives to ensure they are appropriate and relevant.

To avoid these common pitfalls, it is important to be specific, clear, relevant, and realistic when writing research aims and objectives. Seek feedback from colleagues or supervisors to ensure that the aims and objectives are aligned with the research problem , questions, and methodology, and are achievable within the constraints of the research project. It’s important to continually refine your aims and objectives as you go. As you progress in your research, it’s not uncommon for research aims and objectives to evolve slightly, but it’s important that they remain consistent with the study conducted and the research topic.

In summary, research aims and objectives are the backbone of any successful research project. They give you the ability to cut through the noise and hone in on what really matters. By setting clear goals and aligning them with your research questions and methodology, you can ensure that your research is relevant, impactful, and of the highest quality. So, before you hit the road on your research journey, make sure you have a clear destination and steps to get there. Let us know in the comments section below the challenges you faced and the strategies you followed while fomulating research aims and objectives! Also, feel free to reach out to us at any stage of your research or publication by using #AskEnago  and tagging @EnagoAcademy on Twitter , Facebook , and Quora . Happy researching!

This particular material has added important but overlooked concepts regarding my experiences in explaining research aims and objectives. Thank you

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• v.53(4); 2010 Aug

Research questions, hypotheses and objectives

Patricia farrugia.

* Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, the

Bradley A. Petrisor

† Division of Orthopaedic Surgery and the

Forough Farrokhyar

‡ Departments of Surgery and

§ Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ont

Mohit Bhandari

There is an increasing familiarity with the principles of evidence-based medicine in the surgical community. As surgeons become more aware of the hierarchy of evidence, grades of recommendations and the principles of critical appraisal, they develop an increasing familiarity with research design. Surgeons and clinicians are looking more and more to the literature and clinical trials to guide their practice; as such, it is becoming a responsibility of the clinical research community to attempt to answer questions that are not only well thought out but also clinically relevant. The development of the research question, including a supportive hypothesis and objectives, is a necessary key step in producing clinically relevant results to be used in evidence-based practice. A well-defined and specific research question is more likely to help guide us in making decisions about study design and population and subsequently what data will be collected and analyzed. 1

Objectives of this article

In this article, we discuss important considerations in the development of a research question and hypothesis and in defining objectives for research. By the end of this article, the reader will be able to appreciate the significance of constructing a good research question and developing hypotheses and research objectives for the successful design of a research study. The following article is divided into 3 sections: research question, research hypothesis and research objectives.

Research question

Interest in a particular topic usually begins the research process, but it is the familiarity with the subject that helps define an appropriate research question for a study. 1 Questions then arise out of a perceived knowledge deficit within a subject area or field of study. 2 Indeed, Haynes suggests that it is important to know “where the boundary between current knowledge and ignorance lies.” 1 The challenge in developing an appropriate research question is in determining which clinical uncertainties could or should be studied and also rationalizing the need for their investigation.

Increasing one’s knowledge about the subject of interest can be accomplished in many ways. Appropriate methods include systematically searching the literature, in-depth interviews and focus groups with patients (and proxies) and interviews with experts in the field. In addition, awareness of current trends and technological advances can assist with the development of research questions. 2 It is imperative to understand what has been studied about a topic to date in order to further the knowledge that has been previously gathered on a topic. Indeed, some granting institutions (e.g., Canadian Institute for Health Research) encourage applicants to conduct a systematic review of the available evidence if a recent review does not already exist and preferably a pilot or feasibility study before applying for a grant for a full trial.

In-depth knowledge about a subject may generate a number of questions. It then becomes necessary to ask whether these questions can be answered through one study or if more than one study needed. 1 Additional research questions can be developed, but several basic principles should be taken into consideration. 1 All questions, primary and secondary, should be developed at the beginning and planning stages of a study. Any additional questions should never compromise the primary question because it is the primary research question that forms the basis of the hypothesis and study objectives. It must be kept in mind that within the scope of one study, the presence of a number of research questions will affect and potentially increase the complexity of both the study design and subsequent statistical analyses, not to mention the actual feasibility of answering every question. 1 A sensible strategy is to establish a single primary research question around which to focus the study plan. 3 In a study, the primary research question should be clearly stated at the end of the introduction of the grant proposal, and it usually specifies the population to be studied, the intervention to be implemented and other circumstantial factors. 4

Hulley and colleagues 2 have suggested the use of the FINER criteria in the development of a good research question ( Box 1 ). The FINER criteria highlight useful points that may increase the chances of developing a successful research project. A good research question should specify the population of interest, be of interest to the scientific community and potentially to the public, have clinical relevance and further current knowledge in the field (and of course be compliant with the standards of ethical boards and national research standards).

FINER criteria for a good research question

Adapted with permission from Wolters Kluwer Health. 2

Whereas the FINER criteria outline the important aspects of the question in general, a useful format to use in the development of a specific research question is the PICO format — consider the population (P) of interest, the intervention (I) being studied, the comparison (C) group (or to what is the intervention being compared) and the outcome of interest (O). 3 , 5 , 6 Often timing (T) is added to PICO ( Box 2 ) — that is, “Over what time frame will the study take place?” 1 The PICOT approach helps generate a question that aids in constructing the framework of the study and subsequently in protocol development by alluding to the inclusion and exclusion criteria and identifying the groups of patients to be included. Knowing the specific population of interest, intervention (and comparator) and outcome of interest may also help the researcher identify an appropriate outcome measurement tool. 7 The more defined the population of interest, and thus the more stringent the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the greater the effect on the interpretation and subsequent applicability and generalizability of the research findings. 1 , 2 A restricted study population (and exclusion criteria) may limit bias and increase the internal validity of the study; however, this approach will limit external validity of the study and, thus, the generalizability of the findings to the practical clinical setting. Conversely, a broadly defined study population and inclusion criteria may be representative of practical clinical practice but may increase bias and reduce the internal validity of the study.

PICOT criteria 1

A poorly devised research question may affect the choice of study design, potentially lead to futile situations and, thus, hamper the chance of determining anything of clinical significance, which will then affect the potential for publication. Without devoting appropriate resources to developing the research question, the quality of the study and subsequent results may be compromised. During the initial stages of any research study, it is therefore imperative to formulate a research question that is both clinically relevant and answerable.

Research hypothesis

The primary research question should be driven by the hypothesis rather than the data. 1 , 2 That is, the research question and hypothesis should be developed before the start of the study. This sounds intuitive; however, if we take, for example, a database of information, it is potentially possible to perform multiple statistical comparisons of groups within the database to find a statistically significant association. This could then lead one to work backward from the data and develop the “question.” This is counterintuitive to the process because the question is asked specifically to then find the answer, thus collecting data along the way (i.e., in a prospective manner). Multiple statistical testing of associations from data previously collected could potentially lead to spuriously positive findings of association through chance alone. 2 Therefore, a good hypothesis must be based on a good research question at the start of a trial and, indeed, drive data collection for the study.

The research or clinical hypothesis is developed from the research question and then the main elements of the study — sampling strategy, intervention (if applicable), comparison and outcome variables — are summarized in a form that establishes the basis for testing, statistical and ultimately clinical significance. 3 For example, in a research study comparing computer-assisted acetabular component insertion versus freehand acetabular component placement in patients in need of total hip arthroplasty, the experimental group would be computer-assisted insertion and the control/conventional group would be free-hand placement. The investigative team would first state a research hypothesis. This could be expressed as a single outcome (e.g., computer-assisted acetabular component placement leads to improved functional outcome) or potentially as a complex/composite outcome; that is, more than one outcome (e.g., computer-assisted acetabular component placement leads to both improved radiographic cup placement and improved functional outcome).

However, when formally testing statistical significance, the hypothesis should be stated as a “null” hypothesis. 2 The purpose of hypothesis testing is to make an inference about the population of interest on the basis of a random sample taken from that population. The null hypothesis for the preceding research hypothesis then would be that there is no difference in mean functional outcome between the computer-assisted insertion and free-hand placement techniques. After forming the null hypothesis, the researchers would form an alternate hypothesis stating the nature of the difference, if it should appear. The alternate hypothesis would be that there is a difference in mean functional outcome between these techniques. At the end of the study, the null hypothesis is then tested statistically. If the findings of the study are not statistically significant (i.e., there is no difference in functional outcome between the groups in a statistical sense), we cannot reject the null hypothesis, whereas if the findings were significant, we can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis (i.e., there is a difference in mean functional outcome between the study groups), errors in testing notwithstanding. In other words, hypothesis testing confirms or refutes the statement that the observed findings did not occur by chance alone but rather occurred because there was a true difference in outcomes between these surgical procedures. The concept of statistical hypothesis testing is complex, and the details are beyond the scope of this article.

Another important concept inherent in hypothesis testing is whether the hypotheses will be 1-sided or 2-sided. A 2-sided hypothesis states that there is a difference between the experimental group and the control group, but it does not specify in advance the expected direction of the difference. For example, we asked whether there is there an improvement in outcomes with computer-assisted surgery or whether the outcomes worse with computer-assisted surgery. We presented a 2-sided test in the above example because we did not specify the direction of the difference. A 1-sided hypothesis states a specific direction (e.g., there is an improvement in outcomes with computer-assisted surgery). A 2-sided hypothesis should be used unless there is a good justification for using a 1-sided hypothesis. As Bland and Atlman 8 stated, “One-sided hypothesis testing should never be used as a device to make a conventionally nonsignificant difference significant.”

The research hypothesis should be stated at the beginning of the study to guide the objectives for research. Whereas the investigators may state the hypothesis as being 1-sided (there is an improvement with treatment), the study and investigators must adhere to the concept of clinical equipoise. According to this principle, a clinical (or surgical) trial is ethical only if the expert community is uncertain about the relative therapeutic merits of the experimental and control groups being evaluated. 9 It means there must exist an honest and professional disagreement among expert clinicians about the preferred treatment. 9

Designing a research hypothesis is supported by a good research question and will influence the type of research design for the study. Acting on the principles of appropriate hypothesis development, the study can then confidently proceed to the development of the research objective.

Research objective

The primary objective should be coupled with the hypothesis of the study. Study objectives define the specific aims of the study and should be clearly stated in the introduction of the research protocol. 7 From our previous example and using the investigative hypothesis that there is a difference in functional outcomes between computer-assisted acetabular component placement and free-hand placement, the primary objective can be stated as follows: this study will compare the functional outcomes of computer-assisted acetabular component insertion versus free-hand placement in patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty. Note that the study objective is an active statement about how the study is going to answer the specific research question. Objectives can (and often do) state exactly which outcome measures are going to be used within their statements. They are important because they not only help guide the development of the protocol and design of study but also play a role in sample size calculations and determining the power of the study. 7 These concepts will be discussed in other articles in this series.

From the surgeon’s point of view, it is important for the study objectives to be focused on outcomes that are important to patients and clinically relevant. For example, the most methodologically sound randomized controlled trial comparing 2 techniques of distal radial fixation would have little or no clinical impact if the primary objective was to determine the effect of treatment A as compared to treatment B on intraoperative fluoroscopy time. However, if the objective was to determine the effect of treatment A as compared to treatment B on patient functional outcome at 1 year, this would have a much more significant impact on clinical decision-making. Second, more meaningful surgeon–patient discussions could ensue, incorporating patient values and preferences with the results from this study. 6 , 7 It is the precise objective and what the investigator is trying to measure that is of clinical relevance in the practical setting.

The following is an example from the literature about the relation between the research question, hypothesis and study objectives:

Study: Warden SJ, Metcalf BR, Kiss ZS, et al. Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound for chronic patellar tendinopathy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Rheumatology 2008;47:467–71.

Research question: How does low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) compare with a placebo device in managing the symptoms of skeletally mature patients with patellar tendinopathy?

Research hypothesis: Pain levels are reduced in patients who receive daily active-LIPUS (treatment) for 12 weeks compared with individuals who receive inactive-LIPUS (placebo).

Objective: To investigate the clinical efficacy of LIPUS in the management of patellar tendinopathy symptoms.

The development of the research question is the most important aspect of a research project. A research project can fail if the objectives and hypothesis are poorly focused and underdeveloped. Useful tips for surgical researchers are provided in Box 3 . Designing and developing an appropriate and relevant research question, hypothesis and objectives can be a difficult task. The critical appraisal of the research question used in a study is vital to the application of the findings to clinical practice. Focusing resources, time and dedication to these 3 very important tasks will help to guide a successful research project, influence interpretation of the results and affect future publication efforts.

Tips for developing research questions, hypotheses and objectives for research studies

• Perform a systematic literature review (if one has not been done) to increase knowledge and familiarity with the topic and to assist with research development.
• Learn about current trends and technological advances on the topic.
• Seek careful input from experts, mentors, colleagues and collaborators to refine your research question as this will aid in developing the research question and guide the research study.
• Use the FINER criteria in the development of the research question.
• Ensure that the research question follows PICOT format.
• Develop a research hypothesis from the research question.
• Develop clear and well-defined primary and secondary (if needed) objectives.
• Ensure that the research question and objectives are answerable, feasible and clinically relevant.

FINER = feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, relevant; PICOT = population (patients), intervention (for intervention studies only), comparison group, outcome of interest, time.

Competing interests: No funding was received in preparation of this paper. Dr. Bhandari was funded, in part, by a Canada Research Chair, McMaster University.

Writing and refining your UX research objectives

While winging it and hoping for the best might work in some life scenarios, this doesn’t apply when it comes to UX research and user feedback. Like most projects, research studies require intensive planning and strategizing early on. While plans can evolve and change as you gather new information, early preparation is an unskippable step. And just like you can’t have UX without UI, a research study isn’t complete with an objective. By having a solid understanding of your study’s purpose, you’ll be able to better stay on track and motivated throughout your development process. 

A research objective , also known as a goal or an objective, is a sentence or question that summarizes the purpose of your study or test. In other words, it’s an idea you want to understand deeper by performing research. Objectives should be the driving force behind every task you assign and each question that you ask. These objectives should center on specific features or processes of your product. Think of it this way: the better your objective, the better your feedback will be. 

Keeping your objective front and center will help you figure out your UX research deliverables . It will ensure you structure your studies to gain insights into the right set of activities, and figure out the UX research tools that will work best for each stage of product design. It’ll also guide you in which participants to recruit to participate in your research, the tasks you’ll ask them to complete, and what questions to ask. 

How do I write a research objective? 

Start with a problem statement .

As a general rule of thumb, start with a problem instead of a new idea. Unless you're embarking on generative or exploratory research for a brand-new product, your focus should be on solving existing customer issues instead of creating new ones. 

Before you write your objective, you need a problem statement , which you can source from your customer support team, negative customer reviews , or feedback from social media. Topic examples might be an unclear return policy, difficulty applying a promo code, or frustrating page navigation. From there, your objective might look like, “How do people go about applying discounts in our checkout process?” or “How do our competitors describe their offerings compared to ours?” 

Keep your objective action-oriented and specific 

If you need help, you might start drafting your objective by filling in the blanks of “I want to learn ____,” “I want to understand ____,” or “I want to identify ____.”

Many UX researchers agree that the more specific the objectives, the easier it is to write tasks and UX research questions , and the easier it will be to find the answers to those questions through your research. However, your objective doesn’t have to be confined to a single angle; it could have the potential to inspire multiple test directions. For instance, take this research objective: “I want to understand and resolve the barriers customers face when looking for answers about products and services on our website.”

From this one objective, potential study angles could be: 

• Content quality: Learn whether the FAQ questions anticipate users’ needs and if the answers are sufficiently detailed and directive. 
• FAQ accessibility: Can customers easily find the FAQ section? What access points should we consider?
• FAQ concept test: Is the design approach we’re considering for the proposed redesign understandable? What can we do to optimize it?

As you can see, the above objective can be branched out to address content, usability, and design. For further inspiration, collaborate with the product’s stakeholders . You can start the conversation at a high level by determining what features or processes they want test participants to review, like a navigation menu or website messaging. 

Examples of research objectives 

New product ideation and validation .

• Do people find value in this new product idea? 
• I want to learn why customers abandon their carts and their thought process. 
• Why is a customer motivated to visit an app? 

Resolving customer issues on a live product 

• Can users find the information they need? 
• What do users think of this section? 
• Is the amount of products in this one category appropriate? 
• Can users easily navigate to this page? 
• How do our competitors describe their offerings compared to us?
• I want to understand and resolve the barriers customers face when seeking answers about products and services on our website.

Solicit feedback from your team(s) and stakeholders 

Before you put a stamp of approval on a research objective, ask for feedback from your team and stakeholders. Two researchers could write very different test plans when an objective is unclear or misaligned. For example, one researcher may home in on design while another focuses on usability. Meanwhile, one may keep their objective more broad while another writes one that’s more detailed. And while the findings from any of these studies would be insightful, they might not match up with what the team actually needs to learn. 

You can write a UX research report to present your findings. You can also suggest a demonstration or walk-through of the feature or process in question; more detailed concerns may come to light as everyone goes through the experience together and you get the chance to probe about different aspects.

So, to summarize: 

• Start the process with a problem statement. 
• Loop in stakeholders early if applicable. 
• Brainstorm your objective and ensure your team is aligned.

When should I write a research objective—and how should they be prioritized? 

Writing and refining your research objective should come after you have a clear problem statement and before you decide on a research method and test plan to execute your study. You can also use targeted questions to prioritize your research .

After you’ve written a rough draft of your research objective, the ink might not even be dry when stakeholders could get involved by offering you an abundance of objectives to prioritize. To figure out what to tackle first, ask your stakeholders to rank their needs. This step could happen via email or in a meeting, but another method could be to list out all of the possible objectives in a Google form and have everyone rearrange the list into their ideal order. 

If you’re having trouble getting the stakeholders to articulate their priorities further, try reviewing any available analytics data to pinpoint areas of concern, like pages with an unusually high bounce rate or average time on page. Opting for the objective tied to a KPI—from increasing website conversions to driving more daily active users in your SaaS product—will help you maximize your research impact on business results. This provides the added benefit of demonstrating the ROI of your research on tangible, company-wide objectives.

How many research objectives do I need? 

Your objectives—and the number of objectives you should include—will depend on the stage of product development you’re in. Each stage of development has different research objectives and questions that need answering. Once you’ve decided on a problem statement, you could either have one or multiple research objectives that tie back to that statement. 

Typically, you’ll want to select one to three objectives; the less you have, the more manageable your test (and timeline) will be. You might choose one general objective and a few more specific objectives. 

Get inspiration from the UserTesting template library 

If you’re stuck and need some guidance to get the wheels turning, the UserTesting template library is a great place to start for common questions you need answers to or inspiration for your research objective.

If your objective focuses on a mobile app experience: 

• Mobile app comparison : Compare two mobile app experiences side-by-side. 
• Mobile app evaluation : Assess critical app characteristics such as appearance, ease of use, and trust. 
• App store feedback : With the help of human insight, ensure your app store listing resonates with your target customers. 

If your objective centers on the web experience: 

• Website conversions : Gather insights about what motivates your customers to take action on a website. 
• Website comparison : Compare experiences side-by-side to understand what people prefer–and why. 
• Landing page conversions : Optimize conversions with insights about what motivates your customers. 
• Website evaluation : Assess critical website characteristics such as appearance, ease of use, and trust. 

If your objective is improving an ecommerce product: 

• Social commerce : Get ahead of messaging, content, and expectations of the social buying experience. 
• Black Friday ecommerce: Get your ecommerce experiences ready for the holiday rush. 
• Ecommerce and shopping cart experience: Leverage human insight to improve your ecommerce experience year-round. 

If your objective is validating early concepts or decisions: 

• De-risking product decisions: Reduce risk by testing with your target audience throughout development. 
• Value proposition validation: Test your value proposition with insights from your target customer. 
• Concept validation and testing: Get candid feedback or validation to help evaluate a new concept or idea.

Want to learn more?

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• Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering
• Digital Manufacturing
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Role of AI and ML in Transforming Manufacturing Processes

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About this Research Topic

Over the past few years, the adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies has increased substantially across a variety of industries, particularly manufacturing. As a result of these developments, conventional manufacturing procedures have been transformed, resulting in enhanced efficiency, output, and quality. The objective of this special issue is to investigate the most recent advancements, implementations, and obstacles associated with the incorporation of AI and ML methods in manufacturing settings. We extend an invitation to practitioners, researchers, and engineers to submit novel research articles, review papers, and case studies that cover a wide range of subjects. These may include, but are not limited to the following: - Automation and optimization of manufacturing processes through AI - Predictive maintenance and quality control via machine learning algorithms - Real-time monitoring and analytics for intelligent manufacturing - Adaptive manufacturing systems to facilitate mass customization and personalization - AI-assisted decision support systems and human-robot collaboration - Cyber-physical systems and digital twins in manufacturing - Practical applications and case studies of AI and ML in the manufacturing sector - Challenges and prospective developments in the adoption of AI and ML in manufacturing Novel contributions, innovative methodologies, and significant insights that advance the state of the art in AI and ML applications within manufacturing contexts should be included in the submissions. Every submission will be subjected to a thorough peer review process to ascertain its superior quality and pertinence to the theme of the special issue. This special issue offers an avenue for scholars and professionals in the field to distribute their most recent discoveries, exchange optimal methodologies, and encourage cooperation to progress further with AI and ML in the manufacturing sector. We strongly encourage submissions that make valuable contributions to the collective comprehension and implementation of these revolutionary technologies as they continue to mould the future of manufacturing.

Keywords : Machining, Smart manufacturing, IIOT, Machine Learning, Deep learning, Condition Monitoring, Maintenance, Collaborative Robots

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Understanding Naturalistic Observation in Research

This essay is about naturalistic observation, a research method used to observe subjects in their natural environment without interference. It discusses the advantages of this method, such as providing rich, qualitative insights into behavior, and the challenges, including observer bias and lack of control over variables. The essay also touches on ethical considerations and the impact of technological advancements on the effectiveness of naturalistic observation. Examples from various fields like anthropology, ecology, and psychology illustrate the method’s versatility and significance in understanding authentic behaviors in real-world settings.

How it works

Naturalistic observation emerges as a method frequently employed in psychology and the social sciences. This methodology entails the observation of subjects in their native habitat devoid of any manipulation or intrusion by the investigator. The primary objective is to amass data on the behavioral patterns of subjects within authentic settings, proffering insights that may elude capture within a more regimented laboratory milieu. By affording behaviors the latitude to manifest organically, researchers can glean genuine reactions and interchanges, rendering this method invaluable for certain types of inquiries.

An eminent advantage of naturalistic observation lies in its capacity to furnish a nuanced, qualitative comprehension of behavior. For instance, through the observation of juveniles at a recreational area, an investigator can discern not only their play dynamics but also their social dynamics, conflict resolution strategies, and the evolution of their play over time. These observations can subsequently underpin deductions regarding social maturation, aggression, collaboration, and other facets of behavior. Such profundity of insight often eludes attainment through alternative methodologies such as surveys or experiments, wherein the contrived nature of the milieu may exert a sway over the behavior under observation.

Nevertheless, naturalistic observation is not devoid of impediments. One of the principal challenges pertains to the specter of observer partiality. Since the investigator is actively monitoring and documenting behaviors, their own presumptions or convictions may inadvertently color their perceptions and interpretations. To counteract this tendency, researchers frequently deploy strategies such as inter-observer concordance, whereby multiple observers independently record the same occurrence and subsequently compare findings to ascertain congruity. Furthermore, meticulous protocols and training can aid observers in preserving objectivity to the fullest extent feasible.

Another hurdle is the paucity of dominion over extraneous variables. Within a natural setting, myriad factors may influence behavior, ranging from meteorological conditions to the presence of bystanders. This renders the establishment of causal relationships a daunting task. For instance, if an investigator is scrutinizing responses to public art installations, discerning whether reactions stem from the art per se or from ancillary factors such as temporal considerations or pedestrian traffic patterns may prove challenging. Despite these constraints, the concession is often warranted for the genuine, ecological validity that naturalistic observation affords.

Ethical considerations likewise loom large in naturalistic observation. Researchers must strike a delicate equilibrium between the exigencies of unobtrusive observation and the entitlements of the subjects under observation. Frequently, this entails safeguarding the anonymity of subjects and refraining from documenting their conduct without their explicit consent, particularly within private domains. Public settings, wherein individuals lack a reasonable expectation of privacy, typically afford greater latitude for naturalistic observation. Nevertheless, ethical precepts must be rigorously adhered to in order to uphold the dignity and rights of all implicated subjects.

Naturalistic observation has made substantial inroads across various domains of inquiry. In anthropology, it has served as a lens through which to explore cultural customs and social configurations across disparate communities. In ecology, scientists engage in the observation of fauna within their native habitats to fathom behaviors germane to survival, procreation, and social dynamics. In psychology, it has proven instrumental in elucidating human behaviors spanning from the genesis of adolescence to social dynamics and psychological well-being. The method’s malleability renders it adaptable to a panoply of research queries and contexts, endowing it with a versatile utility in the researcher’s repertoire.

Technological strides have further augmented the efficacy of naturalistic observation. Contemporary tools such as video recording apparatuses, mobile devices, and even unmanned aerial vehicles can expedite data collection while minimizing interference. These innovations facilitate more granular and precise observations, which can be reviewed iteratively for analysis. Moreover, analytic software can aid in discerning patterns and drawing inferences from voluminous troves of observational data, thereby engendering a more rigorous and methodical analytical process.

In summation, naturalistic observation emerges as a potent means of dissecting behavior within its native milieu. Despite its impediments, including observer partiality, variable control constraints, and ethical quandaries, it furnishes unparalleled insights into the interplay between subjects and their surroundings. By abstaining from intervention, researchers can procure data that is both authentic and germane to real-world contexts. As technological progress marches onward, the potential for naturalistic observation to enrich our comprehension of intricate behaviors is poised to burgeon, cementing its status as a cornerstone of research methodologies. Recall, this exposition serves as a springboard for contemplation and further exploration. For bespoke guidance and to ensure adherence to scholarly standards, contemplate engaging the services of professionals at EduBirdie.

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ETRS: efficient turn restrictions setting method for boundary routers in chiplet-based systems

• Published: 01 June 2024

Cite this article

• Zhipeng Cao 1 ,
• Wei Guo 1 ,
• Zhiquan Wan 2 ,
• Peijie Li 1 ,
• Qinrang Liu 1 ,
• Caining Wang 3 &
• Yangxue Shao 3  

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by National Key R &D Program: Design and Verification of System Level Development Environment for Wafer-Scale Chip (2022YFB4401401).

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ZC completed the proposal of innovative points, experimental verification and paper writing. WG and ZW completed the proposal of innovative points, data analysis and collation. PL helped in investigation of chiplet, methodology of simulation and supervision. QL done project administration and resources. CW and YS done software and validation.

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Cao, Z., Guo, W., Wan, Z. et al. ETRS: efficient turn restrictions setting method for boundary routers in chiplet-based systems. J Supercomput (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11227-024-06261-z

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Published on 31.5.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Vulnerability to Cyberattacks and Sociotechnical Solutions for Health Care Systems: Systematic Review

Authors of this article:

• Pius Ewoh, MBA   ; 
• Tero Vartiainen, PhD  

School of Technology and Innovations, Information Systems Science, University of Vaasa, Vaasa, Finland

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Pius Ewoh, MBA

School of Technology and Innovations

Information Systems Science

University of Vaasa

Wolffintie 32

Vaasa, 65200

Phone: 358 414888477

Email: [email protected]

Background: Health care organizations worldwide are faced with an increasing number of cyberattacks and threats to their critical infrastructure. These cyberattacks cause significant data breaches in digital health information systems, which threaten patient safety and privacy.

Objective: From a sociotechnical perspective, this paper explores why digital health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks and provides sociotechnical solutions through a systematic literature review (SLR).

Methods: An SLR using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) was conducted by searching 6 databases (PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and Springer) and a journal ( Management Information Systems Quarterly ) for articles published between 2012 and 2022 and indexed using the following keywords: “(cybersecurity OR cybercrime OR ransomware) AND (healthcare) OR (cybersecurity in healthcare).” Reports, review articles, and industry white papers that focused on cybersecurity and health care challenges and solutions were included. Only articles published in English were selected for the review.

Results: In total, 5 themes were identified: human error, lack of investment, complex network-connected end-point devices, old legacy systems, and technology advancement (digitalization). We also found that knowledge applications for solving vulnerabilities in health care systems between 2012 to 2022 were inconsistent.

Conclusions: This SLR provides a clear understanding of why health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks and proposes interventions from a new sociotechnical perspective. These solutions can serve as a guide for health care organizations in their efforts to prevent breaches and address vulnerabilities. To bridge the gap, we recommend that health care organizations, in partnership with educational institutions, develop and implement a cybersecurity curriculum for health care and intelligence information sharing through collaborations; training; awareness campaigns; and knowledge application areas such as secure design processes, phase-out of legacy systems, and improved investment. Additional studies are needed to create a sociotechnical framework that will support cybersecurity in health care systems and connect technology, people, and processes in an integrated manner.

Introduction

Cybersecurity in health care systems entails the safeguarding of electronic information and assets against unauthorized access, use, and disclosure [ 1 ]. The main objective of cybersecurity in health care systems is to protect the privacy, integrity, and accessibility of health information to provide secure health care services. Despite the digital transformation in health care delivery, health care organizations are facing increasing challenges and crises, which include data breaches of patient health information and vulnerability in their critical infrastructure [ 2 ]. Research has highlighted that health care systems are becoming more vulnerable to cyberattacks as technology advances [ 3 ]. Furthermore, the internet and its diverse nature and connection to the delivery of telehealth and continuous health care services create multiple points of access for cyberattacks [ 4 , 5 ].

In high-income countries such as Finland, the United States, and the United Kingdom, integrated technology is used to monitor and manage health care systems. For instance, at least 10 to 15 medical devices are linked to each patient’s electronic bed in a public hospital [ 6 ]. These complexities increase the susceptibility of health care networks to cyberattacks [ 6 , 7 ]. Studies conducted through the simulation of medical devices have similarly revealed that pacemakers and pulse oximeters can be hacked and compromised without a physician’s knowledge [ 8 , 9 ]. Ransomware is another type of man-made malware that can disrupt health care systems by infecting computer systems, locking people out of their files, and then demanding a ransom payment in exchange for access to those files [ 10 , 11 ]. Cyberattackers can publish the exposed health information to the web or sell it on the dark web [ 12 ]. This type of attack can result in breaches of patient privacy, subjecting health care organizations to fines that are consistent with human health service regulations and European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) policies for data breaches. For example, research has shown that, between 2012 and 2022, more than US $128,244,290 million in fines were paid in the United States alone for violations of Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act laws on data breaches against health care organizations [ 13 ]. Although these fines were derived from no less than 111 health care organizations, many organizations have failed to report breaches.

Cybersecurity education is seriously lacking [ 14 , 15 ]. Moreover, a critical problem with cybersecurity in health care systems is the lack of involvement or recruitment of people with expertise and training in cybersecurity [ 16 ], resulting in considerable neglect of the cybersecurity infrastructure [ 17 ]. A systematic literature review (SLR) revealed that, between 2018 and 2019, more than 24% of the data breaches in all industries happened within the health care context [ 18 , 19 ].

Between 2009 and 2021, the US Department of Health and Human Services office reported 4419 health care data breaches, resulting in >314 million health care records being lost, stolen, or exposed [ 20 ]. In 2015, an estimated 113.27 million records were stolen and exposed, and in 2021 alone, the US Department of Health and Human Services also reported at least 2 health care data leaks daily [ 13 ]. The statistics clearly show an upward trend in health care data breaches over the past 10 years [ 21 ]. When considering this trend on a global scale, the number of health information breaches could potentially reach into the billions of health records. Organizations such as Vaastimo Oy Finland; National Health Service trusts in the United Kingdom; Anthem, Inc; Premera Blue Cross; and Excellus Health Plan have been victims of these threats and breaches of health information. Breaches and vulnerabilities in health care delivery, human safety, and protection of sensitive information are deeply disconcerting. However, it can be argued that research solutions are fragmented and sparse. There is a gap in the knowledge areas of health care cybersecurity in the literature and in practice regarding the vulnerability of health care systems and the reasons for cyberattacks. The argument and motivation are that a holistic approach to security is needed because humans are the weakest link in the cyberattack chain [ 11 , 22 ].

Coventry and Branley [ 6 ] have highlighted the need for resilience and changes in their studies on human behavior, technology, and processes as part of a holistic solution to the problem of health care system vulnerability. The information, technology, processes, objectivity and values, skills and knowledge, management systems and structure, and other resources dimensions by Heeks [ 23 ] also point out that avoiding security design reality gaps requires approaching the security functionality of a health information system as a sociotechnical system and not as a technical system. Security by design, or secure design, is an approach to cybersecurity that enables organizations to automate their data security controls and formalize the design of their infrastructure so that they can build security into their IT management processes [ 24 , 25 ].

In this study, a sociotechnical approach is defined as the interaction between humans and technology with the aim of creating technically efficient organizational information systems and user satisfaction [ 26 ]. Furthermore, conceptualizations of this approach are concerned with 3 primary dimensions: the social environment, technical environment, and organizational environment [ 27 ]. Sociotechnical design is identified as an approach to connect the integration of systems while ensuring that the multifaceted challenges and complexities in smart health care are well managed [ 28 , 29 ]. Smart health care can be defined as care that is equipped with smart IT, such as Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) devices that have the capabilities to anticipate and diagnose patient diseases; respond to treatments; guide, manage, and improve user comfort; and provide security and entertainment via hospital management systems. According to Coiera [ 30 ], “if healthcare is to evolve at a pace that will meet the needs of society, it will need to embrace the science of sociotechnical design.” Therefore, the application of a sociotechnical perspective in health care cybersecurity in this study aimed at better understanding and mitigating the multifaceted challenges and poor uptake and performance of health care system security within health care organizations.

This existing gap in knowledge and practice was a major motivation for this SLR. It is necessary to connect the fragmented research and manage this knowledge gap regarding why health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks as the study by Coventry and Branley [ 6 ] did not address this aspect in detail. An SLR was conducted to develop proactive cybersecurity strategies to mitigate threats and vulnerabilities that result in health care data breaches by proposing sociotechnical solutions and recommendations. Furthermore, to link human behavior, technology, and processes as highlighted by Coventry and Branley [ 6 ] and supported by the narrative review by Mohan et al [ 31 ] for further research, these 3 core areas can be interpreted as a sociotechnical framework [ 27 ]. It is essential to mitigate the increase in breaches of health information and protect health care from cybercrime and cyberattacks on critical health care infrastructure. However, none of these studies have examined why health care systems are vulnerable to attack through a sociotechnical lens. On the basis of this knowledge gap identified in the literature, the following research questions (RQs) were raised: (1) Why are health care systems vulnerable to cyberattacks? (RQ 1) (2) How can health care systems be protected? (RQ 2).

The objective of this review was to explore from a sociotechnical approach why digital health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks, provide sociotechnical solutions, and identify the areas of health care systems that need further improvement.

Previous Literature Review

Regarding the existing literature on health care cybersecurity, our previous SLR identified the following review themes: (1) cybersecurity threats and trends: studies that provide solutions and insights into threats and trends have been conducted to address cybersecurity threats and trends in health care systems [ 2 , 6 , 11 , 17 , 32 , 33 ]; (2) cybersecurity vulnerability: some studies have also investigated the cybersecurity vulnerability of health care systems to provide solutions and future directions for health care services [ 22 , 34 - 36 ]; and (3) cybersecurity interceptions in health care: studies have also investigated cybersecurity interceptions with health care systems to protect the security posture of these systems [ 12 , 19 , 37 ]—Coventry and Branley [ 6 ] have highlighted the need for further studies on human behavior, technology, and processes to further investigate why health care systems are vulnerable and provide a holistic solution to this problem.

Therefore, there is a need for further studies to identify the reasons behind the increase in health information breaches in health care systems. This area of study through a sociotechnical lens is lacking. Accordingly, our SLR critically investigated why health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks and expanded this area of study from a sociotechnical point of view. This review is significant given the lack of SLRs on the areas linking human behavior, technology, and processes using a holistic approach from a sociotechnical viewpoint in this context and as the studies by Coventry and Branley [ 6 ] and Mohan et al [ 31 ] were based on narrative reviews.

Protocol and Registration

The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines were followed to conduct our SLR using the checklist guide [ 38 ] ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ). The aim of this review was to identify the reasons why health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks and provide sociotechnical solutions. In the planning stage of this review, a protocol for the sources of information, search strategies, study selection, criteria for eligibility, and data collection processes was created, and this review was not registered.

Eligibility Criteria

A paper was selected for inclusion if it was published in English and comprised a full-text version of the manuscript, review paper, conference proceeding paper, report, news article or website, or white paper published between 2012 and 2022. The introduction, abstract, results, and discussion sections of the paper were checked by the authors for conformity with the study objectives and critical appraisal using the checklist guidelines before inclusion. Research papers were excluded if they were not relevant to the research areas—cybersecurity, cybercrime, ransomware, and health care. These criteria are presented in Textbox 1 .

Inclusion criteria

• Study types: published peer-reviewed and original research papers (empirical and conceptual papers)
• Bibliometric study types: white papers and cybersecurity news reports in line with health care and cybersecurity
• Period: papers published between 2012 and 2022
• Language: English
• Subjects and domain: computer sciences, health care, and cybersecurity
• Requirements for paper inclusion: full-text papers.

Exclusion criteria

• Study types: unpublished work, editorial letters, textbooks, and research in progress
• Language: any other languages
• Subjects: studies outside the domain of cybersecurity and health care

Information Sources

To identify original research papers and review papers on cybersecurity in health care systems published between 2012 and 2022, a total of 6 databases (Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Scopus, PubMed, Springer, and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and a journal ( Management Information Systems Quarterly ) were searched. Furthermore, bibliometric records such as website reports, white paper reports, and magazine reports that supported cybersecurity in health care were also collected for the review. As a means of verifying the papers identified in our search, we searched Google Scholar using a search string.

Search Strategy

The following search string and keywords were used: (“cybersecurity” OR “cybercrime OR ransomware”) AND (“health care”) OR (“cybersecurity in healthcare”). Multimedia Appendix 2 provides more information.

Data Extraction

A total of 70 papers were extracted and recorded in a Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corp) spreadsheet. The extracted data included information such as author or authors, year of publication, method, problem, and solution. The first author independently charted the data and updated the table to ensure the quality of the key findings drawn from the papers based on the recommendations of the second author. Critical appraisal was conducted to ensure the quality of evidence and the relevance of the articles. The data retrieved from the selected articles were analyzed.

Data Synthesis

The data from the literature were analyzed and synthesized using qualitative themes, which are presented in the following sections. The data were analyzed to identify the causes of vulnerabilities; solutions provided in the literature; and areas of classification based on sociotechnical, technical, and social perspectives in health care systems.

Selection of Sources of Evidence

A total of 1257 papers were retrieved for the screening exercises. To determine whether the papers met our inclusion criteria regarding the topic domain, we began by scanning the abstracts and titles. The papers were reviewed by reading the full texts and determining their eligibility. Duplicated papers as well as those nonrelevant to cybersecurity, cybercrime, ransomware, and health care research were excluded. Furthermore, some papers were excluded after reading them in full and discovering that they were papers on research in progress. Finally, 70 papers were included in the analysis based on the eligibility criteria. Figure 1 illustrates the selection process.

The results of the SLR show the reasons why health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks and health care breaches. These reasons are the 5 vulnerability themes ( Figure 2 and Table 1 ). Furthermore, the 5 vulnerability themes were classified into social, technical, and sociotechnical approaches.

a ECRI: Emergency Care Research Institute.

b PECB: Professional Evaluation and Certification Board.

The results also revealed that >24% of the data breaches from all industry clusters originated in the health care sector alone ( Table 1 ) [ 19 , 21 , 84 ]. Other studies highlighted that organizations tend to spend more money on procuring new technology while committing only ≤5% of their budgets to the security of their critical health care systems [ 17 , 35 ]. Cybercriminals exploit health care systems due to the lack of investment, technology advancement as a result of digitalization, human error due to a lack of awareness and training, and old legacy systems, which enable cybercriminals to access valuable health information and sell it on the dark web for money and other gains [ 12 ]. The results reported a significant increase in data breaches and cyberattacks, with complex systems, IoMT devices, technology advancement, and network-connected end-point devices in complex connected heterogeneous health care systems identified as the major contributing factors.

The studies also identified a shortage of cybersecurity skills to contain cyberattacks or threats to health care organizations and systems [ 16 ]. The studies revealed that approximately 60% to 70% of health care organizations have witnessed breaches of health information without disclosure [ 85 ].

Human Error

Human error is a significant factor in the event of a cyberattack [ 11 , 22 ]. This shortcoming is one of the most crucial issues in health care systems as most cybercriminals use methods such as phishing to execute attacks with just a deceitful email. This is a social problem that can be addressed from a social approach. For example, human error posed a risk to the Geneva University Hospitals [ 86 ]. Table 1 shows that 11% (8/70) of the studies acknowledged human error as the primary social reason for health care system vulnerability. Human error is attributed to a lack of skills and is a major trend in this ever-changing technological landscape, playing a role in several cybersecurity breaches [ 56 ]. From a technological point of view, a lack of expertise from humans and threats from human-related events are responsible for >70% of data fraud and breaches in business organizations (McCue, A, unpublished data, May 2008) [ 80 ] because of the value of health information on the dark web [ 6 ] and breaches in business organizations (McCue, A, unpublished data, May 2008) [ 80 ]. Furthermore, human-related threats have recently emerged as a growing concern.

Old Legacy Systems

Old legacy systems have been the basis of system development from the dawn of the medical device, operating system, and embedded mobile device era. Legacy operating systems such as Windows ME, Windows 2000, MS-DOS, UNIX, and firmware provide the foundation for system development. However, these systems pose a significant threat to health care sectors and organizations in our current era. Table 1 shows that 16% (11/70) of the studies acknowledged the vulnerability of health care systems to attacks due to old legacy systems. Such attacks occur from a sociotechnical approach, with cybercriminals exploiting humans and technology. Many data breaches, system incompatibilities, and security risks in health care systems and sectors are associated with legacy systems. Similarly, our SLR found that 85% of medical organizations use outdated operating systems or infrastructure [ 12 , 16 ]. Furthermore, Fu and Blum [ 50 ] raised concerns about organizations relying on unsupported software, alluding to medical devices that run on Windows XP operating systems with service packs but lack security updates. In addition, the case of the National Health Service 2017 WannaCry malware, which interrupted health care operations and shut down numerous hospitals by infecting thousands of computers, was caused by Windows XP software [ 87 ]. The authorities had been informed about the bugs but failed to act due to negligence. When a medical device is compromised, cybercriminals use it as a gateway to abuse hospitals, health care system networks, and health information or data. Perriello [ 88 ] and Meggitt [ 89 ] highlighted another issue, Medijack , referring to hackers hijacking medical devices to construct a back entrance into a hospital network. As a result, the use of a network of old legacy medical devices for administrative processes and care delivery increases the opportunities for an attacker or cybercriminal to easily intrude into hospital or health care organization networks and exploit and compromise the network of medical devices and health information. In this era of rapid medical technological advancement, health care systems also lack built-in security safeguards. Legacy systems do not support new technologies, and so the network of medical equipment in intensive care units, recovery rooms, operating rooms, and electronic health records (EHRs) will lack proper and secure communication and interoperability. Outdated legacy systems and unsupported operating systems are vulnerable to high-speed attacks. Furthermore, these problems are attributable to the lack of important updates to health care infrastructure. To support our point, health and human services should provide more guidance on applying the National Institute of Standards and Technology framework to the health care industry and consider appropriate incentives that would allow health care organizations to phase out old vulnerable legacy systems [ 16 ].

Lack of Investment

Investment in the health sector will yield better outcomes and quality health care delivery. According to our analysis and results, the health care sector suffers from underinvestment, and crucial infrastructure and training for health care cybersecurity are disregarded [ 6 ], which is one of the primary causes of the increase in sensitive health information breaches. Investment can be seen in social (human) and technical (technology) aspects. As shown in the analysis in Table 1 , a total of 21% (15/70) of the studies acknowledged the lack of investment and advised both directly and indirectly regarding the necessity of cybersecurity investment in the health care industry [ 55 , 56 ]. The analysis acknowledged and revealed that the health care sector lagged more than other sectors in terms of health information protection and breaches. Furthermore, the findings of our SLR revealed that 80% to 85% of worldwide breaches occur in the health sector [ 4 ], whereas 45% to 90% of health care organizations have witnessed one or more threats or breaches [ 18 , 57 ]. Investment in critical infrastructure for health care and best practices in cyber hygiene will aid in the protection of health care systems from potential vulnerabilities. Proper investment will ensure the safeguarding of personal information and render health care systems more resilient to cyberattacks.

Complex Network-Connected End-Point Devices

Medical end-point devices have long served as a hospital’s backbone for treatment, diagnosis, and precision-based technological applications to complement health care service operations and management. To fully exploit their potential, the medical device development pattern has shifted from traditional-based medical device system development to a network of wireless, connected end-point technological devices with built-in communications and remote connectivity. Complex network-connected end-point devices have increased the cyberattack surfaces in conjunction with their complexity and technological systems as heterogeneity in nature of medical technology has evolved. Complex network devices are classified as a technical challenge from the perspective of technical security system design. The analysis in Table 1 shows that 51% (36/70) of the studies acknowledged network-connected end-point medical devices as the most significant technical reason for health care systems’ vulnerability to cyberattacks. The operational modes continue to evolve with more interconnections between new applications and devices such as cloud-based applications, third-party software, IoMT devices, and system networks in health care environments. Lechner [ 68 ] revealed that original equipment manufacturers are now creating interconnected medical devices without incorporating proper cybersecurity features into the development life cycle of medical and end-point device systems. The vulnerability of the end point requires urgent attention; otherwise, cybercriminals will continue to use the weakness of connected devices to access personal health information. According to research and cybersecurity stakeholders, wearables, implanted devices, and sensors may become the new targets of future exploits [ 6 , 8 ]. As shown in Table 1 , complex network-connected end-point medical devices also require medical technology security by design [ 72 , 90 ] as a solution strategy to protect critical health care infrastructure from breaches. In the past, medical device system development has primarily focused on critical performance and safety. Furthermore, the security aspects of these medical devices are not a factor during the planning and development process. The process indicates that developing traditional or stand-alone systems of noninterconnected devices was a suitable method for designing the traditional approach. These are the current legacy systems that lack interoperability, updates, security design, or compatibility. Furthermore, connected medical devices such as sensor-controlled drug infusion pumps, cardiac pacemakers, pulse oximeters, and network-connected x-ray machine components such as picture archiving and communication systems are vulnerable to cybersecurity threats and attacks [ 5 ]. To continue solving cybersecurity issues in medical devices, developers and actors must recognize the importance of the health care environment’s complex operations. In addition, there should be incident reports, an audit trail in the device system database, and paper-based documentation of technical vulnerabilities [ 34 ]. Medical device manufacturers such as security experts or systems integrators must address this issue because, with a single cyber vulnerability, cybercriminals or hackers can exploit medical technology connected to the internet, compromising data integrity, wearable sensor readings, protected health information, patient safety, and care outcomes [ 2 , 50 ]. When cyberattackers manipulate systems or deposit a virus, this could cause medical device software or systems to malfunction, resulting in abnormal effects or different readings from the systems, such as implantable medical devices that take and display incorrect readings [ 5 , 8 ].

Technology Advancement (Digitalization)

Technology advancement has enabled unique access and benefits to revolutionize health care systems in terms of precision. Modern medical care now relies on health care delivery organizations, including hospitals and clinics, built on a backbone of connected computer-based infrastructure. Over the past 30 years, the expansive integration of new health care technology has changed the face of medicine [ 53 ]. However, the rapid digitalization in health care delivery, where medical devices are intertwined in a digital network setting and system to ensure the precision of health care delivery with the use of IoMT and digital devices, has created gateway access for cyberattacks, risks, and vulnerabilities [ 37 , 81 ]. Table 1 shows that 14% (10/70) of the studies acknowledged technology advancement due to digital transformation as the reason why health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks. This type of attack and vulnerability usually occur from the technical areas of cyberattacks, for example, a technology error such as glitches and design errors. One example of vulnerability is St. Joseph Hospital in California, where the health information of 31,800 patients was made public through a basic internet search engine for >1 year without anyone noticing. The underlying issue was that security settings on the medical devices were not correctly configured [ 91 ]. As technology continues to evolve, IoMT will become more inseparable in health care service delivery, which will create more vulnerabilities if health care organizations continue to disregard cybersecurity threats without proactive readiness to address them in this era of Industry 4.0. These vulnerabilities pose threats to the security and privacy of human and health information.

Studies have shown the health care sector to be unequipped and lacking in investment [ 11 , 92 ]. For example, the use of electronic health technology, motivated by acts such as the Meaningful Use program introduced by the US government, has compelled many health care organizations to increase the use of digital technology in health care, such as EHRs and electronic data exchange, and comply with enhanced health care delivery management. Organizations began to focus on adopting new technology and spending less on security, creating part of the problem [ 32 ]. Technological advancements and a federal policy mandate ultimatum are 2 of the causes noted in this SLR that have increased health care industry exposure to cyberattacks and breaches of health information [ 17 ]. Therefore, an organization should have proper planning; be proactive instead of reactive; and ensure the protection of health technology, information, patient privacy, and security when implementing or adopting advanced technology [ 17 , 80 ]. One such process is to ensure that a medical technology statement of disclosure and liability is included during the procurement, integration, and adoption of a technology. Support services and maintenance during and after procurement and installation should be part of the procurement process. Furthermore, the device manufacturer should also consider security in product development planning. Digital technology should also have the capability to monitor and collate threats and patterns and log these in a risk assessment register for analysis and improvement or threat containment.

Causes of Vulnerabilities in Health Care Systems

Figure 3 shows the causes of vulnerabilities in health care systems, which complement the findings regarding health care vulnerability, and categorizes them accordingly. The following sections address these vulnerabilities.

How Can Health Care Systems Be Protected?

This study summarizes how health care systems can be protected from cyber threats and cyberattacks and presented in Table 2 .

a Not applicable.

b IoMT: Internet of Medical Things.

c IoT: Internet of Things.

Human-Related Case Type and Challenges

The protection of health care systems from cyberattack-related vulnerabilities caused by human error, such as identity theft and health information breaches, requires by law that health care organizations inform the human health office, regulatory bodies, and data owners [ 93 ] to ensure compliance with ethical and privacy standard regulations [ 94 , 95 ]. A security compliance officer should also be employed to guide and ensure that proper cyber hygiene measures are in place to avoid such occurrences. It is important to ensure that health information is encrypted to assure that data are unusable and back up data offline and on the web. Furthermore, in cases in which a health care organization is saddled with challenges due to insecure human behavior, such as employee negligence, a lack of skills, and cyber warfare, the organization must ensure proper training of all staff [ 62 ] and implement awareness programs using a comprehensive guide to avert cyber threats [ 36 , 41 ]. This proposed solution requires a social approach in designing guidelines and training programs.

Old Legacy Systems Case Type and Challenges

Interoperability and compatibility challenges in medical devices stem from human-related activities within health care systems, potentially impacting the persistence of outdated legacy systems [ 50 ]. Therefore, to holistically protect health care systems, proposed solutions involve sociotechnical measures due to the old legacy in human work processes, organizational structures, and technology tasks, as mentioned by Offner et al [ 2 ]. Organizations should adhere to policies and standards linked to the old legacy, ensure proper updates and upgrades, and implement patches. Modern equipment that supports security and carries out updates must be procured to avert crises and phase out legacy systems [ 16 ].

Lack of Investment Case Type and Challenges

Investment in critical health care infrastructure is very important to ensure a health care ecosystem that is secure from cyberattacks and vulnerabilities. The susceptibility of health care to cyberattacks is a result of the underinvestment in and neglect of cybersecurity infrastructures. Kruse et al [ 17 ] also highlighted that a health organization invests ≤5% in cybersecurity but tends to focus on integrating and delivering care. It is important for a health care organization to invest in technology, human behavior, and processes [ 96 ] to protect sensitive and valuable health information from breaches and attacks.

Complex Network-Connected End-Point Devices Case Type and Challenges

The increase in health information breaches in hospitals is attributed to complex network-connected end-point devices, which are vulnerable to cyberattacks because sensor-based medical devices and system networks are interlinked and connected to the internet [ 8 ]. Internet of Things devices are vulnerable because they can be controlled through a media access control address and network. A proposed solution identified in this SLR highlighted that health care can be protected though proper encryption of data and installation of network defenders [ 3 ]. It is important that medical device simulation and assessment be performed through vulnerability analysis to ensure that devices are not tampered with or compromised [ 8 ].

Technology Advancement (Digitalization) Case Type and Challenges

Technology advancement has revolutionized the health care delivery process using digital technological processes. Manufactured medical devices enable patients to be diagnosed remotely, and physicians can administer care using telemedicine. However, technological advancements still lack security in the design of these devices because security is an afterthought during development, which makes them vulnerable to cyberattacks [ 5 ]. A proposed solution is that health care organizations must ensure that medical device security starts from the planning stage [ 68 ] and that device manufacturers maintain and manage security in the pre- and postmarket phases. This solution paradigm must be catalogued as a technical measure. Hospitals with modern-day smart care should leverage comprehensive guidelines and compliance with standards such as those of the International Organization for Standardization or International Electrotechnical Commission 27001 or 27002, as well as cyber hygiene to enable effective and efficient care delivery processes [ 4 , 11 ]. Therefore, the implementation of solutions should always adopt a sociotechnical approach [ 96 ].

Intervention Application Areas and Domain Counts for 2012 to 2022

The selected studies from this SLR that discussed and presented knowledge interventions and solutions applied in some health care sectors between 2012 and 2022 are categorized and presented in Table 3 .

a PECB: Professional Evaluation and Certification Board.

b HIPAA: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.

c ECRI: Emergency Care Research Institute.

Knowledge Application Domains and Vulnerabilities

The vulnerabilities listed in Table 3 reveal that human error was associated with interventions linked to one of the knowledge application domains of training, awareness, education, and intelligence information sharing.

Employee training is important to avoid human factors or error challenges in health care. Table 3 shows the proposed solutions and interventions for training from 17% (12/70) of the studies. Figure 4 shows that training emerged in 2018 at 1% and increased to its peak between 2019 and 2021. However, this finding suggests the need for cybersecurity training in health care to manage human vulnerability challenges. This need is supported by the literature highlighting the importance of cybersecurity skills and education for health care professionals [ 16 ] and the need for investment in this area [ 17 ].

The solutions presented regarding educational intervention were derived from 3% (2/70) of the studies ( Table 3 ). Figure 4 shows that educational solutions emerged in 2017 and declined until 2020, when studies on educational intervention emerged. This finding is supported by research that shows a lack of educational skills [ 16 ]. Organizations must invest in educational training and skills to curb social and technical cybersecurity vulnerability in health care.

A total of 6% (4/70) of the studies in Table 3 presented solutions on awareness to address the vulnerability of human errors. This small number of studies has shown a decline and a lack of cybersecurity awareness program in health care systems. Figure 4 similarly shows that cybersecurity awareness emerged in 2016 and reached its peak at 2 studies. This has been validated by previous studies that indicate a lack of awareness programs and training [ 45 , 62 ].

Intelligence Information Sharing

Table 3 also shows that intelligence information sharing was a solution investigated in 7% (5/70) of the studies. It can be seen that information sharing emerged in 2014 and declined in 2015 before re-emerging in 2017 and 2018 at the rate of 1 study each year. This finding also shows that health care organizations should collaborate in training and intelligence information sharing to address cybersecurity challenges in health care.

The vulnerabilities listed in Table 3 reveal that old legacy systems were associated with interventions linked to the knowledge application domain of health policy and standards.

Health Policy and Standards

The knowledge intervention analysis indicates that 36% (25/70) of the studies acknowledged and were linked to health policy and standards ( Table 3 ). The analysis shows that governments and health care organizations have proposed more interventions or solutions regarding health policy and standards to regulate health care organizations. The policy studies shown in Figure 4 emerged in 2014 and continued to increase to their peak in 2018. Policies such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, the GDPR, and the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act to engineer has helped to mitigate data breaches and vulnerabilities in health care organizations in addressing old legacy systems to avoid sanctions and fines in case of breaches. However, full implementation or enforcement of day-to-day monitoring in hospitals or health care organizations remains challenging.

The vulnerabilities listed in Table 1 reveal that a lack of investment was associated with interventions linked to the knowledge application domain of partnership.

Partnership

Partnership is key to sustaining and protecting health care systems from cybersecurity vulnerability [ 72 ]. When organizations fail to invest in critical cyber infrastructure, skills, and partnerships with governments and expert security organizations, it is likely that they will be vulnerable to cyberattacks and breaches of health information and lack the capability to protect health care systems from the vulnerability of underinvestment. Table 3 shows that partnership solutions were provided in 4% (3/70) of the studies, whereas Figure 4 shows that partnership emerged in 2018 and declined in 2021. There is a need for health care organizations to partner for better capability and structure to protect health care systems [ 64 ].

The vulnerabilities listed in Table 1 reveal that complex network-connected end-point devices were associated with interventions linked to the knowledge application domains of participatory design, network security, and encryption.

Participatory Design

Health care organizations and medical device manufacturers must jointly participate in designing processes and systems to avoid a sociotechnical design gap. This collaboration will help protect health care systems and increase the acceptability of organizational systems and productivity. Table 3 shows only 1 pertinent study in 2014. This infer that participatory design is one of the reasons for the vulnerabilities in complex network-connected end-point devices in health care systems. Health care systems comprise a complex environment that requires a sociotechnical and collaborative approach to addressing challenges [ 2 ].

Network Security

Network security solutions were covered in 23% (16/70) of the studies ( Table 3 ). A number of intervention solution studies were conducted in this domain. As shown in Figure 4 , the first increase was observed in 2014 with 4 studies, a decline to 2 studies was observed in 2017, and then the number of studies increased to 3 before a final decline to 2 studies in 2021. These studies still attest to the vulnerability of complex network-connected end-point devices, which require increased interventions to solve health care vulnerability challenges.

The encryption technological solution in this review was mentioned in 6% (4/70) of the studies. There was a limited number of solutions regarding encryption intervention in this review ( Figure 4 ). Encryption only emerged in 2014 with 2 studies, and there was a gap in studies until 2017 and 2018. This finding shows that health care organizations need to implement encryption technology to protect valuable health information from breaches and attacks [ 77 ].

The vulnerabilities listed in Table 1 reveal that technology advancement (digitalization) was associated with interventions linked to the knowledge application domains of machine learning, blockchain, and security design.

Machine Learning

Machine learning is a new area in which cybersecurity in health care systems is evolving. However, solutions were provided in only 11% (8/70) of the studies ( Table 3 ). This technology surfaced in 2014 according to Figure 4 . There was only 1 study in 2014 and 2015. No solutions were provided until 2018, and the number of interventions categorized under technology advancement increased from 2019 to 2021.

Blockchain technology is new and still lacking solutions according to this SLR, where only 1% (1/70) of the studies showed an effective intervention. Blockchain surfaced in 2019, as shown in Figure 4 . Additional solutions and interventions are needed as this area is promising and can be categorized under technology advancement (digitalization) as the key to protecting smart health care systems.

Security by Design

Security by design is a strategy that demands that health care organizations implement auto-based technology to protect digital health care systems. Table 3 shows that 9% (6/70) of the studies acknowledged security by design as a solution for technology advancement to prevent vulnerability in digital systems. Figure 4 shows studies on secure design in 2013 to 2014. There were no studies in 2015, whereas in 2016 to 2019, some studies provided interventions. There is a need for more solutions in this area to protect technological advancement or digital health care systems from vulnerability [ 68 ].

Summary of the Knowledge Application Domains and Vulnerabilities

In summary, the findings of this SLR indicate that interventions provided for the containment of health care cybersecurity vulnerabilities were limited over the past 11 years. This SLR also revealed that interventions regarding the rate of technological advancements in addressing health care cybersecurity challenges were inconsistent and lagging between 2012 and 2022. Findings also indicates that interventions in some of the mapped variables were scarce between 2012 and 2022 ( Table 3 ). Few or no solutions are provided to address the challenges in many domains regarding health care vulnerabilities.

Brief Summary of Findings

This SLR provided a synthesis of literature on cybersecurity in health care and identified the reasons why health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks. This review analyzed 70 published studies and identified 5 vulnerability themes of cybersecurity in health care systems and also proposed sociotechnical solutions for health care organizations.

The findings indicate that the extensive vulnerability of health care systems is due to internet-connected devices and software applications. Health care organizations face significant challenges, such as medical end-point device complexities and saturated wireless medical technology resulting in its difficulty in securing an interconnected technological landscape.

Importantly, many cyberattacks occur within this interconnected network without the health care organization’s awareness, contributing to health information breaches.

Our findings also underscore that the crucial role of investment in health care organizations is a key panacea for addressing cyberattacks and threats. Thus, lack of investment leverages the other vulnerabilities.

In addition, this study found that lack of adequate preparation for the potential threats or vulnerability in shifting to the digitalization of health care is also a contributing factor to most successful cyberattacks on health care organizations.

We found that human activity also played a major role in subjecting health care systems to cybercrimes. The decision of humans to develop medical devices, health software applications, management systems, and processes in an effective and secured manner is vital in safeguarding health information. However, there is a bit of disconnect in the human-centric design in health care system development, most importantly during the planning of procurement of medical technology and systems and the integration between health care organizations and stakeholders such as medical device developers, health care professionals, cybersecurity compliance officers, and system integration experts. Generally, the findings revealed that health care organizations lack adequate cybersecurity preparations during transitions to digitalization.

The findings also revealed that the health care cybersecurity knowledge application domain areas in Figure 4 depict that more intervention studies over the past 11 years were focused on health policy and standards.

In Table 4 , solutions are proposed from a sociotechnical perspective to counteract cybersecurity vulnerabilities in health care organizations.

Further findings on the vulnerabilities and implications for future research are discussed in the following sections.

Table 4 is an integrated table that is presented in a stand-alone view for health care system solutions from a sociotechnical viewpoint.

To protect health care systems from attacks and vulnerabilities, as shown in Table 4 , through the intervention of effective and noneffective studies, it can be seen that sociotechnical intervention studies classified invention most often and were the most effective. There are patterns and convergences between technical solutions and sociotechnical solutions in their domain of applications and solutions, such as a lack of investment, complex network-connected end-point devices, old legacy systems, and technology advancement, which lean toward interventions.

While we can consider human errors in human-computer interactions and technology usability from a human perspective, design and management can be approached through a sociotechnical perspective [ 96 ]. This approach also considers the final users of digital health care systems. Organizations would benefit from leveraging the sociotechnical solutions and guide in Table 4 in the case of cyberattacks attributed to human error by training all staff to respond using a comprehensive guide to avert cyber threats [ 62 ]. Challenges of technology, such as network-connected end-point devices and technology advancement for digitalization, should be addressed through network and security solutions and encryptions [ 6 , 67 ].

Hospitals with modern-day smart care should leverage their comprehensive guidelines and standard International Organization for Standardization or International Electrotechnical Commission 27001 and 27002 compliances.

Health care organizations should ensure and implement proper cyber hygiene to enable effective and efficient health care delivery processes [ 4 , 11 ]. They should increase their budget for critical cyber systems to address the lack of investment [ 17 ] and phase out old legacy systems by increasing investment. These actions will enable resilience and preparedness for future response plans and mitigations.

a AIDE: Assess, Identify, Develop, and Evaluate.

b Not applicable.

c ISA: information security awareness.

d ANT: actor-network theory.

e CERT RMM: Computer Emergency Response Team Resilience Management Model.

f IoMT: Internet of Medical Things.

g HIPAA: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.

h GDPR: General Data Protection Regulation.

i HITECH: Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health.

j FDA: Food and Drug Administration.

k NIST-CSF: National Institute of Standards and Technology Cybersecurity Framework.

l HICP: Health Industry Cybersecurity Practices.

m ITPOSOM: information, technology, processes, objectivity and values, skills and knowledge, management systems and structure, and other resources.

n EHR: electronic health record.

o e-PSG: electronic health record–specific patient safety goals.

p IoT: Internet of Things.

q FHSS: frequency-hopping spread spectrum.

r RSSI: received signal strength indicator.

s BYOD: bring your own device.

t PHR: personal health record.

u OCSVM: one-class support vector machine.

Implications for Future Research

Health care sectors have improved with policies and measures developed to control health information breaches and vulnerabilities. However, further research is needed in social and technical interception design, namely, the human factor. Managing complex end-point devices and investment on addressing health care vulnerability and breaches should be considered from a sociotechnical design and sustainability perspective.

Protecting Complex Network-Connected End-Point Devices

The protection of complex network-connected end-point devices for health care organizations involves several key measures. The network of interconnected medical end-point devices and the software systems that connect to the internet are becoming vulnerable to attacks and breaches. This is a growing issue; health care organizations tend to procure medical device technology without proper equipment planning and guidelines in place. This implies that security is overlooked and is not a major focus area. Examples include hospital beds connected to >10 medical devices, such as pulse oximeters, syringe pumps, and patient care monitors, which are connected devices and vulnerable to attacks [ 2 , 6 ].

To address this technical challenge, organizations can concentrate on developing advanced threat detection and mitigation techniques, such as network defenders tailored to intricate network-connected end-point devices in health care and the integration of artificial intelligence using machine learning algorithms to effectively identify and respond to emerging threats. Furthermore, the health care industry must take a sociotechnical approach [ 96 ] toward implementing standard guidelines and technical solutions via the protection of health care networks through planning and integrating network security protection and segmentation. In addition, health information exchange over the network should undergo steganography and encryption as a solution using blockchain technology. Therefore, the integration of a complex end-point medical device should use built-in security with alert response and communication in processes to monitor health care cybersecurity ecosystems for a healthy security posture.

Health care organizations should collaborate with security experts and health care professionals and implement user education and incidence response to catalog cyber vulnerability incidences for further analysis. The implication is that, if networks and end-point medical devices are not properly secured, this will lead to breaches of health information through the network, which will cause patient information to be hijacked by cybercriminals for political gains. Sponsored state actors may use this weakness to seize networks and systems of care delivery, demanding money from an organization before the latter can regain access. This approach will expose the health information of patients while they are receiving treatment and accessing health care services. This is an evolving challenge of the digital consequences of connected care. Building security through a design solution should be achieved from a sociotechnical approach as the human is the final user of systems of care.

Future research should focus on security by design before integrations of complex technology and design a simpler flow process with the disaggregation of complex network connections.

Increasing Investment in Cybersecurity

Investment in health care systems is critical to ensure the proper safeguarding of health care ecosystems from cyberattacks and vulnerabilities. To ensure efficient and secure health care, organizations should invest in human capital and technology to function effectively. An evaluation through research reveals that health care is lagging behind other sectors in terms of investment. This finding was confirmed by Kruse et al [ 17 ], who found that only 5% of health care investment is earmarked to protect health care, whereas a large percentage is allocated for health care delivery.

Insufficient investment in cybersecurity experts, awareness, and investment partnership plans will continue to subject health care employees to insecure behavior and result in a health care organization that is unprepared to mitigate cyber threats and other tactics used by attackers to disrupt evolving health care trends and patterns, particularly ransomware attacks.

Similarly, old legacy systems pose another security risk. Malicious actors can continue to exploit these systems to expose personal health information due to their limited capabilities and outdated organizational structure. Such vulnerability is worsened by a lack of investment in new cybersecurity infrastructure and computer devices to protect or process health information in a secure manner.

Health care organizations can engage in partnership with medical technology providers, application developers, and network solution integrators to develop strong systems and structures with seamless integration. Health care organizations should also develop and implement a framework for prioritizing cybersecurity investment based on risk assessments and threat intelligence. This approach can help identify the most critical areas of vulnerability within different departments, aiding organizations and policy makers in directing investments where they are most needed. Health care organizations should invest in humans and technology through training to ensure the development of necessary skills and investment in critical cyber infrastructure.

Awareness campaigns for patients and staff will help organizations recover from errors and breaches, whereas investment in technological security systems for health care will prepare health care organizations with the appropriate structure and system for resilience.

The findings presented in this paper are also highlighted in Table 4 . Investment challenges in health care cybersecurity should focus on a sociotechnical approach that involves human behavior, technology, and organizational processes and should not be segregated as a separate technical or social problem. Future research should focus on security and investment in smart health care for attaining sustainability and resilience.

Managing Technological Advancement

Health care industries and organizations have improved over the years and are continuing to forge the development of new capabilities, technological advances, and processes to manage the multifaceted challenges of health care cybersecurity. Complexity in technology advancement and networks of digital systems increase the number of attack surfaces, where cybercriminals take advantage of the digital gateway access and execute malicious software programmed with code, such as malware to compromise digital technology and health care system networks. However, technological development necessitates a proactive approach to cybersecurity, particularly when considering security-by-design principles.

Future research projects must concentrate on important areas to protect networks, systems, and applications against vulnerabilities. Health care organizations should collaborate with medical device manufacturers as part of the planning phase of procurement requirements to ensure specifications needs before the development of medical devices technology for seamless integration. Implanted devices, for instance, should be built with security by design and continuously updated when necessary. A 2-factor authentication security for critical medical technology is also necessary. In addition, it is important that health care organizations quantify the risk, ensure that proper National Institute of Standards and Technology and GDPR standard guidelines are followed, and conduct threat modeling and simulation to evaluate the protectability of health care systems as a guideline in managing cybersecurity vulnerability.

Collaborative (sociotechnical) efforts among academia, industry, and policy makers are essential to drive this research agenda forward and create a safer digital landscape for the future.

The technology procurement requirement and collaboration should consider the integration of social and technical processes during digital technology development with health care delivery processes.

Health care organizations can adopt a blockchain technology solution for the protection of health information and other applications such as EHR systems from malicious use and insider threats.

Future research should examine the use of blockchain for health care big data protection and processes to manage cybersecurity vulnerability.

Containing Human Error in Cybersecurity

Humans are at the receiving end of the cyberattack chain. An example is the case of the WannaCry attack that affected 150,000 computers. It was attributed to human error because humans were warned of the attack on Windows server legacy systems but they ignored the warning by clicking on malicious email links [ 38 , 43 ]. When an organization fails to train humans, cybercriminals take advantage of human weakness to exploit health care systems. Today, medical device manufacturers are building devices without considering humans as the final users or a participatory (sociotechnical) design approach. This is one factor of the clinical process and security dimension to protect critical infrastructure. Another factor is that, if a system is developed and does not start with security and support human usability, it becomes stressful for a human user to navigate the systems, which could cause them techno-stress, with the likelihood of mistakes. The health sector should use the Assess, Identify, Develop, and Evaluate technique to identify areas of human weakness, develop a new training method through simulations, and offer gamification training on issues such as phishing email deception and ransomware attacks. The implication is that, if humans are not trained, they will lead organizations to disaster because cybercriminals will continue to exploit the weakness of humans to cause more damage to health care systems. The consequences will include legal issues, fines, and possibly bankruptcy for health care organizations. Proper training and awareness campaigns should be implemented. Future research should focus on developing futuristic health care cybersecurity curriculums and training.

Practical Implications

Inadequate systems will cause health care systems and organizations to face increasing cyberattacks and setbacks in health information and patient safety. Moreover, a new trend reveals that, if implanted medical devices and technology are not protected, humans will be targeted by hackers seeking to make money or gain political power for ransom. However, implementation and adoption of the medical device security life cycle model [ 68 ] will protect medical devices, health information, patients, and organizations from harm and against future emerging threats. Thus, there is a need for the design of a cybersecurity sociotechnical framework toward sustaining smart health care systems.

Comparison With Prior Work

Previous narrative literature reviews by Coventry and Branley [ 6 ] and Mohan et al [ 31 ] highlight the need for an integrated approach in health care systems to address cybersecurity vulnerabilities. They emphasize the need for a comprehensive approach that connects human behavior, technology, and processes in a holistic way as a best strategy to tackle vulnerabilities, although the authors did not classify human behavior, technology, and processes from a sociotechnical lens. This systematic review supports their view by building and extending the literature on cybersecurity case challenge descriptions in all the tables in this paper to integrate human behavior, technology, and processes as a sociotechnical approach [ 2 , 23 , 26 - 28 ]. For example, an SLR conducted by Offner et al [ 2 ] reported that health care system vulnerability is a complex sociotechnical problem. Furthermore, for a health care organization to build resilience against cyberattacks and threats to avoid cybersecurity design gaps and vulnerabilities in the health care system, a strategic approach that integrates people, technology, and processes must be adopted [ 23 , 27 , 31 ]. The aforementioned aligns with the approach adopted in this study.

Different schools of thought have highlighted the key importance of investment in technology and humans to protect health care systems from cyberattacks and threats [ 6 , 8 , 11 , 19 , 36 , 56 ]. This corroborates our findings that cybersecurity investment plays a main role in health care systems.

This study also revealed that complex network-connected end-point devices were mentioned several times by different schools of thought. Moreover, existing literature has opined that complex network-connected end-point devices were the most mentioned vulnerability [ 5 , 17 , 18 , 35 , 53 ].

Furthermore, technology advancement through a digital transformation evolution has created precision, and managed health care delivery [ 32 , 94 ]. However, more effort is still required in designing security features in health care technology. This study highlighted that security by design is required for medical device technology in health care systems [ 9 , 34 , 68 ].

Health care organizations must ensure that the design of technology evolves with a secure design approach from conception to avoid breaches of health information by external and internal attackers [ 24 , 32 , 68 ].

The sociotechnical solutions in Table 4 will aid health care organizations in being resilient in dealing with vulnerabilities and cybersecurity breaches in health care systems through a comprehensive and holistic approach. The sociotechnical perspective defines the meaning and constructs of technology, humans and processes [ 6 , 19 , 31 , 36 , 37 ]. This approach is promising and effective in dealing with health care system and cybersecurity vulnerabilities.

Limitations

For this study, non–English-language articles on cybersecurity and health care were not included. Closed-access articles directly related to cybersecurity and health care were also not included. Textbooks linked to cybersecurity and health care were excluded. In addition, as cybersecurity is a broad topic, more time was needed for data analysis.

Conclusions

This study conducted an SLR (PRISMA guidelines) to investigate the body of literature on cybersecurity in health care systems because of the exponential increase in health information breaches and vulnerability issues surrounding medical device technology and networks. This study also examined why health care systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks and threats.

In this review, sociotechnical solutions and mitigation strategies were proposed to protect patient health information, medical devices, and the critical cyber infrastructure of health care organizations from attacks and threats. We identified human error, lack of investment, complex network-connected end-point devices, old legacy systems, and technological advancement due to rapid digitalization as the causes of data breaches and the vulnerability of digital health care systems to attacks and threats. This study also revealed that research in the areas of education, awareness, training, collaborative partnerships, blockchain, and machine learning for health care cybersecurity is underrepresented. In addition, there was inconsistency in the publication of intervention studies. There is a gap in intervention studies published between 2012 and 2013, as shown in this SLR, as well as breaks in research publications between 2012 and 2022, as illustrated in Table 3 and Figure 4 .

As shown in Table 1 , of the 70 papers published between 2012 and 2022 and reviewed in this study, only 8 (11%) carried out research in the areas of human error–related perspectives where health care systems are vulnerable to attacks. This finding clearly shows that considerably more studies are required on human factors. We also identified from this review that network-connected end-point devices are the most vulnerable challenge that causes health information breaches. However, stakeholders have rolled out interventions in the areas of health policy, health care system support (network security), and training. The support and training target operational activities and health care delivery while investment in cybersecurity critical infrastructure is disregarded. Rapid technology advancement has resulted to an increasing risk of cyberattacks and threats because most manufactured connected medical devices were not built with security in mind. With the possible sociotechnical solutions in Table 4 , we form conclusions about how to protect health care systems as a sociotechnical solution in relation to the gap in research on technology, human behavior, and processes.

Health care organizations must concede that efficient and effective cybersecurity cannot be addressed with a technological process only but must also evolve beyond technological operation to a sociotechnical process that calls for a comprehensive knowledge of the human elements.

The profound implication of our findings steps further from just the concept of security. It deems it necessary for a major change in the approach to health care security by shifting from a reactive measure of patching and mitigation toward an approach of proactiveness and integration of detailed mechanisms that depend on complex sociotechnical dynamics at play in the design and development processes across the health care systems.

Our review emphasized the importance of a mandatory collaboration and cross-disciplinary engagement among stakeholders in health care, technology policy, and academia. The inclusion of a team-based effort from stakeholders will foster an integrated solution that responds to the challenges of cybersecurity vulnerabilities in health care systems.

In addition, our findings also give prominence to the great significance of investment in health care systems, such as in cybersecurity technology, medical devices, networks, health care professionals, and cybersecurity professionals, in advancing health care organizations. Furthermore, investment is imperative in cybersecurity education and training programs that will provide health care professionals and organizations with the updated knowledge and skills to navigate the complexities of cybersecurity vulnerabilities constructively. Governments should provide additional financial incentives for health care organizations to facilitate cybersecurity sustainability in health care systems. Future research should explore the application of blockchain technology for safeguarding health care system data. Blockchain offers a secure decentralized architecture. Therefore, system developers should consider a human-centric design approach when integrating blockchain technology into health care systems.

By strengthening awareness culture, intelligence information sharing, and accountability in health care systems, health care organizations can equip their operations and workforce to become active front-runners in safeguarding patient data and health care critical infrastructure and assuring the confidentiality, availability, and integrity of health care systems. Consequently, our SLR implores for an exhaustive procedure regarding cybersecurity in health care that affirms and entwines the sociotechnical nature of the vulnerabilities and challenges. By merging a technical approach with human-centric strategies, health care organizations can protect health care systems from vulnerabilities and cyber threats and advance a culture of resilience, trust, and innovation in health care service delivery. The implications of this review present a sociotechnical solution for establishing more secure and resilient health care ecosystems. This paper provides health care organizations with a better understanding of and resilience to cyberattacks, threats, and vulnerabilities.

Acknowledgments

The author is grateful to the Finnish Cultural Foundation and University of Vaasa in Finland for their support in funding this research.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 03.03.23; peer-reviewed by R Marshall, V Perez Jover; comments to author 27.07.23; revised version received 17.10.23; accepted 08.03.24; published 31.05.24.

©Pius Ewoh, Tero Vartiainen. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 31.05.2024.

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