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Clean Water through Nanotechnology: Needs, Gaps, and Fulfillment

• Ankit Nagar Ankit Nagar Department of Chemistry, DST Unit of Nanoscience (DST UNS) and Thematic Unit of Excellence (TUE), Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India More by Ankit Nagar
•  and 

Publication History

• Received 4 March 2019
• Accepted 20 May 2020
• Published online 20 May 2020
• Published in issue 23 June 2020

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• Desalination ,
• Impurities ,
• Membranes ,
• Nanomaterials ,

Sustainable nanotechnology has made substantial contributions in providing contaminant-free water to humanity. In this Review, we present the compelling need for providing access to clean water through nanotechnology-enabled solutions and the large disparities in ensuring their implementation. We also discuss the current nanotechnology frontiers in diverse areas of the clean water space with an emphasis on applications in the field and provide suggestions for future research. Extending the vision of sustainable and affordable clean water to environment in general, we note that cities can live and breathe well by adopting such technologies. By understanding the global environmental challenges and exploring remedies from emerging nanotechnologies, sustainability in clean water can be realized. We suggest specific pointers and quantify the impact of such technologies.

• clean water
• nanotechnology
• desalination
• atmospheric water harvesting
• nanosensors
• smart water purifiers
• Internet of Things

Nanomaterials and Nanotechnologies through the Ages

Figure 1. Schematic illustrating translation of materials from lab-scale to market. Innermost circle 1 indicates materials as building blocks; middle circle 2 indicates reported phenomena using such materials; and outermost circle 3 shows products built out of research and their commercialization to create a societal impact. Images containing 2-line ferrihydrite in circles 1 and 2 adapted with permission from ref (10) . Copyright 2017 John Wiley and Sons. Images involving holey MoS 2 in circles 1 and 2 adapted with permission from ref (31) . Copyright 2018 John Wiley and Sons. Image in yellow section of circle 1 adapted with permission from ref (32) under Creative Commmons Attribution 4.0 International License. Schematic showing graphene-CNT-Fe nanohybrids in circle 1 adapted with permission from ref (34) . Copyright 2013 American Chemical Society. Image of a community-scale CDI machine in circle 3 adapted with permission from ref (36) . Copyright 2018 Innodi Water Technologies Pvt. Ltd. Image of an atmospheric water generator in circle 3 adapted with permission from ref (37) . Copyright 2019 VayuJal Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

Desalination

Thermal desalination, membrane-based desalination, chemical desalination, atmospheric water harvesting, affordable nanosensors and catalysts for clean water.

Figure 2. Schematic of the limits of detection (LOD) achieved using nanomaterials. The rightmost part represents detection up to the single-particle/ion level. Reprinted with permissions from ref (24) . Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons; ref (97) . Copyright 2016 American Chemical Society; ref (98) . Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society; ref (99) . Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society; and ref (100) . Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.

Commercialization, Businesses, and Incubation

technology umbrella/ref	material	problem addressed	organization	status	cost (cents/gallon)
adsorption/	FeOOH	arsenic	IIT Madras	commercial	0.14
adsorption/	nanoalumina fibers	submicron and colloidal particles, bacteria, viruses, dissolved salts, endotoxin, pharmaceuticals	Argonide	commercial	0.03
sorption/	nanocellulose	metal ions	UPM-Kymmene Oy	commercial	–
adsorption and physical separation/	zeolite	heavy metals and ammonia	KMI Zeolite	commercial	–
FO/	CNT-based membranes	brines and several industrial salts	Porifera	commercial	–
RO/	CNT-based membranes	dissolved salts	NanOasis	commercial	–
FO and RO/	Aquaporin water channels	micropollutants, xenobiotics, organics	Aquaporin	pilot	–
CDI/	high surface area carbon electrodes	dissolved salts and metals	InnoDI and IIT Madras	commercial	0.5
NF/	hollow fiber membrane	salts, heavy metals, toxic chemicals	De Mem Ltd. and NTU Singapore	pilot	–
abiotic chemical reduction or anerobic biodegradation/	iron nanoparticles	heavy metals, nitrates, phosphates	NANOIRON	commercial	–

Only select technologies and solutions are listed, based on publicly available information. CNT = carbon nanotube; FO = forward osmosis; RO = reverse osmosis.

material	application	organization	ref
metal–organic framework	atmospheric water harvesting	Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States
organic-templated nanometal oxyhydroxide impregnated with silver nanoparticles	water purification	Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India
cationic and anionic membranes	capacitive deionization	Idropan Dell’orto Depuratori Srl, Italy
metal oxide nanocomposite heterostructure powder	sensing of hydrogen sulfide	Honeywell Romania SRL, Romania
layer-by-layer assembly of graphene oxide membranes	water purification	University of Maryland, United States
aromatic diimide chromophores	sensing of volatile organic compounds	Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, India
doped carbonaceous material	photocatalytic removal of chemical/biological pollutants and micropollutants	University of Arkansas, United States
graphene oxide	dehydration using vapor phase separation or perevaporation	The University of Manchester, United Kingdom

Water Purifiers of Tomorrow

Figure 3. Schematic representation of future data on water being collected from water purifiers, field samples, and city infrastructure through nanosensors embedded in smartphones and IoT-enabled domestic water purifying systems and water distribution networks across the world, proving health advisories in the long run. Top-right panel image adapted and modified with permission from NASA Earth Observatory. Copyright 2020 NASA Earth Observatory. Bottom-left panel image reprinted with permission from ref (132) . Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society.

Opportunities in Sustainable and Affordable Clean Water

(1)	Ideally, the world must run with net-zero carbon emissions, converting CO and H O to fuels and back again to the same amount of CO and H O. This cycle is upset when more CO is produced over time, as we do not know how to fix the imbalance using only sunlight as an energy source. We also do not know how to burn fuels efficiently to produce contaminant-free CW that can be used directly. Perhaps engines of the future can be designed to produce usable liquid water. Note that the unsustainable release of CO into the environment has led to the emergence of CO -conversion techniques such as photo/electrochemical reduction, sequestration, , powered by renewable energy sources such as solar energy, although they do not perform as efficiently as plants. The burning of octane, represented by the reaction, 2C H + 25O → 16CO + 18H O suggests the formation of 162 g of water per 114 g of fuel or 1.42 g of water per gram of fuel. It might be possible to trap this water, similar to trapping CO . India consumed approximately 24 billion kg of petrol in the year 2016–2017, which corresponds to burning nearly 21 billion kg of octane (considering the octane rating as 87), making 186 billion kg of water in a year. Urban water collected this way could grow vegetables on windowsills, as one of the end uses.
(2)	Bangalore is meeting nearly 52% of its water requirements by exploitation of its groundwater, through borewells that currently reach depths close to 2000 feet in several parts of the city. The rest of the water is supplied by the Arkavathy and Cauvery rivers. Dependence on deep borewells will continue to increase with the city’s burgeoning population. Hence, restoring groundwater is a serious challenge. Out of the 33 billion cubic feet of rainwater available annually to Greater Bangalore, 5–10 billion cubic feet can be collected and used to replenish depleted groundwater levels. Lakes and ponds can be rejuvenated using rainwater and can be directed for domestic nonpotable usage. Sewage treatment and use of recycled water will also prove to be vital. In a typical residential building in Bangalore having 500 people, 70% of the total domestic water requirement can be reduced through recycling of greywater, saving ∼ US $14,500 annually and also substantially reducing dependence on groundwater. Decentralization of greywater treatment could be a vital measure to reduce the overall water demand. In comparison to conventional centralized treatment systems, which require a large initial investment on infrastructure and technical manpower for maintenance, affordable decentralized treatment systems can be built using nanomaterials-based strategies. As an example, catalytic oxidation processes involving nanomaterials (ZnO, TiO , CNTs, .) mineralize and partially oxidize organic pollutants into harmless products while also destroying pathogenic micro-organisms to an extent; such processes are scalable toward designing compact decentralized systems. Harvesting atmospheric humidity in highly water-stressed regions of the city will assist as well. Innovative methods of water conservation and recycling which reduce consumption have to be rewarded. Water recycling at the household-level (rapid micro- or “nanorecycling”) calls for developing technologies not only in remediation methods but also in enhancing eco-friendliness of materials, in general.
(3)	Every personal activity has an impact on water. Water audits on materials of consumption, such as detergents, clothes, food, packaging, paint, furniture, , need to happen, and each of them has to be reinvented to make cities livable. It is worth recalling that cotton became water-intensive due to the dyeing industry, which used synthetic dyes during the process of industrialization. Variants of cotton that did not need dyeing, such as yellow and red, were replaced with white by the 1900s, as it could be dyed better. Reintroducing these native varieties would reduce dependence on synthetic dyes and detergents. Nanotechnological solutions in the dyeing and leather industries can reduce water consumption and pollution as well.
(4)	The maintenance of water infrastructure has caused a rise in the price of CW. According to a 2017 water affordability assessment, the percentage of U.S. households that find water services unaffordable is expected to rise from 11.9% in 2017 to 35.6% in 2022. Atmospheric water harvesting and capacitive deionization integrated with next-generation nanomaterials offer affordable solutions, and such technologies, free from municipal water networks, may be a way forward in select areas. Municipal water systems have to be upgraded too, with reduced resistance to flow using NT-enabled coatings.
(5)	Bottled mineral water sales continue to rise. A report found the presence of microplastics in mineral water samples in glass and poly(ethylene terephthalate) packaged bottles. However, the effect on human health of such microplastics, additives, and pigment particles of sizes below 5 μm remains unexamined. Integration of nanosensors with smart water bottles and linking of water quality and quantity to an individual’s physiological information in real-time has the potential to revolutionize personal health. Patients suffering from kidney diseases and congestive heart failure, with recommended protocols on water intake and its quality, could enormously benefit from such sensors. In addition to such nanosensors, biodegradable materials are needed as a replacement for nondisposable plastics, which could bring about another materials revolution. Among other synthetic matter is an ever-expanding class of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, which comprise nearly 4730 commercially available synthetic chemicals and polymers. A majority of them have high water solubility and mobility and are bioaccumulative in nature. Their sources include manufacturing facilities, industrial and domestic wastewater treatment plants, landfills, . Given their ability to persist indefinitely in the environment due to the presence of strong carbon–fluorine bonds, they pose a serious threat for future generations, if they reach groundwater through one of the sources. Several nanoenabled remediation strategies have been found promising for these contaminants. Techniques such as electrochemical oxidation and hydrolysis using CNTs, photocatalytic decomposition using nanostructured oxides, reductive degradation using nanoscale zerovalent iron, , have proven as effective remediation strategies in near-ambient conditions. However, it is imperative that no toxic metal ions should release into the treated water. Immobilization of effective nanosorbents into a matrix could result in a deployable remediation device.
(6)	Providing CW for all citizens drains resources initially, but builds resources in the long run. In countries such as India, old practices and emerging aspirations coexist. Villages live on traditional agricultural practices such as burning harvested fields prior to sowing and flooding them during farming. These practices contribute to smog and reduce water availability in neighboring cities, which in turn respond by conveying water from further away, leaving the farmlands dry and inhabitants hungry. Technologies will need to address imbalances of many kinds.
(7)	Challenges of CW are linked to clean air, clean energy, sustainable agriculture, and a clean environment. As an example, it is possible to harvest energy from natural and wastewater by utilizing salinity gradients. A power of 0.8 kW/m can be generated by utilizing the osmotic pressure difference between river water (0.01 M NaCl) and seawater (0.1 M NaCl). Globally, an untapped amount of nearly 1000 GW and 18 GW of energy is available, from rivers and wastewaters going into the sea, respectively. Currently, pressure-retarded osmosis and reverse electrodialysis have emerged as membrane-based techniques for osmotic energy harvesting. Existing challenges of having to use expensive materials and the requirement of high power density could be overcome by channelizing energy from complementary sources such as waste heat and brines.

(1)	Global CO emissions due to desalination were nearly 76 million tons (MT) in 2015, and global methanol requirements that year were approximately 75 MT. Nanotechnology-assisted production of methanol from CO , supported by renewable energy sources, is a promising direction to address both concerns simultaneously. One potential pathway is to develop an efficient catalytic system for CO -to-methanol conversion that demonstrates high selectivity, conversion efficiency, and low global-warming impact through the use of renewable energy.
(2)	Efficient water-harvesting mechanisms that do not require additional energy input are needed, such as solar-heat-enabled atmospheric water capture by a porous MOF (801, Zr O (OH) (fumarate) ) at a relative humidity as low as 20%.
(3)	Nanomaterials can be used to conserve CW by improving the physicochemical and biological characteristics of soil. For example, the application of biodegradable nanohydrogels enhances the moisture content of soil and its water retention capacity, thereby relieving water stress. Groundwater demand by the irrigation sector in India is expected to increase from 605 billion cubic meters (BCM) in 2000 to 675 BCM in 2025, but may be reduced to 637 BCM by 2050. The projected decline in groundwater consumption beyond 2025 is attributed to NTs that can enhance the efficiency of groundwater-driven irrigation.
(4)	Water audits in developing consumables from food to toiletries are needed. For example, cradle-to-grave life cycle assessments of the process of washing 5 kg of laundry (requiring medium hardness water at 40 °C and consuming 120 g of liquid detergent, 49 L of water, and 0.53 kWh of electricity per washing cycle) reveals a primary energy footprint of 6.57 MJ equivalent, a carbon footprint of 0.54 kg CO equivalent, and an environmental footprint of 3.34 × 10 EI99 points (see ref for a detailed description of the units). This understanding may change the consumer’s choice of detergents, packaging materials, chemicals, building materials, . (see point 7 below). The “water positive” aspect of nanomaterials in this context, indicating net CW production during a synthesis, was shown when an antimicrobial silver-based composition was synthesized for controlled release of silver ions. The synthesized material consumed only 1 L of water for its production, while it helped to make 500 L of CW.
(5)	Point-of-use water recycling products for personal and local reuse, such as portable, chemical-free, ozone-based disinfection solutions, using hydrodynamic cavitation, acoustic cavitation, and electrochemical oxidation, may lead to energy-efficient water treatment and recycling across oil and gas industries, municipalities, mining industries, , at capacities as large as 12,492 L/min. Note that more than 80% of wastewater is discharged into surface water bodies in developing countries today. India alone generates approximately 6.2 million m of untreated industrial water every day. Such solutions will contribute to better wastewater management and preservation of freshwater resources.
(6)	Placing compact nanosensors on water bottles and other water-based beverage containers to monitor water quality (pH, hardness, turbidity, .) and to create an interconnected network (Internet of Nano Things) will generate opportunities.
(7)	Self-cleaning fabrics lead to reductions in consumption of water, detergent, electricity, or an equivalent amount of CO . Nanomaterials such as SiO NPs, CNTs, TiO NPs, , are known to demonstrate photocatalytic self-cleaning through the creation of hierarchical structures, whereas adsorption of organic molecules such as alkanethiols and fluorosilanes imparts water repellency to surfaces by lowering their surface energy. A U.S. study found that a treated, self-cleaning fabric could reduce electricity and water consumption by as much as 84%, compared to an untreated fabric, while undergoing 50 laundry cycles in its lifetime.
(8)	Waterless vacuum toilets with incorporated fecal and urinal waste-repellant nanocoatings are possible at the domestic level. Also, the possibility of nanoenabled nutrient recovery from human feces and urine could be explored for reuse at homes. Overcoming the social stigma is crucial to implement such solutions, particularly in developing countries.
(9)	Next-generation membranes for desalination are needed. At present, production of 1 m of CW through RO desalination consumes approximately 3–5 kWh of electricity, although enhanced efficiency has been demonstrated. Highly selective membranes can filter chlorine and boron from seawater in a single pass, unlike the multiple passes required in RO that currently makes desalination a costly, and energy- and time-intensive process. One possible direction is the development of aquaporin membranes that offer the required selectivity. However, efficient salt rejection and cost-effective upscaling of the process are required. Synthetic water channels, mimicking aquaporins, such as CNTs and several aligned peptides to form pores, is another possibility. Tunability in terms of pore size is required here. Other promising materials include graphene oxide, MoS , . The development of next-generation membranes could contribute to achieving the set target of reducing desalination costs from US $2.00 to US $0.50 per m (as per the U.S. Department of Energy).
(10)	Nanomaterials can enhance oil recovery in oil and gas industries. For instance, oil viscosity can be reduced by use of a suspension of Al O NPs in distilled water or brine, and rock wettability can be modified by the application of silane-treated silicon dioxide NPs. Both of these modifications improve oil recovery. An oleogelator-impregnated cellulose pulp effectively recovers oil from oil–water mixtures by congealing it within a matrix, thereby offering an eco-friendly, cost-effective, and practical solution to restore the marine ecosystem from oil spills.

Conclusions and Prospects

• nn9b01730_liveslides.mp4 (7.97 MB)

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Author Information

• Ankit Nagar - Department of Chemistry, DST Unit of Nanoscience (DST UNS) and Thematic Unit of Excellence (TUE), Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
• Notes The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

T.P. thanks his former and current students and associates whose work enriched his understanding of the subject area. Work in this area has been supported by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.

a physical property in which molecules show absence of affinity toward water and prefer nonpolar interactions with molecules of similar nature, leading to positive change in their free energy, thereby causing segregation of water molecules
	a phenomenon in which a reaction is accelerated due to the presence of a catalyst which generates electron–hole pairs upon irradiation to create active species such as free radicals, enabling secondary pathways and reducing activation energy barrier for the reaction
	a process of removal of dissolved minerals and salts from high-salinity water to obtain product freshwater and concentrated brine for disposal
	a class of devices that utilize unique properties of nanomaterials to detect and quantify events occurring at nanoscale
	a variable defined as amount of energy consumed per unit of production

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• 17 Rehman, K. ; Fatima, F. ; Waheed, I. ; Akash, M. S. H. Prevalence of Exposure of Heavy Metals and their Impact on Health Consequences . J. Cell. Biochem. 2018 , 119 , 157 – 184 ,  DOI: 10.1002/jcb.26234 Google Scholar 17 Prevalence of exposure of heavy metals and their impact on health consequences Rehman, Kanwal; Fatima, Fiza; Waheed, Iqra; Akash, Muhammad Sajid Hamid Journal of Cellular Biochemistry ( 2018 ), 119 ( 1 ), 157-184 CODEN: JCEBD5 ; ISSN: 0730-2312 . ( Wiley-Blackwell ) Even in the current era of growing technol., the concn. of heavy metals present in drinking water is still not within the recommended limits as set by the regulatory authorities in different countries of the world. Drinking water contaminated with heavy metals namely; arsenic, cadmium, nickel, mercury, chromium, zinc, and lead is becoming a major health concern for public and health care professionals. Occupational exposure to heavy metals is known to occur by the utilization of these metals in various industrial processes and/or contents including color pigments and alloys. However, the predominant source resulting in measurable human exposure to heavy metals is the consumption of contaminated drinking water and the resulting health issues may include cardiovascular disorders, neuronal damage, renal injuries, and risk of cancer and diabetes. The general mechanism involved in heavy metal-induced toxicity is recognized to be the prodn. of reactive oxygen species resulting oxidative damage and health related adverse effects. Thus utilization of heavy metal-contaminated water is resulting in high morbidity and mortality rates all over the world. Thereby, feeling the need to raise the concerns about contribution of different heavy metals in various health related issues, this article has discussed the global contamination of drinking water with heavy metals to assess the health hazards assocd. with consumption of heavy metal-contaminated water. A relationship between exposure limits and ultimate responses produced as well as the major organs affected have been reviewed. Acute and chronic poisoning symptoms and mechanisms responsible for such toxicities have also been discussed. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXht1Ggur7M&md5=5b4eef368db9805c482976aa0f55dc17
• 18 Agusa, T. ; Kubota, R. ; Kunito, T. ; Minh, T. B. ; Trang, P. T. K. ; Chamnan, C. ; Iwata, H. ; Viet, P. H. ; Tana, T. S. ; Tanabe, S. Arsenic Pollution in Groundwater of Vietnam and Cambodia: A Review . Biomed. Res. Trace Elem. 2007 , 18 , 35 – 47 Google Scholar 18 Arsenic pollution in groundwater of Vietnam and Cambodia: a review Agusa, Tetsuro; Kubota, Reiji; Kunito, Takashi; Minh, Tu Binh; Trang, Pham Thi Kim; Chamnan, Chhoun; Iwata, Hisato; Viet, Pham Hung; Tana, Touch Seang; Tanabe, Shinsuke Biomedical Research on Trace Elements ( 2007 ), 18 ( 1 ), 35-47 CODEN: BRTEE5 ; ISSN: 0916-717X . ( Nippon Biryo Genso Gakkai ) A review is given. Arsenic groundwater pollution has been reported for the Red River delta of Northern Vietnam and the Mekong delta of Southern Vietnam and Cambodia. Although the health of ∼10 million people is at risk from the drinking tube well water, little information is available on the health effects of As exposure in the residents of these regions. The countrywide survey on regional distribution of As pollution has not been conducted in these countries. As far as we know, symptoms of chronic As exposure have not yet been reported, probably due to the relative short-term usage of the tube wells in the regions. However, oxidative DNA damage has been obsd. in the residents of Cambodia and so further continuous usage of the tube well might cause severe damage to the health of the residents. We review literature concerning As pollution of groundwater and its health effects on residents of Vietnam and Cambodia. The mechanisms of As release to the groundwater is discussed. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXkvVKlur4%253D&md5=c3aa10ccfc2db2d0da0400fa1a794056
• 19 Pokhrel, D. ; Bhandari, B. S. ; Viraraghavan, T. Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater in the Terai Region of Nepal: An Overview of Health Concerns and Treatment Options . Environ. Int. 2009 , 35 , 157 – 161 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2008.06.003 Google Scholar 19 Arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Terai region of Nepal: an overview of health concerns and treatment options Pokhrel D; Bhandari B S; Viraraghavan T Environment international ( 2009 ), 35 ( 1 ), 157-61 ISSN: . A review of published information on the arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Terai regions of Nepal showed that the source was mainly geogenic due to the dissolution of the arsenic-bearing minerals. Clinical observations of patients in the arsenic affected districts revealed chronic arsenic poisoning from drinking water. Half a million people inhabiting the region are believed to have been exposed to arsenic levels greater than 50 microg/L in their drinking water. Thirty-one percent of the population (3.5 million) in the region are estimated to have been exposed to arsenic levels between 10 and 50 microg/L. Iron assisted biosand filters currently distributed and in operation are a suitable alternative to mitigate the interim arsenic standard of 50 microg/L, as set by the Nepal Government. Arsenic biosand filters were also effective in removing bacteria and viruses from drinking water in laboratory and field tests. However, groundwater treatment targeting cluster communities in the Terai region is the sustainable way of mitigating the arsenic problem. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1cjovVChtQ%253D%253D&md5=fc546091aa277d5bd7f37537b86b1faf
• 20 Brinkel, J. ; Khan, M. ; Kraemer, A. A Systematic Review of Arsenic Exposure and Its Social and Mental Health Effects with Special Reference to Bangladesh . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2009 , 6 , 1609 – 1619 ,  DOI: 10.3390/ijerph6051609 Google Scholar 20 A systematic review of arsenic exposure and its social and mental health effects with special reference to Bangladesh Brinkel Johanna; Khan Mobarak H; Kraemer Alexander International journal of environmental research and public health ( 2009 ), 6 ( 5 ), 1609-19 ISSN: . Underground water in many regions of the world is contaminated with high concentrations of arsenic and the resulting toxicity has created a major environmental and public health problem in the affected regions. Chronic arsenic exposure can cause many diseases, including various physical and psychological harms. Although the physical problems caused by arsenic toxicity are well reported in literature, unfortunately the consequences of arsenic exposure on mental health are not adequately studied. Therefore we conducted a review of the available literature focusing on the social consequences and detrimental effects of arsenic toxicity on mental health. Chronic arsenic exposures have serious implications for its victims (i.e. arsenicosis patients) and their families including social instability, social discrimination, refusal of victims by community and families, and marriage-related problems. Some studies conducted in arsenic affected areas revealed that arsenic exposures are associated with various neurologic problems. Chronic arsenic exposure can lead to mental retardation and developmental disabilities such as physical, cognitive, psychological, sensory and speech impairments. As health is defined by the World Health Organization as "a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing", the social dimensions have a large impact on individual's mental health. Furthermore studies in China und Bangladesh have shown that mental health problems (e.g. depression) are more common among the people affected by arsenic contamination. Our study indicates various neurological, mental and social consequences among arsenic affected victims. Further studies are recommended in arsenic-affected areas to understand the underlying mechanisms of poor mental health caused by arsenic exposure. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1MvjsFCgsg%253D%253D&md5=e479701c7c40103e82c38a9d716de49b
• 21 Ng, J. C. ; Wang, J. ; Shraim, A. A. Global Health Problem Caused by Arsenic from Natural Sources . Chemosphere 2003 , 52 , 1353 – 1359 ,  DOI: 10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00470-3 Google Scholar 21 A global health problem caused by arsenic from natural sources Ng, Jack C.; Wang, Jianping; Shraim, Amjad Chemosphere ( 2003 ), 52 ( 9 ), 1353-1359 CODEN: CMSHAF ; ISSN: 0045-6535 . ( Elsevier Science Ltd. ) A review. Arsenic is a carcinogen to both humans and animals. Arsenicals have been assocd. with cancers of the skin, lung, and bladder. Clin. manifestations of chronic arsenic poisoning include non-cancer end points of hyper- and hypopigmentation, keratosis, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes. Epidemiol. evidence indicates that arsenic concn. exceeding 50 μg L-1 in the drinking water is not public health protective. The current WHO recommended guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is 10 μg L-1 whereas many developing countries are still having a value of 50 μg L-1. It has been estd. that tens of millions of people are at risk exposed to excessive levels of arsenic from both contaminated water and arsenic-bearing coal from natural sources. The global health implication and possible intervention strategies were also discussed in this review article. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXlsVWksLw%253D&md5=6ce200c339e4028759eb34d5c0b0a20c
• 22 McClintock, T. R. ; Chen, Y. ; Bundschuh, J. ; Oliver, J. T. ; Navoni, J. ; Olmos, V. ; Lepori, E. V. ; Ahsan, H. ; Parvez, F. Arsenic Exposure in Latin America: Biomarkers, Risk Assessments and Related Health Effects . Sci. Total Environ. 2012 , 429 , 76 – 91 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.08.051 Google Scholar 22 Arsenic exposure in Latin America: Biomarkers, risk assessments and related health effects McClintock, Tyler R.; Chen, Yu; Bundschuh, Jochen; Oliver, John T.; Navoni, Julio; Olmos, Valentina; Lepori, Edda Villaamil; Ahsan, Habibul; Parvez, Faruque Science of the Total Environment ( 2012 ), 429 ( ), 76-91 CODEN: STENDL ; ISSN: 0048-9697 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review. In Latin America, several regions have a long history of widespread As contamination from both natural and anthropol. sources. Yet, relatively little is known about the extent of As exposure from drinking water and its related health consequences in these countries. It was estd. that at least 4.5 million people in Latin America are chronically exposed to high levels of As (> 50 μg/L), some to as high as 2000 μg/L - 200 times higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) provisional std. for drinking water. We conducted a systematic review of 82 peer reviewed papers and reports to fully explore the current understanding of As exposure and its health effects, as well as the influence of genetic factors that modulate those effects in the populations of Latin America. Despite some methodol. limitations, these studies suggested important links between the high levels of chronic As exposure and elevated risks of numerous adverse health outcomes in Latin America - including internal and external cancers, reproductive outcomes, and childhood cognitive function. Several studies demonstrated genetic polymorphisms that influence susceptibility to these and other disease states through their modulation of As metab., with As methyltransferase (AS3MT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and genes of 1-C metab. being specifically implicated. While the full extent and nature of the health burden are yet to be known in Latin America, these studies have significantly enriched knowledge of As toxicity and led to subsequent research. Targeted future studies will not only yield a better understanding of the public health impact of As in Latin America populations, but also allow for effective and timely mitigation efforts. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xos1Cnu7c%253D&md5=91fd1a90dae6f35bea1943c8c2c6c6cf
• 23 Mendez, W. M. ; Eftim, S. ; Cohen, J. ; Warren, I. ; Cowden, J. ; Lee, J. S. ; Sams, R. Relationships between Arsenic Concentrations in Drinking Water and Lung and Bladder Cancer Incidence in US Counties . J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2017 , 27 , 235 – 243 ,  DOI: 10.1038/jes.2016.58 Google Scholar 23 Relationships between arsenic concentrations in drinking water and lung and bladder cancer incidence in U.S. counties Mendez, William M.; Eftim, Sorina; Cohen, Jonathan; Warren, Isaac; Cowden, John; Lee, Janice S.; Sams, Reeder Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology ( 2017 ), 27 ( 3 ), 235-243 CODEN: JESEBS ; ISSN: 1559-0631 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Increased risks of lung and bladder cancer have been obsd. in populations exposed to high levels of inorg. arsenic. However, studies at lower exposures (i.e., less than 100μg/l in water) have shown inconsistent results. We therefore conducted an ecol. anal. of the assocn. between historical drinking water arsenic concns. and lung and bladder cancer incidence in U. S. counties. We used drinking water arsenic concns. measured by the U. S. Geol. Survey and state agencies in the 1980s and 1990s as proxies for historical exposures in counties where public groundwater systems and private wells are important sources of drinking water. Relationships between arsenic levels and cancer incidence in 2006-2010 were explored by Poisson regression analyses, adjusted for groundwater dependence and important demog. covariates. The median and 95th percentile county mean arsenic concns. were 1.5 and 15.4μg/l, resp. Water arsenic concns. were significant and pos. assocd. with female and male bladder cancer, and with female lung cancer. Our findings support an assocn. between low water arsenic concns. and lung and bladder cancer incidence in the United States. However, the limitations of the ecol. study design suggest caution in interpreting these results. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitVWqurfL&md5=0f00e8b458cf83275f1532b86aff698c
• 24 Mathew, A. ; Sajanlal, P. R. ; Pradeep, T. Selective Visual Detection of TNT at the Sub-Zeptomole Level . Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2012 , 51 , 9596 – 9600 ,  DOI: 10.1002/anie.201203810 Google Scholar 24 Selective Visual Detection of TNT at the Sub-Zeptomole Level Mathew, Ammu; Sajanlal, P. R.; Pradeep, Thalappil Angewandte Chemie, International Edition ( 2012 ), 51 ( 38 ), 9596-9600, S9596/1-S9596/13 CODEN: ACIEF5 ; ISSN: 1433-7851 . ( Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ) The authors demonstrated a simple and reliable strategy for the detection of two analytes of social interest, TNT and Hg2+, at the sub-zeptomole level in soln. The method involves anchoring silver clusters, which are comprised of fifteen atoms and embedded in bovine serum albumin, on silica-coated gold mesoflowers (Au MFs), termed Au@SiO2@Ag15 MFs, and using this system for analyte detection. The authors exposed varying concns. of TNT to Au@SiO2@Ag15 MFs and found that even a concn. of less than one zeptomole of TNT per meso-flowers quenches the luminescence of the composite meso-flowers within 1 min. The selectivity of the gold quantum clusters (QCs) towards these analytes has been exploited and the very same methodol. could be extended to other QCs with brighter luminescence, which could be protected with more specific ligands that may also enhance their chem. stability. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xht1Gksr7M&md5=30ec24e0371737111eb69af14eae34ce
• 25 Wang, L. ; Boutilier, M. S. H. ; Kidambi, P. R. ; Jang, D. ; Hadjiconstantinou, N. G. ; Karnik, R. Fundamental Transport Mechanisms, Fabrication and Potential Applications of Nanoporous Atomically Thin Membranes . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2017 , 12 , 509 – 522 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2017.72 Google Scholar 25 Fundamental transport mechanisms, fabrication and potential applications of nanoporous atomically thin membranes Wang, Luda; Boutilier, Michael S. H.; Kidambi, Piran R.; Jang, Doojoon; Hadjiconstantinou, Nicolas G.; Karnik, Rohit Nature Nanotechnology ( 2017 ), 12 ( 6 ), 509-522 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) A review. Graphene and other two-dimensional materials offer a new approach to controlling mass transport at the nanoscale. These materials can sustain nanoscale pores in their rigid lattices and due to their min. possible material thickness, high mech. strength and chem. robustness, they could be used to address persistent challenges in membrane sepns. Here we discuss theor. and exptl. developments in the emerging field of nanoporous atomically thin membranes, focusing on the fundamental mechanisms of gas- and liq.-phase transport, membrane fabrication techniques and advances towards practical application. We highlight potential functional characteristics of the membranes and discuss applications where they are expected to offer advantages. Finally, we outline the major scientific questions and technol. challenges that need to be addressed to bridge the gap from theor. simulations and proof-of-concept expts. to real-world applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXpt1Oqur8%253D&md5=9996d427dbca1d7c29f550c0187757d4
• 26 Sun, Z. ; Liao, T. ; Li, W. ; Dou, Y. ; Liu, K. ; Jiang, L. ; Kim, S.-W. ; Ho Kim, J. ; Xue Dou, S. Fish-Scale Bio-Inspired Multifunctional ZnO Nanostructures . NPG Asia Mater. 2015 , 7 , e232  DOI: 10.1038/am.2015.133 Google Scholar 26 Fish-scale bio-inspired multifunctional ZnO nanostructures Sun, Ziqi; Liao, Ting; Li, Wenxian; Dou, Yuhai; Liu, Kesong; Jiang, Lei; Kim, Sang-Woo; Ho Kim, Jung; Xue Dou, Shi NPG Asia Materials ( 2015 ), 7 ( 12 ), e232 CODEN: NAMPCE ; ISSN: 1884-4057 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Scales provide optical disguise, low water drag and mech. protection to fish, enabling them to survive catastrophic environmental disasters, predators and microorganisms. The unique structures and stacking sequences of fish scales inspired the fabrication of artificial nanostructures with salient optical, interfacial and mech. properties. Herein, we describe fish-scale bio-inspired multifunctional ZnO nanostructures that have similar morphol. and structure to the cycloid scales of the Asian Arowana. These nanostructured coatings feature tunable light refraction and reflection, modulated surface wettability and damage-tolerant mech. properties. The salient properties of these multifunctional nanostructures are promising for applications in (i) optical coatings, sensing or lens arrays for use in reflective displays, packing, advertising and solar energy harvesting; (ii) self-cleaning surfaces, including anti-smudge, anti-fouling and anti-fogging, and self-sterilizing surfaces; and (iii) mech./chem. barrier coatings. This study provides a low-cost and large-scale prodn. method for the facile fabrication of these bio-inspired nanostructures and provides new insights for the development of novel functional materials for use in 'smart' structures and applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXitVCksL3J&md5=69f297e2601d31e383d6dcef07bcc6e0
• 27 Li, Y. ; He, L. ; Zhang, X. ; Zhang, N. ; Tian, D. External-Field-Induced Gradient Wetting for Controllable Liquid Transport: From Movement on the Surface to Penetration into the Surface . Adv. Mater. 2017 , 29 , 1703802 ,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.201703802 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 28 Porosity in Carbons: Characterization and Applications ; Patrick, J. W. Ed.; Wiley : London, UK , 1995 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 29 Pollard, S. J. T. ; Fowler, G. D. ; Sollars, C. J. ; Perry, R. Low-Cost Adsorbents for Waste and Wastewater Treatment: A Review . Sci. Total Environ. 1992 , 116 , 31 – 52 ,  DOI: 10.1016/0048-9697(92)90363-W Google Scholar 29 Low-cost adsorbents for waste and wastewater treatment: a review Pollard, S. J. T.; Fowler, G. D.; Sollars, C. J.; Perry, R. Science of the Total Environment ( 1992 ), 116 ( 1-2 ), 31-52 CODEN: STENDL ; ISSN: 0048-9697 . A review with 94 refs. concerning recent research in low-cost alternatives to activated C for waste and wastewater treatment. Topics discussed include the selection criteria and activation methods for prepn. of active C and a crit. assessment of low-cost adsorbents prepd. from carbonaceous industrial wastes, agricultural byproducts, and mineral-derived sources. Emphasis is given to in situ reuse applications; rudimentary economic analyses for comparative operations with com. activated C is provided, where available. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK38XktlaqtLg%253D&md5=b23243d70ccc6fe1bffeb3feaa75e322
• 30 Das, R. ; Vecitis, C. D. ; Schulze, A. ; Cao, B. ; Ismail, A. F. ; Lu, X. ; Chen, J. ; Ramakrishna, S. Recent Advances in Nanomaterials for Water Protection and Monitoring . Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017 , 46 , 6946 – 7020 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C6CS00921B Google Scholar 30 Recent advances in nanomaterials for water protection and monitoring Das, Rasel; Vecitis, Chad D.; Schulze, Agnes; Cao, Bin; Ismail, Ahmad Fauzi; Lu, Xianbo; Chen, Jiping; Ramakrishna, Seeram Chemical Society Reviews ( 2017 ), 46 ( 22 ), 6946-7020 CODEN: CSRVBR ; ISSN: 0306-0012 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) The efficient handling of wastewater pollutants is a must, since they are continuously defiling limited fresh water resources, seriously affecting the terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial flora and fauna. Our vision is to undertake an exhaustive examn. of current research trends with a focus on nanomaterials (NMs) to considerably improve the performance of classical wastewater treatment technologies, e.g. adsorption, catalysis, sepn., and disinfection. Addnl., NM-based sensor technologies are considered, since they have been significantly used for monitoring water contaminants. We also suggest future directions to inform investigators of potentially disruptive NM technologies that have to be investigated in more detail. The fate and environmental transformations of NMs, which need to be addressed before large-scale implementation of NMs for water purifn., are also highlighted. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsFOrsbfP&md5=73a5d374fea60b0727039d270aa25dfb
• 31 Sarkar, D. ; Mondal, B. ; Som, A. ; Ravindran, S. J. ; Jana, S. K. ; Manju, C. K. ; Pradeep, T. Holey MoS 2 Nanosheets with Photocatalytic Metal Rich Edges by Ambient Electrospray Deposition for Solar Water Disinfection . Glob. Challenges 2018 , 2 , 1800052 ,  DOI: 10.1002/gch2.201800052 Google Scholar 31 Holey MoS2 Nanosheets with Photocatalytic Metal Rich Edges by Ambient Electrospray Deposition for Solar Water Disinfection Sarkar Depanjan; Mondal Biswajit; Som Anirban; Ravindran Swathy Jakka; Jana Sourav Kanti; Manju C K; Pradeep Thalappil Global challenges (Hoboken, NJ) ( 2018 ), 2 ( 12 ), 1800052 ISSN: . A new method for creating nanopores in single-layer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanosheets (NSs) by the electrospray deposition of silver ions on a water suspension of the former is introduced. Electrospray-deposited silver ions react with the MoS2 NSs at the liquid-air interface, resulting in Ag2S nanoparticles which enter the solution, leaving the NSs with holes of 3-5 nm diameter. Specific reaction with the S of MoS2 NSs leads to Mo-rich edges. Such Mo-rich defects are highly efficient for the generation of active oxygen species such as H2O2 under visible light which causes efficient disinfection of water. 10(5) times higher efficiency in disinfection for the holey MoS2 NSs in comparison to normal MoS2 NSs is shown. Experiments are performed with multiple bacterial strains and a virus strain, demonstrating the utility of the method for practical applications. A conceptual prototype is also presented. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3MnjtFOitA%253D%253D&md5=7ed05531dd8c6201702d60b88d168d9f
• 32 Tavakolian, M. ; Jafari, S. M. ; Van de Ven, T. G. A Review on Surface-Functionalized Cellulosic Nanostructures as Biocompatible Antibacterial Materials . Nano-Micro Lett. 2020 , 12 , 1 – 23 ,  DOI: 10.1007/s40820-020-0408-4 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 33 Sarkar, D. ; Mahapatra, A. ; Som, A. ; Kumar, R. ; Nagar, A. ; Baidya, A. ; Pradeep, T. Patterned Nanobrush Nature Mimics with Unprecedented Water-Harvesting Efficiency . Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2018 , 5 , 1800667 ,  DOI: 10.1002/admi.201800667 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 34 Vadahanambi, S. ; Lee, S. H. ; Kim, W. J. ; Oh, I. K. Arsenic removal from contaminated water using three-dimensional graphene-carbon nanotube-iron oxide nanostructures . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013 , 47 , 10510 – 10517 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es401389g Google Scholar 34 Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Water Using Three-Dimensional Graphene-Carbon Nanotube-Iron Oxide Nanostructures Vadahanambi, Sridhar; Lee, Sang-Heon; Kim, Won-Jong; Oh, Il-Kwon Environmental Science & Technology ( 2013 ), 47 ( 18 ), 10510-10517 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) We report a highly versatile and one-pot microwave route to the mass prodn. of 3-dimensional graphene-C nanotube-Fe oxide nanostructures for the efficient removal of As from contaminated water. The unique 3-dimensional nanostructure shows that C nanotubes are vertically standing on graphene sheets and Fe oxide nanoparticles are decorated on both the graphene and the C nanotubes. The material with Fe oxide nanoparticles shows excellent absorption for As removal from contaminated water, due to its high surface-to-vol. ratio and open pore network of the graphene-C nanotube-Fe oxide 3-dimensional nanostructures. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXht1Oqs7jI&md5=3227d79cdd4e9dd296fad76fcef8298a
• 35 Indian Scientists Develop Low-Cost Arsenic Water Filter ; The Third Pole . https://www.thethirdpole.net/2016/01/22/indian-scientists-develop-low-cost-arsenic-water-filter/ (accessed 2020/05/01). Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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• 39 Shahzad, M. W. ; Burhan, M. ; Ang, L. ; Ng, K. C. Adsorption Desalination—Principles, Process Design, and Its Hybrids for Future Sustainable Desalination . Emerg. Technol. Sustain. Desalin. Handb. 2018 , 3 – 34 ,  DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-815818-0.00001-1 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 40 Mishra, D. The Cost of Desalination . Advisian . https://www.advisian.com/en/global-perspectives/the-cost-of-desalination (accessed 2019/07/18). Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 41 Shahzad, M. W. ; Burhan, M. ; Ang, L. ; Ng, K. C. Energy-Water-Environment Nexus Underpinning Future Desalination Sustainability . Desalination 2017 , 413 , 52 – 64 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2017.03.009 Google Scholar 41 Energy-water-environment nexus underpinning future desalination sustainability Shahzad, Muhammad Wakil; Burhan, Muhammad; Ang, Li; Ng, Kim Choon Desalination ( 2017 ), 413 ( ), 52-64 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) Energy-water-environment nexus is very important to attain COP21 goal, maintaining environment temp. increase below 2 °C, but unfortunately two third share of CO2 emission has already been used and the remaining will be exhausted by 2050. A no. of technol. developments in power and desalination sectors improved their efficiencies to save energy and carbon emission but still they are operating at 35% and 10% of their thermodn. limits. Research in desalination processes contributing to fuel World population for their improved living std. and to reduce specific energy consumption and to protect environment. Recently developed highly efficient nature-inspired membranes (aquaporin & graphene) and trend in thermally driven cycle's hybridization could potentially lower then energy requirement for water purifn. This paper presents a state of art review on energy, water and environment interconnection and future energy efficient desalination possibilities to save energy and protect environment. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXktFWhsL8%253D&md5=d5f45ae1749ff0a9203dff6e16697f14
• 42 Gethard, K. ; Sae-Khow, O. ; Mitra, S. Water Desalination Using Carbon-Nanotube-Enhanced Membrane Distillation . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2011 , 3 , 110 – 114 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am100981s Google Scholar 42 Water Desalination Using Carbon-Nanotube-Enhanced Membrane Distillation Gethard, Ken; Sae-Khow, Ornthida; Mitra, Somenath ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2011 ), 3 ( 2 ), 110-114 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) C nanotube (CNT) enhanced membrane distn. is presented for water desalination. It is demonstrated that the immobilization of the CNTs in the pores of a hydrophobic membrane favorably alters the water-membrane interactions to promote vapor permeability while preventing liq. penetration into the membrane pores. For a salt concn. of 34,000 mg/L and at 80°, the nanotube incorporation led to 1.85 and 15 times increase in flux and salt redn., resp. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhs1altLfJ&md5=857a6bcb1e08181ca5e8c759e1c5ad2f
• 43 Dudchenko, A. V. ; Chen, C. ; Cardenas, A. ; Rolf, J. ; Jassby, D. Frequency-Dependent Stability of CNT Joule Heaters in Ionizable Media and Desalination Processes . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2017 , 12 , 557 – 563 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2017.102 Google Scholar 43 Frequency-dependent stability of CNT Joule heaters in ionizable media and desalination processes Dudchenko, Alexander V.; Chen, Chuxiao; Cardenas, Alexis; Rolf, Julianne; Jassby, David Nature Nanotechnology ( 2017 ), 12 ( 6 ), 557-563 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Water shortages and brine waste management are increasing challenges for coastal and inland regions, with high-salinity brines presenting a particularly challenging problem. These high-salinity waters require the use of thermally driven treatment processes, such as membrane distn., which suffer from high complexity and cost. Here, we demonstrate how controlling the frequency of an applied a.c. at high potentials (20 Vpp) to a porous thin-film carbon nanotube (CNT)/polymer composite Joule heating element can prevent CNT degrdn. in ionizable environments such as high-salinity brines. By operating at sufficiently high frequencies, these porous thin-films can be directly immersed in highly ionizable environments and used as flow-through heating elements. We demonstrate that porous CNT/polymer composites can be used as self-heating membranes to directly heat high-salinity brines at the water/vapor interface of the membrane distn. element, achieving high single-pass recoveries that approach 100%, far exceeding std. membrane distn. recovery limits. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXovVGru7g%253D&md5=cbba1c95411535dda9284a14e549bcf6
• 44 Chen, W. ; Chen, S. ; Liang, T. ; Zhang, Q. ; Fan, Z. ; Yin, H. ; Huang, K.-W. ; Zhang, X. ; Lai, Z. ; Sheng, P. High-Flux Water Desalination with Interfacial Salt Sieving Effect in Nanoporous Carbon Composite Membranes . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 345 – 350 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0067-5 Google Scholar 44 High-flux water desalination with interfacial salt sieving effect in nanoporous carbon composite membranes Chen, Wei; Chen, Shuyu; Liang, Tengfei; Zhang, Qiang; Fan, Zhongli; Yin, Hang; Huang, Kuo-Wei; Zhang, Xixiang; Lai, Zhiping; Sheng, Ping Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 4 ), 345-350 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) Freshwater flux and energy consumption are two important benchmarks for the membrane desalination process. Here, we show that nanoporous carbon composite membranes, which comprise a layer of porous carbon fiber structures grown on a porous ceramic substrate, can exhibit 100% desalination and a freshwater flux that is 3-20 times higher than existing polymeric membranes. Thermal accounting expts. demonstrated that the carbon composite membrane saved over 80% of the latent heat consumption. Theor. calcns. combined with mol. dynamics simulations revealed the unique microscopic process occurring in the membrane. When the salt soln. is stopped at the openings to the nanoscale porous channels and forms a meniscus, the vapor can rapidly transport across the nanoscale gap to condense on the permeate side. This process is driven by the chem. potential gradient and aided by the unique smoothness of the carbon surface. The high thermal cond. of the carbon composite membrane ensures that most of the latent heat is recovered. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXjvFOksrw%253D&md5=9c4b448950f964edc74d4ce402a00fee
• 45 Gao, M. ; Zhu, L. ; Peh, C. K. ; Ho, G. W. Solar Absorber Material and System Designs for Photothermal Water Vaporization towards Clean Water and Energy Production . Energy Environ. Sci. 2019 , 12 , 841 – 864 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C8EE01146J Google Scholar 45 Solar absorber material and system designs for photothermal water vaporization towards clean water and energy production Gao, Minmin; Zhu, Liangliang; Peh, Connor Kangnuo; Ho, Ghim Wei Energy & Environmental Science ( 2019 ), 12 ( 3 ), 841-864 CODEN: EESNBY ; ISSN: 1754-5706 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) Photothermal materials with broad solar absorption and high conversion efficiency have recently attracted significant interest. They are becoming a fast-growing research focus in the area of solar-driven vaporization for clean water prodn. The parallel development of thermal management strategies through both material and system designs has further improved the overall efficiency of solar vaporization. Collectively, this green solar-driven water vaporization technol. has regained attention as a sustainable soln. for water scarcity. In this review, we will report the recent progress in solar absorber material design based on various photothermal conversion mechanisms, evaluate the prerequisites in terms of optical, thermal and wetting properties for efficient solar-driven water vaporization, classify the systems based on different photothermal evapn. configurations and discuss other correlated applications in the areas of desalination, water purifn. and energy generation. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review on the current development in efficient photothermal evapn., and suggest directions to further enhance its overall efficiency through the judicious choice of materials and system designs, while synchronously capitalizing waste energy to realize concurrent clean water and energy prodn. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtlGitbvL&md5=b3f29bfbd523f393fd6bfbe705ce293e
• 46 Ghasemi, H. ; Ni, G. ; Marconnet, A. M. ; Loomis, J. ; Yerci, S. ; Miljkovic, N. ; Chen, G. Solar Steam Generation by Heat Localization . Nat. Commun. 2014 , 5 , 4449 ,  DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5449 Google Scholar 46 Solar steam generation by heat localization Ghasemi, Hadi; Ni, George; Marconnet, Amy Marie; Loomis, James; Yerci, Selcuk; Miljkovic, Nenad; Chen, Gang Nature Communications ( 2014 ), 5 ( ), 4449 CODEN: NCAOBW ; ISSN: 2041-1723 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Currently, steam generation using solar energy is based on heating bulk liq. to high temps. This approach requires either costly high optical concns. leading to heat loss by the hot bulk liq. and heated surfaces or vacuum. New solar receiver concepts such as porous volumetric receivers or nanofluids have been proposed to decrease these losses. Here we report development of an approach and corresponding material structure for solar steam generation while maintaining low optical concn. and keeping the bulk liq. at low temp. with no vacuum. We achieve solar thermal efficiency up to 85% at only 10 kW m-2. This high performance results from four structure characteristics: absorbing in the solar spectrum, thermally insulating, hydrophilic and interconnected pores. The structure concs. thermal energy and fluid flow where needed for phase change and minimizes dissipated energy. This new structure provides a novel approach to harvesting solar energy for a broad range of phase-change applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXksVemsL4%253D&md5=e11dce912739953443d9faede0b8d5a9
• 47 Qasim, M. ; Badrelzaman, M. ; Darwish, N. N. ; Darwish, N. A. ; Hilal, N. Reverse Osmosis Desalination: A State-Of-The-Art Review . Desalination 2019 , 459 , 59 – 104 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2019.02.008 Google Scholar 47 Reverse osmosis desalination: A state-of-the-art review Qasim, Muhammad; Badrelzaman, Mohamed; Darwish, Noora N.; Darwish, Naif A.; Hilal, Nidal Desalination ( 2019 ), 459 ( ), 59-104 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review. Water scarcity is a grand challenge that has always stimulated research interests in finding effective means for pure water prodn. In this context, reverse osmosis (RO) is considered the leading and the most optimized membrane-based desalination process that is currently dominating the desalination market. In this review, various aspects of RO desalination are reviewed. Theories and models related to concn. polarization and membrane transport, as well as merits and drawbacks of these models in predicting polarization effects, are discussed. As per the available literature, UF, MF and coagulation-flocculation are considered the most widely used pre-treatment technologies. In addn., this review discusses membrane fouling, which represents a serious challenge in RO processes due to its significant contribution to energy requirements and process economy (e.g., flux decline, permeate quality, membrane lifespan, increased feed pressure, increased pre-treatment and membrane maintenance cost). Principles of RO process design and the embedded economic and energy considerations are discussed. In general, cost of water desalination has dropped to values that made it a viable option, comparable even to conventional water treatment methods. Finally, an overview of hybrid RO desalination processes and the current challenges faced by RO desalination processes are presented and discussed. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXks12ltrk%253D&md5=d9fd5994a704ab5b884ac27bf33824b6
• 48 Elimelech, M. ; Phillip, W. A. The Future of Seawater Desalination: Energy, Technology, and the Environment . Science 2011 , 333 , 712 – 717 ,  DOI: 10.1126/science.1200488 Google Scholar 48 The Future of Seawater Desalination: Energy, Technology, and the Environment Elimelech, Menachem; Phillip, William A. Science (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2011 ), 333 ( 6043 ), 712-717 CODEN: SCIEAS ; ISSN: 0036-8075 . ( American Association for the Advancement of Science ) A review. In recent years, numerous large-scale seawater desalination plants were built in water-stressed countries to augment available water resources, and construction of new desalination plants is expected to increase in the near future. Despite major advancements in desalination technologies, seawater desalination is still more energy intensive compared to conventional technologies for the treatment of fresh water. There are also concerns about the potential environmental impacts of large-scale seawater desalination plants. Here, the authors review the possible redns. in energy demand by state-of-the-art seawater desalination technologies, the potential role of advanced materials and innovative technologies in improving performance, and the sustainability of desalination as a technol. soln. to global water shortages. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXps1Sgur4%253D&md5=74c8f1f7acc78d8f6e55ca1531b8ee76
• 49 Tan, Z. ; Chen, S. ; Peng, X. ; Zhang, L. ; Gao, C. Polyamide Membranes with Nanoscale Turing Structures for Water Purification . Science 2018 , 360 , 518 – 521 ,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aar6308 Google Scholar 49 Polyamide membranes with nanoscale Turing structures for water purification Tan, Zhe; Chen, Shengfu; Peng, Xinsheng; Zhang, Lin; Gao, Congjie Science (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2018 ), 360 ( 6388 ), 518-521 CODEN: SCIEAS ; ISSN: 0036-8075 . ( American Association for the Advancement of Science ) The emergence of Turing structures is of fundamental importance, and designing these structures and developing their applications have practical effects in chem. and biol. We use a facile route based on interfacial polymn. to generate Turing-type polyamide membranes for water purifn. Manipulation of shapes by control of reaction conditions enabled the creation of membranes with bubble or tube structures. These membranes exhibit excellent water-salt sepn. performance that surpasses the upper-bound line of traditional desalination membranes. Furthermore, we show the existence of high water permeability sites in the Turing structures, where water transport through the membranes is enhanced. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXos1Kiu7c%253D&md5=dbdfa742a90a9612821de0ff04517355
• 50 Chowdhury, M. R. ; Steffes, J. ; Huey, B. D. ; McCutcheon, J. R. 3D Printed Polyamide Membranes for Desalination . Science 2018 , 361 , 682 – 686 ,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aar2122 Google Scholar 50 3D printed polyamide membranes for desalination Chowdhury, Maqsud R.; Steffes, James; Huey, Bryan D.; McCutcheon, Jeffrey R. Science (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2018 ), 361 ( 6403 ), 682-686 CODEN: SCIEAS ; ISSN: 0036-8075 . ( American Association for the Advancement of Science ) Polyamide thickness and roughness have been identified as crit. properties that affect thin-film composite membrane performance for reverse osmosis. Conventional formation methodologies lack the ability to control these properties independently with high resoln. or precision. An additive approach is presented that uses electrospraying to deposit monomers directly onto a substrate, where they react to form polyamide. The small droplet size coupled with low monomer concns. result in polyamide films that are smoother and thinner than conventional polyamides, while the additive nature of the approach allows for control of thickness and roughness. Polyamide films are formed with a thickness that is controllable down to 4-nm increments and a roughness as low as 2 nm while still exhibiting good permselectivity relative to a com. benchmarking membrane. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsFagt77E&md5=357ae559184795d2cc54387145ebd156
• 51 Majumder, M. ; Chopra, N. ; Hinds, B. Effect of Tip Functionalization on Transport through Vertically Oriented Carbon Nanotube Membranes . J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005 , 127 , 9062 – 9070 ,  DOI: 10.1021/ja043013b Google Scholar 51 Effect of Tip Functionalization on Transport through Vertically Oriented Carbon Nanotube Membranes Majumder, Mainak; Chopra, Nitin; Hinds, Bruce J. Journal of the American Chemical Society ( 2005 ), 127 ( 25 ), 9062-9070 CODEN: JACSAT ; ISSN: 0002-7863 . ( American Chemical Society ) Ionic flux through a composite membrane structure, contg. vertically aligned carbon nanotubes crossing a polystyrene matrix film, was studied as a function of chem. end groups at the entrance to carbon nanotubes' (CNTs) cores. Plasma oxidn. during the membrane fabrication process introduced carboxylic acid groups on the CNTs' tips that were modified using carbodiimide mediated coupling between the carboxylic acid and an accessible amine groups of the functional mol. Functionalization mols. included straight chain alkanes, anionically charged dye mols., and an aliph. amine elongated by polypeptide spacers. Functionalization was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy, and areal functional d. was estd. by transmission electron microscopy studies of thiol terminated sites decorated by nanocryst. gold. The transport through the membrane of two different sized but equally charged mols. (ruthenium bipyridine [Ru-(bipy)32+] and Me viologen [MV2+]) was quantified in a U-tube permeation cell by UV-vis spectroscopy. Relative selectivity of the permeates varied from 1.7 to 3.6 as a function of tip-functionalization chem. Anionic charged functional groups sharply increased the flux of the cationic permeates. This effect was reduced at higher soln. ionic strength consistent with shorter Debye screening length. The obsd. selectivities were consistent with a hindered diffusion model with functionalization at the CNT tip and not along the length of the CNT core. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXks1Khtb4%253D&md5=29ed3e5aa42eeb5b2aec30603a277028
• 52 Das, R. ; Ali, M. E. ; Hamid, S. B. A. ; Ramakrishna, S. ; Chowdhury, Z. Z. Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Water Purification: A Bright Future in Water Desalination . Desalination 2014 , 336 , 97 – 109 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2013.12.026 Google Scholar 52 Carbon nanotube membranes for water purification: A bright future in water desalination Das, Rasel; Ali, Md. Eaqub; Bee Abd Hamid, Sharifah; Ramakrishna, Seeram; Chowdhury, Zaira Zaman Desalination ( 2014 ), 336 ( ), 97-109 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review. Tip-functionalized nonpolar interior home of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) provides strong invitation to polar water mols. and rejects salts and pollutants. Low energy consumption, antifouling and self-cleaning functions have made CNT membranes extraordinary over the conventional ones. Mol. modeling and exptl. aspects of CNT-membrane fabrication and functionalization for the desalination of both sea and brackish water was comprehensively reviewed. Presented are the current problems and future challenges in water treatments. The article is potentially important for the hydrologists, membrane technologists, environmentalists, and industrialists working in the field of water purifn. technologies to eradicate fresh water crisis in near future. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhsl2mtrg%253D&md5=35d0711d0f6c5c3b035f336c7de28010
• 53 Dervin, S. ; Dionysiou, D. D. ; Pillai, S. C. 2D Nanostructures for Water Purification: Graphene and Beyond . Nanoscale 2016 , 8 , 15115 – 15131 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C6NR04508A Google Scholar 53 2D nanostructures for water purification: graphene and beyond Dervin, Saoirse; Dionysiou, Dionysios D.; Pillai, Suresh C. Nanoscale ( 2016 ), 8 ( 33 ), 15115-15131 CODEN: NANOHL ; ISSN: 2040-3372 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) Owing to their atomically thin structure, large surface area and mech. strength, 2D nanoporous materials are considered to be suitable alternatives for existing desalination and water purifn. membrane materials. Recent progress in the development of nanoporous graphene based materials has generated enormous potential for water purifn. technologies. Progress in the development of nanoporous graphene and graphene oxide (GO) membranes, the mechanism of graphene mol. sieve action, structural design, hydrophilic nature, mech. strength and antifouling properties and the principal challenges assocd. with nanopore generation are discussed in detail. Subsequently, the recent applications and performance of newly developed 2D materials such as 2D boron nitride (BN) nanosheets, graphyne, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), tungsten chalcogenides (WS2) and titanium carbide (Ti3C2Tx) are highlighted. In addn., the challenges affecting 2D nanostructures for water purifn. are highlighted and their applications in the water purifn. industry are discussed. Though only a few 2D materials have been explored so far for water treatment applications, this emerging field of research is set to attract a great deal of attention in the near future. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xht1egtrjP&md5=ca9ebb1e6f84626fca15e98603b08c47
• 54 Cohen-Tanugi, D. ; Grossman, J. C. Nanoporous Graphene as a Reverse Osmosis Membrane: Recent Insights from Theory and Simulation . Desalination 2015 , 366 , 59 – 70 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.046 Google Scholar 54 Nanoporous graphene as a reverse osmosis membrane: Recent insights from theory and simulation Cohen-Tanugi, David; Grossman, Jeffrey C. Desalination ( 2015 ), 366 ( ), 59-70 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) In this review, we examine the potential and the challenges of designing an ultrathin reverse osmosis (RO) membrane from graphene, focusing on the role of computational methods in designing, understanding, and optimizing the relationship between at. structure and RO performance. In recent years, graphene has emerged as a promising material for improving the performance of RO. Beginning at the at. scale and extending to the RO plant scale, we review applications of computational research that have explored the structure, properties and potential performance of nanoporous graphene in the context of RO desalination. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXosF2ktg%253D%253D&md5=01a7d4bed6ea52e4597438b52cee1941
• 55 Werber, J. R. ; Osuji, C. O. ; Elimelech, M. Materials for Next-Generation Desalination and Water Purification Membranes . Nat. Rev. Mater. 2016 , 1 , 16018 ,  DOI: 10.1038/natrevmats.2016.18 Google Scholar 55 Materials for next-generation desalination and water purification membranes Werber, Jay R.; Osuji, Chinedum O.; Elimelech, Menachem Nature Reviews Materials ( 2016 ), 1 ( 5 ), 16018 CODEN: NRMADL ; ISSN: 2058-8437 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Membrane-based sepns. for water purifn. and desalination have been increasingly applied to address the global challenges of water scarcity and the pollution of aquatic environments. However, progress in water purifn. membranes has been constrained by the inherent limitations of conventional membrane materials. Recent advances in methods for controlling the structure and chem. functionality in polymer films can potentially lead to new classes of membranes for water purifn. In this Review, we first discuss the state of the art of existing membrane technologies for water purifn. and desalination, highlight their inherent limitations and establish the urgent requirements for next-generation membranes. We then describe mol.-level design approaches towards fabricating highly selective membranes, focusing on novel materials such as aquaporin, synthetic nanochannels, graphene and self-assembled block copolymers and small mols. Finally, we highlight promising membrane surface modification approaches that minimize interfacial interactions and enhance fouling resistance. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtVert7s%253D&md5=0ec9f4105a2f82798089a8d606e2b6aa
• 56 Tang, C. Y. ; Zhao, Y. ; Wang, R. ; Hélix-Nielsen, C. ; Fane, A. G. Desalination by Biomimetic Aquaporin Membranes: Review of Status and Prospects . Desalination 2013 , 308 , 34 – 40 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2012.07.007 Google Scholar 56 Desalination by biomimetic aquaporin membranes: Review of status and prospects Tang, C. Y.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, R.; Helix-Nielsen, C.; Fane, A. G. Desalination ( 2013 ), 308 ( ), 34-40 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review. Based on their unique combination of offering high water permeability and high solute rejection aquaporin proteins have attracted considerable interest over the last years as functional building blocks of biomimetic membranes for water desalination and reuse. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the properties of aquaporins, their prepn. and characterization. Discussed are the challenges in exploiting the remarkable properties of aquaporin proteins for membrane sepn. processes and various attempts are presented to construct aquaporin in membranes for desalination; including an overview of the authors' own recent developments in aquaporin-based membranes. Finally future prospects of aquaporin based biomimetic membrane for desalination and water reuse are outlined. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhvVSltrrK&md5=c457738d79e2e4c005070fd404a10018
• 57 Zhao, Y. ; Li, X. ; Shen, J. ; Gao, C.-J. ; Van der Bruggen, B. The Potential of Kevlar Aramid Nanofibers Composite Membranes . J. Mater. Chem. A 2020 , 8 , 7548 ,  DOI: 10.1039/D0TA01654C Google Scholar 57 The potential of Kevlar aramid nanofiber composite membranes Zhao, Yan; Li, Xin; Shen, Jiangnan; Gao, Congjie; Van der Bruggen, Bart Journal of Materials Chemistry A: Materials for Energy and Sustainability ( 2020 ), 8 ( 16 ), 7548-7568 CODEN: JMCAET ; ISSN: 2050-7496 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) A review. This review analyses and summarizes the synthesis and applications of Kevlar aramid nanofibers (KANFs)-based membranes in different processes, such as nanofiltration membranes, mixed matrix membranes, ion exchange membranes and proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Particular attention is paid to the tunable structure, chem./phys. stability, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity and chem. reaction required in order to develop suitable KANF-based composite materials for membrane fabrication. In addn., approaches to fabricate KANF-based membranes, such as blending, grafting, amide reaction, network interpenetrating, interfacial polymn. and gel-confined conversion, are highlighted. Based on this, the application of KANF-based membranes in water treatment (including oil/water sepn., water purifn. and desalination, emulsion sepn., and dye wastewater sepn.), org. solvent treatment, ion sepn., sepn. of battery and proton exchange membrane fuel cells is discussed. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of KANF-based membranes are summarized; on this basis, the challenges and future opportunities in this field are defined. This tutorial review provides an overview of the promising potential applications of Kevlar aramid nanofibers in membrane science. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXls1Cnsrk%253D&md5=4842a2a65184e70854d3c53c5ffc8fbb
• 58 Li, Y. ; Wong, E. ; Mai, Z. ; Van der Bruggen, B. Fabrication of Composite Polyamide/Kevlar Aramid Nanofiber Nanofiltration Membranes with High Permselectivity in Water Desalination . J. Membr. Sci. 2019 , 592 , 117396 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117396 Google Scholar 58 Fabrication of composite polyamide/Kevlar aramid nanofiber nanofiltration membranes with high permselectivity in water desalination Li, Yi; Wong, Eric; Mai, Zhaohuan; Van der Bruggen, Bart Journal of Membrane Science ( 2019 ), 592 ( ), 117396pp. CODEN: JMESDO ; ISSN: 0376-7388 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) Conventional piperazine (PIP)-based nanofiltration (NF) membranes feature a high water flux and a high retention for divalent salt ions. However, it remains a challenge to obtain permselective NF membranes with high water permeance and a good selectivity for monovalent ions. In this work, a new m-phenylenediamine (MPD)-based thin-film composite (TFC) NF membrane with excellent desalination performance was developed by interfacial polymn. on a solvent resistant Kevlar nanofibrous hydrogel substrate. The desalination performance of the ANF TFC membrane shifted from reverse osmosis (RO) into NF with a facile solvent treatment. The decreased membrane surface roughness, reduced surface zeta potential and increased surface hydrophilicity after solvent treatment yielding a high water permeability (14.4 L m-2 h-1 bar-1) for ANF TFC membrane, which is one order of magnitude higher than that of the pristine membrane and the hand-cast poly (m-phenylene isophthalamide) (PMIA) TFC membrane. The ANF TFC membrane showed an outstanding water-salt sepn. performance, with excellent rejections for multivalent salts (Na2SO4, 100%; MgSO4, 99.4%; MgCl2, 92.7%) and a high rejection for monovalent salt (NaCl, 80.3%), which is competitive with ref. com. membranes (NF90, NF270) tested in cross-flow filtration with 1000 mg L-1 salt soln. at 6 bar, 25 °C. The newly developed TFC membrane was demonstrated to have great potential applications in water desalination, sepn. of org. compds. and dye wastewater treatment. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhs1Kktb%252FL&md5=34a031663556c0bd55a313fd8c72f226
• 59 Zhao, Y. ; Qiu, Y. ; Mai, Z. ; Ortega, E. ; Shen, J. ; Gao, C. ; Van der Bruggen, B. Symmetrically Recombined Nanofibers in a High-Selectivity Membrane for Cation Separation in High Temperature and Organic Solvent . J. Mater. Chem. A 2019 , 7 , 20006 – 20012 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C9TA07416C Google Scholar 59 Symmetrically recombined nanofibers in a high-selectivity membrane for cation separation in high temperature and organic solvent Zhao, Yan; Qiu, Yangbo; Mai, Zhaohuan; Ortega, Emily; Shen, Jiangnan; Gao, Congjie; Van der Bruggen, Bart Journal of Materials Chemistry A: Materials for Energy and Sustainability ( 2019 ), 7 ( 34 ), 20006-20012 CODEN: JMCAET ; ISSN: 2050-7496 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) Development of polymeric cation exchange membranes (CEMs) with high thermostability and resistance to org. solvents is an urgent challenge for materials chem. and a major problem for industrial application. Herein, we report a novel CEM design, which sym. recombines poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) nanofibers and 2,5-diaminobenzenesulfonic acid based on amide hydrolysis and amide condensation reaction for ion sepn. in high temp. and org. solvent aq. applications. The resulting membrane (10 μm thickness) exhibited greater thermodn. and electrochem. properties than the common com. CEMs. Attributed to the membrane's specific structure, size sieving, and electrostatic repulsion effects, the resulting membrane showed a more selective sepn. of monovalent cations in electrodialysis. Moreover, it has demonstrated exceptional desalination at high temp. (as high as 100 °C) and org. solvent aq. environments (as high as 80% acetone soln.), which had not been previously reported in electrodialysis. The resulting membrane combines the benefits of nano-materials and a specific structure design allowing for electrodialysis in high temp. and org. solvent aq. application environments. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhsFygs7fO&md5=5312fd821d55e0107084f4c631b8c6b3
• 60 Blandin, G. ; Verliefde, A. R. D. ; Tang, C. Y. ; Le-Clech, P. Opportunities to Reach Economic Sustainability in Forward Osmosis-Reverse Osmosis Hybrids for Seawater Desalination . Desalination 2015 , 363 , 26 – 36 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.011 Google Scholar 60 Opportunities to reach economic sustainability in forward osmosis-reverse osmosis hybrids for seawater desalination Blandin, Gaetan; Verliefde, Arne R. D.; Tang, Chuyang Y.; Le-Clech, Pierre Desalination ( 2015 ), 363 ( ), 26-36 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) Despite being energetically attractive, the economic sustainability of forward osmosis (FO) - reverse osmosis (RO) hybrid process for seawater desalination has not yet been fully demonstrated. This study is the first to carry out an extensive economic evaluation of FO-RO hybrid, benchmarked against stand-alone RO system. This assessment clearly highlights that FO-RO hybrid can be beneficial, comparatively to RO, only for high energy costs and/or substantial operational costs savings. It is also demonstrated that improvement in water permeation flux, typically above 30 L·m- 2·h- 1 for classical water recoveries, is an abs. prerequisite to lower investment costs down to an economically acceptable level. Such fluxes are not achieved with current membrane developments when realistic feed and draw solns. are considered. In a second step, a sensitivity anal. was carried out to assess the effects of process parameters on flux in FO, compared to the above-mentioned benchmark. Results indicate that for novel FO membranes, typically a coupling of higher water permeability (A > 5 L·m- 2·h- 1·bar- 1) and lower structural parameter (S < 100 μm) is required. This study also shows that the concept of pressure assisted osmosis (PAO) can help to reach higher fluxes with current com. membranes, thereby demonstrating more favorable economics compared to state-of-the-art FO membranes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXitFOntr7J&md5=d79771d27085811b55db18269494480b
• 61 Zirehpour, A. ; Rahimpour, A. ; Khoshhal, S. ; Firouzjaei, M. D. ; Ghoreyshi, A. A. The Impact of MOF Feasibility to Improve the Desalination Performance and Antifouling Properties of FO Membranes . RSC Adv. 2016 , 6 , 70174 – 70185 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C6RA14591D Google Scholar 61 The impact of MOF feasibility to improve the desalination performance and antifouling properties of FO membranes Zirehpour, Alireza; Rahimpour, Ahmad; Khoshhal, Saeed; Firouzjaei, Mostafa Dadashi; Ghoreyshi, Ali Asghar RSC Advances ( 2016 ), 6 ( 74 ), 70174-70185 CODEN: RSCACL ; ISSN: 2046-2069 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) In this study, a hydrophilic metal-org. framework (MOF) was applied to improve the performance of a cellulosic membrane for forward osmosis (FO) desalination application. The characterization results confirmed that the MOF particles existed within the matrix of the modified membrane. The MOF loading led to adjustment of the membranes in terms of overall porosity, pore inter-connectivity and hydrophilicity. These features caused an improvement in the pure water permeability (72%) and reduce the structural parameter of the modified membrane to 136 μm. The FO water flux of the modified membrane enhanced by about 180% compared to an unmodified membrane, without decreasing its selectivity. FO fouling expts. were performed with a feed soln. comprising a model org. foulant. The results demonstrated that the modification considerably improved the membrane antifouling properties when compared to the unmodified membranes. Water flux was also more easily recovered through phys. cleaning for the modified membrane. The modified membrane was continuously tested under FO seawater desalination to investigate the performance stability. The modified membrane demonstrated a noteworthy water flux of above 30 LMH, using a 2 M NaCl draw soln. The modified membrane developed in this study exhibited outstanding permselectivity compared to ones reported in the literature. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtFOlur3L&md5=9ec864cf56f9ce61e218ccf3d66c32fa
• 62 Kwak, S.-Y. ; Jung, S. G. ; Kim, S. H. Structure-Motion-Performance Relationship of Flux-Enhanced Reverse Osmosis (RO) Membranes Composed of Aromatic Polyamide Thin Films . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001 , 35 , 4334 – 4340 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es010630g Google Scholar 62 Structure-Motion-Performance Relationship of Flux-Enhanced Reverse Osmosis (RO) Membranes Composed of Aromatic Polyamide Thin Films Kwak, Seung-Yeop; Jung, Soo Gyung; Kim, Sung Ho Environmental Science and Technology ( 2001 ), 35 ( 21 ), 4334-4340 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) The role of DMSO used as an additive to modify the morphol. as well as the mol. nature of arom. polyamide during the formation of thin-film-composite (TFC) membranes is explored. In addn., it elucidates the mechanism of enhancing the reverse osmosis (RO) permeation of the resulting membranes in proportion to the addn. of DMSO. Morphol. studies by at. force microscopy (AFM) obsd. that as the concn. of DMSO increased, the surface roughness and the surface area of the arom. polyamide TFC membranes became higher and larger, compared to FT-30 membrane for which DMSO was not added during interfacial reaction. Such morphol. changes were brought about from fluctuating interface through reducing the immiscibility between aq./org. phases by DMSO and provided more opportunities to have contact with water mols. on the surface, participating in the enhancement of the water permeability. Chem. compn. studies by XPS revealed that there was a considerable increase of the crosslinked amide linkages relative to the linear pendent carboxylic acid groups in the TFC membranes of more DMSO addn. The increase of such amide linkages as hydrogen bonding sites facilitated the diffusion of water mols. through the thin films and played a favorable role in elevating water flux without considerable loss of salt rejection. Relaxation and motion analyses by 1H solid-state NMR spectroscopy also confirmed the XPS revelation on the basis of measurements of the spin-lattice relaxation time in the rotating frame, T1ρ, and detn. of the correlation time, τc, for the arom. polyamides forming thin films. The trend of longer τc's with the increase of DMSO concn. reflected the thin-film arom. polyamides of less locally mobile chains, accompanied by the higher degree of crosslinking and, hence, the greater no. of amide groups. The combined results of AFM, XPS, and solid-state NMR provided a robust explanation for the mechanism of flux enhancement of the arom. polyamide TFC membranes with the addn. of DMSO, which would contribute to not only a fundamental understanding of the process but also an advanced designing of the so-called tailor-fit TFC membranes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXntVCgtrw%253D&md5=f9a8fce713f98ef07bc4edd513ba338b
• 63 Kim, H. J. ; Choi, K. ; Baek, Y. ; Kim, D.-G. ; Shim, J. ; Yoon, J. ; Lee, J.-C. High-Performance Reverse Osmosis CNT/Polyamide Nanocomposite Membrane by Controlled Interfacial Interactions . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2014 , 6 , 2819 – 2829 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am405398f Google Scholar 63 High-Performance Reverse Osmosis CNT/Polyamide Nanocomposite Membrane by Controlled Interfacial Interactions Kim, Hee Joong; Choi, Kwonyong; Baek, Youngbin; Kim, Dong-Gyun; Shim, Jimin; Yoon, Jeyong; Lee, Jong-Chan ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2014 ), 6 ( 4 ), 2819-2829 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) Polyamide reverse osmosis (RO) membranes with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are prepd. by interfacial polymn. using trimesoyl chloride (TMC) solns. in n-hexane and aq. solns. of m-phenylenediamine (MPD) contg. functionalized CNTs. The functionalized CNTs are prepd. by the reactions of pristine CNTs with acid mixt. (sulfuric acid and nitric acid of 3:1 vol. ratio) by varying amts. of acid, reaction temp., and reaction time. CNTs prepd. by an optimized reaction condition are found to be well-dispersed in the polyamide layer, which is confirmed from at. force microscopy, SEM, and Raman spectroscopy studies. The polyamide RO membranes contg. well-dispersed CNTs exhibit larger water flux values than polyamide membrane prepd. without any CNTs, although the salt rejection values of these membranes are close. Furthermore, the durability and chem. resistance against NaCl solns. of the membranes contg. CNTs are found to be improved compared with those of the membrane without CNTs. The high membrane performance (high water flux and salt rejection) and the improved stability of the polyamide membranes contg. CNTs are ascribed to the hydrophobic nanochannels of CNTs and well-dispersed states in the polyamide layers formed through the interactions between CNTs and polyamide in the active layers. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXpt1yktw%253D%253D&md5=25521bc63b132e81de78f23c22767182
• 64 Freger, V. Nanoscale Heterogeneity of Polyamide Membranes Formed by Interfacial Polymerization . Langmuir 2003 , 19 , 4791 – 4797 ,  DOI: 10.1021/la020920q Google Scholar 64 Nanoscale Heterogeneity of Polyamide Membranes Formed by Interfacial Polymerization Freger, Viatcheslav Langmuir ( 2003 ), 19 ( 11 ), 4791-4797 CODEN: LANGD5 ; ISSN: 0743-7463 . ( American Chemical Society ) The nanoscale structure of composite polyamide reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes was investigated by transmission electron microscopy and at. force microscopy. The study demonstrated that the polymer d. and charge are distributed across the active polyamide layer in a highly nonuniform fashion. The polyamide films appear to be built of a neg. charged outer layer sitting on top of an inner layer possessing a small pos. charge. This picture appears to be fairly general for all types of composite membranes and seems to reconcile previously reported contradictory exptl. facts concerning measurements of charge for this type of membrane. The sharp boundary between the layers roughly corresponds to the region of the highest polymer d., i.e., the actual selective barrier. The location of this barrier deep inside the RO films indicates that formation of the RO polyamide is not limited solely by monomer diffusion through the film, as was suggested previously, but by other factors as well. In the NF polyamide, the location of the boundary nearer toward the surface might suggest a larger role of the diffusion-limited regime in this type of membrane. Comparison of the morphol. of std. and high-flux RO membranes showed that the modified procedure used to manuf. the latter apparently results in a more open structure of the active layer, and hence increased surface roughness, and a smaller thickness of the densest barrier. This finding contradicts the currently held view that the high permeability of this type of membrane is a function of increased surface roughness. The results largely support a recently presented theor. model of polyamide membrane formation via interfacial polymn. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXjt1Kmurw%253D&md5=9c6309eb805c08055c7b4bef4e810d2e
• 65 Choi, W. ; Choi, J. ; Bang, J. ; Lee, J.-H. Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets on Polyamide Membranes for Durable Reverse-Osmosis Applications . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2013 , 5 , 12510 – 12519 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am403790s Google Scholar 65 Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets on Polyamide Membranes for Durable Reverse-Osmosis Applications Choi, Wansuk; Choi, Jungkyu; Bang, Joona; Lee, Jung-Hyun ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2013 ), 5 ( 23 ), 12510-12519 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) Improving membrane durability assocd. with fouling and chlorine resistance remains one of the major challenges in desalination membrane technol. Here, we demonstrate that attractive features of graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets such as high hydrophilicity, chem. robustness, and ultrafast water permeation can be harnessed for a dual-action barrier coating layer that enhances resistance to both fouling and chlorine-induced degrdn. of polyamide (PA) thin-film composite (TFC) membranes while preserving their sepn. performance. GO multi-layers were coated on the PA-TFC membrane surfaces via layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition of oppositely charged GO nanosheets. Consequently, it was shown that the conformal GO coating layer can increase the surface hydrophilicity and reduce the surface roughness, leading to the significantly improved antifouling performance against a protein foulant. It was also demonstrated that the chem. inert nature of GO nanosheets enables the GO coating layer to act as a chlorine barrier for the underlying PA membrane, resulting in a profound suppression of the membrane degrdn. in salt rejection upon chlorine exposure. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhslOms7nE&md5=43efa89b65e7fbfd4f1c22239ce53ed7
• 66 Wang, M. ; Wang, Z. ; Wang, X. ; Wang, S. ; Ding, W. ; Gao, C. Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Aquaporin Z-Incorporated Biomimetic Membranes for Water Purification . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015 , 49 , 3761 – 3768 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es5056337 Google Scholar 66 Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Aquaporin Z-Incorporated Biomimetic Membranes for Water Purification Wang, Miaoqi; Wang, Zhining; Wang, Xida; Wang, Shuzheng; Ding, Wande; Gao, Congjie Environmental Science & Technology ( 2015 ), 49 ( 6 ), 3761-3768 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) We fabricated a biomimetic nanofiltration (NF) membrane by immobilizing an Aquaporin Z (AqpZ)-incorporated supported lipid bilayer (SLB) on a layer-by-layer (LbL) complex polyelectrolyte membrane to achieve excellent permeability and salt rejection with a high stability. The polyelectrolyte membranes were prepd. by LbL assembly of poly(ethylenimine) (PEI) with pos. charges and poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS) with neg. charges alternately on a porous hydrolyzed polyacrylonitrile (H-PAN) substrate. AqpZ-incorporated 1,2-dioleloyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC)/1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammo-nium-propane (chloride salt) (DOTAP) vesicles with pos. charges were deposited on the H-PAN/PEI/PSS polyelectrolytes membrane surface. The resulting biomimetic membrane exhibited a high flux of 22 L·m-2·h-1 (LMH), excellent MgCl2 rejection of ∼97% and NaCl rejection of ∼75% under an operation pressure of 0.4 MPa. Due to the attractive electrostatic interaction between SLB and the polyelectrolyte membrane, the biomimetic membrane showed satisfactory stability and durability as well as stable NF flux and rejection for at least 36 h. In addn., the AqpZ-contg. biomimetic membrane was immersed in a 0.24 mM (crit. micellar concn., CMC) Triton X-100 soln. for 5 min. The flux and rejection were slightly influenced by the Triton X-100 treatment. The current investigation demonstrated that the AqpZ-incorporated biomimetic membranes fabricated by the LbL method led to excellent sepn. performances and robust structures that withstand a high operation pressure for a relatively long time. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjsFCnsLs%253D&md5=1710cb738ff2df83da4aea752aebc108
• 67 Gu, J. ; Lee, S. ; Stafford, C. M. ; Lee, J. S. ; Choi, W. ; Kim, B. ; Baek, K. ; Chan, E. P. ; Chung, J. Y. ; Bang, J. Molecular Layer-by-layer Assembled Thin-film Composite Membranes for Water Desalination . Adv. Mater. 2013 , 25 , 4778 – 4782 ,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.201302030 Google Scholar 67 Molecular Layer-by-Layer Assembled Thin-Film Composite Membranes for Water Desalination Gu, Joung-Eun; Lee, Seunghye; Stafford, Christopher M.; Lee, Jong Suk; Choi, Wansuk; Kim, Bo-Young; Baek, Kyung-Youl; Chan, Edwin P.; Chung, Jun Young; Bang, Joona; Lee, Jung-Hyun Advanced Materials (Weinheim, Germany) ( 2013 ), 25 ( 34 ), 4778-4782 CODEN: ADVMEW ; ISSN: 0935-9648 . ( Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ) We report on the design, construction, and performance of mol. layer-by-layer (mLbL) membranes and demonstrate that these materials exceed the performance of membranes synthesized through conventional interfacial polymn. The crit. step in realizing the mLbL membranes is that we apply an ultrathin interlayer atop the porous support to prevent the penetration of reactive monomer solns. into the support. We then conduct mLbL assembly using traditional monomers in RO membrane fabrication (i.e., trimesoyl chloride and m-phenylenediamine), which are rigid arom. monomers that display relatively low fractional free vol. upon network formation. The mLbL process produced highly selective polyamide layers with precisely-controlled thickness, minimal surface roughness, and well-defined chem. compn. As a result, only 15 cycles of mLbL assembly were needed to achieve the targeted NaCl rejection (R >98%) while the flux was ∼75% greater than a traditional interfacially polymd. polyamide membrane. The high salt rejection demonstrates that the structure of the mLbL selective layer is sufficiently similar to traditional interfacial polymn., while the reduced thickness of the selective layer (25 nm) equates to a reduced hydraulic resistance and shorter diffusive path length for water to pass through the membrane. We show that the reduced surface roughness and chem. homogeneity achieved by mLbL mitigated membrane fouling. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhtFSgt77I&md5=8b5e91decfc5c308b28a9752e91c6086
• 68 Stafford, C. M. Scalable Manufacturing of Layer-by-Layer Membranes for Water Purification . In Frontiers of Engineering: Reports on Leading-Edge Engineering from the 2016 Symposium ; National Academies Press : Washington, D.C. , 2017 ; pp 69 – 74 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 69 Alabi, A. ; AlHajaj, A. ; Cseri, L. ; Szekely, G. ; Budd, P. ; Zou, L. Review of Nanomaterials-Assisted Ion Exchange Membranes for Electromembrane Desalination . npj Clean Water 2018 , 1 , 10 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41545-018-0009-7 Google Scholar 69 Review of nanomaterials-assisted ion exchange membranes for electromembrane desalination Alabi, Adetunji; Al Hajaj, Ahmed; Cseri, Levente; Szekely, Gyorgy; Budd, Peter; Zou, Linda npj Clean Water ( 2018 ), 1 ( 1 ), 10 CODEN: CWLACV ; ISSN: 2059-7037 . ( Nature Research ) A review. Abstr.: In order to address the increasing demand for fresh water due to accelerated social and economic growth in the world, water treatment technologies, such as desalination, have been rapidly developed in attempts to safeguard water security. Electromembrane desalination processes, such as electrodialysis and membrane capacitive deionization, belong to a category of desalination technologies, which involve the removal of ions from ionic solns. with the use of elec. charged membranes termed ion exchange membranes. The challenges assocd. with ion exchange membranes have drawn the attention of many researchers, who have investigated various approaches to enhance their properties. The incorporation of nanomaterials is one of the popular approaches employed. Much research on nanomaterials incorporated ion exchange membranes was conducted for the purpose of fuel cell applications rather than electromembrane desalination. This review reports on the advances in nanomaterials incorporated ion exchange membranes applicable to desalination. The nanomaterials employed in ion exchange membranes fabrication include carbon nanotubes, graphene-based nanomaterials, silica, titanium (IV) oxide, aluminum oxide, zeolite, iron (II, III) oxide, zinc oxide, and silver. The aims of this article are to provide a snap shot of the current status of nanomaterials incorporation in ion exchange membranes, to assess the status of nanomaterials-facilitated ion exchange membranes research for electromembrane desalination, and to stimulate progress in this area. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXkvVaktb0%253D&md5=2540b3e3fc3c22ea30973785369a962c
• 70 Wood, E. N. ; Tucker, J. H. ; Papastamataki, A. ; Caudle, D. ; Hock, R. ; Murphy, G. W. Electrochemical Demineralization of Water with Carbon Electrodes ; U.S. Department of the Interior : Washington, D.C. , 1965 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 71 Gupta, S. S. ; Islam, M. R. ; Pradeep, T. Capacitive Deionization (CDI): An Alternative Cost-Efficient Desalination Technique . Adv. Water Purif. Technol. 2019 , 165 – 202 ,  DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-814790-0.00007-7 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 72 Długołȩcki, P. ; van der Wal, A. Energy Recovery in Membrane Capacitive Deionization . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013 , 47 , 4904 – 4910 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es3053202 Google Scholar 72 Energy Recovery in Membrane Capacitive Deionization Dlugolecki, Piotr; van der Wal, Albert Environmental Science & Technology ( 2013 ), 47 ( 9 ), 4904-4910 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) Membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI) is a water desalination technol. based on applying a cell voltage between 2 oppositely placed porous C electrodes. In front of each electrode, an ion-exchange membrane is positioned, and between them, a spacer is situated, which transports the water to be desalinated. We demonstrate for the 1st time that ≤83% of the energy used for charging the electrodes during desalination can be recovered in the regeneration step. This can be achieved by charging and discharging the electrodes in a controlled manner using const. current conditions. By implementing energy recovery as an integral part of the MCDI operation, the overall energy consumption can be as low as 0.26 kWh/m3 of produced water to reduce the salinity by 10mM, which means that MCDI is more energy efficient for treatment of brackish water than reverse osmosis. Nevertheless, the measured energy consumption is much higher than the thermodynamically calcd. values for desalinating the water, and therefore, a further improvement in thermodn. efficiency will be needed in the future. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXjslSnsLo%253D&md5=0fbcdf781b01bfcc1ee33eaf7dbbbad7
• 73 Gaikwad, M. S. ; Balomajumder, C. Capacitive Deionization for Desalination Using Nanostructured Electrodes . Anal. Lett. 2016 , 49 , 1641 – 1655 ,  DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2015.1118485 Google Scholar 73 Capacitive Deionization for Desalination Using Nanostructured Electrodes Gaikwad, Mahendra S.; Balomajumder, Chandrajit Analytical Letters ( 2016 ), 49 ( 11 ), 1641-1655 CODEN: ANALBP ; ISSN: 0003-2719 . ( Taylor & Francis, Inc. ) A review. Capacitive deionization is an alternative approach for desalination using nanomaterial modified porous electrodes. The review presents the current progress of capacitive deionization electrodes prepd. from nanoparticle oxides, C nanotubes, graphene, C nanofibers, and nonporous C cloth. The synthesis and benefits of nanomaterial electrodes for capacitive deionization electrode are discussed. The application of these nanomaterials for capacitive deionization was shown to improve electrosorption and efficiency for salt removal compared to activated C electrodes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XpsFKmtLw%253D&md5=724627fb32fa1c181de899986f0472a8
• 74 Tang, K. ; Yiacoumi, S. ; Li, Y. ; Tsouris, C. Enhanced Water Desalination by Increasing the Electroconductivity of Carbon Powders for High-Performance Flow-Electrode Capacitive Deionization . ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2019 , 7 , 1085 – 1094 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b04746 Google Scholar 74 Enhanced Water Desalination by Increasing the Electroconductivity of Carbon Powders for High-Performance Flow-Electrode Capacitive Deionization Tang, Kexin; Yiacoumi, Sotira; Li, Yuping; Tsouris, Costas ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering ( 2019 ), 7 ( 1 ), 1085-1094 CODEN: ASCECG ; ISSN: 2168-0485 . ( American Chemical Society ) Flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI) can be improved via enhanced charge transfer by increasing the flow-electrode (FE) cond. Since water is the main component of FE (>70%), the key to improving the electrocond. lies in the properties of carbon materials. In this work, three types of carbon powders, i.e., activated carbon (AC), mesoporous carbon, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), were employed in FEs to investigate the influence of powder properties on the FCDI performance. The morphol. and structure of powders and electrochem. behavior and rheol. of FEs were investigated to reveal the relationship between FE properties and desalination performance. Results show that, due to their unique electrosorption behavior, excellent cond., and enhanced cond. through a bridging effect, CNT-based FE (carbon loading: 3 wt %) achieved the fastest (8.3 mg s-1 m-2) and the most stable desalination (charge efficiency: 93.3%). A faster desalination (13.2 mg s-1 m-2), due to significantly improved electrocond. (13.2 times) with only a slight viscosity increase (1.1 times), was achieved by adding CNTs into 6.91 wt % AC-based FE for a 7.41 wt % total carbon concn. This study highlights the importance of the intrinsic properties of carbon materials, esp. electrocond., in promoting FCDI desalination performance. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXisVOitr3E&md5=b29c0d193ecc8068ca9fadc3e331759b
• 75 Jeon, S. ; Park, H. ; Yeo, J. ; Yang, S. ; Cho, C. H. ; Han, M. H. ; Kim, D. K. Desalination via a New Membrane Capacitive Deionization Process Utilizing Flow-Electrodes . Energy Environ. Sci. 2013 , 6 , 1471 ,  DOI: 10.1039/c3ee24443a Google Scholar 75 Desalination via a new membrane capacitive deionization process utilizing flow-electrodes Jeon, Sung-il; Park, Hong-ran; Yeo, Jeong-gu; Yang, Seung Cheol; Cho, Churl Hee; Han, Moon Hee; Kim, Dong Kook Energy & Environmental Science ( 2013 ), 6 ( 5 ), 1471-1475 CODEN: EESNBY ; ISSN: 1754-5706 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) A capacitive deionization process utilizing flow-electrodes (FCDI) was designed and evaluated for use in seawater desalination. The FCDI cell exhibited excellent removal efficiency (95%) with respect to an aq. NaCl soln. (salt concn.: 32.1 g L-1), demonstrating that the FCDI process could effectively overcome the limitations of typical CDI processes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXmvVensrg%253D&md5=0c0529fd54ef7a33903d3e3505aa0b70
• 76 Abe, Y. Physical State of the Very Early Earth . Lithos 1993 , 30 , 223 – 235 ,  DOI: 10.1016/0024-4937(93)90037-D Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 77 Olivier, J. Fog-Water Harvesting along the West Coast of South Africa: A Feasibility Study . Water SA 2002 , 28 , 349 – 360 ,  DOI: 10.4314/wsa.v28i4.4908 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 78 Tu, Y. ; Wang, R. ; Zhang, Y. ; Wang, J. Progress and Expectation of Atmospheric Water Harvesting . Joule 2018 , 2 , 1452 – 1475 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2018.07.015 Google Scholar 78 Progress and expectation of atmospheric water harvesting Tu, Yaodong; Wang, Ruzhu; Zhang, Yannan; Wang, Jiayun Joule ( 2018 ), 2 ( 8 ), 1452-1475 CODEN: JOULBR ; ISSN: 2542-4351 . ( Cell Press ) A review. Even if people live in an arid desert, they know that plenty of water exists in the air they breathe. However, the reality tells us the atm. water cannot help to slake the world's thirst. Thus an important question occurs: what are the fundamental limits of atm. water harvesting that can be achieved in typical arid and semi-arid areas. Here, through a thorough review on the present advances of atm. water-harvesting technologies, we identify the achievements that have been acquired and evaluate the challenges and barriers that retard their applications. Lastly, we clarify our perspectives on how to search for a simple, scalable, yet cost-effective way to produce atm. water for the community and forecast the application of atm. water harvesting in evaporative cooling, such as electronic cooling, power plant cooling, and passive building cooling. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsFGjs7fF&md5=89041c97719475f5cc31c945db32a7f4
• 79 Nørgaard, T. ; Dacke, M. Fog-Basking Behaviour and Water Collection Efficiency in Namib Desert Darkling Beetles . Front. Zool. 2010 , 7 , 23 ,  DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-7-23 Google Scholar 79 Fog-basking behaviour and water collection efficiency in Namib Desert Darkling beetles Norgaard Thomas; Dacke Marie Frontiers in zoology ( 2010 ), 7 ( ), 23 ISSN: . BACKGROUND: In the Namib Desert fog represents an alternative water source. This is utilised by Darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae) that employ different strategies for obtaining the fog water. Some dig trenches in the sand, while others use their own bodies as fog collectors assuming a characteristic fog-basking stance. Two beetle species from the genus Onymacris have been observed to fog-bask on the ridges of the sand dunes. These beetles all have smooth elytra surfaces, while another species with elytra covered in bumps is reported to have specialised adaptations facilitating water capture by fog-basking. To resolve if these other beetles also fog-bask, and if an elytra covered in bumps is a more efficient fog water collector than a smooth one, we examined four Namib Desert beetles; the smooth Onymacris unguicularis and O. laeviceps and the bumpy Stenocara gracilipes and Physasterna cribripes. Here we describe the beetles' fog-basking behaviour, the details of their elytra structures, and determine how efficient their dorsal surface areas are at harvesting water from fog. RESULTS: The beetles differ greatly in size. The largest P. cribripes has a dorsal surface area that is 1.39, 1.56, and 2.52 times larger than O. unguicularis, O. laeviceps, and S. gracilipes, respectively. In accordance with earlier reports, we found that the second largest O. unguicularis is the only one of the four beetles that assumes the head standing fog-basking behaviour, and that fog is necessary to trigger this behaviour. No differences were seen in the absolute amounts of fog water collected on the dorsal surface areas of the different beetles. However, data corrected according to the sizes of the beetles revealed differences. The better fog water harvesters were S. gracilipes and O. unguicularis while the large P. cribripes was the poorest. Examination of the elytra microstructures showed clear structural differences, but the elytra of all beetles were found to be completely hydrophobic. CONCLUSIONS: The differences in fog water harvesting efficiency by the dorsal surface areas of beetles with very different elytra surface structures were minor. We therefore conclude that the fog-basking behaviour itself is a more important factor than structural adaptations when O. unguicularis collect water from fog. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3cjjsVOgtg%253D%253D&md5=4f16e368db54ef1c13f21d79ce2f8b63
• 80 Zheng, Y. ; Bai, H. ; Huang, Z. ; Tian, X. ; Nie, F.-Q. ; Zhao, Y. ; Zhai, J. ; Jiang, L. Directional Water Collection on Wetted Spider Silk . Nature 2010 , 463 , 640 – 643 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nature08729 Google Scholar 80 Directional water collection on wetted spider silk Zheng, Yongmei; Bai, Hao; Huang, Zhongbing; Tian, Xuelin; Nie, Fu-Qiang; Zhao, Yong; Zhai, Jin; Jiang, Lei Nature (London, United Kingdom) ( 2010 ), 463 ( 7281 ), 640-643 CODEN: NATUAS ; ISSN: 0028-0836 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Many biol. surfaces in both the plant and animal kingdom possess unusual structural features at the micro- and nanometer-scale that control their interaction with water and hence wettability. An intriguing example is provided by desert beetles, which use micrometre-sized patterns of hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions on their backs to capture water from humid air. As anyone who has admired spider webs adorned with dew drops will appreciate, spider silk is also capable of efficiently collecting water from air. Here we show that the water-collecting ability of the capture silk of the cribellate spider Uloborus walckenaerius is the result of a unique fiber structure that forms after wetting, with the wet-rebuilt' fibers characterized by periodic spindle-knots made of random nanofibrils and sepd. by joints made of aligned nanofibrils. These structural features result in a surface energy gradient between the spindle-knots and the joints and also in a difference in Laplace pressure, with both factors acting together to achieve continuous condensation and directional collection of water drops around spindle-knots. Submillimetre-sized liq. drops have been driven by surface energy gradients or a difference in Laplace pressure, but until now neither force on its own has been used to overcome the larger hysteresis effects that make the movement of micrometre-sized drops more difficult. By tapping into both driving forces, spider silk achieves this task. Inspired by this finding, we designed artificial fibers that mimic the structural features of silk and exhibit its directional water-collecting ability. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhsVygur8%253D&md5=2b9bb22cd265b2e566f79f2a003928d6
• 81 Ghosh, A. ; Beaini, S. ; Zhang, B. J. ; Ganguly, R. ; Megaridis, C. M. Enhancing Dropwise Condensation through Bioinspired Wettability Patterning . Langmuir 2014 , 30 , 13103 – 13115 ,  DOI: 10.1021/la5028866 Google Scholar 81 Enhancing Dropwise Condensation through Bioinspired Wettability Patterning Ghosh, Aritra; Beaini, Sara; Zhang, Bong June; Ganguly, Ranjan; Megaridis, Constantine M. Langmuir ( 2014 ), 30 ( 43 ), 13103-13115 CODEN: LANGD5 ; ISSN: 0743-7463 . ( American Chemical Society ) Dropwise condensation (DWC) heat transfer depends strongly on the max. diam. (Dmax) of condensate droplets departing from the condenser surface. This study presents a facile technique implemented to gain control of Dmax in DWC within vapor/air atmospheres. We demonstrate how this approach can enhance the corresponding heat transfer rate by harnessing the capillary forces in the removal of the condensate from the surface. We examine various hydrophilic-superhydrophilic patterns, which, resp., sustain and combine DWC and film-wise condensation on the substrate. The material system uses laser-patterned masking and chem. etching to achieve the desired wettability contrast and does not employ any hydrophobizing agent. By applying alternating straight parallel strips of hydrophilic (contact angle ∼78°) mirror-finish aluminum and superhydrophilic regions (etched aluminum) on the condensing surface, we show that the av. max. droplet size on the less-wettable domains is nearly 42% of the width of the corresponding strips. An overall improvement in the condensate collection rate, up to 19% (as compared to the control case of DWC on mirror-finish aluminum) was achieved by using an interdigitated superhydrophilic track pattern (on the mirror-finish hydrophilic surface) inspired by the vein network of plant leaves. The bioinspired interdigitated pattern is found to outperform the straight hydrophilic-superhydrophilic pattern design, particularly under higher humidity conditions in the presence of noncondensable gases (NCG), a condition that is more challenging for maintaining sustained DWC. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhslagtb%252FO&md5=39ae55930583d2e6ca9ae2a863f332fe
• 82 Zhu, H. ; Yang, F. ; Li, J. ; Guo, Z. High-Efficiency Water Collection on Biomimetic Material with Superwettable Patterns . Chem. Commun. 2016 , 52 , 12415 – 12417 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C6CC05857D Google Scholar 82 High-efficiency water collection on biomimetic material with superwettable patterns Zhu, Hai; Yang, Fuchao; Li, Jing; Guo, Zhiguang Chemical Communications (Cambridge, United Kingdom) ( 2016 ), 52 ( 84 ), 12415-12417 CODEN: CHCOFS ; ISSN: 1359-7345 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) A superhydrophilic surface with two superhydrophobic circular patterns was fabricated via a simple and rapid route, showing outstanding fog harvesting properties with a water collection rate (WCR) of 1316.9 mg h-1 cm-2. Water collection can be repeated on the sample 10 times without obvious change in the WCR. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsVCnt7jJ&md5=12578e309f6a8ba165d708d4cf43aeb7
• 83 Feng, X. J. ; Jiang, L. Design and Creation of Superwetting/Antiwetting Surfaces . Adv. Mater. 2006 , 18 , 3063 – 3078 ,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.200501961 Google Scholar 83 Design and creation of superwetting/antiwetting surfaces Feng, Xinjian; Jiang, Lei Advanced Materials (Weinheim, Germany) ( 2006 ), 18 ( 23 ), 3063-3078 CODEN: ADVMEW ; ISSN: 0935-9648 . ( Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ) A review. Recent achievements in the construction of surfaces with special wettabilities, such as superhydrophobicity, superhydrophilicity, superoleophobicity, superoleophilicity, superamphiphilicity, superamphiphobicity, superhydrophobicity/superoleophilicity, and reversible switching between superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity, are presented. Particular attention is paid to superhydrophobic surfaces created via various methods and surfaces with reversible superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity that are driven by various kinds of external stimuli. The control of the surface micro-/nanostructure and the chem. compn. is crit. for these special properties. These surfaces with controllable wettability are of great importance for both fundamental research and practical applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXit1Cjug%253D%253D&md5=50861b17f86b2af8f80815c9715425f0
• 84 Wen, R. ; Li, Q. ; Wu, J. ; Wu, G. ; Wang, W. ; Chen, Y. ; Ma, X. ; Zhao, D. ; Yang, R. Hydrophobic Copper Nanowires for Enhancing Condensation Heat Transfer . Nano Energy 2017 , 33 , 177 – 183 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.01.018 Google Scholar 84 Hydrophobic copper nanowires for enhancing condensation heat transfer Wen, Rongfu; Li, Qian; Wu, Jiafeng; Wu, Gensheng; Wang, Wei; Chen, Yunfei; Ma, Xuehu; Zhao, Dongliang; Yang, Ronggui Nano Energy ( 2017 ), 33 ( ), 177-183 CODEN: NEANCA ; ISSN: 2211-2855 . ( Elsevier Ltd. ) Rapid droplet removal by regulating surface topol. and wettability has been exploited in nature and it is of great importance for a broad range of technol. applications including water desalination and harvesting, power generation, environmental control, and thermal management. Recently there have been tremendous efforts in developing nanostructured surfaces for wettability control and enhancing phase-change heat transfer. However, the tendency of condensed droplets to form as pinned state rather than mobile mode on the nanostructured surfaces is likely to limit the applicability of such functionalized surfaces for condensation heat transfer enhancement. Here, we demonstrate enhanced condensation heat transfer on a nanowired hydrophobic copper surface where mol. permeation of water vapor into the sepns. between nanowires is greatly decreased, rendering spatial control on droplet nucleation and wetting dynamics. We show exptl. and theor. that this novel strategy allows to achieve a 100% higher overall heat flux over a broadened surface subcooling range, up to 24 K, due to highly efficient droplet jumping compared to the state-of-the-art hydrophobic surfaces. These findings reveal that the droplet behaviors and condensation modes can be regulated by spatially controlling the droplet nucleation events on the nanowired surfaces, which paves the way for the design of nanostructured surfaces for enhanced phase-change heat transfer. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhvFylurc%253D&md5=5f0a6bb7b8ede97e0cffe1a38734e3d6
• 85 Attinger, D. ; Frankiewicz, C. ; Betz, A. R. ; Schutzius, T. M. ; Ganguly, R. ; Das, A. ; Kim, C.-J. ; Megaridis, C. M. Surface Engineering for Phase Change Heat Transfer: A Review . MRS Energy Sustain. 2014 , 1 , E4 ,  DOI: 10.1557/mre.2014.9 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 86 Zhang, J. ; Han, Y. Shape-Gradient Composite Surfaces: Water Droplets Move Uphill . Langmuir 2007 , 23 , 6136 – 6141 ,  DOI: 10.1021/la063376k Google Scholar 86 Shape-Gradient Composite Surfaces: Water Droplets Move Uphill Zhang, Jilin; Han, Yanchun Langmuir ( 2007 ), 23 ( 11 ), 6136-6141 CODEN: LANGD5 ; ISSN: 0743-7463 . ( American Chemical Society ) The approach of water droplets self-running horizontally and uphill without any other forces was proposed by patterning the shape-gradient hydrophilic material (i.e., mica) to the hydrophobic matrix (i.e., wax or low-d. polyethylene (LDPE)). The shape-gradient composite surface is the best one to drive water droplet self-running both at the high velocity and the maximal distance among four different geometrical mica/wax composite surfaces. The driving force for the water droplets self-running includes: (1) the great difference in wettability of surface materials, (2) the low contact angle hysteresis of surface materials, and (3) the space limitation of the shape-gradient transportation area. Furthermore, the av. velocity and the maximal distance of the self-running were mainly detd. by the gradient angle (α), the droplet vol., and the difference of the contact angle hysteresis. Theor. anal. is in agreement with the exptl. results. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXksVSmur8%253D&md5=898738651e2b471f3097d59a6a354933
• 87 Hou, Y. P. ; Feng, S. L. ; Dai, L. M. ; Zheng, Y. M. Droplet Manipulation on Wettable Gradient Surfaces with Micro-/Nano-Hierarchical Structure . Chem. Mater. 2016 , 28 , 3625 – 3629 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b01544 Google Scholar 87 Droplet Manipulation on Wettable Gradient Surfaces with Micro-/Nano-Hierarchical Structure Hou, Yong P.; Feng, Shi L.; Dai, Li M.; Zheng, Yong M. Chemistry of Materials ( 2016 ), 28 ( 11 ), 3625-3629 CODEN: CMATEX ; ISSN: 0897-4756 . ( American Chemical Society ) The materials with an ability to control the movement of droplet via wettable gradient surface have attracted significant interest for promising applications in microfluidics, chem. sensors, bio-mol. interactions, electro-anal. chem., etc. In this study, we realize the controlled self-propelled motion of droplets by simply improved electrodeposition method. The results indicate that, during one-step cathodic deposition process, not only could the wettable gradient be formed via the gradients of surface geometrical structure and chem. compn., but micro-/nano-hierarchical structure is prepd. by depositing nano copper particles on the surface of stainless steel mesh. Accordingly, various wettable gradient surfaces with low contact angle hysteresis could be fabricated easily. On such surfaces (in the absence of fluorinated chems.), not only a droplet could move along given direction but also two droplets move away from one another. More importantly, the movement distance could be precisely predicted by the force anal. and controlled by the initial position of the droplet and/or the magnitude of the wettable gradient, which should have important implications to both fundamental research and practical applications, ranging from smart materials through microfluidics to biomedical devices. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xot1Omtbc%253D&md5=fd09f7b7f2b4bc7d55e3ea914804c17e
• 88 Peng, S. ; Bhushan, B. Mechanically Durable Superoleophobic Aluminum Surfaces with Microstep and Nanoreticula Hierarchical Structure for Self-Cleaning and Anti-Smudge Properties . J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2016 , 461 , 273 – 284 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2015.09.027 Google Scholar 88 Mechanically durable superoleophobic aluminum surfaces with microstep and nanoreticula hierarchical structure for self-cleaning and anti-smudge properties Peng, Shan; Bhushan, Bharat Journal of Colloid and Interface Science ( 2016 ), 461 ( ), 273-284 CODEN: JCISA5 ; ISSN: 0021-9797 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) Superoleophobic Al surfaces are of interest for self-cleaning, anti-smudge (fingerprint resistance), anti-fouling, and corrosion resistance applications. In the published literature on superoleophobic Al surfaces, mech. durability, self-cleaning, and anti-smudge properties data are lacking. Microstep structure has often been used to prep. superhydrophobic Al surfaces which produce the microstructure. The nanoreticula structure also was used, and is reported to be able to trap air-pockets, which are desirable for a high contact angle. The microstep and nanoreticula structures were produced on Al surfaces to form a hierarchical micro/nanostructure by a simple 2-step chem. etching process. The hierarchical structure, when modified with fluorosilane, made the surface superoleophobic. The effect of nanostructure, microstructure, and hierarchical structure on wettability and durability were studied and compared. The superoleophobic Al surfaces are wear resistant, self-cleaning, and have anti-smudge and corrosion resistance properties. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsFertLjI&md5=e5a3ec866a779e17e992046f3c261431
• 89 Kim, H. ; Yang, S. ; Rao, S. R. ; Narayanan, S. ; Kapustin, E. A. ; Furukawa, H. ; Umans, A. S. ; Yaghi, O. M. ; Wang, E. N. Water Harvesting from Air with Metal-Organic Frameworks Powered by Natural Sunlight . Science 2017 , 356 , 430 – 434 ,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aam8743 Google Scholar 89 Water harvesting from air with metal-organic frameworks powered by natural sunlight Kim, Hyunho; Yang, Sungwoo; Rao, Sameer R.; Narayanan, Shankar; Kapustin, Eugene A.; Furukawa, Hiroyasu; Umans, Ari S.; Yaghi, Omar M.; Wang, Evelyn N. Science (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2017 ), 356 ( 6336 ), 430-434 CODEN: SCIEAS ; ISSN: 0036-8075 . ( American Association for the Advancement of Science ) Atm. water is a resource equiv. to -10% of all fresh water in lakes on Earth. However, an efficient process for capturing and delivering water from air, esp. at low humidity levels (down to 20%), has not been developed. We report the design and demonstration of a device based on a porous metal-org. framework {M0F-801, [Zr604(0H)4(fumarate)6]} that captures water from the atm. at ambient conditions by using low-grade heat from natural sunlight at a flux of less than 1 sun (1 kW per square meter). This device is capable of harvesting 2.8 L of water per kg of MOF daily at relative humidity levels as low as 20% and requires no addnl. input of energy. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXmvFejtLo%253D&md5=14666dd987441772addcc6bf9c70b02a
• 90 Fujishima, A. ; Honda, K. Electrochemical Photolysis of Water at a Semiconductor Electrode . Nature 1972 , 238 , 37 – 38 ,  DOI: 10.1038/238037a0 Google Scholar 90 Electrochemical photolysis of water at a semiconductor electrode Fujishima, Akira; Honda, Kenichi Nature (London, United Kingdom) ( 1972 ), 238 ( 5358 ), 37-8 CODEN: NATUAS ; ISSN: 0028-0836 . For electrochem. decompn. of H2O, a p.d. of >1.23 V is necessary between the anode and the cathode. This p.d. is equal to the energy of radiation with wavelength of ∼1000 nm. This energy, in the form of visible light, can be used effectively in an electrochem. system to decomp. H2O. A novel type of electrochem. cell was developed, in which a TiO2 electrode was connected with a Pt-black electrode through an external load. The direction of current revealed that oxidn. occurred at the TiO2 electrode and redn. at the Pt-black electrode. To increase the efficiency of the process, more reducible species, such as dissolved O2 or Fe3+, must be added in the Pt electrode compartment. The use of a p-type semiconductor electrode instead of Pt leads to more effective electrochem. photolysis of H2O. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaE38XltVykurw%253D&md5=71f39843802b5cdb5f7cb0deb7f0c63c
• 91 Hashimoto, K. ; Irie, H. ; Fujishima, A. TiO 2 Photocatalysis: A Historical Overview and Future Prospects . Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2005 , 44 , 8269 – 8285 ,  DOI: 10.1143/JJAP.44.8269 Google Scholar 91 TiO2 photocatalysis: A historical overview and future prospects Hashimoto, Kazuhito; Irie, Hiroshi; Fujishima, Akira Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, Part 1: Regular Papers, Brief Communications & Review Papers ( 2005 ), 44 ( 12 ), 8269-8285 CODEN: JAPNDE ISSN: . ( Japan Society of Applied Physics ) A review. Photocatalysis has recently become a common word and various products using photocatalytic functions have been commercialized. Among many candidates for photocatalysts, TiO2 is almost the only material suitable for industrial use at present and also probably in the future. This is because TiO2 has the most efficient photoactivity, the highest stability and the lowest cost. More significantly, it has beer used as a white pigment from ancient times, and thus, its safety to humans and the environment is guaranteed by history. There are two types of photochem. reaction proceeding on a TiO2 surface when irradiated with UV light. One includes the photoinduced redox reactions of adsorbed substances, and the other is the photo-induced hydrophilic conversion of TiO2 itself. The former type has been known since the early part of the 20th century, but the latter was found only at the end of the century. The combination of these two functions has opened up various novel applications of TiO2, particularly in the field of building materials. The authors review the progress of the scientific research on TiO2 photocatalysis as well as its industrial applications, and describe future prospects of this field mainly based on the present authors' work. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28XjslGkug%253D%253D&md5=530077a085def7bc7a20e830cc4cf71d
• 92 Wu, T. ; Liu, G. ; Zhao, J. C. ; Hidaka, H. ; Serpone, N. Self-Photosensitized Oxidative Transformation of Rhodamine B under Visible Light Irradiation in Aqueous TiO 2 Dispersions . J. Phys. Chem. B 1998 , 102 , 5845 – 5851 ,  DOI: 10.1021/jp980922c Google Scholar 92 Photoassisted Degradation of Dye Pollutants. V. Self-Photosensitized Oxidative Transformation of Rhodamine B under Visible Light Irradiation in Aqueous TiO2 Dispersions Wu, Taixing; Liu, Guangming; Zhao, Jincai; Hidaka, Hisao; Serpone, Nick Journal of Physical Chemistry B ( 1998 ), 102 ( 30 ), 5845-5851 CODEN: JPCBFK ; ISSN: 1089-5647 . ( American Chemical Society ) COD and proton NMR, UV-vis, and spin trapping EPR spectroscopic evidence is presented to demonstrate the inverse photosensitized oxidative transformation of tetraethylated rhodamine (RhB) under visible illumination of aq. titania dispersions. Both de-ethylation and oxidative degrdn. take place with the former proceeding in a stepwise manner to yield mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-de-ethylated rhodamine species. Intermediates present after each de-ethylation step remain in a fast dynamic equil. between the titania particle surface and the bulk soln. The concn. of •OH radicals, formed from the inverse photosensitization process through the superoxide radical anion, increases upon addn. of the anionic dodecylbenzene sulfonate surfactant (DBS) because a larger no. of RhB excited states are able to inject an electron into the conduction band of the TiO2 particles. Also, intermediates that can no longer absorb the visible light, (i.e., once the dye soln. is completely bleached) are unable to drive the photosensitized degrdn. further. A mechanism for the competitive photoreactions between degrdn. and de-ethylation is described, in which de-ethylation (ζ ∼0.0035) is mostly a surface occurring process, whereas degrdn. (ζ ∼0.0015) of the RhB chromophore is predominantly a soln. bulk process. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1cXkt1CqtLo%253D&md5=b60eb6592c8ae5d15952e8ee4bec94e7
• 93 Chakraborty, I. ; Pradeep, T. Atomically Precise Clusters of Noble Metals: Emerging Link between Atoms and Nanoparticles . Chem. Rev. 2017 , 117 , 8208 – 8271 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00769 Google Scholar 93 Atomically Precise Clusters of Noble Metals: Emerging Link between Atoms and Nanoparticles Chakraborty, Indranath; Pradeep, Thalappil Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2017 ), 117 ( 12 ), 8208-8271 CODEN: CHREAY ; ISSN: 0009-2665 . ( American Chemical Society ) A review. Atomically precise pieces of matter of nanometer dimensions composed of noble metals are new categories of materials with many unusual properties. Over 100 mols. of this kind with formulas such as Au25(SR)18, Au38(SR)24, and Au102(SR)44 as well as Ag25(SR)18, Ag29(S2R)12, and Ag44(SR)30 (often with a few counterions to compensate charges) are known now. They can be made reproducibly with robust synthetic protocols, resulting in colored solns., yielding powders or crystals. They are distinctly different from nanoparticles in their spectroscopic properties such as optical absorption and emission, showing well-defined features, just like mols. They show isotopically resolved mol. ion peaks in mass spectra and provide diverse information when examd. through multiple instrumental methods. Most important of these properties is luminescence, often in the visible-near-IR window, useful in biol. applications. Luminescence in the visible region, esp. by clusters protected with proteins, with a large Stokes shift, has been used for various sensing applications, down to a few tens of mols./ions, in air and water. Catalytic properties of clusters, esp. oxidn. of org. substrates, have been examd. Materials science of these systems presents numerous possibilities and is fast evolving. Computational insights have given reasons for their stability and unusual properties. The mol. nature of these materials is unequivocally manifested in a few recent studies such as intercluster reactions forming precise clusters. These systems manifest properties of the core, of the ligand shell, as well as that of the integrated system. They are better described as protected mols. or aspicules, where aspis means shield and cules refers to mols., implying that they are "shielded mols.". In order to understand their diverse properties, a nomenclature has been introduced with which it is possible to draw their structures with positional labels on paper, with some training. Research in this area is captured here, based on the publications available up to Dec. 2016. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXpt1Cnu70%253D&md5=a4715fc394d2a15e47d448929ad223d7
• 94 AbdulHalim, L. G. ; Bootharaju, M. S. ; Tang, Q. ; Del Gobbo, S. ; AbdulHalim, R. G. ; Eddaoudi, M. ; Jiang, D. ; Bakr, O. M. Ag 29 (BDT) 12 (TPP) 4 : A Tetravalent Nanocluster . J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015 , 137 , 11970 – 11975 ,  DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b04547 Google Scholar 94 Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4: A Tetravalent Nanocluster AbdulHalim, Lina G.; Bootharaju, Megalamane S.; Tang, Qing; Del Gobbo, Silvano; AbdulHalim, Rasha G.; Eddaoudi, Mohamed; Jiang, De-en; Bakr, Osman M. Journal of the American Chemical Society ( 2015 ), 137 ( 37 ), 11970-11975 CODEN: JACSAT ; ISSN: 0002-7863 . ( American Chemical Society ) The bottom-up assembly of nanoparticles into diverse ordered solids is a challenge because it requires nanoparticles, which are often quasi-spherical, to have interaction anisotropy akin to atoms and mols. Typically, anisotropy was introduced by changing the shape of the inorg. nanoparticle core. The design, self-assembly, optical properties, and total structural detn. of Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4, an atomically precise tetravalent nanocluster (NC) (BDT, 1,3-benzenedithiol; TPP, PPh3) is presented. It features 4 unique tetrahedrally sym. binding surface sites facilitated by the supramol. assembly of 12 BDT (wide footprint bidentate thiols) in the ligand shell. When each of these sites was selectively functionalized by a single phosphine ligand, particle stability, synthetic yield, and the propensity to self-assemble into macroscopic crystals increased. The solid crystd. NCs have a substantially narrowed optical band gap compared to that of the soln. state, suggesting strong interparticle electronic coupling occurs in the solid state. Crystallog. data are given. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtVKit7vL&md5=cef0313247c38bda10e657fdc4b1605d
• 95 Habeeb Muhammed, M. A. ; Verma, P. K. ; Pal, S. K. ; Retnakumari, A. ; Koyakutty, M. ; Nair, S. ; Pradeep, T. Luminescent Quantum Clusters of Gold in Bulk by Albumin-Induced Core Etching of Nanoparticles: Metal Ion Sensing, Metal-Enhanced Luminescence, and Biolabeling . Chem. - Eur. J. 2010 , 16 , 10103 – 10112 ,  DOI: 10.1002/chem.201000841 Google Scholar 95 Luminescent Quantum Clusters of Gold in Bulk by Albumin-Induced Core Etching of Nanoparticles: metal Ion Sensing, Metal-Enhanced Luminescence, and Biolabeling Habeeb Muhammed, Madathumpady Abubaker; Verma, Pramod Kumar; Pal, Samir Kumar; Retnakumari, Archana; Koyakutty, Manzoor; Nair, Shantikumar; Pradeep, Thalappil Chemistry - A European Journal ( 2010 ), 16 ( 33 ), 10103-10112, S10103/1-S10103/8 CODEN: CEUJED ; ISSN: 0947-6539 . ( Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ) The synthesis of a luminescent quantum cluster (QC) of gold with a quantum yield of ∼4 % is reported. It was synthesized in gram quantities by the core etching of mercaptosuccinic acid protected gold nanoparticles by bovine serum albumin (BSA), abbreviated as AuqC@BSA. The cluster was characterized and a core of Au38 was assigned tentatively from mass spectrometric anal. Luminescence of the QC is exploited as a "turn-off" sensor for Cu2+ ions and a "turn-on" sensor for glutathione detection. Metal-enhanced luminescence (MEL) of this QC in the presence of silver nanoparticles is demonstrated and a ninefold max. enhancement is seen. This is the first report of the observation of MEL from QCs. Folic acid conjugated AuqC@BSA was internalized to a significant extent by oral carcinoma KB cells through folic acid mediated endocytosis. The inherent luminescence of the internalized AuqC@BSA was used in cell imaging. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhtV2qsbzE&md5=a46e799647d16e2f805360781139b7ec
• 96 Ghosh, A. ; Jeseentharani, V. ; Ganayee, M. A. ; Hemalatha, R. G. ; Chaudhari, K. ; Vijayan, C. ; Pradeep, T. Approaching Sensitivity of Tens of Ions Using Atomically Precise Cluster-Nanofiber Composites . Anal. Chem. 2014 , 86 , 10996 – 11001 ,  DOI: 10.1021/ac502779r Google Scholar 96 Approaching Sensitivity of Tens of Ions Using Atomically Precise Cluster-Nanofiber Composites Ghosh, Atanu; Jeseentharani, Vedhakkani; Ganayee, Mohd Azhardin; Hemalatha, Rani Gopalakrishnan; Chaudhari, Kamalesh; Vijayan, Cherianath; Pradeep, Thalappil Analytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2014 ), 86 ( 22 ), 10996-11001 CODEN: ANCHAM ; ISSN: 0003-2700 . ( American Chemical Society ) A new methodol. was demonstrated for ultratrace detection of Hg2+, working at the limit of a few tens of metal ions. Bright, red luminescent atomically precise gold clusters, Au@BSA (BSA, bovine serum albumin), coated on Nylon-6 nanofibers were used for these measurements. A green emitting fluorophore, FITC (fluorescein isothiocyanate), whose luminescence is insensitive to Hg2+ was precoated on the fiber. Exposure to mercury quenched the red emission completely, and the green emission of the fiber appeared which was obsd. under dark field fluorescence microscopy. For the sensing expt. at the limit of sensitivity, the authors used individual nanofibers. Quenching due to Hg2+ ions was fast and uniform. Adaptation of such sensors to pH paper-like test-strips would make affordable water quality sensors at ultralow concns. a reality. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhsl2hsLbJ&md5=fb137d59f92c4b20a8fb81a9af34e6b0
• 97 Liang, G. ; Ren, F. ; Gao, H. ; Wu, Q. ; Zhu, F. ; Tang, B. Z. Bioinspired Fluorescent Nanosheets for Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Organic Pollutants in Water . ACS Sens. 2016 , 1 , 1272 – 1278 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.6b00530 Google Scholar 97 Bioinspired Fluorescent Nanosheets for Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Organic Pollutants in Water Liang, Guodong; Ren, Feng; Gao, Haiyang; Wu, Qing; Zhu, Fangming; Tang, Ben Zhong ACS Sensors ( 2016 ), 1 ( 10 ), 1272-1278 CODEN: ASCEFJ ; ISSN: 2379-3694 . ( American Chemical Society ) Detection of org. pollutants in aq. media is crucial for guaranteeing water safety. Conventional methods for org. pollutant detection suffer from time-consuming operation procedures (on the order of hours) and expensive devices. Inspired by dog noses, we constructed self-assembled fluorescent nanosheets for rapid and sensitive detection of org. pollutants based on the grasp-report strategy. Tetraphenylethene decorated cyclodextrins (TPE-CDs) self-assembled into nanosheets with hydrophobic TPE layers sandwiched between 2 hydrophilic cyclodextrin layers. The hydrophobic cavity of the outer cyclodextrin layers grasped and collected org. pollutants, and subsequently transported them to the TPE layers and quenched the fluorescence emission of TPE layers. Such nanosheets allowed rapid detection of xylene (on the order of seconds) at a concn. of 5 μg/L. With the merits of the ease of synthesis, simple operation, and high sensitivity, the fluorescent nanomaterials provide a promising candidate for rapid and sensitive detection of org. pollutants. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsFWjtb3J&md5=2b775e7a4bf39f8ba4ad0e4739d47cc0
• 98 Fang, X. ; Chen, X. ; Liu, Y. ; Li, Q. ; Zeng, Z. ; Maiyalagan, T. ; Mao, S. Nanocomposites of Zr (IV)-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks and Reduced Graphene Oxide for Electrochemically Sensing Ciprofloxacin in Water . ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2019 , 2 , 2367 – 2376 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.9b00243 Google Scholar 98 Nanocomposites of Zr(IV)-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks and Reduced Graphene Oxide for Electrochemically Sensing Ciprofloxacin in Water Fang, Xian; Chen, Xiaoyan; Liu, Ying; Li, Qiuju; Zeng, Zhongrun; Maiyalagan, T.; Mao, Shun ACS Applied Nano Materials ( 2019 ), 2 ( 4 ), 2367-2376 CODEN: AANMF6 ; ISSN: 2574-0970 . ( American Chemical Society ) Rapid detn. of trace antibiotics is crit. for environmental monitoring and the ecosystem. In this study, a sensitive and selective electrochem. sensor for ciprofloxacin (Cip) detection by anodic stripping voltammetry of Cu2+ is designed. Zr(IV)-based metal-org. framework (MOF) NH2-UiO-66 and reduced graphene oxide (RGO) composites are used as working electrodes, which have a large surface area with porous structure and high elec. cond. Because Cip can form a stable composite with Cu2+ due to the complexation reaction, the anodic stripping voltammetry method is used for Cip detn. with Cu deposition on the NH2-UiO-66/RGO-modified electrode. When Cip is present, the oxidization current of Cu2+ decreases significantly due to the formation of Cu2+-Cip complex. The prepd. NH2-UiO-66/RGO sensor can detect trace levels of Cip down to 6.67 nM with a sensitivity of 10.86 μA μM-1, and a linear working range from 0.02 to 1 μM, which is superior to other electrochem. Cip sensors reported previously. The sensor also shows high selectivity, reproducibility, and stability in Cip sensing. Meanwhile, the electrochem. sensor is capable to detect Cip in real water samples with satisfactory recoveries. The ultrasensitivity, rapid detection, and easy operation of the reported sensors present significant potentials for real-time anal. and monitoring of trace antibiotic contaminants in water. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXmvVentbY%253D&md5=9d0bb6407e7cbcc774fea30f2b6def09
• 99 Bhaskar, S. ; Ramamurthy, S. S. Mobile Phone-Based Picomolar Detection of Tannic Acid on Nd 2 O 3 Nanorod-Metal Thin-Film Interfaces . ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2019 , 2 , 4613 – 4625 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.9b00987 Google Scholar 99 Mobile Phone-Based Picomolar Detection of Tannic Acid on Nd2O3 Nanorod-Metal Thin-Film Interfaces Bhaskar, Seemesh; Ramamurthy, Sai Sathish ACS Applied Nano Materials ( 2019 ), 2 ( 7 ), 4613-4625 CODEN: AANMF6 ; ISSN: 2574-0970 . ( American Chemical Society ) Surface plasmon-coupled emission (SPCE) has emerged as a potential sensing platform owing to its >50% fluorescence signal collection efficiency. Further advancements toward boosting the coupling efficiency can be achieved by relevant spacer and cavity engineering. Several composites of metal nanoparticles (NPs) have been used along with different templates such as low dimensional carbon substrates (1D, 2D, and 3D), ceramics, proteins, and DNA, to name a few. However, they fundamentally suffer from intrinsic parasitic losses in metals and require nonzero nanogaps between them and the metal thin film for hot-spot generation. Here, we report the first-time application and significance of high refractive index (HRI) dielec., rare earth, biocompatible Nd2O3 NPs as salient spacers to achieve template-free and metal NP-free, 118-fold emission enhancements in SPCE platform using a simple optical setup. The primary focus is on the effect of vol. and size of nanoenvironment on the coupling of Nd2O3 nanorods with silver (Ag) thin film. In addn. to this, we report a new cavity format as pseudo-MDHD (metal-dielec.-high refractive index dielec.) framework analogous to MDM (metal-dielec.-metal). This study also elaborates on the importance of Mie resonances and resonant light scattering in analyzing the emission enhancements obtained using spacer, cavity, and extended cavity interfaces. This work also demonstrates the first-time utility of cost-effective smartphone based SPCE studies for monitoring tannic acid (TA), a hazardous chem. in environmental water, at picomolar limit of detection (LOD) using HRI dielec. Nd2O3 nanorods. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtlWjt7%252FI&md5=7818ac2d16a69a324f51777ea11df18f
• 100 Fan, L. ; Zhao, G. ; Shi, H. ; Liu, M. ; Wang, Y. ; Ke, H. A Femtomolar Level and Highly Selective 17β-Estradiol Photoelectrochemical Aptasensor Applied in Environmental Water Samples Analysis . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014 , 48 , 5754 – 5761 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es405685y Google Scholar 100 A Femtomolar Level and Highly Selective 17β-estradiol Photoelectrochemical Aptasensor Applied in Environmental Water Samples Analysis Fan, Lifang; Zhao, Guohua; Shi, Huijie; Liu, Meichuan; Wang, Yanbin; Ke, Hongyang Environmental Science & Technology ( 2014 ), 48 ( 10 ), 5754-5761 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) Driven by the urgent demand of detg. low level of 17β-estradiol (E2) in environment, a novel and ultrasensitive photoelectrochem. (PEC) sensing platform based on anti-E2 aptamer as the biorecognition element was developed onto CdSe nanoparticles-modified TiO2 nanotube arrays. The designed PEC aptasensor exhibits excellent performances in detn. of E2 with a wide linear range of 0.05-15pM. The detection limit of 33fM is lower than the previous reports. The aptasensor manifests outstanding selectivity to E2 while used to detect 7 other endocrine disrupting compds. that have similar structure or coexist with E2. The superior sensing behavior toward E2 can be attributed to the appropriate PEC sensing interface resulting from the preponderant tubular microstructure and excellent photoelec. activity, the large packing d. of aptamer on the sensing interface, as well as the high affinity of the aptamer to E2. The PEC aptasensor was applied to the detn. of E2 in environmental water without complicate sample pretreatments, and the anal. results showed good agreement with that detd. by HPLC. Thus, a simple and rapid PEC technique for detection low level of E2 was established, with promising potential in monitoring environmental water pollution. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXmt1GjtLo%253D&md5=d786a7077f9b4da372211c0a61ebf845
• 101 Colvin, V. L. The Potential Environmental Impact of Engineered Nanomaterials . Nat. Biotechnol. 2003 , 21 , 1166 – 1170 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nbt875 Google Scholar 101 The potential environmental impact of engineered nanomaterials Colvin, Vicki L. Nature Biotechnology ( 2003 ), 21 ( 10 ), 1166-1170 CODEN: NABIF9 ; ISSN: 1087-0156 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) With the increased presence of nanomaterials in com. products, a growing public debate is emerging on whether the environmental and social costs of nanotechnol. outweigh its many benefits. To date, few studies have investigated the toxicol. and environmental effects of direct and indirect exposure to nanomaterials and no clear guidelines exist to quantify these effects. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXns1Cltr8%253D&md5=5a0e7c0486d129d3707c9f3432e0dc2c
• 102 Kashiwada, S. Distribution of Nanoparticles in the See-Through Medaka ( Oryzias Latipes ) . Environ. Health Perspect. 2006 , 114 , 1697 – 1702 ,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.9209 Google Scholar 102 Distribution of nanoparticles in the see-through medaka (Oryzias latipes) Kashiwada, Shosaku Environmental Health Perspectives ( 2006 ), 114 ( 11 ), 1697-1702 CODEN: EVHPAZ ; ISSN: 0091-6765 . ( U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services ) Objective: Because the environmental fate of manufd. nanoparticles is considered an emerging environmental concern, I used water-suspended fluorescent nanoparticles (solid latex soln.) to investigate the distribution of nanoparticles in the eggs and bodies of see-through medaka (Oryzias latipes). Results: Particles 39.4-42,000 nm in diam. were adsorbed to the chorion of medaka eggs and accumulated in the oil droplets; 474-nm particles had the highest bioavailability to eggs. Particles 39.4 nm in diam. shifted into the yolk and gallbladder during embryonic development. Adult medaka accumulated 39.4-nm nanoparticles mainly in the gills and intestine when exposed to a 10-mg/L nanoparticle soln. Nanoparticles were also detected in the brain, testis, liver, and blood. Concns. of nanoparticles in the blood of male and female medaka were 16.5 and 10.5 ng/mg blood protein, resp. These results suggest that nanoparticles are capable of penetrating the blood-brain barrier and that they eventually reach the brain. Salinity-dependent acute toxicity was obsd. in medaka eggs exposed for 24 h to nanoparticles. Conclusion: The bioavailability and toxicity of nanoparticles depend on environmental factors and multiple physicochem. properties. Further studies on the toxic effects of nanoparticles used in com. products and their environmental relevance, are necessary to define the risks and benefit of nanomaterial applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28XhtlWnu77I&md5=b22a101734a0252b33a5b2135ce15d80
• 103 Mauter, M. S. ; Zucker, I. ; Perreault, F. ; Werber, J. R. ; Kim, J.-H. ; Elimelech, M. The Role of Nanotechnology in Tackling Global Water Challenges . Nat. Sustain. 2018 , 1 , 166 – 175 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41893-018-0046-8 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 104 Mitrano, D. M. ; Ranville, J. F. ; Bednar, A. ; Kazor, K. ; Hering, A. S. ; Higgins, C. P. Tracking Dissolution of Silver Nanoparticles at Environmentally Relevant Concentrations in Laboratory, Natural, and Processed Waters Using Single Particle ICP-MS (SpICP-MS) . Environ. Sci.: Nano 2014 , 1 , 248 – 259 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C3EN00108C Google Scholar 104 Tracking dissolution of silver nanoparticles at environmentally relevant concentrations in laboratory, natural, and processed waters using single particle ICP-MS (spICP-MS) Mitrano, D. M.; Ranville, J. F.; Bednar, A.; Kazor, K.; Hering, A. S.; Higgins, C. P. Environmental Science: Nano ( 2014 ), 1 ( 3 ), 248-259 CODEN: ESNNA4 ; ISSN: 2051-8161 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) The interplay between engineered nanoparticle (ENP) size, surface area, and dissoln. rate is crit. in predicting ENP environmental behavior. Single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (spICP-MS) enables the study of ENPs at dil. (ng L-1) concns., facilitating the measurement of ENP behavior in natural systems. Here, the utility of using spICP-MS to quant. track the changes in particle diam. over time for 60 and 100 nm Ag ENPs (citrate, tannic acid, and polyvinylpyrrolidone coated) was demonstrated. Short term (<24 h) and intermediate term (1 wk) dissoln. was examd., with rates for all particles slowing by over an order of magnitude after approx. 24 h. Dissoln. was measured primarily as a decrease in particle diam. over time but direct measurement of Ag+(aq) was also completed for the expts. The importance of water chem. including chloride, sulfide, and dissolved org. carbon (DOC) was demonstrated, with higher concns. (1 mg L-1 Cl-, S2- and 20 mg L-1 DOC) resulting in negligible Ag ENP dissoln. over 24 h. Slight decreases in particle diam. (<10%) were obsd. with lower concns. of these parameters (stoichiometric Cl-, S2- and 2 mg L-1 DOC). Capping agents showed variable effects on dissoln. ENP behavior was also investigated in natural (moderately hard water, creek water) and tap water. Water chem. was the most significant factor affecting dissoln. Near complete dissoln. was obsd. in chlorinated tap water within several hours. Though modeled as first-order kinetic transformations, the dissoln. rates obsd. suggested the dissoln. kinetics might be significantly more complex. Two specific highlights of the benefits of using the spICP-MS technique to measure dissoln. in complex samples include 1) the measurement of primary particle size as the metric of dissoln. is more direct than attempting to measure the increase of Ag+ in soln. and 2) that this is possible even when known sinks for Ag+ exist in the system (e.g. DOC, sediments, biota, sampling container). >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXotFyqtb4%253D&md5=80895b03d493a5170fb110dfc1c22aed
• 105 Dobias, J. ; Bernier-Latmani, R. Silver Release from Silver Nanoparticles in Natural Waters . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013 , 47 , 4140 – 4146 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es304023p Google Scholar 105 Silver Release from Silver Nanoparticles in Natural Waters Dobias, J.; Bernier-Latmani, R. Environmental Science & Technology ( 2013 ), 47 ( 9 ), 4140-4146 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) are used increasingly in consumer products for their antimicrobial properties. This increased use raises ecol. concern because of the release of AgNPs into the environment. Once released, 0-valent Ag may be oxidized to Ag+ and the cation liberated or it may persist as AgNPs. The chem. form of Ag has implications for its toxicity; it is therefore crucial to characterize the persistence of AgNPs to predict their ecotoxicol. potential. We evaluated the release of Ag from AgNPs of various sizes exposed to river and lake water for ≤4 mo. Several AgNP-capping agents were also considered: polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), tannic acid (Tan), and citric acid (Cit). We obsd. a striking difference between 5, 10, and 50 nm AgNPs, with the latter being more resistant to dissoln. in oxic water on a mass basis. However, the difference decreased when Ag was surface-area-normalized, suggesting an important role of the surface area in detg. Ag loss. We propose that rapid initial Ag+ release was attributable to desorption of Ag+ from nanoparticle surfaces. We also obsd. that PVP- and Tan-AgNPs are more prone to Ag+ release than Cit-AgNPs. It is likely that oxidative dissoln. also occurs but at a slower rate. This study clearly shows that small AgNPs (5 nm, PVP and Tan) dissolve rapidly and almost completely, while larger AgNPs (50 nm) have the potential to persist for an extended period of time and could serve as a continuous source of Ag ions. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXktleksbo%253D&md5=76e9921f3e24fcdd5da7b2c765b1ca15
• 106 Hippo Roller . https://www.hipporoller.org/ (access April 20, 2020). Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 107 Tiwari, B. ; Zhang, D. ; Winslow, D. ; Lee, C. H. ; Hao, B. ; Yap, Y. K. A Simple and Universal Technique to Extract One- and Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials from Contaminated Water . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015 , 7 , 26108 – 26116 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b07542 Google Scholar 107 A Simple and Universal Technique To Extract One- and Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials from Contaminated Water Tiwari, Bishnu; Zhang, Dongyan; Winslow, Dustin; Lee, Chee Huei; Hao, Boyi; Yap, Yoke Khin ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2015 ), 7 ( 47 ), 26108-26116 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) A universal approach to ext. one- and two-dimensional nanomaterials from contaminated water is reported which is based on a microscopic oil-water interface trapping mechanism. Results indicate that carbon nanotubes, graphene, boron nitride nanotubes, boron nitride nanosheets, and zinc oxide nanowires can be successfully extd. from contaminated water at a successful rate of nearly 100%. The effects of surfactants, particle shape, and type of org. extn. fluids are evaluated. The proposed extn. mechanism is also supported by in situ monitoring of the extn. process. The authors believe that this extn. approach will prove important for the purifn. of water contaminated by nanoparticles and will support the widespread adoption of nanomaterial applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsl2htLrI&md5=9144975073829545a054bb66988fdc17
• 108 Gao, W. ; Majumder, M. ; Alemany, L. B. ; Narayanan, T. N. ; Ibarra, M. A. ; Pradhan, B. K. ; Ajayan, P. M. Engineered Graphite Oxide Materials for Application in Water Purification . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2011 , 3 , 1821 – 1826 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am200300u Google Scholar 108 Engineered Graphite Oxide Materials for Application in Water Purification Gao, Wei; Majumder, Mainak; Alemany, Lawrence B.; Narayanan, Tharangattu N.; Ibarra, Miguel A.; Pradhan, Bhabendra K.; Ajayan, Pulickel M. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2011 ), 3 ( 6 ), 1821-1826 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) Retaining the inherent hydrophilic characteristics of GO (graphite-oxide) nanosheets, sp2 domains on GO are covalently modified with thiol groups by diazonium chem. The surface modified GO adsorbs 6-fold higher concn. of aq. mercuric ions than the unmodified GO. Core-shell adsorbent granules, readily usable in filtration columns, are synthesized by assembling aq. GO over sand granules. The nanostructured GO-coated sand retains ≥5-fold higher concn. of heavy metal and org. dye than pure sand. These results could open avenues for developing low-cost water purifn. materials for the developing economies. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXmsFGhtr8%253D&md5=85e1e2511b410cb4f765fc86e56603b6
• 109 Gupta, S. S. ; Sreeprasad, T. S. ; Maliyekkal, S. M. ; Das, S. K. ; Pradeep, T. Graphene from Sugar and Its Application in Water Purification . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012 , 4 , 4156 – 4163 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am300889u Google Scholar 109 Graphene from Sugar and its Application in Water Purification Gupta, Soujit Sen; Sreeprasad, Theruvakkattil Sreenivasan; Maliyekkal, Shihabudheen Mundampra; Das, Sarit Kumar; Pradeep, Thalappil ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2012 ), 4 ( 8 ), 4156-4163 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) This paper describes a green method for the synthesis of graphenic material from cane sugar, a common disaccharide. A suitable methodol. was introduced to immobilize this material on sand without the need of any binder, resulting in a composite, referred to as graphene sand composite (GSC). Raman spectroscopy confirmed that the material is indeed graphenic in nature, having G and D bands at 1597 and 1338/cm, resp. It effectively removes contaminants from water. We use Rhodamine 6G (R6G) as a model dye and chloropyrifos (CP) as a model pesticide to demonstrate this application. The spectroscopic and microscopic analyses coupled with adsorption expts. revealed that phys. adsorption plays a dominant role in the adsorption process. Isotherm data in batch expts. show an adsorption capacity of 55 mg/g for R6G and 48 mg/g for CP, which are superior to that of activated C. The adsorbent can be easily regenerated using a suitable eluent. This quick and cost-effective technique for the into a com. water filter with appropriate engineering. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtVSqtrrN&md5=1832794828c1c3d6034fde0f6a6a4481
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• 127 Mi, B. ; Hu, M. ; University of Maryland, Baltimore. Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Graphene Oxide Membranes via Electrostatic Interaction and Eludication of Water and Solute Transport Mechanisms . U.S. Patent 9902141 . February 27, 2018 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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• 132 Hussain, I. ; Ahamad, K. U. ; Nath, P. Low-Cost, Robust, and Field Portable Smartphone Platform Photometric Sensor for Fluoride Level Detection in Drinking Water . Anal. Chem. 2017 , 89 , 767 – 775 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03424 Google Scholar 132 Low-Cost, Robust, and Field Portable Smartphone Platform Photometric Sensor for Fluoride Level Detection in Drinking Water Hussain, Iftak; Ahamad, Kamal Uddin; Nath, Pabitra Analytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2017 ), 89 ( 1 ), 767-775 CODEN: ANCHAM ; ISSN: 0003-2700 . ( American Chemical Society ) Groundwater is the major source of drinking water for people living in rural areas of India. Pollutant like fluoride in ground water may present in much higher concn. than the permissible limit. Fluoride does not give any visible coloration to water and hence no effort is made to remove or reduce the concn. of this chem. present in drinking water. This may lead to serious health hazard for those people taking ground water as their primary source of drinking water. Sophisticated spectrophotometric tool from Hach and microOptix are com. available for in-field detection of fluoride level in drinking water. However, these tools are generally expensive and require expertise to handle. In this paper, we demonstrate the working of a low cost, robust and field portable smartphone platform fluoride sensor that can detect and analyze fluoride level concn. in drinking water. For development of the proposed sensor, we utilize the ambient light sensor (ALS) of the smartphone as light intensity detector and its LED flash light as an optical source. An android application 'FSense' has been developed which can detect and analyze the fluoride level concn. in water samples. The custom developed application can be used for sharing of in-field sensing data from any remote location to the central water quality monitoring station. We envision that the proposed sensing technique could be useful for initiating fluoride removal program undertaken by governmental and non-governmental organization here in India. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhvFynt7nK&md5=3e68e8d88b49dd9bb246eaa008c6c21e
• 133 Vikesland, P. J. Nanosensors for Water Quality Monitoring . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 651 – 660 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0209-9 Google Scholar 133 Nanosensors for water quality monitoring Vikesland, Peter J. Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 8 ), 651-660 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) A review. Nanomaterial-enabled sensors are being designed for high-efficiency, multiplex-functionality and high-flexibility sensing applications. Many existing nanosensors have the inherent capacity to achieve such goals; however, they require further development into consumer- and operator-friendly tools with the ability to detect analytes in previously inaccessible locations, as well as at a greater scale than heretofore possible. Here, how nanotechnol.-enabled sensors have great, as yet unmet, promise to provide widespread and potentially low-cost monitoring of chems., microbes and other analytes in drinking water are discussed. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVGhu7%252FN&md5=8d44a875b6edec99a298e6f84c842ee2
• 134 Lim, R. J. ; Xie, M. ; Sk, M. A. ; Lee, J.-M. ; Fisher, A. ; Wang, X. ; Lim, K. H. A Review on the Electrochemical Reduction of CO 2 in Fuel Cells, Metal Electrodes and Molecular Catalysts . Catal. Today 2014 , 233 , 169 – 180 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2013.11.037 Google Scholar 134 A review on the electrochemical reduction of CO2 in fuel cells, metal electrodes and molecular catalysts Lim, Rern Jern; Xie, Mingshi; Sk, Mahasin Alam; Lee, Jong-Min; Fisher, Adrian; Wang, Xin; Lim, Kok Hwa Catalysis Today ( 2014 ), 233 ( ), 169-180 CODEN: CATTEA ; ISSN: 0920-5861 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review; in this review article, we report the development and utilization of fuel cells, metal electrodes in aq. electrolyte and mol. catalysts in the electrochem. redn. of CO2. Fuel cells are able to function in both electrolyzer and fuel cell mode and could potentially reduce CO2 and produce energy at the same time. However, it requires considerably high temps. for efficient operation. Direct redn. using metal electrodes and mol. catalysts are possible at room temps. but require an addnl. applied potential and generally have low current densities. D. functional theory (DFT) studies have been used and have begun to unveil possible mechanisms involved which could lead to improvements and development of more efficient catalysts. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhvFOmtbbF&md5=1fbf2016e0a472e6d4650e8d4513f82c
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• 137 Lele, S. ; Srinivasan, V. ; Jamwal, P. ; Thomas, B. K. ; Eswar, M. ; Zuhail, T. M. Water Management in Arkavathy Basin: A Situation Analysis . Environment and Development Discussion Paper No. 1 ; Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment : Bengaluru , 2013 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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• 139 Parameshwara Murthy, P. M. ; Sadashiva Murthy, B. M. ; Kavya, S. Qualitative Characterization of Greywater from a Residential Complex in Bengaluru City, Karnataka, India . Int. J. Eng. Res. 2016 , V5 , 194 – 199 ,  DOI: 10.17577/IJERTV5IS090136 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 140 Hodges, B. C. ; Cates, E. L. ; Kim, J.-H. Challenges and Prospects of Advanced Oxidation Water Treatment Processes Using Catalytic Nanomaterials . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 642 – 650 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0216-x Google Scholar 140 Challenges and prospects of advanced oxidation water treatment processes using catalytic nanomaterials Hodges, Brenna C.; Cates, Ezra L.; Kim, Jae-Hong Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 8 ), 642-650 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) Centralized water treatment has dominated in developed urban areas over the past century, although increasing challenges with this model demand a shift to a more decentralized approach wherein advanced oxidn. processes (AOPs) can be appealing treatment options. Efforts to overcome the fundamental obstacles that have thus far limited the practical use of traditional AOPs, such as reducing their chem. and energy input demands, target the utilization of heterogeneous catalysts. Specifically, recent advances in nanotechnol. have stimulated extensive research investigating engineered nanomaterial (ENM) applications to AOPs. In this Perspective, we critically evaluate previously studied ENM catalysts and the next-generation treatment technologies they seek to enable. Opportunities for improvement exist at the intersection of materials science and treatment process engineering, as future research should aim to enhance catalyst properties while considering the unique roadblocks to practical ENM implementation in water treatment. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVGhu7zP&md5=86c51ef7572f8de6e37126c3ccdcf43d
• 141 Vreeland, J. M. The Revival of Colored Cotton . Sci. Am. 1999 , 280 , 112 – 118 ,  DOI: 10.1038/scientificamerican0499-112 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 142 Singh, A. How Colourful is the Future of Naturally Coloured Cotton? . Cotton Statistics and News ; Cotton Association of India : Mumbai, India , 2014 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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• 144 Das, S. K. ; Khan, M. M. R. ; Parandhaman, T. ; Laffir, F. ; Guha, A. K. ; Sekaran, G. ; Mandal, A. B. Nano-Silica Fabricated with Silver Nanoparticles: Antifouling Adsorbent for Efficient Dye Removal, Effective Water Disinfection and Biofouling Control . Nanoscale 2013 , 5 , 5549 ,  DOI: 10.1039/c3nr00856h Google Scholar 144 Nano-silica fabricated with silver nanoparticles: antifouling adsorbent for efficient dye removal, effective water disinfection and biofouling control Das, Sujoy K.; Khan, Md. Motiar R.; Parandhaman, T.; Laffir, Fathima; Guha, Arun K.; Sekaran, G.; Mandal, Asit Baran Nanoscale ( 2013 ), 5 ( 12 ), 5549-5560 CODEN: NANOHL ; ISSN: 2040-3372 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) A nano-silica-AgNPs composite material is proposed as a novel antifouling adsorbent for cost-effective and ecofriendly water purifn. Fabrication of well-dispersed AgNPs on the nano-silica surface, designated as NSAgNP, was achieved through protein mediated redn. of Ag at ambient temp. for development of sustainable nanotechnol. The coated proteins on AgNPs led to the formation of stable NSAgNP and protected the AgNPs from oxidn. and other ions commonly present in water. The NSAgNP exhibited excellent dye adsorption capacity both in single and multicomponent systems, and demonstrated satisfactory tolerance against variations in pH and dye concn. The adsorption mainly occurred through electrostatic interaction, though π-π interaction and pore diffusion also contributed to the process. Moreover, the NSAgNP showed long-term antibacterial activity against both planktonic cells and biofilms of Gram-neg. Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antibacterial activity of AgNPs retarded the initial attachment of bacteria on NSAgNP and thus significantly improved the antifouling properties of the nanomaterial, which further inhibited biofilm formation. Scanning electron and fluorescence microscopic studies revealed that cell death occurred due to irreversible damage of the cell membrane upon electrostatic interaction of pos. charged NSAgNP with the neg. charged bacterial cell membrane. The high adsorption capacity, reusability, good tolerance, removal of multicomponent dyes and E. coli from the simulated contaminated water and antifouling properties of NSAgNP will provide new opportunities to develop cost-effective and ecofriendly water purifn. processes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXosFehsL8%253D&md5=19ed385d86272aab9a0fcd4a917734cd
• 145 Mack, E. A. ; Wrase, S. Erratum: Correction: A Burgeoning Crisis? A Nationwide Assessment of the Geography of Water Affordability in the United States (PloS One (2017) 12 1 (E0169488)) . PLoS One 2017 , 12 , e0176645  DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176645 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 146 Baidya, A. ; Das, S. K. ; Ras, R. H. A. ; Pradeep, T. Fabrication of a Waterborne Durable Superhydrophobic Material Functioning in Air and under Oil . Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2018 , 5 , 1701523 ,  DOI: 10.1002/admi.201701523 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 147 Oßmann, B. E. ; Sarau, G. ; Holtmannspötter, H. ; Pischetsrieder, M. ; Christiansen, S. H. ; Dicke, W. Small-Sized Microplastics and Pigmented Particles in Bottled Mineral Water . Water Res. 2018 , 141 , 307 – 316 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.027 Google Scholar 147 Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water Ossmann, Barbara E.; Sarau, George; Holtmannspoetter, Heinrich; Pischetsrieder, Monika; Christiansen, Silke H.; Dicke, Wilhelm Water Research ( 2018 ), 141 ( ), 307-316 CODEN: WATRAG ; ISSN: 0043-1354 . ( Elsevier Ltd. ) The smallest analyzed particle size was 5μm. However, due to toxicol. reasons, esp. microparticles smaller than 1.5μm are critically discussed. In the present study 32 samples of bottled mineral water were investigated for contamination by microplastics, pigment and additive particles. Due to the application of aluminum coated polycarbonate membrane filter and micro-Raman spectroscopy, a lowest analyzed particle size of 1μm was achieved. Microplastics were found in water from all bottle types: in single use and reusable bottles made of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) as well as in glass bottles. The amt. of microplastics in mineral water varied from 2649±2857 per L in single use PET bottles up to 6292±10521 per L in glass bottles. While in plastic bottles, the predominant polymer type was PET; in glass bottles various polymers such as polyethylene or styrene-butadiene-copolymer were found. Pigment particles were detected in high amts. in reusable, paper labeled bottles (195047±330810 pigment particles per L in glass and 23594±25518 pigment particles per L in reusable paper labeled PET bottles). Pigment types found in water samples were the same as used for label printing, indicating the bottle cleaning process as possible contamination route. On av. 708±1024 particles per L of the additive Tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphite were found in reusable PET bottles. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtVSgu7jN&md5=63fb618bf0884336520e006b97e82ebf
• 148 Cordner, A. ; De La Rosa, V. Y. ; Schaider, L. A. ; Rudel, R. A. ; Richter, L. ; Brown, P. Guideline Levels for PFOA and PFOS in Drinking Water: The Role of Scientific Uncertainty, Risk Assessment Decisions, and Social Factors . J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2019 , 29 , 157 – 171 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41370-018-0099-9 Google Scholar 148 Guideline levels for PFOA and PFOS in drinking water: the role of scientific uncertainty, risk assessment decisions, and social factors Cordner Alissa; De La Rosa Vanessa Y; Schaider Laurel A; Rudel Ruthann A; De La Rosa Vanessa Y; Richter Lauren; Brown Phil; Brown Phil Journal of exposure science & environmental epidemiology ( 2019 ), 29 ( 2 ), 157-171 ISSN: . Communities across the U.S. are discovering drinking water contaminated by perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and determining appropriate actions. There are currently no federal PFAS drinking water standards despite widespread drinking water contamination, ubiquitous population-level exposure, and toxicological and epidemiological evidence of adverse health effects. Absent federal PFAS standards, multiple U.S. states have developed their own health-based water guideline levels to guide decisions about contaminated site cleanup and drinking water surveillance and treatment. We examined perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) water guideline levels developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state agencies to protect people drinking the water, and summarized how and why these levels differ. We referenced documents and tables released in June 2018 by the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) to identify states that have drinking water and groundwater guideline levels for PFOA and/or PFOS that differ from EPA's health advisories (HAs). We also gathered assessment documents from state websites and contacted state environmental and health agencies to identify and confirm current guidelines. Seven states have developed their own water guideline levels for PFOA and/or PFOS ranging from 13 to 1000 ng/L, compared to EPA's HA of 70 ng/L for both compounds individually or combined. We find that the development of PFAS guideline levels via exposure and hazard assessment decisions is influenced by multiple scientific, technical, and social factors, including managing scientific uncertainty, technical decisions and capacity, and social, political, and economic influences from involved stakeholders. Assessments by multiple states and academic scientists suggest that EPA's HA is not sufficiently protective. The ability of states to develop their own guideline levels and standards provides diverse risk assessment approaches as models for other state and federal regulators, while a sufficiently protective, scientifically sound, and enforceable federal standard would provide more consistent protection. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3cnptleksg%253D%253D&md5=da37836046a0f5666b1d73a3f0fca8f9
• 149 Saleh, N. B. ; Khalid, A. ; Tian, Y. ; Ayres, C. ; Sabaraya, I. V. ; Pietari, J. ; Hanigan, D. ; Chowdhury, I. ; Apul, O. G. Removal of Poly-and per-Fluoroalkyl Substances from Aqueous Systems by Nano-Enabled Water Treatment Strategies . Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol. 2019 , 5 , 198 – 208 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C8EW00621K Google Scholar 149 Removal of poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances from aqueous systems by nano-enabled water treatment strategies Saleh, Navid B.; Khalid, Arsalan; Tian, Yuhao; Ayres, Craig; Sabaraya, Indu V.; Pietari, Jaana; Hanigan, David; Chowdhury, Indranil; Apul, Onur G. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology ( 2019 ), 5 ( 2 ), 198-208 CODEN: ESWRAR ; ISSN: 2053-1419 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) Exceptional properties at the nano-scale, if appropriately harnessed, will lead to innovations in water treatment. Nanomaterials can enable treatment processes with accelerated reaction kinetics, self-healing or self-regeneration abilities, and a high degree of selectivity for targeted pollutant removal. These materials can also introduce new pathways for the removal of contaminants that are challenging to degrade employing traditional techniques. One such class of contaminants is poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are widely detected in waterways of the U.S. and drinking water supplies. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has listed two PFAS (i.e., perfluorooctanesulfonic acid or PFOS and perfluorooctanoic acid or PFOA) in the Contaminant Candidate List and recently has revised the lifetime health advisories. PFAS mols. are persistent in the environment over long periods because they are not photolyzed or biodegraded. Current mitigation technologies mostly depend on non-destructive phase transfer processes (e.g., adsorption, filtration, or ion exchange) which results in a concd. waste stream. Few destructive mitigation methods transform PFAS by cleaving C-C bonds but it is not clear if the transformation products (e.g., shorter chain PFAS) are less toxic or less persistent. Thus, the central challenge for PFAS transformation lies in cleaving the strong C-F bonds. Nanomaterials can enable treatment options by providing high-energy reaction pathways; e.g., electrolysis, thermolysis, or photolysis. This perspective aims to present a crit. review on reported PFAS removal/destruction techniques, provide mol.-level insights into possible removal/destruction pathways, and propose potential nano-enabled remediation options for these persistent contaminants. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXisFeksb%252FO&md5=4da56a4d2be44ef5f4daf118c22b31e8
• 150 Chen, C. ; Liu, D. ; He, L. ; Qin, S. ; Wang, J. ; Razal, J. M. ; Kotov, N. A. ; Lei, W. Bio-Inspired Nanocomposite Membranes for Osmotic Energy Harvesting . Joule 2020 , 4 , 247 – 261 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2019.11.010 Google Scholar 150 Bio-inspired Nanocomposite Membranes for Osmotic Energy Harvesting Chen, Cheng; Liu, Dan; He, Li; Qin, Si; Wang, Jiemin; Razal, Joselito M.; Kotov, Nicholas A.; Lei, Weiwei Joule ( 2020 ), 4 ( 1 ), 247-261 CODEN: JOULBR ; ISSN: 2542-4351 . ( Cell Press ) Osmotic energy represents a widespread and reliable source of renewable energy with minimal daily variability. The key technol. bottleneck for osmotic electricity is that membranes must combine highly efficient ion rectification and high ionic flux with long-term robustness in seawater. Here, we show that nanocomposite membranes with structural organization inspired by soft biol. tissues with high mech. and transport characteristics can address these problems. The layered membranes engineered with mol.-scale precision from aramid nanofibers and BN nanosheets simultaneously display high stiffness and tensile strength even when exposed to repeated pressure drops and salinity gradients. The total generated power d. over large areas exceeded 0.6 W m-2 and was retained for as long as 20 cycles (200 h), demonstrating exceptional robustness. Furthermore, the membranes showed high performance in osmotic energy harvesting in unprecedentedly wide ranges of temp. (0°C-95°C) and pH (2.8-10.8) essential for the economic viability of osmotic energy generators. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXnslemtbk%253D&md5=32b18204968f905e0e5cde9789cf56dc
• 151 Logan, B. E. ; Elimelech, M. Membrane-Based Processes for Sustainable Power Generation Using Water . Nature 2012 , 488 , 313 – 319 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nature11477 Google Scholar 151 Membrane-based processes for sustainable power generation using water Logan, Bruce E.; Elimelech, Menachem Nature (London, United Kingdom) ( 2012 ), 488 ( 7411 ), 313-319 CODEN: NATUAS ; ISSN: 0028-0836 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) A review. H2O has always been crucial to combustion and hydroelec. processes, but it could become the source of power in membrane-based systems that capture energy from natural and waste waters. Two processes are emerging as sustainable methods for capturing energy from sea water: pressure-retarded osmosis and reverse electrodialysis. These processes can also capture energy from waste heat by generating artificial salinity gradients using synthetic solns., such as thermolytic salts. A further source of energy comes from org. matter in waste waters, which can be harnessed using microbial fuel-cell technol., allowing both wastewater treatment and power prodn. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xht1WktL3E&md5=3fc1e5ea10fd74e24f3e90a9e615891d
• 152 The Methanol Industry . Methanol Institute . https://www.methanol.org/the-methanol-industry/ (accessed 2019/07/19). Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 153 Artz, J. ; Müller, T. E. ; Thenert, K. ; Kleinekorte, J. ; Meys, R. ; Sternberg, A. ; Bardow, A. ; Leitner, W. Sustainable Conversion of Carbon Dioxide: An Integrated Review of Catalysis and Life Cycle Assessment . Chem. Rev. 2018 , 118 , 434 – 504 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00435 Google Scholar 153 Sustainable Conversion of Carbon Dioxide: An Integrated Review of Catalysis and Life Cycle Assessment Artz, Jens; Mueller, Thomas E.; Thenert, Katharina; Kleinekorte, Johanna; Meys, Raoul; Sternberg, Andre; Bardow, Andre; Leitner, Walter Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2018 ), 118 ( 2 ), 434-504 CODEN: CHREAY ; ISSN: 0009-2665 . ( American Chemical Society ) A review. CO2 conversion covers a wide range of possible application areas from fuels to bulk and commodity chems. and even to specialty products with biol. activity such as pharmaceuticals. In the present review, we discuss selected examples in these areas in a combined anal. of the state-of-the-art of synthetic methodologies and processes with their life cycle assessment. Thereby, we attempted to assess the potential to reduce the environmental footprint in these application fields relative to the current petrochem. value chain. This anal. and discussion differs significantly from a viewpoint on CO2 utilization as a measure for global CO2 mitigation. Whereas the latter focuses on reducing the end-of-pipe problem "CO2 emissions" from todays' industries, the approach taken here tries to identify opportunities by exploiting a novel feedstock that avoids the utilization of fossil resource in transition toward more sustainable future prodn. Thus, the motivation to develop CO2-based chem. does not depend primarily on the abs. amt. of CO2 emissions that can be remediated by a single technol. Rather, CO2-based chem. is stimulated by the significance of the relative improvement in carbon balance and other crit. factors defining the environmental impact of chem. prodn. in all relevant sectors in accord with the principles of green chem. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhvFemsrbL&md5=5348e984489e8e3e18368ed6a9088ec1
• 154 Vundavalli, R. ; Vundavalli, S. ; Nakka, M. ; Rao, D. S. Biodegradable Nano-Hydrogels in Agricultural Farming - Alternative Source For Water Resources . Procedia Mater. Sci. 2015 , 10 , 548 – 554 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mspro.2015.06.005 Google Scholar 154 Biodegradable Nano-Hydrogels in Agricultural Farming - Alternative Source For Water Resources Vundavalli, Ramesh; Vundavalli, Suresh; Nakka, Mamatha; Rao, D. Srinivasa Procedia Materials Science ( 2015 ), 10 ( ), 548-554 CODEN: PMSREM ; ISSN: 2211-8128 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) The desertification and lack of water are serious problems in many parts of the world because of compromise agriculture farming. Desertification is the degrdn. of land in arid, semiarid and dry areas resulting from various factors including climatic variations, but primarily human activities. The soln. of this problem is by the use of synthetic materials with good water absorption and retention capacities under high pressure or temp. Systems of this type are the Super Absorbent Polymers (SAPs). Due to their excellent properties, these SAPs were already well established in various applications such as disposable diapers, hygienic napkins, cement, drug delivery systems, sensors, and agriculture. The most essential components of these applications are water absorbency and water retention. The present research work is aimed to establish biodegradable Nano-polymers for sustainable agricultural farming. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtlSisLnJ&md5=1e3f491baccfbf3eff1d4908deb13223
• 155 Amarasinghe, U. A. ; McCornick, P. G. ; Shah, T. India’s Water Demand Scenarios to 2025 and 2050: A Fresh Look . Strategic Analyses of the National River Linking Project (NRLP) of India; Series 2 ; International Water Management Institute : Bangalore , 2009 ; pp 23 – 61 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 156 Koehler, A. ; Wildbolz, C. Comparing the Environmental Footprints of Home-Care and Personal-Hygiene Products: The Relevance of Different Life-Cycle Phases . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009 , 43 , 8643 – 8651 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es901236f Google Scholar 156 Comparing the Environmental Footprints of Home-Care and Personal-Hygiene Products: The Relevance of Different Life-Cycle Phases Koehler, Annette; Wildbolz, Caroline Environmental Science & Technology ( 2009 ), 43 ( 22 ), 8643-8651 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) An in-depth life-cycle assessment of 9 home-care and personal hygiene products was conducted to det. the ecol. relevance of different life-cycle phases and to compare environmental profiles of products serving equal applications. Using detailed industry and consumer-behavior study data, a broad range of environmental impacts were analyzed to identify the main drivers for life-cycle stage and potentials to improve environmental footprints. Although chem. prodn. significantly adds to environmental burdens, substantial impacts are caused in the consumer-use phase. As such, this work provides product development, supply chain management, product policies, and consumer use recommendations. To reduce environmental burdens, products should, e.g., be produced in concd. form, while consumers should use correct product doses and low water temps. during product application. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXht12msrnK&md5=68a9945fdd6acd026e8c42addfa823dd
• 157 Eco-Indicator 99 Manual for Designers ; Ministry of Housing ; Spatial Planning and the Environment: Communications Directorate : The Netherlands , 2000 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 158 Sankar, M. U. ; Aigal, S. ; Maliyekkal, S. M. ; Chaudhary, A. ; Anshup ; Kumar, A. A. ; Chaudhari, K. ; Pradeep, T. Biopolymer-Reinforced Synthetic Granular Nanocomposites for Affordable Point-of-Use Water Purification . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2013 , 110 , 8459 – 8464 ,  DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1220222110 Google Scholar 158 Biopolymer-reinforced synthetic granular nanocomposites for affordable point-of-use water purification Sankar, Mohan Udhaya; Aigal, Sahaja; Maliyekkal, Shihabudheen M.; Chaudhary, Amrita; Anshup; Kumar, Avula Anil; Chaudhari, Kamalesh; Pradeep, Thalappil Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ( 2013 ), 110 ( 21 ), 8459-8464, S8459/1-S8459/26 CODEN: PNASA6 ; ISSN: 0027-8424 . ( National Academy of Sciences ) Creation of affordable materials for const. release of Ag ions in water is one of the most promising ways to provide microbially safe drinking water for all. Combining the capacity of diverse nanocomposites to scavenge toxic species such as As, Pb, and other contaminants along with the above capability can result in affordable, all-inclusive drinking water purifiers that can function without electricity. The crit. problem in achieving this is the synthesis of stable materials that can release Ag ions continuously in the presence of complex species usually present in drinking water that deposit and cause scaling on nanomaterial surfaces. We show that such const. release materials can be synthesized in a simple and effective fashion in water itself without the use of elec. power. The nanocomposite exhibits river sand-like properties, such as higher shear strength in loose and wet forms. These materials were used to develop an affordable water purifier to deliver clean drinking water at US $2.5/yr-family. The ability to prep. nanostructured compns. at near ambient temp. has wide relevance for adsorption-based water purifn. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhtV2qtr7E&md5=e9a475b7d56f65a30ed1813094efc21b
• 159 McGuire, D. ; Jakhete, S. Enhanced Water Treatment for Reclamation of Waste Fluids and Increased Efficiency Treatment of Potable Waters . U.S. Patent 7699994 , April 20, 2010 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 160 Ranade, V. V. ; Bhandari, V. M. Industrial Wastewater Treatment, Recycling and Reuse ; Butterworth-Heinemann : Oxford, U.K. , 2014 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 161 Yun, C. ; Islam, M. I. ; LeHew, M. ; Kim, J. Assessment of Environmental and Economic Impacts Made by the Reduced Laundering of Self-Cleaning Fabrics . Fibers Polym. 2016 , 17 , 1296 – 1304 ,  DOI: 10.1007/s12221-016-6320-3 Google Scholar 161 Assessment of environmental and economic impacts made by the reduced laundering of self-cleaning fabrics Yun, Changsang; Islam, Md. Imranul; LeHew, Melody; Kim, Jooyoun Fibers and Polymers ( 2016 ), 17 ( 8 ), 1296-1304 CODEN: FPIOA6 ; ISSN: 1229-9197 . ( Korean Fiber Society ) Despite the belief that self-cleaning fabrics would be environmentally friendly for their reduced laundering needs, little research provides feasible evidence of it. The purpose of this study was to develop a logical assessment method for providing quant. evidence of environmental and economic impacts made by reduced laundering efforts when selfcleaning fabrics were used in daily life. The assessment method developed included: (1) evaluation of functional effectiveness and functional lifetime of soil resistant fabrics, (2) measurement of the reduced laundering frequency and the resulting saving in electricity and water consumption, and (3) conversion of savings to CO2 equivalent (CO2 eq.) and monetary utility cost. To examine the self-cleaning ability in practical soiling situation, the treated fabrics were tested for self-cleaning ability against two types of food soils and cleaned by water-spraying using the modified AATCC test method 22-2005. The self-cleaning ability was evaluated by the subjective visual assessment and the quant. measurement of color difference ΔE. The level of ΔE that gave the discernible color difference by the visual assessment was about 3.7, and ΔE of 3.7 was used as the criteria to det. the laundering needs. From the developed assessment method, the self-cleaning fabrics saved up to 84 % of water and electricity during lifetime laundering of 50 cycles. This study provides an objective assessment methodol. that can be applied to functional textiles to det. the quantified environmental and economic impacts such as CO2 eq. and monetary cost. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsVamsrbM&md5=de5da49877d14c4f55f3c50c06ce0810
• 162 Erdmann, W. ; Gienke, T. ; Heinrich, H.-J. Waterless Vacuum Toilet System for Aircraft . U.S. Patent 6977005 , December 20, 2005 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 163 Simha, P. ; Ganesapillai, M. Ecological Sanitation and Nutrient Recovery from Human Urine: How Far Have We Come? A Review . Sustain. Environ. Res. 2017 , 27 , 107 – 116 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.serj.2016.12.001 Google Scholar 163 Ecological Sanitation and nutrient recovery from human urine: How far have we come? A review Simha, Prithvi; Ganesapillai, Mahesh Sustainable Environment Research ( 2017 ), 27 ( 3 ), 107-116 CODEN: SERUBY ; ISSN: 2468-2039 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) To address the shortcomings of modern wastewater treatment, Ecol. Sanitation (EcoSan) has been advocated as a sustainable approach to promote closed-loop flows of resources and nutrients from sanitation to agriculture. In this study, we discuss the rationale behind its conception and provide a state-of-the-art review on the subject. Through an exhaustive literature anal. of EcoSan systems, its historical developments and programs implemented worldwide we (i) validate the potential applicability and feasibility of decentralized, source-based sanitation and (ii) depict fundamental problems in EcoSan systems design that have stalled its adoption and proliferation. Specifically, we focus on urine diversion to demonstrate its potential to elegantly sep., collect and conc. products that we require (nutrients) and those that we wish to regulate (pathogens and micropollutants). Since recent research efforts have been devoted to the technol. recovery of nutrients from human urine, we believe that we are witnessing a paradigm shift within a paradigm shift as it represents a change in emphasis from 'split-stream collection and reuse' to 'split-stream collection, resource recovery and safe reuse'. Our anal. of various nutrient recovery technologies for human urine indicates that provisioning of urine-diverting toilets tends to reduce sanitary risks; however, to contain and completely eliminate these risks continued research effort is needed to envision and implement integrated technol. pathways that ensure simultaneous nutrient recovery, pathogen inactivation and redn. of pharmaceuticals and active substances. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhvFyhtbnI&md5=c64ad403064f3b6829284a862c0597c5
• 164 Abraham, J. ; Vasu, K. S. ; Williams, C. D. ; Gopinadhan, K. ; Su, Y. ; Cherian, C. T. ; Dix, J. ; Prestat, E. ; Haigh, S. J. ; Grigorieva, I. V. ; Carbone, P. ; Geim, A. K. ; Nair, R. R. Tunable Sieving of Ions Using Graphene Oxide Membranes . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2017 , 12 , 546 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2017.21 Google Scholar 164 Tunable sieving of ions using graphene oxide membranes Abraham, Jijo; Vasu, Kalangi S.; Williams, Christopher D.; Gopinadhan, Kalon; Su, Yang; Cherian, Christie T.; Dix, James; Prestat, Eric; Haigh, Sarah J.; Grigorieva, Irina V.; Carbone, Paola; Geim, Andre K.; Nair, Rahul R. Nature Nanotechnology ( 2017 ), 12 ( 6 ), 546-550 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Graphene oxide membranes show exceptional mol. permeation properties, with promise for many applications. However, their use in ion sieving and desalination technologies is limited by a permeation cutoff of ∼9 Å (ref. 4), which is larger than the diams. of hydrated ions of common salts. The cutoff is detd. by the interlayer spacing (d) of ∼13.5 Å, typical for graphene oxide laminates that swell in H2O. Achieving smaller d for the laminates immersed in H2O proved to be a challenge. Here, the authors describe how to control d by phys. confinement and achieve accurate and tunable ion sieving. Membranes with d from ∼9.8 Å to 6.4 Å are demonstrated, providing a sieve size smaller than the diams. of hydrated ions. In this regime, ion permeation is thermally activated with energy barriers of ∼10-100 kJ mol-1 depending on d. Importantly, permeation rates decrease exponentially with decreasing sieve size but H2O transport is weakly affected (by a factor of <2). The latter is attributed to a low barrier for the entry of H2O mols. and large slip lengths inside graphene capillaries. Building on these findings, the authors demonstrate a simple scalable method to obtain graphene-based membranes with limited swelling, which exhibit 97% rejection for NaCl. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXls1Gru70%253D&md5=262d57c0d4658bacdfe7006439e85672
• 165 Heiranian, M. ; Farimani, A. B. ; Aluru, N. R. Water Desalination with a Single-Layer MoS 2 Nanopore . Nat. Commun. 2015 , 6 , 8616 ,  DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9616 Google Scholar 165 Water desalination with a single-layer MoS2 nanopore Heiranian, Mohammad; Farimani, Amir Barati; Aluru, Narayana R. Nature Communications ( 2015 ), 6 ( ), 8616 CODEN: NCAOBW ; ISSN: 2041-1723 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Efficient desalination of water continues to be a problem facing the society. Advances in nanotechnol. have led to the development of a variety of nanoporous membranes for water purifn. Here we show, by performing mol. dynamics simulations, that a nanopore in a single-layer molybdenum disulfide can effectively reject ions and allow transport of water at a high rate. More than 88% of ions are rejected by membranes having pore areas ranging from 20 to 60 Å2. Water flux is found to be two to five orders of magnitude greater than that of other known nanoporous membranes. Pore chem. is shown to play a significant role in modulating the water flux. Pores with only molybdenum atoms on their edges lead to higher fluxes, which are ∼70% greater than that of graphene nanopores. These observations are explained by permeation coeffs., energy barriers, water d. and velocity distributions in the pores. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhs1KksLrO&md5=fd000f5bfc8ba6c5c9f21a5205356dd5
• 166 Patel, P. ; Biedermann, L. Will Next-Generation Membranes Rise to the Water Challenge? . MRS Bull. 2018 , 43 , 406 – 407 ,  DOI: 10.1557/mrs.2018.130 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 167 Ogolo, N. A. ; Olafuyi, O. A. ; Onyekonwu, M. O. Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Nanoparticles. SPE 160847-MS . Proceedings from the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium and Exhibition , Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, April 8–11, 2012; OnePetro : Richardson, Texas , 2012 . Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 168 Prathap, A. ; Sureshan, K. M. Organogelator-Cellulose Composite for Practical and Eco-Friendly Marine Oil-Spill Recovery . Angew. Chem. 2017 , 129 , 9533 – 9537 ,  DOI: 10.1002/ange.201704699 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 169 Alvarez, P. J. J. ; Chan, C. K. ; Elimelech, M. ; Halas, N. J. ; Villagrán, D. Emerging Opportunities for Nanotechnology to Enhance Water Security . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 634 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0203-2 Google Scholar 169 Emerging opportunities for nanotechnology to enhance water security Alvarez, Pedro J. J.; Chan, Candace K.; Elimelech, Menachem; Halas, Naomi J.; Villagran, Dino Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 8 ), 634-641 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) No other resource is as necessary for life as water, and providing it universally in a safe, reliable and affordable manner is one of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first century. Here, we consider new opportunities and approaches for the application of nanotechnol. to enhance the efficiency and affordability of water treatment and wastewater reuse. Potential development and implementation barriers are discussed along with research needs to overcome them and enhance water security. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVGhu7%252FO&md5=de70e328500c395c2a9787166b28f988
• 170 Hilal, N. ; Wright, C. J. Exploring the Current State of Play for Cost-Effective Water Treatment by Membranes . npj Clean Water 2018 , 1 , 8 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41545-018-0008-8 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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• 174 Westerhoff, P. ; Atkinson, A. ; Fortner, J. ; Wong, M. S. ; Zimmerman, J. ; Gardea-Torresdey, J. ; Ranville, J. ; Herckes, P. Low Risk Posed by Engineered and Incidental Nanoparticles in Drinking Water . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 661 – 669 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0217-9 Google Scholar 174 Low risk posed by engineered and incidental nanoparticles in drinking water Westerhoff, Paul; Atkinson, Ariel; Fortner, John; Wong, Michael S.; Zimmerman, Julie; Gardea-Torresdey, Jorge; Ranville, James; Herckes, Pierre Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 8 ), 661-669 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) A review. Natural nanoparticles (NNPs) in rivers, lakes, oceans and ground water predate humans, but engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) are emerging as potential pollutants due to increasing regulatory and public perception concerns. This Review contrasts the sources, compn. and potential occurrence of NNPs (for example, 2-dimensional clays, multifunctional viruses and metal oxides) and ENPs in surface H2O, after centralized drinking H2O treatment, and in tap H2O. While anal. detection challenges exist, ENPs are currently orders of magnitude less common than NNPs in waters that flow into drinking H2O treatment plants. Because such plants are designed to remove small-sized NNPs, they are also very good at removing ENPs. Consequently, ENP concns. in tap H2O are extremely low and pose low risk during ingestion. However, after leaving drinking H2O treatment plants, corrosion byproducts released from distribution pipes or in-home premise plumbing can release incidental nanoparticles into tap H2O. The occurrence and toxicity of incidental nanoparticles, rather than ENPs, should therefore be the focus of future research. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVGhu77E&md5=bf4c08101b7a65417f72d80ae4d5bd0a
• 175 Shannon, M. A. ; Bohn, P. W. ; Elimelech, M. ; Georgiadis, J. G. ; Mariñas, B. J. ; Mayes, A. M. Science and Technology for Water Purification in the Coming Decades . Nature 2008 , 452 , 301 – 310 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nature06599 Google Scholar 175 Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades Shannon, Mark A.; Bohn, Paul W.; Elimelech, Menachem; Georgiadis, John G.; Marinas, Benito J.; Mayes, Anne M. Nature (London, United Kingdom) ( 2008 ), 452 ( 7185 ), 301-310 CODEN: NATUAS ; ISSN: 0028-0836 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) A review highlighting science and technol. being developed to improve water disinfection and decontamination and efforts to increase water supplies through safe re-use of wastewater and efficient desalination of seawater and brackish water is given. Topics discussed include: disinfection; decontamination; re-use and reclamation; desalination; and conclusions. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXjsFCns7s%253D&md5=8eca80d34b155b0484e00fc8d32fcdb5
• 176 Lu, L. ; Guest, J. S. ; Peters, C. A. ; Zhu, X. ; Rau, G. H. ; Ren, Z. J. Wastewater Treatment for Carbon Capture and Utilization . Nat. Sustain. 2018 , 1 , 750 – 758 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41893-018-0187-9 Google Scholar There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 177 Babu, P. ; Nambiar, A. ; He, T. ; Karimi, I. A. ; Lee, J. D. ; Englezos, P. ; Linga, P. A Review of Clathrate Hydrate Based Desalination to Strengthen Energy-Water Nexus . ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2018 , 6 , 8093 – 8107 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b01616 Google Scholar 177 A Review of Clathrate Hydrate Based Desalination To Strengthen Energy-Water Nexus Babu, Ponnivalavan; Nambiar, Abhishek; He, Tianbiao; Karimi, Iftekhar A.; Lee, Ju Dong; Englezos, Peter; Linga, Praveen ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering ( 2018 ), 6 ( 7 ), 8093-8107 CODEN: ASCECG ; ISSN: 2168-0485 . ( American Chemical Society ) A review. Water resource management impacts almost all aspects of the economy, in particular health, food prodn. and security, domestic water supply and sanitation, energy, industry and environmental sustainability. For the last several decades, seawater has become an important source of fresh water as it is one of the most abundant resources on earth. Desalination is the process of removal of salts from seawater and is postulated to be a core technol. in alleviating this problem. Clathrate hydrate based desalination (HyDesal) is a potential technol. for seawater desalination. Salts are excluded from hydrate formation, thereby resulting in solid hydrate and concd. brine. After sepn. from brine, the solid hydrate crystals upon dissocn. produce pure water. In this work, a detailed review of the literature (both patents and publications) so far on HyDesal is critically evaluated, and prospects and directions to commercialize the HyDesal process are presented. Further, innovation by coupling LNG cold energy with HyDesal can make it economically attractive and can strengthen the energy-water nexus. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtVWlt7fM&md5=697f8e1e57274f7206d5094d7b1d5545

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• V. Balaram , Lorenzo Copia , U. Saravana Kumar , Jodie Miller , S. Chidambaram . Pollution of water resources and application of ICP-MS techniques for monitoring and management—A comprehensive review. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 2023 , 2 (4) , 100210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geogeo.2023.100210
• K.N. Mahadevaprasad , D.S. Aditya , K.N. Santhosh , Glenita D'Souza , Anshu Kumar , S.K. Nataraj . Design and preparation of zirconium-induced bio-foam for the removal of fluoride, chromate, and other emerging pollutants: A scale-up approach. Chemical Engineering Journal 2023 , 475 , 146112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.146112
• Muthuraj Arunpandian , Karuppaiah Selvakumar , E.R. Nagarajan , Tae Hwan Oh . Evaluation of rGO decorated MnO2/NiO nanocomposite for high-performance photocatalytic and supercapacitor applications. Diamond and Related Materials 2023 , 139 , 110383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diamond.2023.110383
• Harshita Jain , Renu Dhupper , Anamika Shrivastava , Maya Kumari . Enhancing groundwater remediation efficiency through advanced membrane and nano-enabled processes: A comparative study. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 2023 , 23 , 100975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2023.100975
• Maedeh Simayee , Azam Iraji zad , Ali Esfandiar . Boosting-photothermal properties of Cu/ Black TiO2 nanoparticles on biomimetics texture structure as high‐performance and self‐regenerating solar-evaporator. Solar Energy 2023 , 265 , 112097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2023.112097
• Ramakrishna Mahesh , Khushi Vora , Madhu Hanumanthaiah , Anuradha Shroff , Pavan Kulkarni , Sridharan Makuteswaran , Suresh Ramdas , Hemanth Lakshmipura Ramachandraih , Anjanapura Venkatarmanaiah Raghu . Removal of pollutants from wastewater using alumina based nanomaterials: A review. Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering 2023 , 40 (9) , 2035-2045. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-023-1419-x
• Subhash Kumar Sharma , Anshu Bhadauria , T Nanda Kumar , Rajnish Kumar . Purification of Industrial Effluent by Gas Hydrate-based (HyPurif) Process. Journal of Cleaner Production 2023 , 420 , 138424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138424
• B. Meera , C. Vidhya , R.B. Nair , R. Surya , S. Kurian . Sustainable sponge-like composite hydrogel evaporator for highly efficient solar steam generation. Materials Today Sustainability 2023 , 23 , 100439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2023.100439
• Tao Song , Dong-Bin Kwak , Seong Chan Kim , Qisheng Ou , Chenxing Pei , Hoo Young Chung , Wilson W.S. Poon , Long Ni , David Y.H. Pui . Comparison of microfiltration performances of ePTFE and PCTE membranes in IPA and deionized water. Journal of Water Process Engineering 2023 , 54 , 103942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.103942
• Fang He , Huayan You , Xiaojiang Liu , Xiang Shen , Jin Zhang , Zhenxing Wang . Interfacial-heating solar desalination of high-salinity brine: Recent progress on salt management and water production. Chemical Engineering Journal 2023 , 470 , 144332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.144332
• Hosam M. Saleh , Amal I. Hassan . Synthesis and Characterization of Nanomaterials for Application in Cost-Effective Electrochemical Devices. Sustainability 2023 , 15 (14) , 10891. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410891
• Rubia Shafique , Malika Rani , Anam Munawar , Maryam Arshad . Impacts of Nanotechnology. 2023 , 10-27. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-8325-1.ch002
• Agnishwar Girigoswami , Poornima Govindharaj , Mahashweta Mitra Ghosh , Koyeli Girigoswami . Need of wastewater purification for sustainability: A mini review. Arab Gulf Journal of Scientific Research 2023 , 48 https://doi.org/10.1108/AGJSR-02-2023-0069
• Ning An , Yongsheng Chen , Qian Li . Hydrogel-based solar-driven interfacial evaporation: Current progress and future challenges. Green Energy and Resources 2023 , 1 (2) , 100011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerr.2023.100011
• Manpreet Kaur , Manisha Dhiman , Anita Sudhaik , Pankaj Raizada , Pardeep Singh , Sourav Gautam . Fabrication of magnetic heterocomposite of graphene supported CoFe2O4/BiVO4 and exploration of photocatalytic and antibacterial activities. Materials Today: Proceedings 2023 , 14 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.629
• Komal Poonia , Shilpa Patial , Pankaj Raizada , Tansir Ahamad , Aftab Aslam Parwaz Khan , Quyet Van Le , Van-Huy Nguyen , Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain , Pardeep Singh . Recent advances in Metal Organic Framework (MOF)-based hierarchical composites for water treatment by adsorptional photocatalysis: A review. Environmental Research 2023 , 222 , 115349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.115349
• Yingji Wu , Changlei Xia , Jiajie Cao , Hakim AL Garalleh , Mazen Garaleh , Mohammed Khouj , Arivalagan Pugazhendhi . A review on current scenario of Nanocatalysts in biofuel production and potential of organic and inorganic nanoparticles in biohydrogen production. Fuel 2023 , 338 , 127216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.127216
• Ashok Maraddi , Mahaveer Halakarni , M. Manohara Halanur , S.K. Nataraj . Fe-MOF induced biopolymer-based sustainable self-cleaning membranes for effective selective separation and wastewater treatment. Sustainable Materials and Technologies 2023 , 35 , e00537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2022.e00537
• Xin Zhao , Yusen Su , Andy Berbille , Zhong Lin Wang , Wei Tang . Degradation of methyl orange by dielectric films based on contact-electro-catalysis. Nanoscale 2023 , 15 (13) , 6243-6251. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2NR06783H
• Jing Yu , Yi He , Yuqi Wang , Shuangshuang Li , Shuting Tian . Ethylenediamine-oxidized sodium alginate hydrogel cross-linked graphene oxide nanofiltration membrane with self-healing property for efficient dye separation. Journal of Membrane Science 2023 , 670 , 121366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2023.121366
• Seemesh Bhaskar . Biosensing Technologies: A Focus Review on Recent Advancements in Surface Plasmon Coupled Emission. Micromachines 2023 , 14 (3) , 574. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14030574
• V. Lino , R. Castaldo , G. Gentile , P. Manini . Reusable melanin-based biosorbents for efficient methylene blue removal: the new frontier of fungi-inspired allomelanin coatings for sustainable water remediation processes. Materials Today Sustainability 2023 , 21 , 100283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2022.100283
• Himangshu Boruah , Neha Tyagi , Sanjay Kumar Gupta , Mayuri Chabukdhara , Tabarak Malik . Understanding the adsorption of iron oxide nanomaterials in magnetite and bimetallic form for the removal of arsenic from water. Frontiers in Environmental Science 2023 , 11 https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1104320
• Gorkem Memisoglu , Raghavan Chinnambedu Murugesan , Joseba Zubia , Aleksey G. Rozhin . Graphene Nanocomposite Membranes: Fabrication and Water Treatment Applications. Membranes 2023 , 13 (2) , 145. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13020145
• Arshid Bashir , Altaf Hussain Pandith , Aaliya Qureashi , Lateef Ahmad Malik . Fe 3 S 4 nanoparticles wrapped in a g-C 3 N 4 matrix: an outstanding visible active Fenton catalysis and electrochemical sensing platform for lead and uranyl ions. New Journal of Chemistry 2023 , 47 (3) , 1548-1562. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2NJ04933C
• Ahmed Ali Ali Romeh . Main Green Nanomaterials for Water Remediation. 2023 , 175-210. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30558-0_8
• Gaurav Verma . Applications of nanostructures. 2023 , 201-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820048-3.00002-4
• Ismail Badran , Maan Omar Al-Ejli , Nashaat N. Nassar . Applications of nanomaterials for adsorptive removal of various pollutants from water bodies. 2023 , 25-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823874-5.00006-1
• Jaison Jeevanandam , Adel Parambath , Michael K. Danquah . Phytosynthesized nanomaterials: Applications in biosensors for disease prognosis and diagnosis. 2023 , 195-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824373-2.00008-8
• Poulami Mukhopadhyay , Sadhan Kumar Ghosh , Sutripta Sarkar . Implementation of microbe-based metal nanoparticles in water remediation. 2023 , 183-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91744-5.00008-4
• Neha Sharma , Shivani Sharma , Munsaka Siankuku , Kalirajan Arunachalam . Nanotechnological interventions for sustainable effluent management solutions. 2023 , 245-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91782-7.00017-5
• Taraneh Javanbakht . A Novel Automated Decision-Making Process for Analysis of Ions and Organic Materials in Drinking Water. Journal of Engineering Sciences 2023 , 10 (1) , H1-H7. https://doi.org/10.21272/jes.2023.10(1).h1
• Raksha Rathore , Deepa Suhag , Fayu Wan , Atul Thakur , Preeti Thakur . Everyday Nanotechnology. 2023 , 19-35. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6105-4_2
• Jing Yu , Yi He , Yuqi Wang , Liyun Zhang , Ruitong Hou . Graphene oxide nanofiltration membrane for efficient dyes separation by hexagonal boron nitride nanosheets intercalation and polyethyleneimine surface modification. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 2023 , 656 , 130367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2022.130367
• Kannan Karunakaran , Muhammad Usman , Mika Sillanpää . A Review on Superadsorbents with Adsorption Capacity ≥1000 mg g−1 and Perspectives on Their Upscaling for Water/Wastewater Treatment. Sustainability 2022 , 14 (24) , 16927. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416927
• Sepideh Khaki Firooz , Daniel W. Armstrong . Metal-organic frameworks in separations: A review. Analytica Chimica Acta 2022 , 1234 , 340208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2022.340208
• Michael J. Nalbandian , Sewoon Kim , Humberto E. Gonzalez-Ribot , Nosang V. Myung , David M. Cwiertny . Recent advances and remaining barriers to the development of electrospun nanofiber and nanofiber composites for point-of-use and point-of-entry water treatment systems. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 2022 , 8 , 100204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2022.100204
• Rabbia Tariq , Sonia Zulfiqar , H.H. Somaily , Muhammad Farooq Warsi , Imtisal Ayman , Farzana Hanif , Mehwish Akhtar , Muhammad Aadil . Synthesis of carbon supported iron oxide nanochips and their composite with glutathione: A novel electrochemical sensitive material. Surfaces and Interfaces 2022 , 34 , 102350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2022.102350
• Tang Dang , Zhenyu Li , Liyuan Zhao , Wei Zhang , Liping Huang , Fanling Meng , Gang Logan Liu , Wenjun Hu . Ultrasensitive Detection of C-Reactive Protein by a Novel Nanoplasmonic Immunoturbidimetry Assay. Biosensors 2022 , 12 (11) , 958. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12110958
• Dalia E. Mohamed , Ammona S. Mohamed , Fawzia I. El-Dib . Role of mixed surfactants system in preparation of silver nanoparticles. Tenside Surfactants Detergents 2022 , 59 (5) , 400-408. https://doi.org/10.1515/tsd-2022-2421
• Qi‐Meige Hasi , Yuping Guo , Shanshan Wang , Jiale Yu , Zhichao Han , Chaohu Xiao , Yuhan Zhang , Lihua Chen . Conjugated microporous polymer‐coated sponges for effectively removal of oils and trace aromatic pollutions in water. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2022 , 139 (31) https://doi.org/10.1002/app.52731
• Eylem Asmatulu , Mohammad Nahid Andalib , Balakrishnan Subeshan , Farhana Abedin . Impact of nanomaterials on human health: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters 2022 , 20 (4) , 2509-2529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01430-z
• Abhinay Thakur , Ashish Kumar . Recent advances on rapid detection and remediation of environmental pollutants utilizing nanomaterials-based (bio)sensors. Science of The Total Environment 2022 , 834 , 155219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155219
• Support Info
• 1 Urban Population (% of total population) . The World Bank Data ; The World Bank Group : Washington, D.C ., 2019 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?end=2016&start=2000 (accessed 2019/07/18). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 2 Gupta, P. ; Blum, F. ; Jain, D. ; John, S. ; Seth, S. ; Singhi, A. India Development Update: India’s Growth Story; 123152 ; The World Bank Group : Washington, D.C. , 2018 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 3 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Mitigation Of Climate Change ; Cambridge University Press : New York , 2014 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 4 Grooten, M. ; Almond, R. E. A. Living Planet Report - 2018: Aiming Higher ; WWF : Switzerland , 2018 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 5 Sreekumaran Nair, A. ; Tom, R. T. ; Pradeep, T. Detection and Extraction of Endosulfan by Metal Nanoparticles . J. Environ. Monit. 2003 , 5 , 363 – 365 ,  DOI: 10.1039/b300107e 5 Detection and extraction of endosulfan by metal nanoparticles Sreekumaran Nair, A.; Tom, Renjis T.; Pradeep, T. Journal of Environmental Monitoring ( 2003 ), 5 ( 2 ), 363-365 CODEN: JEMOFW ; ISSN: 1464-0325 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) One of the most common pesticides in the developing world, endosulfan, can be detected in ppm levels using gold nanoparticles. Endosulfan adsorbs on the nanoparticle surface and upon interaction for a long time, the nanoparticles ppt. from the soln. Interaction with silver is weak, yet adsorption occurs leading to removal of endosulfan from the soln. A multilayer assembly of gold nanoparticles prepd. on a glass substrate shows excellent spectrophotometric response suggesting potential applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXitleqt7w%253D&md5=f378481ce48429695469b28eda309db9
• 6 Nair, A. ; Pradeep, T. Halocarbon Mineralization and Catalytic Destruction by Metal Nanoparticles . Curr. Sci. 2003 , 84 , 1560 – 1563 6 Halocarbon mineralization and catalytic destruction by metal nanoparticles Nair, A. Sreekumaran; Pradeep, T. Current Science ( 2003 ), 84 ( 12 ), 1560-1564 CODEN: CUSCAM ; ISSN: 0011-3891 . ( Current Science Association ) Halocarbons undergo catalytic destruction and mineralization with Ag and Au nanoparticles in soln. forming metal halides and amorphous C. The reaction, studied for several halocarbons and one chlorofluorocarbon, is efficient and complete destruction occurs within several hours at room temp. The methodol. can be applied for detection, destruction and removal of halocarbons with complete recovery of the products, implying possible applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXmsFCls7g%253D&md5=afdcaffc6de615a018c35f30606c9820
• 7 Pradeep, T. ; Nair, A. S. Method for the Preparation of Adsorption Compositions Including Gold or Silver Nanoparticles . United States Patent US7968493 . June 28, 2011 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 8 Pradeep, T. ; Nair, A. S. A Method of Preparing Purified Water from Water Containing Pesticides (Chlorpyrifos and Malathion) . Indian Patent 200767 . June 2, 2006 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 9 Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration . Official Journal of the European Union ; European Union : Brussels, Belgium , 2006 ; pp 19 – 31 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 10 Kumar, A. A. ; Som, A. ; Longo, P. ; Sudhakar, C. ; Bhuin, R. G. ; Gupta, S. S. ; Anshup ; Sankar, M. U. ; Chaudhary, A. ; Kumar, R. ; Pradeep, T. Confined Metastable 2-Line Ferrihydrite for Affordable Point-of-Use Arsenic-Free Drinking Water . Adv. Mater. 2017 , 29 , 1604260 ,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.201604260 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 11 Maliyekkal, M. S. ; Anshup Pradeep, T. Removal of Fluoride, Alkalinity, Heavy Metals and Suspended Solids Simultaneously Adsorbent Synthesis, Adsorbent Composition and a Device for Affordable Drinking Water . Indian Patent 313917 , 2019 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 12 Pradeep, T. ; Baidya, A. ; Rath, B. B. ; Kumar, A. A. Cellulose Nanocrystal Templated Iron Oxyhydroxide Based Adsorbent for Arsenic Removal from Water and a Device Thereof . Indian Patent Application 201641027660 , 2016 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 13 Aquananotechnology: Global Prospects. ; Reisner, D. E. , Pradeep, T. , Eds.; CRC Press : Boca Raton, FL . 2014 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 14 Carpenter, A. W. ; de Lannoy, C.-F. ; Wiesner, M. R. Cellulose Nanomaterials in Water Treatment Technologies . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015 , 49 , 5277 – 5287 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es506351r 14 Cellulose Nanomaterials in Water Treatment Technologies Carpenter, Alexis Wells; de Lannoy, Charles-Francois; Wiesner, Mark R. Environmental Science & Technology ( 2015 ), 49 ( 9 ), 5277-5287 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) A review concerning the use of naturally-occurring cellulose nanomaterial for environmental remediation and water purifn. membranes, including their high surface area:vol. ratio, low environmental impact, high strength, functionalization ability, and sustainability, is given. Direct comparisons were made between cellulose nanomaterials and C nanotubes (CNT) in terms of phys. and chem. properties, prodn. cost, use, and disposal to show the potential of cellulose nanomaterials as a sustainable replacement for CNT in water treatment technologies. Topics discussed include: introduction; considerations for cellulose nanomaterial-based development for engineering applications (structures and nomenclature inconsistencies, comparisons to carbon nanotubes [CNT], cellulose nanomaterial manufg.); use of cellulose nanomaterials for water treatment technologies (nano-remediation strategies [as pollutant adsorbents, as scaffolds]); cellulose nanomaterials for water purifn. membranes (mech. property enhancement; hydrophilicity, permeability, sepn.; anti-biofouling and bio-compatibility; current challenges and limitations); and summary and outlook. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXlslCisr0%253D&md5=d610da5eac3656b214a4075eead91885
• 15 WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality , 3 rd ed.; WHO Press : Geneva, Switzerland , 2008 , Vol. 1 , p 564 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 16 Technical Fact Sheet: Final Rule for Arsenic in Drinking Water ; EPA 815-F-00-016; US EPA : Washington, D.C. , 2001 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 17 Rehman, K. ; Fatima, F. ; Waheed, I. ; Akash, M. S. H. Prevalence of Exposure of Heavy Metals and their Impact on Health Consequences . J. Cell. Biochem. 2018 , 119 , 157 – 184 ,  DOI: 10.1002/jcb.26234 17 Prevalence of exposure of heavy metals and their impact on health consequences Rehman, Kanwal; Fatima, Fiza; Waheed, Iqra; Akash, Muhammad Sajid Hamid Journal of Cellular Biochemistry ( 2018 ), 119 ( 1 ), 157-184 CODEN: JCEBD5 ; ISSN: 0730-2312 . ( Wiley-Blackwell ) Even in the current era of growing technol., the concn. of heavy metals present in drinking water is still not within the recommended limits as set by the regulatory authorities in different countries of the world. Drinking water contaminated with heavy metals namely; arsenic, cadmium, nickel, mercury, chromium, zinc, and lead is becoming a major health concern for public and health care professionals. Occupational exposure to heavy metals is known to occur by the utilization of these metals in various industrial processes and/or contents including color pigments and alloys. However, the predominant source resulting in measurable human exposure to heavy metals is the consumption of contaminated drinking water and the resulting health issues may include cardiovascular disorders, neuronal damage, renal injuries, and risk of cancer and diabetes. The general mechanism involved in heavy metal-induced toxicity is recognized to be the prodn. of reactive oxygen species resulting oxidative damage and health related adverse effects. Thus utilization of heavy metal-contaminated water is resulting in high morbidity and mortality rates all over the world. Thereby, feeling the need to raise the concerns about contribution of different heavy metals in various health related issues, this article has discussed the global contamination of drinking water with heavy metals to assess the health hazards assocd. with consumption of heavy metal-contaminated water. A relationship between exposure limits and ultimate responses produced as well as the major organs affected have been reviewed. Acute and chronic poisoning symptoms and mechanisms responsible for such toxicities have also been discussed. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXht1Ggur7M&md5=5b4eef368db9805c482976aa0f55dc17
• 18 Agusa, T. ; Kubota, R. ; Kunito, T. ; Minh, T. B. ; Trang, P. T. K. ; Chamnan, C. ; Iwata, H. ; Viet, P. H. ; Tana, T. S. ; Tanabe, S. Arsenic Pollution in Groundwater of Vietnam and Cambodia: A Review . Biomed. Res. Trace Elem. 2007 , 18 , 35 – 47 18 Arsenic pollution in groundwater of Vietnam and Cambodia: a review Agusa, Tetsuro; Kubota, Reiji; Kunito, Takashi; Minh, Tu Binh; Trang, Pham Thi Kim; Chamnan, Chhoun; Iwata, Hisato; Viet, Pham Hung; Tana, Touch Seang; Tanabe, Shinsuke Biomedical Research on Trace Elements ( 2007 ), 18 ( 1 ), 35-47 CODEN: BRTEE5 ; ISSN: 0916-717X . ( Nippon Biryo Genso Gakkai ) A review is given. Arsenic groundwater pollution has been reported for the Red River delta of Northern Vietnam and the Mekong delta of Southern Vietnam and Cambodia. Although the health of ∼10 million people is at risk from the drinking tube well water, little information is available on the health effects of As exposure in the residents of these regions. The countrywide survey on regional distribution of As pollution has not been conducted in these countries. As far as we know, symptoms of chronic As exposure have not yet been reported, probably due to the relative short-term usage of the tube wells in the regions. However, oxidative DNA damage has been obsd. in the residents of Cambodia and so further continuous usage of the tube well might cause severe damage to the health of the residents. We review literature concerning As pollution of groundwater and its health effects on residents of Vietnam and Cambodia. The mechanisms of As release to the groundwater is discussed. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXkvVKlur4%253D&md5=c3aa10ccfc2db2d0da0400fa1a794056
• 19 Pokhrel, D. ; Bhandari, B. S. ; Viraraghavan, T. Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater in the Terai Region of Nepal: An Overview of Health Concerns and Treatment Options . Environ. Int. 2009 , 35 , 157 – 161 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2008.06.003 19 Arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Terai region of Nepal: an overview of health concerns and treatment options Pokhrel D; Bhandari B S; Viraraghavan T Environment international ( 2009 ), 35 ( 1 ), 157-61 ISSN: . A review of published information on the arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Terai regions of Nepal showed that the source was mainly geogenic due to the dissolution of the arsenic-bearing minerals. Clinical observations of patients in the arsenic affected districts revealed chronic arsenic poisoning from drinking water. Half a million people inhabiting the region are believed to have been exposed to arsenic levels greater than 50 microg/L in their drinking water. Thirty-one percent of the population (3.5 million) in the region are estimated to have been exposed to arsenic levels between 10 and 50 microg/L. Iron assisted biosand filters currently distributed and in operation are a suitable alternative to mitigate the interim arsenic standard of 50 microg/L, as set by the Nepal Government. Arsenic biosand filters were also effective in removing bacteria and viruses from drinking water in laboratory and field tests. However, groundwater treatment targeting cluster communities in the Terai region is the sustainable way of mitigating the arsenic problem. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1cjovVChtQ%253D%253D&md5=fc546091aa277d5bd7f37537b86b1faf
• 20 Brinkel, J. ; Khan, M. ; Kraemer, A. A Systematic Review of Arsenic Exposure and Its Social and Mental Health Effects with Special Reference to Bangladesh . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2009 , 6 , 1609 – 1619 ,  DOI: 10.3390/ijerph6051609 20 A systematic review of arsenic exposure and its social and mental health effects with special reference to Bangladesh Brinkel Johanna; Khan Mobarak H; Kraemer Alexander International journal of environmental research and public health ( 2009 ), 6 ( 5 ), 1609-19 ISSN: . Underground water in many regions of the world is contaminated with high concentrations of arsenic and the resulting toxicity has created a major environmental and public health problem in the affected regions. Chronic arsenic exposure can cause many diseases, including various physical and psychological harms. Although the physical problems caused by arsenic toxicity are well reported in literature, unfortunately the consequences of arsenic exposure on mental health are not adequately studied. Therefore we conducted a review of the available literature focusing on the social consequences and detrimental effects of arsenic toxicity on mental health. Chronic arsenic exposures have serious implications for its victims (i.e. arsenicosis patients) and their families including social instability, social discrimination, refusal of victims by community and families, and marriage-related problems. Some studies conducted in arsenic affected areas revealed that arsenic exposures are associated with various neurologic problems. Chronic arsenic exposure can lead to mental retardation and developmental disabilities such as physical, cognitive, psychological, sensory and speech impairments. As health is defined by the World Health Organization as "a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing", the social dimensions have a large impact on individual's mental health. Furthermore studies in China und Bangladesh have shown that mental health problems (e.g. depression) are more common among the people affected by arsenic contamination. Our study indicates various neurological, mental and social consequences among arsenic affected victims. Further studies are recommended in arsenic-affected areas to understand the underlying mechanisms of poor mental health caused by arsenic exposure. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1MvjsFCgsg%253D%253D&md5=e479701c7c40103e82c38a9d716de49b
• 21 Ng, J. C. ; Wang, J. ; Shraim, A. A. Global Health Problem Caused by Arsenic from Natural Sources . Chemosphere 2003 , 52 , 1353 – 1359 ,  DOI: 10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00470-3 21 A global health problem caused by arsenic from natural sources Ng, Jack C.; Wang, Jianping; Shraim, Amjad Chemosphere ( 2003 ), 52 ( 9 ), 1353-1359 CODEN: CMSHAF ; ISSN: 0045-6535 . ( Elsevier Science Ltd. ) A review. Arsenic is a carcinogen to both humans and animals. Arsenicals have been assocd. with cancers of the skin, lung, and bladder. Clin. manifestations of chronic arsenic poisoning include non-cancer end points of hyper- and hypopigmentation, keratosis, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes. Epidemiol. evidence indicates that arsenic concn. exceeding 50 μg L-1 in the drinking water is not public health protective. The current WHO recommended guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is 10 μg L-1 whereas many developing countries are still having a value of 50 μg L-1. It has been estd. that tens of millions of people are at risk exposed to excessive levels of arsenic from both contaminated water and arsenic-bearing coal from natural sources. The global health implication and possible intervention strategies were also discussed in this review article. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXlsVWksLw%253D&md5=6ce200c339e4028759eb34d5c0b0a20c
• 22 McClintock, T. R. ; Chen, Y. ; Bundschuh, J. ; Oliver, J. T. ; Navoni, J. ; Olmos, V. ; Lepori, E. V. ; Ahsan, H. ; Parvez, F. Arsenic Exposure in Latin America: Biomarkers, Risk Assessments and Related Health Effects . Sci. Total Environ. 2012 , 429 , 76 – 91 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.08.051 22 Arsenic exposure in Latin America: Biomarkers, risk assessments and related health effects McClintock, Tyler R.; Chen, Yu; Bundschuh, Jochen; Oliver, John T.; Navoni, Julio; Olmos, Valentina; Lepori, Edda Villaamil; Ahsan, Habibul; Parvez, Faruque Science of the Total Environment ( 2012 ), 429 ( ), 76-91 CODEN: STENDL ; ISSN: 0048-9697 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review. In Latin America, several regions have a long history of widespread As contamination from both natural and anthropol. sources. Yet, relatively little is known about the extent of As exposure from drinking water and its related health consequences in these countries. It was estd. that at least 4.5 million people in Latin America are chronically exposed to high levels of As (> 50 μg/L), some to as high as 2000 μg/L - 200 times higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) provisional std. for drinking water. We conducted a systematic review of 82 peer reviewed papers and reports to fully explore the current understanding of As exposure and its health effects, as well as the influence of genetic factors that modulate those effects in the populations of Latin America. Despite some methodol. limitations, these studies suggested important links between the high levels of chronic As exposure and elevated risks of numerous adverse health outcomes in Latin America - including internal and external cancers, reproductive outcomes, and childhood cognitive function. Several studies demonstrated genetic polymorphisms that influence susceptibility to these and other disease states through their modulation of As metab., with As methyltransferase (AS3MT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and genes of 1-C metab. being specifically implicated. While the full extent and nature of the health burden are yet to be known in Latin America, these studies have significantly enriched knowledge of As toxicity and led to subsequent research. Targeted future studies will not only yield a better understanding of the public health impact of As in Latin America populations, but also allow for effective and timely mitigation efforts. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xos1Cnu7c%253D&md5=91fd1a90dae6f35bea1943c8c2c6c6cf
• 23 Mendez, W. M. ; Eftim, S. ; Cohen, J. ; Warren, I. ; Cowden, J. ; Lee, J. S. ; Sams, R. Relationships between Arsenic Concentrations in Drinking Water and Lung and Bladder Cancer Incidence in US Counties . J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2017 , 27 , 235 – 243 ,  DOI: 10.1038/jes.2016.58 23 Relationships between arsenic concentrations in drinking water and lung and bladder cancer incidence in U.S. counties Mendez, William M.; Eftim, Sorina; Cohen, Jonathan; Warren, Isaac; Cowden, John; Lee, Janice S.; Sams, Reeder Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology ( 2017 ), 27 ( 3 ), 235-243 CODEN: JESEBS ; ISSN: 1559-0631 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Increased risks of lung and bladder cancer have been obsd. in populations exposed to high levels of inorg. arsenic. However, studies at lower exposures (i.e., less than 100μg/l in water) have shown inconsistent results. We therefore conducted an ecol. anal. of the assocn. between historical drinking water arsenic concns. and lung and bladder cancer incidence in U. S. counties. We used drinking water arsenic concns. measured by the U. S. Geol. Survey and state agencies in the 1980s and 1990s as proxies for historical exposures in counties where public groundwater systems and private wells are important sources of drinking water. Relationships between arsenic levels and cancer incidence in 2006-2010 were explored by Poisson regression analyses, adjusted for groundwater dependence and important demog. covariates. The median and 95th percentile county mean arsenic concns. were 1.5 and 15.4μg/l, resp. Water arsenic concns. were significant and pos. assocd. with female and male bladder cancer, and with female lung cancer. Our findings support an assocn. between low water arsenic concns. and lung and bladder cancer incidence in the United States. However, the limitations of the ecol. study design suggest caution in interpreting these results. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitVWqurfL&md5=0f00e8b458cf83275f1532b86aff698c
• 24 Mathew, A. ; Sajanlal, P. R. ; Pradeep, T. Selective Visual Detection of TNT at the Sub-Zeptomole Level . Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2012 , 51 , 9596 – 9600 ,  DOI: 10.1002/anie.201203810 24 Selective Visual Detection of TNT at the Sub-Zeptomole Level Mathew, Ammu; Sajanlal, P. R.; Pradeep, Thalappil Angewandte Chemie, International Edition ( 2012 ), 51 ( 38 ), 9596-9600, S9596/1-S9596/13 CODEN: ACIEF5 ; ISSN: 1433-7851 . ( Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ) The authors demonstrated a simple and reliable strategy for the detection of two analytes of social interest, TNT and Hg2+, at the sub-zeptomole level in soln. The method involves anchoring silver clusters, which are comprised of fifteen atoms and embedded in bovine serum albumin, on silica-coated gold mesoflowers (Au MFs), termed Au@SiO2@Ag15 MFs, and using this system for analyte detection. The authors exposed varying concns. of TNT to Au@SiO2@Ag15 MFs and found that even a concn. of less than one zeptomole of TNT per meso-flowers quenches the luminescence of the composite meso-flowers within 1 min. The selectivity of the gold quantum clusters (QCs) towards these analytes has been exploited and the very same methodol. could be extended to other QCs with brighter luminescence, which could be protected with more specific ligands that may also enhance their chem. stability. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xht1Gksr7M&md5=30ec24e0371737111eb69af14eae34ce
• 25 Wang, L. ; Boutilier, M. S. H. ; Kidambi, P. R. ; Jang, D. ; Hadjiconstantinou, N. G. ; Karnik, R. Fundamental Transport Mechanisms, Fabrication and Potential Applications of Nanoporous Atomically Thin Membranes . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2017 , 12 , 509 – 522 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2017.72 25 Fundamental transport mechanisms, fabrication and potential applications of nanoporous atomically thin membranes Wang, Luda; Boutilier, Michael S. H.; Kidambi, Piran R.; Jang, Doojoon; Hadjiconstantinou, Nicolas G.; Karnik, Rohit Nature Nanotechnology ( 2017 ), 12 ( 6 ), 509-522 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) A review. Graphene and other two-dimensional materials offer a new approach to controlling mass transport at the nanoscale. These materials can sustain nanoscale pores in their rigid lattices and due to their min. possible material thickness, high mech. strength and chem. robustness, they could be used to address persistent challenges in membrane sepns. Here we discuss theor. and exptl. developments in the emerging field of nanoporous atomically thin membranes, focusing on the fundamental mechanisms of gas- and liq.-phase transport, membrane fabrication techniques and advances towards practical application. We highlight potential functional characteristics of the membranes and discuss applications where they are expected to offer advantages. Finally, we outline the major scientific questions and technol. challenges that need to be addressed to bridge the gap from theor. simulations and proof-of-concept expts. to real-world applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXpt1Oqur8%253D&md5=9996d427dbca1d7c29f550c0187757d4
• 26 Sun, Z. ; Liao, T. ; Li, W. ; Dou, Y. ; Liu, K. ; Jiang, L. ; Kim, S.-W. ; Ho Kim, J. ; Xue Dou, S. Fish-Scale Bio-Inspired Multifunctional ZnO Nanostructures . NPG Asia Mater. 2015 , 7 , e232  DOI: 10.1038/am.2015.133 26 Fish-scale bio-inspired multifunctional ZnO nanostructures Sun, Ziqi; Liao, Ting; Li, Wenxian; Dou, Yuhai; Liu, Kesong; Jiang, Lei; Kim, Sang-Woo; Ho Kim, Jung; Xue Dou, Shi NPG Asia Materials ( 2015 ), 7 ( 12 ), e232 CODEN: NAMPCE ; ISSN: 1884-4057 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Scales provide optical disguise, low water drag and mech. protection to fish, enabling them to survive catastrophic environmental disasters, predators and microorganisms. The unique structures and stacking sequences of fish scales inspired the fabrication of artificial nanostructures with salient optical, interfacial and mech. properties. Herein, we describe fish-scale bio-inspired multifunctional ZnO nanostructures that have similar morphol. and structure to the cycloid scales of the Asian Arowana. These nanostructured coatings feature tunable light refraction and reflection, modulated surface wettability and damage-tolerant mech. properties. The salient properties of these multifunctional nanostructures are promising for applications in (i) optical coatings, sensing or lens arrays for use in reflective displays, packing, advertising and solar energy harvesting; (ii) self-cleaning surfaces, including anti-smudge, anti-fouling and anti-fogging, and self-sterilizing surfaces; and (iii) mech./chem. barrier coatings. This study provides a low-cost and large-scale prodn. method for the facile fabrication of these bio-inspired nanostructures and provides new insights for the development of novel functional materials for use in 'smart' structures and applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXitVCksL3J&md5=69f297e2601d31e383d6dcef07bcc6e0
• 27 Li, Y. ; He, L. ; Zhang, X. ; Zhang, N. ; Tian, D. External-Field-Induced Gradient Wetting for Controllable Liquid Transport: From Movement on the Surface to Penetration into the Surface . Adv. Mater. 2017 , 29 , 1703802 ,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.201703802 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 28 Porosity in Carbons: Characterization and Applications ; Patrick, J. W. Ed.; Wiley : London, UK , 1995 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 29 Pollard, S. J. T. ; Fowler, G. D. ; Sollars, C. J. ; Perry, R. Low-Cost Adsorbents for Waste and Wastewater Treatment: A Review . Sci. Total Environ. 1992 , 116 , 31 – 52 ,  DOI: 10.1016/0048-9697(92)90363-W 29 Low-cost adsorbents for waste and wastewater treatment: a review Pollard, S. J. T.; Fowler, G. D.; Sollars, C. J.; Perry, R. Science of the Total Environment ( 1992 ), 116 ( 1-2 ), 31-52 CODEN: STENDL ; ISSN: 0048-9697 . A review with 94 refs. concerning recent research in low-cost alternatives to activated C for waste and wastewater treatment. Topics discussed include the selection criteria and activation methods for prepn. of active C and a crit. assessment of low-cost adsorbents prepd. from carbonaceous industrial wastes, agricultural byproducts, and mineral-derived sources. Emphasis is given to in situ reuse applications; rudimentary economic analyses for comparative operations with com. activated C is provided, where available. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK38XktlaqtLg%253D&md5=b23243d70ccc6fe1bffeb3feaa75e322
• 30 Das, R. ; Vecitis, C. D. ; Schulze, A. ; Cao, B. ; Ismail, A. F. ; Lu, X. ; Chen, J. ; Ramakrishna, S. Recent Advances in Nanomaterials for Water Protection and Monitoring . Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017 , 46 , 6946 – 7020 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C6CS00921B 30 Recent advances in nanomaterials for water protection and monitoring Das, Rasel; Vecitis, Chad D.; Schulze, Agnes; Cao, Bin; Ismail, Ahmad Fauzi; Lu, Xianbo; Chen, Jiping; Ramakrishna, Seeram Chemical Society Reviews ( 2017 ), 46 ( 22 ), 6946-7020 CODEN: CSRVBR ; ISSN: 0306-0012 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) The efficient handling of wastewater pollutants is a must, since they are continuously defiling limited fresh water resources, seriously affecting the terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial flora and fauna. Our vision is to undertake an exhaustive examn. of current research trends with a focus on nanomaterials (NMs) to considerably improve the performance of classical wastewater treatment technologies, e.g. adsorption, catalysis, sepn., and disinfection. Addnl., NM-based sensor technologies are considered, since they have been significantly used for monitoring water contaminants. We also suggest future directions to inform investigators of potentially disruptive NM technologies that have to be investigated in more detail. The fate and environmental transformations of NMs, which need to be addressed before large-scale implementation of NMs for water purifn., are also highlighted. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsFOrsbfP&md5=73a5d374fea60b0727039d270aa25dfb
• 31 Sarkar, D. ; Mondal, B. ; Som, A. ; Ravindran, S. J. ; Jana, S. K. ; Manju, C. K. ; Pradeep, T. Holey MoS 2 Nanosheets with Photocatalytic Metal Rich Edges by Ambient Electrospray Deposition for Solar Water Disinfection . Glob. Challenges 2018 , 2 , 1800052 ,  DOI: 10.1002/gch2.201800052 31 Holey MoS2 Nanosheets with Photocatalytic Metal Rich Edges by Ambient Electrospray Deposition for Solar Water Disinfection Sarkar Depanjan; Mondal Biswajit; Som Anirban; Ravindran Swathy Jakka; Jana Sourav Kanti; Manju C K; Pradeep Thalappil Global challenges (Hoboken, NJ) ( 2018 ), 2 ( 12 ), 1800052 ISSN: . A new method for creating nanopores in single-layer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanosheets (NSs) by the electrospray deposition of silver ions on a water suspension of the former is introduced. Electrospray-deposited silver ions react with the MoS2 NSs at the liquid-air interface, resulting in Ag2S nanoparticles which enter the solution, leaving the NSs with holes of 3-5 nm diameter. Specific reaction with the S of MoS2 NSs leads to Mo-rich edges. Such Mo-rich defects are highly efficient for the generation of active oxygen species such as H2O2 under visible light which causes efficient disinfection of water. 10(5) times higher efficiency in disinfection for the holey MoS2 NSs in comparison to normal MoS2 NSs is shown. Experiments are performed with multiple bacterial strains and a virus strain, demonstrating the utility of the method for practical applications. A conceptual prototype is also presented. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3MnjtFOitA%253D%253D&md5=7ed05531dd8c6201702d60b88d168d9f
• 32 Tavakolian, M. ; Jafari, S. M. ; Van de Ven, T. G. A Review on Surface-Functionalized Cellulosic Nanostructures as Biocompatible Antibacterial Materials . Nano-Micro Lett. 2020 , 12 , 1 – 23 ,  DOI: 10.1007/s40820-020-0408-4 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 33 Sarkar, D. ; Mahapatra, A. ; Som, A. ; Kumar, R. ; Nagar, A. ; Baidya, A. ; Pradeep, T. Patterned Nanobrush Nature Mimics with Unprecedented Water-Harvesting Efficiency . Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2018 , 5 , 1800667 ,  DOI: 10.1002/admi.201800667 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 34 Vadahanambi, S. ; Lee, S. H. ; Kim, W. J. ; Oh, I. K. Arsenic removal from contaminated water using three-dimensional graphene-carbon nanotube-iron oxide nanostructures . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013 , 47 , 10510 – 10517 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es401389g 34 Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Water Using Three-Dimensional Graphene-Carbon Nanotube-Iron Oxide Nanostructures Vadahanambi, Sridhar; Lee, Sang-Heon; Kim, Won-Jong; Oh, Il-Kwon Environmental Science & Technology ( 2013 ), 47 ( 18 ), 10510-10517 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) We report a highly versatile and one-pot microwave route to the mass prodn. of 3-dimensional graphene-C nanotube-Fe oxide nanostructures for the efficient removal of As from contaminated water. The unique 3-dimensional nanostructure shows that C nanotubes are vertically standing on graphene sheets and Fe oxide nanoparticles are decorated on both the graphene and the C nanotubes. The material with Fe oxide nanoparticles shows excellent absorption for As removal from contaminated water, due to its high surface-to-vol. ratio and open pore network of the graphene-C nanotube-Fe oxide 3-dimensional nanostructures. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXht1Oqs7jI&md5=3227d79cdd4e9dd296fad76fcef8298a
• 35 Indian Scientists Develop Low-Cost Arsenic Water Filter ; The Third Pole . https://www.thethirdpole.net/2016/01/22/indian-scientists-develop-low-cost-arsenic-water-filter/ (accessed 2020/05/01). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 36 Innodi - Innovative Technologies in Water Treatment . https://www.innodi.in/ (accessed 2020/05/12). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 37 VayuJal . http://www.vayujal.com/ (accessed 2020/05/12). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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• 39 Shahzad, M. W. ; Burhan, M. ; Ang, L. ; Ng, K. C. Adsorption Desalination—Principles, Process Design, and Its Hybrids for Future Sustainable Desalination . Emerg. Technol. Sustain. Desalin. Handb. 2018 , 3 – 34 ,  DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-815818-0.00001-1 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 40 Mishra, D. The Cost of Desalination . Advisian . https://www.advisian.com/en/global-perspectives/the-cost-of-desalination (accessed 2019/07/18). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 41 Shahzad, M. W. ; Burhan, M. ; Ang, L. ; Ng, K. C. Energy-Water-Environment Nexus Underpinning Future Desalination Sustainability . Desalination 2017 , 413 , 52 – 64 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2017.03.009 41 Energy-water-environment nexus underpinning future desalination sustainability Shahzad, Muhammad Wakil; Burhan, Muhammad; Ang, Li; Ng, Kim Choon Desalination ( 2017 ), 413 ( ), 52-64 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) Energy-water-environment nexus is very important to attain COP21 goal, maintaining environment temp. increase below 2 °C, but unfortunately two third share of CO2 emission has already been used and the remaining will be exhausted by 2050. A no. of technol. developments in power and desalination sectors improved their efficiencies to save energy and carbon emission but still they are operating at 35% and 10% of their thermodn. limits. Research in desalination processes contributing to fuel World population for their improved living std. and to reduce specific energy consumption and to protect environment. Recently developed highly efficient nature-inspired membranes (aquaporin & graphene) and trend in thermally driven cycle's hybridization could potentially lower then energy requirement for water purifn. This paper presents a state of art review on energy, water and environment interconnection and future energy efficient desalination possibilities to save energy and protect environment. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXktFWhsL8%253D&md5=d5f45ae1749ff0a9203dff6e16697f14
• 42 Gethard, K. ; Sae-Khow, O. ; Mitra, S. Water Desalination Using Carbon-Nanotube-Enhanced Membrane Distillation . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2011 , 3 , 110 – 114 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am100981s 42 Water Desalination Using Carbon-Nanotube-Enhanced Membrane Distillation Gethard, Ken; Sae-Khow, Ornthida; Mitra, Somenath ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2011 ), 3 ( 2 ), 110-114 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) C nanotube (CNT) enhanced membrane distn. is presented for water desalination. It is demonstrated that the immobilization of the CNTs in the pores of a hydrophobic membrane favorably alters the water-membrane interactions to promote vapor permeability while preventing liq. penetration into the membrane pores. For a salt concn. of 34,000 mg/L and at 80°, the nanotube incorporation led to 1.85 and 15 times increase in flux and salt redn., resp. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhs1altLfJ&md5=857a6bcb1e08181ca5e8c759e1c5ad2f
• 43 Dudchenko, A. V. ; Chen, C. ; Cardenas, A. ; Rolf, J. ; Jassby, D. Frequency-Dependent Stability of CNT Joule Heaters in Ionizable Media and Desalination Processes . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2017 , 12 , 557 – 563 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2017.102 43 Frequency-dependent stability of CNT Joule heaters in ionizable media and desalination processes Dudchenko, Alexander V.; Chen, Chuxiao; Cardenas, Alexis; Rolf, Julianne; Jassby, David Nature Nanotechnology ( 2017 ), 12 ( 6 ), 557-563 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Water shortages and brine waste management are increasing challenges for coastal and inland regions, with high-salinity brines presenting a particularly challenging problem. These high-salinity waters require the use of thermally driven treatment processes, such as membrane distn., which suffer from high complexity and cost. Here, we demonstrate how controlling the frequency of an applied a.c. at high potentials (20 Vpp) to a porous thin-film carbon nanotube (CNT)/polymer composite Joule heating element can prevent CNT degrdn. in ionizable environments such as high-salinity brines. By operating at sufficiently high frequencies, these porous thin-films can be directly immersed in highly ionizable environments and used as flow-through heating elements. We demonstrate that porous CNT/polymer composites can be used as self-heating membranes to directly heat high-salinity brines at the water/vapor interface of the membrane distn. element, achieving high single-pass recoveries that approach 100%, far exceeding std. membrane distn. recovery limits. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXovVGru7g%253D&md5=cbba1c95411535dda9284a14e549bcf6
• 44 Chen, W. ; Chen, S. ; Liang, T. ; Zhang, Q. ; Fan, Z. ; Yin, H. ; Huang, K.-W. ; Zhang, X. ; Lai, Z. ; Sheng, P. High-Flux Water Desalination with Interfacial Salt Sieving Effect in Nanoporous Carbon Composite Membranes . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 345 – 350 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0067-5 44 High-flux water desalination with interfacial salt sieving effect in nanoporous carbon composite membranes Chen, Wei; Chen, Shuyu; Liang, Tengfei; Zhang, Qiang; Fan, Zhongli; Yin, Hang; Huang, Kuo-Wei; Zhang, Xixiang; Lai, Zhiping; Sheng, Ping Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 4 ), 345-350 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) Freshwater flux and energy consumption are two important benchmarks for the membrane desalination process. Here, we show that nanoporous carbon composite membranes, which comprise a layer of porous carbon fiber structures grown on a porous ceramic substrate, can exhibit 100% desalination and a freshwater flux that is 3-20 times higher than existing polymeric membranes. Thermal accounting expts. demonstrated that the carbon composite membrane saved over 80% of the latent heat consumption. Theor. calcns. combined with mol. dynamics simulations revealed the unique microscopic process occurring in the membrane. When the salt soln. is stopped at the openings to the nanoscale porous channels and forms a meniscus, the vapor can rapidly transport across the nanoscale gap to condense on the permeate side. This process is driven by the chem. potential gradient and aided by the unique smoothness of the carbon surface. The high thermal cond. of the carbon composite membrane ensures that most of the latent heat is recovered. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXjvFOksrw%253D&md5=9c4b448950f964edc74d4ce402a00fee
• 45 Gao, M. ; Zhu, L. ; Peh, C. K. ; Ho, G. W. Solar Absorber Material and System Designs for Photothermal Water Vaporization towards Clean Water and Energy Production . Energy Environ. Sci. 2019 , 12 , 841 – 864 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C8EE01146J 45 Solar absorber material and system designs for photothermal water vaporization towards clean water and energy production Gao, Minmin; Zhu, Liangliang; Peh, Connor Kangnuo; Ho, Ghim Wei Energy & Environmental Science ( 2019 ), 12 ( 3 ), 841-864 CODEN: EESNBY ; ISSN: 1754-5706 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) Photothermal materials with broad solar absorption and high conversion efficiency have recently attracted significant interest. They are becoming a fast-growing research focus in the area of solar-driven vaporization for clean water prodn. The parallel development of thermal management strategies through both material and system designs has further improved the overall efficiency of solar vaporization. Collectively, this green solar-driven water vaporization technol. has regained attention as a sustainable soln. for water scarcity. In this review, we will report the recent progress in solar absorber material design based on various photothermal conversion mechanisms, evaluate the prerequisites in terms of optical, thermal and wetting properties for efficient solar-driven water vaporization, classify the systems based on different photothermal evapn. configurations and discuss other correlated applications in the areas of desalination, water purifn. and energy generation. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review on the current development in efficient photothermal evapn., and suggest directions to further enhance its overall efficiency through the judicious choice of materials and system designs, while synchronously capitalizing waste energy to realize concurrent clean water and energy prodn. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtlGitbvL&md5=b3f29bfbd523f393fd6bfbe705ce293e
• 46 Ghasemi, H. ; Ni, G. ; Marconnet, A. M. ; Loomis, J. ; Yerci, S. ; Miljkovic, N. ; Chen, G. Solar Steam Generation by Heat Localization . Nat. Commun. 2014 , 5 , 4449 ,  DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5449 46 Solar steam generation by heat localization Ghasemi, Hadi; Ni, George; Marconnet, Amy Marie; Loomis, James; Yerci, Selcuk; Miljkovic, Nenad; Chen, Gang Nature Communications ( 2014 ), 5 ( ), 4449 CODEN: NCAOBW ; ISSN: 2041-1723 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Currently, steam generation using solar energy is based on heating bulk liq. to high temps. This approach requires either costly high optical concns. leading to heat loss by the hot bulk liq. and heated surfaces or vacuum. New solar receiver concepts such as porous volumetric receivers or nanofluids have been proposed to decrease these losses. Here we report development of an approach and corresponding material structure for solar steam generation while maintaining low optical concn. and keeping the bulk liq. at low temp. with no vacuum. We achieve solar thermal efficiency up to 85% at only 10 kW m-2. This high performance results from four structure characteristics: absorbing in the solar spectrum, thermally insulating, hydrophilic and interconnected pores. The structure concs. thermal energy and fluid flow where needed for phase change and minimizes dissipated energy. This new structure provides a novel approach to harvesting solar energy for a broad range of phase-change applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXksVemsL4%253D&md5=e11dce912739953443d9faede0b8d5a9
• 47 Qasim, M. ; Badrelzaman, M. ; Darwish, N. N. ; Darwish, N. A. ; Hilal, N. Reverse Osmosis Desalination: A State-Of-The-Art Review . Desalination 2019 , 459 , 59 – 104 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2019.02.008 47 Reverse osmosis desalination: A state-of-the-art review Qasim, Muhammad; Badrelzaman, Mohamed; Darwish, Noora N.; Darwish, Naif A.; Hilal, Nidal Desalination ( 2019 ), 459 ( ), 59-104 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review. Water scarcity is a grand challenge that has always stimulated research interests in finding effective means for pure water prodn. In this context, reverse osmosis (RO) is considered the leading and the most optimized membrane-based desalination process that is currently dominating the desalination market. In this review, various aspects of RO desalination are reviewed. Theories and models related to concn. polarization and membrane transport, as well as merits and drawbacks of these models in predicting polarization effects, are discussed. As per the available literature, UF, MF and coagulation-flocculation are considered the most widely used pre-treatment technologies. In addn., this review discusses membrane fouling, which represents a serious challenge in RO processes due to its significant contribution to energy requirements and process economy (e.g., flux decline, permeate quality, membrane lifespan, increased feed pressure, increased pre-treatment and membrane maintenance cost). Principles of RO process design and the embedded economic and energy considerations are discussed. In general, cost of water desalination has dropped to values that made it a viable option, comparable even to conventional water treatment methods. Finally, an overview of hybrid RO desalination processes and the current challenges faced by RO desalination processes are presented and discussed. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXks12ltrk%253D&md5=d9fd5994a704ab5b884ac27bf33824b6
• 48 Elimelech, M. ; Phillip, W. A. The Future of Seawater Desalination: Energy, Technology, and the Environment . Science 2011 , 333 , 712 – 717 ,  DOI: 10.1126/science.1200488 48 The Future of Seawater Desalination: Energy, Technology, and the Environment Elimelech, Menachem; Phillip, William A. Science (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2011 ), 333 ( 6043 ), 712-717 CODEN: SCIEAS ; ISSN: 0036-8075 . ( American Association for the Advancement of Science ) A review. In recent years, numerous large-scale seawater desalination plants were built in water-stressed countries to augment available water resources, and construction of new desalination plants is expected to increase in the near future. Despite major advancements in desalination technologies, seawater desalination is still more energy intensive compared to conventional technologies for the treatment of fresh water. There are also concerns about the potential environmental impacts of large-scale seawater desalination plants. Here, the authors review the possible redns. in energy demand by state-of-the-art seawater desalination technologies, the potential role of advanced materials and innovative technologies in improving performance, and the sustainability of desalination as a technol. soln. to global water shortages. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXps1Sgur4%253D&md5=74c8f1f7acc78d8f6e55ca1531b8ee76
• 49 Tan, Z. ; Chen, S. ; Peng, X. ; Zhang, L. ; Gao, C. Polyamide Membranes with Nanoscale Turing Structures for Water Purification . Science 2018 , 360 , 518 – 521 ,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aar6308 49 Polyamide membranes with nanoscale Turing structures for water purification Tan, Zhe; Chen, Shengfu; Peng, Xinsheng; Zhang, Lin; Gao, Congjie Science (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2018 ), 360 ( 6388 ), 518-521 CODEN: SCIEAS ; ISSN: 0036-8075 . ( American Association for the Advancement of Science ) The emergence of Turing structures is of fundamental importance, and designing these structures and developing their applications have practical effects in chem. and biol. We use a facile route based on interfacial polymn. to generate Turing-type polyamide membranes for water purifn. Manipulation of shapes by control of reaction conditions enabled the creation of membranes with bubble or tube structures. These membranes exhibit excellent water-salt sepn. performance that surpasses the upper-bound line of traditional desalination membranes. Furthermore, we show the existence of high water permeability sites in the Turing structures, where water transport through the membranes is enhanced. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXos1Kiu7c%253D&md5=dbdfa742a90a9612821de0ff04517355
• 50 Chowdhury, M. R. ; Steffes, J. ; Huey, B. D. ; McCutcheon, J. R. 3D Printed Polyamide Membranes for Desalination . Science 2018 , 361 , 682 – 686 ,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aar2122 50 3D printed polyamide membranes for desalination Chowdhury, Maqsud R.; Steffes, James; Huey, Bryan D.; McCutcheon, Jeffrey R. Science (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2018 ), 361 ( 6403 ), 682-686 CODEN: SCIEAS ; ISSN: 0036-8075 . ( American Association for the Advancement of Science ) Polyamide thickness and roughness have been identified as crit. properties that affect thin-film composite membrane performance for reverse osmosis. Conventional formation methodologies lack the ability to control these properties independently with high resoln. or precision. An additive approach is presented that uses electrospraying to deposit monomers directly onto a substrate, where they react to form polyamide. The small droplet size coupled with low monomer concns. result in polyamide films that are smoother and thinner than conventional polyamides, while the additive nature of the approach allows for control of thickness and roughness. Polyamide films are formed with a thickness that is controllable down to 4-nm increments and a roughness as low as 2 nm while still exhibiting good permselectivity relative to a com. benchmarking membrane. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsFagt77E&md5=357ae559184795d2cc54387145ebd156
• 51 Majumder, M. ; Chopra, N. ; Hinds, B. Effect of Tip Functionalization on Transport through Vertically Oriented Carbon Nanotube Membranes . J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005 , 127 , 9062 – 9070 ,  DOI: 10.1021/ja043013b 51 Effect of Tip Functionalization on Transport through Vertically Oriented Carbon Nanotube Membranes Majumder, Mainak; Chopra, Nitin; Hinds, Bruce J. Journal of the American Chemical Society ( 2005 ), 127 ( 25 ), 9062-9070 CODEN: JACSAT ; ISSN: 0002-7863 . ( American Chemical Society ) Ionic flux through a composite membrane structure, contg. vertically aligned carbon nanotubes crossing a polystyrene matrix film, was studied as a function of chem. end groups at the entrance to carbon nanotubes' (CNTs) cores. Plasma oxidn. during the membrane fabrication process introduced carboxylic acid groups on the CNTs' tips that were modified using carbodiimide mediated coupling between the carboxylic acid and an accessible amine groups of the functional mol. Functionalization mols. included straight chain alkanes, anionically charged dye mols., and an aliph. amine elongated by polypeptide spacers. Functionalization was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy, and areal functional d. was estd. by transmission electron microscopy studies of thiol terminated sites decorated by nanocryst. gold. The transport through the membrane of two different sized but equally charged mols. (ruthenium bipyridine [Ru-(bipy)32+] and Me viologen [MV2+]) was quantified in a U-tube permeation cell by UV-vis spectroscopy. Relative selectivity of the permeates varied from 1.7 to 3.6 as a function of tip-functionalization chem. Anionic charged functional groups sharply increased the flux of the cationic permeates. This effect was reduced at higher soln. ionic strength consistent with shorter Debye screening length. The obsd. selectivities were consistent with a hindered diffusion model with functionalization at the CNT tip and not along the length of the CNT core. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXks1Khtb4%253D&md5=29ed3e5aa42eeb5b2aec30603a277028
• 52 Das, R. ; Ali, M. E. ; Hamid, S. B. A. ; Ramakrishna, S. ; Chowdhury, Z. Z. Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Water Purification: A Bright Future in Water Desalination . Desalination 2014 , 336 , 97 – 109 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2013.12.026 52 Carbon nanotube membranes for water purification: A bright future in water desalination Das, Rasel; Ali, Md. Eaqub; Bee Abd Hamid, Sharifah; Ramakrishna, Seeram; Chowdhury, Zaira Zaman Desalination ( 2014 ), 336 ( ), 97-109 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review. Tip-functionalized nonpolar interior home of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) provides strong invitation to polar water mols. and rejects salts and pollutants. Low energy consumption, antifouling and self-cleaning functions have made CNT membranes extraordinary over the conventional ones. Mol. modeling and exptl. aspects of CNT-membrane fabrication and functionalization for the desalination of both sea and brackish water was comprehensively reviewed. Presented are the current problems and future challenges in water treatments. The article is potentially important for the hydrologists, membrane technologists, environmentalists, and industrialists working in the field of water purifn. technologies to eradicate fresh water crisis in near future. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhsl2mtrg%253D&md5=35d0711d0f6c5c3b035f336c7de28010
• 53 Dervin, S. ; Dionysiou, D. D. ; Pillai, S. C. 2D Nanostructures for Water Purification: Graphene and Beyond . Nanoscale 2016 , 8 , 15115 – 15131 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C6NR04508A 53 2D nanostructures for water purification: graphene and beyond Dervin, Saoirse; Dionysiou, Dionysios D.; Pillai, Suresh C. Nanoscale ( 2016 ), 8 ( 33 ), 15115-15131 CODEN: NANOHL ; ISSN: 2040-3372 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) Owing to their atomically thin structure, large surface area and mech. strength, 2D nanoporous materials are considered to be suitable alternatives for existing desalination and water purifn. membrane materials. Recent progress in the development of nanoporous graphene based materials has generated enormous potential for water purifn. technologies. Progress in the development of nanoporous graphene and graphene oxide (GO) membranes, the mechanism of graphene mol. sieve action, structural design, hydrophilic nature, mech. strength and antifouling properties and the principal challenges assocd. with nanopore generation are discussed in detail. Subsequently, the recent applications and performance of newly developed 2D materials such as 2D boron nitride (BN) nanosheets, graphyne, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), tungsten chalcogenides (WS2) and titanium carbide (Ti3C2Tx) are highlighted. In addn., the challenges affecting 2D nanostructures for water purifn. are highlighted and their applications in the water purifn. industry are discussed. Though only a few 2D materials have been explored so far for water treatment applications, this emerging field of research is set to attract a great deal of attention in the near future. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xht1egtrjP&md5=ca9ebb1e6f84626fca15e98603b08c47
• 54 Cohen-Tanugi, D. ; Grossman, J. C. Nanoporous Graphene as a Reverse Osmosis Membrane: Recent Insights from Theory and Simulation . Desalination 2015 , 366 , 59 – 70 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.046 54 Nanoporous graphene as a reverse osmosis membrane: Recent insights from theory and simulation Cohen-Tanugi, David; Grossman, Jeffrey C. Desalination ( 2015 ), 366 ( ), 59-70 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) In this review, we examine the potential and the challenges of designing an ultrathin reverse osmosis (RO) membrane from graphene, focusing on the role of computational methods in designing, understanding, and optimizing the relationship between at. structure and RO performance. In recent years, graphene has emerged as a promising material for improving the performance of RO. Beginning at the at. scale and extending to the RO plant scale, we review applications of computational research that have explored the structure, properties and potential performance of nanoporous graphene in the context of RO desalination. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXosF2ktg%253D%253D&md5=01a7d4bed6ea52e4597438b52cee1941
• 55 Werber, J. R. ; Osuji, C. O. ; Elimelech, M. Materials for Next-Generation Desalination and Water Purification Membranes . Nat. Rev. Mater. 2016 , 1 , 16018 ,  DOI: 10.1038/natrevmats.2016.18 55 Materials for next-generation desalination and water purification membranes Werber, Jay R.; Osuji, Chinedum O.; Elimelech, Menachem Nature Reviews Materials ( 2016 ), 1 ( 5 ), 16018 CODEN: NRMADL ; ISSN: 2058-8437 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Membrane-based sepns. for water purifn. and desalination have been increasingly applied to address the global challenges of water scarcity and the pollution of aquatic environments. However, progress in water purifn. membranes has been constrained by the inherent limitations of conventional membrane materials. Recent advances in methods for controlling the structure and chem. functionality in polymer films can potentially lead to new classes of membranes for water purifn. In this Review, we first discuss the state of the art of existing membrane technologies for water purifn. and desalination, highlight their inherent limitations and establish the urgent requirements for next-generation membranes. We then describe mol.-level design approaches towards fabricating highly selective membranes, focusing on novel materials such as aquaporin, synthetic nanochannels, graphene and self-assembled block copolymers and small mols. Finally, we highlight promising membrane surface modification approaches that minimize interfacial interactions and enhance fouling resistance. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtVert7s%253D&md5=0ec9f4105a2f82798089a8d606e2b6aa
• 56 Tang, C. Y. ; Zhao, Y. ; Wang, R. ; Hélix-Nielsen, C. ; Fane, A. G. Desalination by Biomimetic Aquaporin Membranes: Review of Status and Prospects . Desalination 2013 , 308 , 34 – 40 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2012.07.007 56 Desalination by biomimetic aquaporin membranes: Review of status and prospects Tang, C. Y.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, R.; Helix-Nielsen, C.; Fane, A. G. Desalination ( 2013 ), 308 ( ), 34-40 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review. Based on their unique combination of offering high water permeability and high solute rejection aquaporin proteins have attracted considerable interest over the last years as functional building blocks of biomimetic membranes for water desalination and reuse. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the properties of aquaporins, their prepn. and characterization. Discussed are the challenges in exploiting the remarkable properties of aquaporin proteins for membrane sepn. processes and various attempts are presented to construct aquaporin in membranes for desalination; including an overview of the authors' own recent developments in aquaporin-based membranes. Finally future prospects of aquaporin based biomimetic membrane for desalination and water reuse are outlined. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhvVSltrrK&md5=c457738d79e2e4c005070fd404a10018
• 57 Zhao, Y. ; Li, X. ; Shen, J. ; Gao, C.-J. ; Van der Bruggen, B. The Potential of Kevlar Aramid Nanofibers Composite Membranes . J. Mater. Chem. A 2020 , 8 , 7548 ,  DOI: 10.1039/D0TA01654C 57 The potential of Kevlar aramid nanofiber composite membranes Zhao, Yan; Li, Xin; Shen, Jiangnan; Gao, Congjie; Van der Bruggen, Bart Journal of Materials Chemistry A: Materials for Energy and Sustainability ( 2020 ), 8 ( 16 ), 7548-7568 CODEN: JMCAET ; ISSN: 2050-7496 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) A review. This review analyses and summarizes the synthesis and applications of Kevlar aramid nanofibers (KANFs)-based membranes in different processes, such as nanofiltration membranes, mixed matrix membranes, ion exchange membranes and proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Particular attention is paid to the tunable structure, chem./phys. stability, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity and chem. reaction required in order to develop suitable KANF-based composite materials for membrane fabrication. In addn., approaches to fabricate KANF-based membranes, such as blending, grafting, amide reaction, network interpenetrating, interfacial polymn. and gel-confined conversion, are highlighted. Based on this, the application of KANF-based membranes in water treatment (including oil/water sepn., water purifn. and desalination, emulsion sepn., and dye wastewater sepn.), org. solvent treatment, ion sepn., sepn. of battery and proton exchange membrane fuel cells is discussed. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of KANF-based membranes are summarized; on this basis, the challenges and future opportunities in this field are defined. This tutorial review provides an overview of the promising potential applications of Kevlar aramid nanofibers in membrane science. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXls1Cnsrk%253D&md5=4842a2a65184e70854d3c53c5ffc8fbb
• 58 Li, Y. ; Wong, E. ; Mai, Z. ; Van der Bruggen, B. Fabrication of Composite Polyamide/Kevlar Aramid Nanofiber Nanofiltration Membranes with High Permselectivity in Water Desalination . J. Membr. Sci. 2019 , 592 , 117396 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117396 58 Fabrication of composite polyamide/Kevlar aramid nanofiber nanofiltration membranes with high permselectivity in water desalination Li, Yi; Wong, Eric; Mai, Zhaohuan; Van der Bruggen, Bart Journal of Membrane Science ( 2019 ), 592 ( ), 117396pp. CODEN: JMESDO ; ISSN: 0376-7388 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) Conventional piperazine (PIP)-based nanofiltration (NF) membranes feature a high water flux and a high retention for divalent salt ions. However, it remains a challenge to obtain permselective NF membranes with high water permeance and a good selectivity for monovalent ions. In this work, a new m-phenylenediamine (MPD)-based thin-film composite (TFC) NF membrane with excellent desalination performance was developed by interfacial polymn. on a solvent resistant Kevlar nanofibrous hydrogel substrate. The desalination performance of the ANF TFC membrane shifted from reverse osmosis (RO) into NF with a facile solvent treatment. The decreased membrane surface roughness, reduced surface zeta potential and increased surface hydrophilicity after solvent treatment yielding a high water permeability (14.4 L m-2 h-1 bar-1) for ANF TFC membrane, which is one order of magnitude higher than that of the pristine membrane and the hand-cast poly (m-phenylene isophthalamide) (PMIA) TFC membrane. The ANF TFC membrane showed an outstanding water-salt sepn. performance, with excellent rejections for multivalent salts (Na2SO4, 100%; MgSO4, 99.4%; MgCl2, 92.7%) and a high rejection for monovalent salt (NaCl, 80.3%), which is competitive with ref. com. membranes (NF90, NF270) tested in cross-flow filtration with 1000 mg L-1 salt soln. at 6 bar, 25 °C. The newly developed TFC membrane was demonstrated to have great potential applications in water desalination, sepn. of org. compds. and dye wastewater treatment. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhs1Kktb%252FL&md5=34a031663556c0bd55a313fd8c72f226
• 59 Zhao, Y. ; Qiu, Y. ; Mai, Z. ; Ortega, E. ; Shen, J. ; Gao, C. ; Van der Bruggen, B. Symmetrically Recombined Nanofibers in a High-Selectivity Membrane for Cation Separation in High Temperature and Organic Solvent . J. Mater. Chem. A 2019 , 7 , 20006 – 20012 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C9TA07416C 59 Symmetrically recombined nanofibers in a high-selectivity membrane for cation separation in high temperature and organic solvent Zhao, Yan; Qiu, Yangbo; Mai, Zhaohuan; Ortega, Emily; Shen, Jiangnan; Gao, Congjie; Van der Bruggen, Bart Journal of Materials Chemistry A: Materials for Energy and Sustainability ( 2019 ), 7 ( 34 ), 20006-20012 CODEN: JMCAET ; ISSN: 2050-7496 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) Development of polymeric cation exchange membranes (CEMs) with high thermostability and resistance to org. solvents is an urgent challenge for materials chem. and a major problem for industrial application. Herein, we report a novel CEM design, which sym. recombines poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) nanofibers and 2,5-diaminobenzenesulfonic acid based on amide hydrolysis and amide condensation reaction for ion sepn. in high temp. and org. solvent aq. applications. The resulting membrane (10 μm thickness) exhibited greater thermodn. and electrochem. properties than the common com. CEMs. Attributed to the membrane's specific structure, size sieving, and electrostatic repulsion effects, the resulting membrane showed a more selective sepn. of monovalent cations in electrodialysis. Moreover, it has demonstrated exceptional desalination at high temp. (as high as 100 °C) and org. solvent aq. environments (as high as 80% acetone soln.), which had not been previously reported in electrodialysis. The resulting membrane combines the benefits of nano-materials and a specific structure design allowing for electrodialysis in high temp. and org. solvent aq. application environments. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhsFygs7fO&md5=5312fd821d55e0107084f4c631b8c6b3
• 60 Blandin, G. ; Verliefde, A. R. D. ; Tang, C. Y. ; Le-Clech, P. Opportunities to Reach Economic Sustainability in Forward Osmosis-Reverse Osmosis Hybrids for Seawater Desalination . Desalination 2015 , 363 , 26 – 36 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.011 60 Opportunities to reach economic sustainability in forward osmosis-reverse osmosis hybrids for seawater desalination Blandin, Gaetan; Verliefde, Arne R. D.; Tang, Chuyang Y.; Le-Clech, Pierre Desalination ( 2015 ), 363 ( ), 26-36 CODEN: DSLNAH ; ISSN: 0011-9164 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) Despite being energetically attractive, the economic sustainability of forward osmosis (FO) - reverse osmosis (RO) hybrid process for seawater desalination has not yet been fully demonstrated. This study is the first to carry out an extensive economic evaluation of FO-RO hybrid, benchmarked against stand-alone RO system. This assessment clearly highlights that FO-RO hybrid can be beneficial, comparatively to RO, only for high energy costs and/or substantial operational costs savings. It is also demonstrated that improvement in water permeation flux, typically above 30 L·m- 2·h- 1 for classical water recoveries, is an abs. prerequisite to lower investment costs down to an economically acceptable level. Such fluxes are not achieved with current membrane developments when realistic feed and draw solns. are considered. In a second step, a sensitivity anal. was carried out to assess the effects of process parameters on flux in FO, compared to the above-mentioned benchmark. Results indicate that for novel FO membranes, typically a coupling of higher water permeability (A > 5 L·m- 2·h- 1·bar- 1) and lower structural parameter (S < 100 μm) is required. This study also shows that the concept of pressure assisted osmosis (PAO) can help to reach higher fluxes with current com. membranes, thereby demonstrating more favorable economics compared to state-of-the-art FO membranes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXitFOntr7J&md5=d79771d27085811b55db18269494480b
• 61 Zirehpour, A. ; Rahimpour, A. ; Khoshhal, S. ; Firouzjaei, M. D. ; Ghoreyshi, A. A. The Impact of MOF Feasibility to Improve the Desalination Performance and Antifouling Properties of FO Membranes . RSC Adv. 2016 , 6 , 70174 – 70185 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C6RA14591D 61 The impact of MOF feasibility to improve the desalination performance and antifouling properties of FO membranes Zirehpour, Alireza; Rahimpour, Ahmad; Khoshhal, Saeed; Firouzjaei, Mostafa Dadashi; Ghoreyshi, Ali Asghar RSC Advances ( 2016 ), 6 ( 74 ), 70174-70185 CODEN: RSCACL ; ISSN: 2046-2069 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) In this study, a hydrophilic metal-org. framework (MOF) was applied to improve the performance of a cellulosic membrane for forward osmosis (FO) desalination application. The characterization results confirmed that the MOF particles existed within the matrix of the modified membrane. The MOF loading led to adjustment of the membranes in terms of overall porosity, pore inter-connectivity and hydrophilicity. These features caused an improvement in the pure water permeability (72%) and reduce the structural parameter of the modified membrane to 136 μm. The FO water flux of the modified membrane enhanced by about 180% compared to an unmodified membrane, without decreasing its selectivity. FO fouling expts. were performed with a feed soln. comprising a model org. foulant. The results demonstrated that the modification considerably improved the membrane antifouling properties when compared to the unmodified membranes. Water flux was also more easily recovered through phys. cleaning for the modified membrane. The modified membrane was continuously tested under FO seawater desalination to investigate the performance stability. The modified membrane demonstrated a noteworthy water flux of above 30 LMH, using a 2 M NaCl draw soln. The modified membrane developed in this study exhibited outstanding permselectivity compared to ones reported in the literature. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtFOlur3L&md5=9ec864cf56f9ce61e218ccf3d66c32fa
• 62 Kwak, S.-Y. ; Jung, S. G. ; Kim, S. H. Structure-Motion-Performance Relationship of Flux-Enhanced Reverse Osmosis (RO) Membranes Composed of Aromatic Polyamide Thin Films . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001 , 35 , 4334 – 4340 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es010630g 62 Structure-Motion-Performance Relationship of Flux-Enhanced Reverse Osmosis (RO) Membranes Composed of Aromatic Polyamide Thin Films Kwak, Seung-Yeop; Jung, Soo Gyung; Kim, Sung Ho Environmental Science and Technology ( 2001 ), 35 ( 21 ), 4334-4340 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) The role of DMSO used as an additive to modify the morphol. as well as the mol. nature of arom. polyamide during the formation of thin-film-composite (TFC) membranes is explored. In addn., it elucidates the mechanism of enhancing the reverse osmosis (RO) permeation of the resulting membranes in proportion to the addn. of DMSO. Morphol. studies by at. force microscopy (AFM) obsd. that as the concn. of DMSO increased, the surface roughness and the surface area of the arom. polyamide TFC membranes became higher and larger, compared to FT-30 membrane for which DMSO was not added during interfacial reaction. Such morphol. changes were brought about from fluctuating interface through reducing the immiscibility between aq./org. phases by DMSO and provided more opportunities to have contact with water mols. on the surface, participating in the enhancement of the water permeability. Chem. compn. studies by XPS revealed that there was a considerable increase of the crosslinked amide linkages relative to the linear pendent carboxylic acid groups in the TFC membranes of more DMSO addn. The increase of such amide linkages as hydrogen bonding sites facilitated the diffusion of water mols. through the thin films and played a favorable role in elevating water flux without considerable loss of salt rejection. Relaxation and motion analyses by 1H solid-state NMR spectroscopy also confirmed the XPS revelation on the basis of measurements of the spin-lattice relaxation time in the rotating frame, T1ρ, and detn. of the correlation time, τc, for the arom. polyamides forming thin films. The trend of longer τc's with the increase of DMSO concn. reflected the thin-film arom. polyamides of less locally mobile chains, accompanied by the higher degree of crosslinking and, hence, the greater no. of amide groups. The combined results of AFM, XPS, and solid-state NMR provided a robust explanation for the mechanism of flux enhancement of the arom. polyamide TFC membranes with the addn. of DMSO, which would contribute to not only a fundamental understanding of the process but also an advanced designing of the so-called tailor-fit TFC membranes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXntVCgtrw%253D&md5=f9a8fce713f98ef07bc4edd513ba338b
• 63 Kim, H. J. ; Choi, K. ; Baek, Y. ; Kim, D.-G. ; Shim, J. ; Yoon, J. ; Lee, J.-C. High-Performance Reverse Osmosis CNT/Polyamide Nanocomposite Membrane by Controlled Interfacial Interactions . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2014 , 6 , 2819 – 2829 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am405398f 63 High-Performance Reverse Osmosis CNT/Polyamide Nanocomposite Membrane by Controlled Interfacial Interactions Kim, Hee Joong; Choi, Kwonyong; Baek, Youngbin; Kim, Dong-Gyun; Shim, Jimin; Yoon, Jeyong; Lee, Jong-Chan ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2014 ), 6 ( 4 ), 2819-2829 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) Polyamide reverse osmosis (RO) membranes with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are prepd. by interfacial polymn. using trimesoyl chloride (TMC) solns. in n-hexane and aq. solns. of m-phenylenediamine (MPD) contg. functionalized CNTs. The functionalized CNTs are prepd. by the reactions of pristine CNTs with acid mixt. (sulfuric acid and nitric acid of 3:1 vol. ratio) by varying amts. of acid, reaction temp., and reaction time. CNTs prepd. by an optimized reaction condition are found to be well-dispersed in the polyamide layer, which is confirmed from at. force microscopy, SEM, and Raman spectroscopy studies. The polyamide RO membranes contg. well-dispersed CNTs exhibit larger water flux values than polyamide membrane prepd. without any CNTs, although the salt rejection values of these membranes are close. Furthermore, the durability and chem. resistance against NaCl solns. of the membranes contg. CNTs are found to be improved compared with those of the membrane without CNTs. The high membrane performance (high water flux and salt rejection) and the improved stability of the polyamide membranes contg. CNTs are ascribed to the hydrophobic nanochannels of CNTs and well-dispersed states in the polyamide layers formed through the interactions between CNTs and polyamide in the active layers. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXpt1yktw%253D%253D&md5=25521bc63b132e81de78f23c22767182
• 64 Freger, V. Nanoscale Heterogeneity of Polyamide Membranes Formed by Interfacial Polymerization . Langmuir 2003 , 19 , 4791 – 4797 ,  DOI: 10.1021/la020920q 64 Nanoscale Heterogeneity of Polyamide Membranes Formed by Interfacial Polymerization Freger, Viatcheslav Langmuir ( 2003 ), 19 ( 11 ), 4791-4797 CODEN: LANGD5 ; ISSN: 0743-7463 . ( American Chemical Society ) The nanoscale structure of composite polyamide reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes was investigated by transmission electron microscopy and at. force microscopy. The study demonstrated that the polymer d. and charge are distributed across the active polyamide layer in a highly nonuniform fashion. The polyamide films appear to be built of a neg. charged outer layer sitting on top of an inner layer possessing a small pos. charge. This picture appears to be fairly general for all types of composite membranes and seems to reconcile previously reported contradictory exptl. facts concerning measurements of charge for this type of membrane. The sharp boundary between the layers roughly corresponds to the region of the highest polymer d., i.e., the actual selective barrier. The location of this barrier deep inside the RO films indicates that formation of the RO polyamide is not limited solely by monomer diffusion through the film, as was suggested previously, but by other factors as well. In the NF polyamide, the location of the boundary nearer toward the surface might suggest a larger role of the diffusion-limited regime in this type of membrane. Comparison of the morphol. of std. and high-flux RO membranes showed that the modified procedure used to manuf. the latter apparently results in a more open structure of the active layer, and hence increased surface roughness, and a smaller thickness of the densest barrier. This finding contradicts the currently held view that the high permeability of this type of membrane is a function of increased surface roughness. The results largely support a recently presented theor. model of polyamide membrane formation via interfacial polymn. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXjt1Kmurw%253D&md5=9c6309eb805c08055c7b4bef4e810d2e
• 65 Choi, W. ; Choi, J. ; Bang, J. ; Lee, J.-H. Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets on Polyamide Membranes for Durable Reverse-Osmosis Applications . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2013 , 5 , 12510 – 12519 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am403790s 65 Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets on Polyamide Membranes for Durable Reverse-Osmosis Applications Choi, Wansuk; Choi, Jungkyu; Bang, Joona; Lee, Jung-Hyun ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2013 ), 5 ( 23 ), 12510-12519 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) Improving membrane durability assocd. with fouling and chlorine resistance remains one of the major challenges in desalination membrane technol. Here, we demonstrate that attractive features of graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets such as high hydrophilicity, chem. robustness, and ultrafast water permeation can be harnessed for a dual-action barrier coating layer that enhances resistance to both fouling and chlorine-induced degrdn. of polyamide (PA) thin-film composite (TFC) membranes while preserving their sepn. performance. GO multi-layers were coated on the PA-TFC membrane surfaces via layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition of oppositely charged GO nanosheets. Consequently, it was shown that the conformal GO coating layer can increase the surface hydrophilicity and reduce the surface roughness, leading to the significantly improved antifouling performance against a protein foulant. It was also demonstrated that the chem. inert nature of GO nanosheets enables the GO coating layer to act as a chlorine barrier for the underlying PA membrane, resulting in a profound suppression of the membrane degrdn. in salt rejection upon chlorine exposure. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhslOms7nE&md5=43efa89b65e7fbfd4f1c22239ce53ed7
• 66 Wang, M. ; Wang, Z. ; Wang, X. ; Wang, S. ; Ding, W. ; Gao, C. Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Aquaporin Z-Incorporated Biomimetic Membranes for Water Purification . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015 , 49 , 3761 – 3768 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es5056337 66 Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Aquaporin Z-Incorporated Biomimetic Membranes for Water Purification Wang, Miaoqi; Wang, Zhining; Wang, Xida; Wang, Shuzheng; Ding, Wande; Gao, Congjie Environmental Science & Technology ( 2015 ), 49 ( 6 ), 3761-3768 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) We fabricated a biomimetic nanofiltration (NF) membrane by immobilizing an Aquaporin Z (AqpZ)-incorporated supported lipid bilayer (SLB) on a layer-by-layer (LbL) complex polyelectrolyte membrane to achieve excellent permeability and salt rejection with a high stability. The polyelectrolyte membranes were prepd. by LbL assembly of poly(ethylenimine) (PEI) with pos. charges and poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS) with neg. charges alternately on a porous hydrolyzed polyacrylonitrile (H-PAN) substrate. AqpZ-incorporated 1,2-dioleloyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC)/1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammo-nium-propane (chloride salt) (DOTAP) vesicles with pos. charges were deposited on the H-PAN/PEI/PSS polyelectrolytes membrane surface. The resulting biomimetic membrane exhibited a high flux of 22 L·m-2·h-1 (LMH), excellent MgCl2 rejection of ∼97% and NaCl rejection of ∼75% under an operation pressure of 0.4 MPa. Due to the attractive electrostatic interaction between SLB and the polyelectrolyte membrane, the biomimetic membrane showed satisfactory stability and durability as well as stable NF flux and rejection for at least 36 h. In addn., the AqpZ-contg. biomimetic membrane was immersed in a 0.24 mM (crit. micellar concn., CMC) Triton X-100 soln. for 5 min. The flux and rejection were slightly influenced by the Triton X-100 treatment. The current investigation demonstrated that the AqpZ-incorporated biomimetic membranes fabricated by the LbL method led to excellent sepn. performances and robust structures that withstand a high operation pressure for a relatively long time. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjsFCnsLs%253D&md5=1710cb738ff2df83da4aea752aebc108
• 67 Gu, J. ; Lee, S. ; Stafford, C. M. ; Lee, J. S. ; Choi, W. ; Kim, B. ; Baek, K. ; Chan, E. P. ; Chung, J. Y. ; Bang, J. Molecular Layer-by-layer Assembled Thin-film Composite Membranes for Water Desalination . Adv. Mater. 2013 , 25 , 4778 – 4782 ,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.201302030 67 Molecular Layer-by-Layer Assembled Thin-Film Composite Membranes for Water Desalination Gu, Joung-Eun; Lee, Seunghye; Stafford, Christopher M.; Lee, Jong Suk; Choi, Wansuk; Kim, Bo-Young; Baek, Kyung-Youl; Chan, Edwin P.; Chung, Jun Young; Bang, Joona; Lee, Jung-Hyun Advanced Materials (Weinheim, Germany) ( 2013 ), 25 ( 34 ), 4778-4782 CODEN: ADVMEW ; ISSN: 0935-9648 . ( Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ) We report on the design, construction, and performance of mol. layer-by-layer (mLbL) membranes and demonstrate that these materials exceed the performance of membranes synthesized through conventional interfacial polymn. The crit. step in realizing the mLbL membranes is that we apply an ultrathin interlayer atop the porous support to prevent the penetration of reactive monomer solns. into the support. We then conduct mLbL assembly using traditional monomers in RO membrane fabrication (i.e., trimesoyl chloride and m-phenylenediamine), which are rigid arom. monomers that display relatively low fractional free vol. upon network formation. The mLbL process produced highly selective polyamide layers with precisely-controlled thickness, minimal surface roughness, and well-defined chem. compn. As a result, only 15 cycles of mLbL assembly were needed to achieve the targeted NaCl rejection (R >98%) while the flux was ∼75% greater than a traditional interfacially polymd. polyamide membrane. The high salt rejection demonstrates that the structure of the mLbL selective layer is sufficiently similar to traditional interfacial polymn., while the reduced thickness of the selective layer (25 nm) equates to a reduced hydraulic resistance and shorter diffusive path length for water to pass through the membrane. We show that the reduced surface roughness and chem. homogeneity achieved by mLbL mitigated membrane fouling. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhtFSgt77I&md5=8b5e91decfc5c308b28a9752e91c6086
• 68 Stafford, C. M. Scalable Manufacturing of Layer-by-Layer Membranes for Water Purification . In Frontiers of Engineering: Reports on Leading-Edge Engineering from the 2016 Symposium ; National Academies Press : Washington, D.C. , 2017 ; pp 69 – 74 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 69 Alabi, A. ; AlHajaj, A. ; Cseri, L. ; Szekely, G. ; Budd, P. ; Zou, L. Review of Nanomaterials-Assisted Ion Exchange Membranes for Electromembrane Desalination . npj Clean Water 2018 , 1 , 10 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41545-018-0009-7 69 Review of nanomaterials-assisted ion exchange membranes for electromembrane desalination Alabi, Adetunji; Al Hajaj, Ahmed; Cseri, Levente; Szekely, Gyorgy; Budd, Peter; Zou, Linda npj Clean Water ( 2018 ), 1 ( 1 ), 10 CODEN: CWLACV ; ISSN: 2059-7037 . ( Nature Research ) A review. Abstr.: In order to address the increasing demand for fresh water due to accelerated social and economic growth in the world, water treatment technologies, such as desalination, have been rapidly developed in attempts to safeguard water security. Electromembrane desalination processes, such as electrodialysis and membrane capacitive deionization, belong to a category of desalination technologies, which involve the removal of ions from ionic solns. with the use of elec. charged membranes termed ion exchange membranes. The challenges assocd. with ion exchange membranes have drawn the attention of many researchers, who have investigated various approaches to enhance their properties. The incorporation of nanomaterials is one of the popular approaches employed. Much research on nanomaterials incorporated ion exchange membranes was conducted for the purpose of fuel cell applications rather than electromembrane desalination. This review reports on the advances in nanomaterials incorporated ion exchange membranes applicable to desalination. The nanomaterials employed in ion exchange membranes fabrication include carbon nanotubes, graphene-based nanomaterials, silica, titanium (IV) oxide, aluminum oxide, zeolite, iron (II, III) oxide, zinc oxide, and silver. The aims of this article are to provide a snap shot of the current status of nanomaterials incorporation in ion exchange membranes, to assess the status of nanomaterials-facilitated ion exchange membranes research for electromembrane desalination, and to stimulate progress in this area. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXkvVaktb0%253D&md5=2540b3e3fc3c22ea30973785369a962c
• 70 Wood, E. N. ; Tucker, J. H. ; Papastamataki, A. ; Caudle, D. ; Hock, R. ; Murphy, G. W. Electrochemical Demineralization of Water with Carbon Electrodes ; U.S. Department of the Interior : Washington, D.C. , 1965 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 71 Gupta, S. S. ; Islam, M. R. ; Pradeep, T. Capacitive Deionization (CDI): An Alternative Cost-Efficient Desalination Technique . Adv. Water Purif. Technol. 2019 , 165 – 202 ,  DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-814790-0.00007-7 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 72 Długołȩcki, P. ; van der Wal, A. Energy Recovery in Membrane Capacitive Deionization . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013 , 47 , 4904 – 4910 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es3053202 72 Energy Recovery in Membrane Capacitive Deionization Dlugolecki, Piotr; van der Wal, Albert Environmental Science & Technology ( 2013 ), 47 ( 9 ), 4904-4910 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) Membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI) is a water desalination technol. based on applying a cell voltage between 2 oppositely placed porous C electrodes. In front of each electrode, an ion-exchange membrane is positioned, and between them, a spacer is situated, which transports the water to be desalinated. We demonstrate for the 1st time that ≤83% of the energy used for charging the electrodes during desalination can be recovered in the regeneration step. This can be achieved by charging and discharging the electrodes in a controlled manner using const. current conditions. By implementing energy recovery as an integral part of the MCDI operation, the overall energy consumption can be as low as 0.26 kWh/m3 of produced water to reduce the salinity by 10mM, which means that MCDI is more energy efficient for treatment of brackish water than reverse osmosis. Nevertheless, the measured energy consumption is much higher than the thermodynamically calcd. values for desalinating the water, and therefore, a further improvement in thermodn. efficiency will be needed in the future. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXjslSnsLo%253D&md5=0fbcdf781b01bfcc1ee33eaf7dbbbad7
• 73 Gaikwad, M. S. ; Balomajumder, C. Capacitive Deionization for Desalination Using Nanostructured Electrodes . Anal. Lett. 2016 , 49 , 1641 – 1655 ,  DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2015.1118485 73 Capacitive Deionization for Desalination Using Nanostructured Electrodes Gaikwad, Mahendra S.; Balomajumder, Chandrajit Analytical Letters ( 2016 ), 49 ( 11 ), 1641-1655 CODEN: ANALBP ; ISSN: 0003-2719 . ( Taylor & Francis, Inc. ) A review. Capacitive deionization is an alternative approach for desalination using nanomaterial modified porous electrodes. The review presents the current progress of capacitive deionization electrodes prepd. from nanoparticle oxides, C nanotubes, graphene, C nanofibers, and nonporous C cloth. The synthesis and benefits of nanomaterial electrodes for capacitive deionization electrode are discussed. The application of these nanomaterials for capacitive deionization was shown to improve electrosorption and efficiency for salt removal compared to activated C electrodes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XpsFKmtLw%253D&md5=724627fb32fa1c181de899986f0472a8
• 74 Tang, K. ; Yiacoumi, S. ; Li, Y. ; Tsouris, C. Enhanced Water Desalination by Increasing the Electroconductivity of Carbon Powders for High-Performance Flow-Electrode Capacitive Deionization . ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2019 , 7 , 1085 – 1094 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b04746 74 Enhanced Water Desalination by Increasing the Electroconductivity of Carbon Powders for High-Performance Flow-Electrode Capacitive Deionization Tang, Kexin; Yiacoumi, Sotira; Li, Yuping; Tsouris, Costas ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering ( 2019 ), 7 ( 1 ), 1085-1094 CODEN: ASCECG ; ISSN: 2168-0485 . ( American Chemical Society ) Flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI) can be improved via enhanced charge transfer by increasing the flow-electrode (FE) cond. Since water is the main component of FE (>70%), the key to improving the electrocond. lies in the properties of carbon materials. In this work, three types of carbon powders, i.e., activated carbon (AC), mesoporous carbon, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), were employed in FEs to investigate the influence of powder properties on the FCDI performance. The morphol. and structure of powders and electrochem. behavior and rheol. of FEs were investigated to reveal the relationship between FE properties and desalination performance. Results show that, due to their unique electrosorption behavior, excellent cond., and enhanced cond. through a bridging effect, CNT-based FE (carbon loading: 3 wt %) achieved the fastest (8.3 mg s-1 m-2) and the most stable desalination (charge efficiency: 93.3%). A faster desalination (13.2 mg s-1 m-2), due to significantly improved electrocond. (13.2 times) with only a slight viscosity increase (1.1 times), was achieved by adding CNTs into 6.91 wt % AC-based FE for a 7.41 wt % total carbon concn. This study highlights the importance of the intrinsic properties of carbon materials, esp. electrocond., in promoting FCDI desalination performance. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXisVOitr3E&md5=b29c0d193ecc8068ca9fadc3e331759b
• 75 Jeon, S. ; Park, H. ; Yeo, J. ; Yang, S. ; Cho, C. H. ; Han, M. H. ; Kim, D. K. Desalination via a New Membrane Capacitive Deionization Process Utilizing Flow-Electrodes . Energy Environ. Sci. 2013 , 6 , 1471 ,  DOI: 10.1039/c3ee24443a 75 Desalination via a new membrane capacitive deionization process utilizing flow-electrodes Jeon, Sung-il; Park, Hong-ran; Yeo, Jeong-gu; Yang, Seung Cheol; Cho, Churl Hee; Han, Moon Hee; Kim, Dong Kook Energy & Environmental Science ( 2013 ), 6 ( 5 ), 1471-1475 CODEN: EESNBY ; ISSN: 1754-5706 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) A capacitive deionization process utilizing flow-electrodes (FCDI) was designed and evaluated for use in seawater desalination. The FCDI cell exhibited excellent removal efficiency (95%) with respect to an aq. NaCl soln. (salt concn.: 32.1 g L-1), demonstrating that the FCDI process could effectively overcome the limitations of typical CDI processes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXmvVensrg%253D&md5=0c0529fd54ef7a33903d3e3505aa0b70
• 76 Abe, Y. Physical State of the Very Early Earth . Lithos 1993 , 30 , 223 – 235 ,  DOI: 10.1016/0024-4937(93)90037-D There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 77 Olivier, J. Fog-Water Harvesting along the West Coast of South Africa: A Feasibility Study . Water SA 2002 , 28 , 349 – 360 ,  DOI: 10.4314/wsa.v28i4.4908 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 78 Tu, Y. ; Wang, R. ; Zhang, Y. ; Wang, J. Progress and Expectation of Atmospheric Water Harvesting . Joule 2018 , 2 , 1452 – 1475 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2018.07.015 78 Progress and expectation of atmospheric water harvesting Tu, Yaodong; Wang, Ruzhu; Zhang, Yannan; Wang, Jiayun Joule ( 2018 ), 2 ( 8 ), 1452-1475 CODEN: JOULBR ; ISSN: 2542-4351 . ( Cell Press ) A review. Even if people live in an arid desert, they know that plenty of water exists in the air they breathe. However, the reality tells us the atm. water cannot help to slake the world's thirst. Thus an important question occurs: what are the fundamental limits of atm. water harvesting that can be achieved in typical arid and semi-arid areas. Here, through a thorough review on the present advances of atm. water-harvesting technologies, we identify the achievements that have been acquired and evaluate the challenges and barriers that retard their applications. Lastly, we clarify our perspectives on how to search for a simple, scalable, yet cost-effective way to produce atm. water for the community and forecast the application of atm. water harvesting in evaporative cooling, such as electronic cooling, power plant cooling, and passive building cooling. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsFGjs7fF&md5=89041c97719475f5cc31c945db32a7f4
• 79 Nørgaard, T. ; Dacke, M. Fog-Basking Behaviour and Water Collection Efficiency in Namib Desert Darkling Beetles . Front. Zool. 2010 , 7 , 23 ,  DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-7-23 79 Fog-basking behaviour and water collection efficiency in Namib Desert Darkling beetles Norgaard Thomas; Dacke Marie Frontiers in zoology ( 2010 ), 7 ( ), 23 ISSN: . BACKGROUND: In the Namib Desert fog represents an alternative water source. This is utilised by Darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae) that employ different strategies for obtaining the fog water. Some dig trenches in the sand, while others use their own bodies as fog collectors assuming a characteristic fog-basking stance. Two beetle species from the genus Onymacris have been observed to fog-bask on the ridges of the sand dunes. These beetles all have smooth elytra surfaces, while another species with elytra covered in bumps is reported to have specialised adaptations facilitating water capture by fog-basking. To resolve if these other beetles also fog-bask, and if an elytra covered in bumps is a more efficient fog water collector than a smooth one, we examined four Namib Desert beetles; the smooth Onymacris unguicularis and O. laeviceps and the bumpy Stenocara gracilipes and Physasterna cribripes. Here we describe the beetles' fog-basking behaviour, the details of their elytra structures, and determine how efficient their dorsal surface areas are at harvesting water from fog. RESULTS: The beetles differ greatly in size. The largest P. cribripes has a dorsal surface area that is 1.39, 1.56, and 2.52 times larger than O. unguicularis, O. laeviceps, and S. gracilipes, respectively. In accordance with earlier reports, we found that the second largest O. unguicularis is the only one of the four beetles that assumes the head standing fog-basking behaviour, and that fog is necessary to trigger this behaviour. No differences were seen in the absolute amounts of fog water collected on the dorsal surface areas of the different beetles. However, data corrected according to the sizes of the beetles revealed differences. The better fog water harvesters were S. gracilipes and O. unguicularis while the large P. cribripes was the poorest. Examination of the elytra microstructures showed clear structural differences, but the elytra of all beetles were found to be completely hydrophobic. CONCLUSIONS: The differences in fog water harvesting efficiency by the dorsal surface areas of beetles with very different elytra surface structures were minor. We therefore conclude that the fog-basking behaviour itself is a more important factor than structural adaptations when O. unguicularis collect water from fog. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3cjjsVOgtg%253D%253D&md5=4f16e368db54ef1c13f21d79ce2f8b63
• 80 Zheng, Y. ; Bai, H. ; Huang, Z. ; Tian, X. ; Nie, F.-Q. ; Zhao, Y. ; Zhai, J. ; Jiang, L. Directional Water Collection on Wetted Spider Silk . Nature 2010 , 463 , 640 – 643 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nature08729 80 Directional water collection on wetted spider silk Zheng, Yongmei; Bai, Hao; Huang, Zhongbing; Tian, Xuelin; Nie, Fu-Qiang; Zhao, Yong; Zhai, Jin; Jiang, Lei Nature (London, United Kingdom) ( 2010 ), 463 ( 7281 ), 640-643 CODEN: NATUAS ; ISSN: 0028-0836 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Many biol. surfaces in both the plant and animal kingdom possess unusual structural features at the micro- and nanometer-scale that control their interaction with water and hence wettability. An intriguing example is provided by desert beetles, which use micrometre-sized patterns of hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions on their backs to capture water from humid air. As anyone who has admired spider webs adorned with dew drops will appreciate, spider silk is also capable of efficiently collecting water from air. Here we show that the water-collecting ability of the capture silk of the cribellate spider Uloborus walckenaerius is the result of a unique fiber structure that forms after wetting, with the wet-rebuilt' fibers characterized by periodic spindle-knots made of random nanofibrils and sepd. by joints made of aligned nanofibrils. These structural features result in a surface energy gradient between the spindle-knots and the joints and also in a difference in Laplace pressure, with both factors acting together to achieve continuous condensation and directional collection of water drops around spindle-knots. Submillimetre-sized liq. drops have been driven by surface energy gradients or a difference in Laplace pressure, but until now neither force on its own has been used to overcome the larger hysteresis effects that make the movement of micrometre-sized drops more difficult. By tapping into both driving forces, spider silk achieves this task. Inspired by this finding, we designed artificial fibers that mimic the structural features of silk and exhibit its directional water-collecting ability. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhsVygur8%253D&md5=2b9bb22cd265b2e566f79f2a003928d6
• 81 Ghosh, A. ; Beaini, S. ; Zhang, B. J. ; Ganguly, R. ; Megaridis, C. M. Enhancing Dropwise Condensation through Bioinspired Wettability Patterning . Langmuir 2014 , 30 , 13103 – 13115 ,  DOI: 10.1021/la5028866 81 Enhancing Dropwise Condensation through Bioinspired Wettability Patterning Ghosh, Aritra; Beaini, Sara; Zhang, Bong June; Ganguly, Ranjan; Megaridis, Constantine M. Langmuir ( 2014 ), 30 ( 43 ), 13103-13115 CODEN: LANGD5 ; ISSN: 0743-7463 . ( American Chemical Society ) Dropwise condensation (DWC) heat transfer depends strongly on the max. diam. (Dmax) of condensate droplets departing from the condenser surface. This study presents a facile technique implemented to gain control of Dmax in DWC within vapor/air atmospheres. We demonstrate how this approach can enhance the corresponding heat transfer rate by harnessing the capillary forces in the removal of the condensate from the surface. We examine various hydrophilic-superhydrophilic patterns, which, resp., sustain and combine DWC and film-wise condensation on the substrate. The material system uses laser-patterned masking and chem. etching to achieve the desired wettability contrast and does not employ any hydrophobizing agent. By applying alternating straight parallel strips of hydrophilic (contact angle ∼78°) mirror-finish aluminum and superhydrophilic regions (etched aluminum) on the condensing surface, we show that the av. max. droplet size on the less-wettable domains is nearly 42% of the width of the corresponding strips. An overall improvement in the condensate collection rate, up to 19% (as compared to the control case of DWC on mirror-finish aluminum) was achieved by using an interdigitated superhydrophilic track pattern (on the mirror-finish hydrophilic surface) inspired by the vein network of plant leaves. The bioinspired interdigitated pattern is found to outperform the straight hydrophilic-superhydrophilic pattern design, particularly under higher humidity conditions in the presence of noncondensable gases (NCG), a condition that is more challenging for maintaining sustained DWC. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhslagtb%252FO&md5=39ae55930583d2e6ca9ae2a863f332fe
• 82 Zhu, H. ; Yang, F. ; Li, J. ; Guo, Z. High-Efficiency Water Collection on Biomimetic Material with Superwettable Patterns . Chem. Commun. 2016 , 52 , 12415 – 12417 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C6CC05857D 82 High-efficiency water collection on biomimetic material with superwettable patterns Zhu, Hai; Yang, Fuchao; Li, Jing; Guo, Zhiguang Chemical Communications (Cambridge, United Kingdom) ( 2016 ), 52 ( 84 ), 12415-12417 CODEN: CHCOFS ; ISSN: 1359-7345 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) A superhydrophilic surface with two superhydrophobic circular patterns was fabricated via a simple and rapid route, showing outstanding fog harvesting properties with a water collection rate (WCR) of 1316.9 mg h-1 cm-2. Water collection can be repeated on the sample 10 times without obvious change in the WCR. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsVCnt7jJ&md5=12578e309f6a8ba165d708d4cf43aeb7
• 83 Feng, X. J. ; Jiang, L. Design and Creation of Superwetting/Antiwetting Surfaces . Adv. Mater. 2006 , 18 , 3063 – 3078 ,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.200501961 83 Design and creation of superwetting/antiwetting surfaces Feng, Xinjian; Jiang, Lei Advanced Materials (Weinheim, Germany) ( 2006 ), 18 ( 23 ), 3063-3078 CODEN: ADVMEW ; ISSN: 0935-9648 . ( Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ) A review. Recent achievements in the construction of surfaces with special wettabilities, such as superhydrophobicity, superhydrophilicity, superoleophobicity, superoleophilicity, superamphiphilicity, superamphiphobicity, superhydrophobicity/superoleophilicity, and reversible switching between superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity, are presented. Particular attention is paid to superhydrophobic surfaces created via various methods and surfaces with reversible superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity that are driven by various kinds of external stimuli. The control of the surface micro-/nanostructure and the chem. compn. is crit. for these special properties. These surfaces with controllable wettability are of great importance for both fundamental research and practical applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXit1Cjug%253D%253D&md5=50861b17f86b2af8f80815c9715425f0
• 84 Wen, R. ; Li, Q. ; Wu, J. ; Wu, G. ; Wang, W. ; Chen, Y. ; Ma, X. ; Zhao, D. ; Yang, R. Hydrophobic Copper Nanowires for Enhancing Condensation Heat Transfer . Nano Energy 2017 , 33 , 177 – 183 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.01.018 84 Hydrophobic copper nanowires for enhancing condensation heat transfer Wen, Rongfu; Li, Qian; Wu, Jiafeng; Wu, Gensheng; Wang, Wei; Chen, Yunfei; Ma, Xuehu; Zhao, Dongliang; Yang, Ronggui Nano Energy ( 2017 ), 33 ( ), 177-183 CODEN: NEANCA ; ISSN: 2211-2855 . ( Elsevier Ltd. ) Rapid droplet removal by regulating surface topol. and wettability has been exploited in nature and it is of great importance for a broad range of technol. applications including water desalination and harvesting, power generation, environmental control, and thermal management. Recently there have been tremendous efforts in developing nanostructured surfaces for wettability control and enhancing phase-change heat transfer. However, the tendency of condensed droplets to form as pinned state rather than mobile mode on the nanostructured surfaces is likely to limit the applicability of such functionalized surfaces for condensation heat transfer enhancement. Here, we demonstrate enhanced condensation heat transfer on a nanowired hydrophobic copper surface where mol. permeation of water vapor into the sepns. between nanowires is greatly decreased, rendering spatial control on droplet nucleation and wetting dynamics. We show exptl. and theor. that this novel strategy allows to achieve a 100% higher overall heat flux over a broadened surface subcooling range, up to 24 K, due to highly efficient droplet jumping compared to the state-of-the-art hydrophobic surfaces. These findings reveal that the droplet behaviors and condensation modes can be regulated by spatially controlling the droplet nucleation events on the nanowired surfaces, which paves the way for the design of nanostructured surfaces for enhanced phase-change heat transfer. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhvFylurc%253D&md5=5f0a6bb7b8ede97e0cffe1a38734e3d6
• 85 Attinger, D. ; Frankiewicz, C. ; Betz, A. R. ; Schutzius, T. M. ; Ganguly, R. ; Das, A. ; Kim, C.-J. ; Megaridis, C. M. Surface Engineering for Phase Change Heat Transfer: A Review . MRS Energy Sustain. 2014 , 1 , E4 ,  DOI: 10.1557/mre.2014.9 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 86 Zhang, J. ; Han, Y. Shape-Gradient Composite Surfaces: Water Droplets Move Uphill . Langmuir 2007 , 23 , 6136 – 6141 ,  DOI: 10.1021/la063376k 86 Shape-Gradient Composite Surfaces: Water Droplets Move Uphill Zhang, Jilin; Han, Yanchun Langmuir ( 2007 ), 23 ( 11 ), 6136-6141 CODEN: LANGD5 ; ISSN: 0743-7463 . ( American Chemical Society ) The approach of water droplets self-running horizontally and uphill without any other forces was proposed by patterning the shape-gradient hydrophilic material (i.e., mica) to the hydrophobic matrix (i.e., wax or low-d. polyethylene (LDPE)). The shape-gradient composite surface is the best one to drive water droplet self-running both at the high velocity and the maximal distance among four different geometrical mica/wax composite surfaces. The driving force for the water droplets self-running includes: (1) the great difference in wettability of surface materials, (2) the low contact angle hysteresis of surface materials, and (3) the space limitation of the shape-gradient transportation area. Furthermore, the av. velocity and the maximal distance of the self-running were mainly detd. by the gradient angle (α), the droplet vol., and the difference of the contact angle hysteresis. Theor. anal. is in agreement with the exptl. results. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXksVSmur8%253D&md5=898738651e2b471f3097d59a6a354933
• 87 Hou, Y. P. ; Feng, S. L. ; Dai, L. M. ; Zheng, Y. M. Droplet Manipulation on Wettable Gradient Surfaces with Micro-/Nano-Hierarchical Structure . Chem. Mater. 2016 , 28 , 3625 – 3629 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b01544 87 Droplet Manipulation on Wettable Gradient Surfaces with Micro-/Nano-Hierarchical Structure Hou, Yong P.; Feng, Shi L.; Dai, Li M.; Zheng, Yong M. Chemistry of Materials ( 2016 ), 28 ( 11 ), 3625-3629 CODEN: CMATEX ; ISSN: 0897-4756 . ( American Chemical Society ) The materials with an ability to control the movement of droplet via wettable gradient surface have attracted significant interest for promising applications in microfluidics, chem. sensors, bio-mol. interactions, electro-anal. chem., etc. In this study, we realize the controlled self-propelled motion of droplets by simply improved electrodeposition method. The results indicate that, during one-step cathodic deposition process, not only could the wettable gradient be formed via the gradients of surface geometrical structure and chem. compn., but micro-/nano-hierarchical structure is prepd. by depositing nano copper particles on the surface of stainless steel mesh. Accordingly, various wettable gradient surfaces with low contact angle hysteresis could be fabricated easily. On such surfaces (in the absence of fluorinated chems.), not only a droplet could move along given direction but also two droplets move away from one another. More importantly, the movement distance could be precisely predicted by the force anal. and controlled by the initial position of the droplet and/or the magnitude of the wettable gradient, which should have important implications to both fundamental research and practical applications, ranging from smart materials through microfluidics to biomedical devices. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xot1Omtbc%253D&md5=fd09f7b7f2b4bc7d55e3ea914804c17e
• 88 Peng, S. ; Bhushan, B. Mechanically Durable Superoleophobic Aluminum Surfaces with Microstep and Nanoreticula Hierarchical Structure for Self-Cleaning and Anti-Smudge Properties . J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2016 , 461 , 273 – 284 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2015.09.027 88 Mechanically durable superoleophobic aluminum surfaces with microstep and nanoreticula hierarchical structure for self-cleaning and anti-smudge properties Peng, Shan; Bhushan, Bharat Journal of Colloid and Interface Science ( 2016 ), 461 ( ), 273-284 CODEN: JCISA5 ; ISSN: 0021-9797 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) Superoleophobic Al surfaces are of interest for self-cleaning, anti-smudge (fingerprint resistance), anti-fouling, and corrosion resistance applications. In the published literature on superoleophobic Al surfaces, mech. durability, self-cleaning, and anti-smudge properties data are lacking. Microstep structure has often been used to prep. superhydrophobic Al surfaces which produce the microstructure. The nanoreticula structure also was used, and is reported to be able to trap air-pockets, which are desirable for a high contact angle. The microstep and nanoreticula structures were produced on Al surfaces to form a hierarchical micro/nanostructure by a simple 2-step chem. etching process. The hierarchical structure, when modified with fluorosilane, made the surface superoleophobic. The effect of nanostructure, microstructure, and hierarchical structure on wettability and durability were studied and compared. The superoleophobic Al surfaces are wear resistant, self-cleaning, and have anti-smudge and corrosion resistance properties. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsFertLjI&md5=e5a3ec866a779e17e992046f3c261431
• 89 Kim, H. ; Yang, S. ; Rao, S. R. ; Narayanan, S. ; Kapustin, E. A. ; Furukawa, H. ; Umans, A. S. ; Yaghi, O. M. ; Wang, E. N. Water Harvesting from Air with Metal-Organic Frameworks Powered by Natural Sunlight . Science 2017 , 356 , 430 – 434 ,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aam8743 89 Water harvesting from air with metal-organic frameworks powered by natural sunlight Kim, Hyunho; Yang, Sungwoo; Rao, Sameer R.; Narayanan, Shankar; Kapustin, Eugene A.; Furukawa, Hiroyasu; Umans, Ari S.; Yaghi, Omar M.; Wang, Evelyn N. Science (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2017 ), 356 ( 6336 ), 430-434 CODEN: SCIEAS ; ISSN: 0036-8075 . ( American Association for the Advancement of Science ) Atm. water is a resource equiv. to -10% of all fresh water in lakes on Earth. However, an efficient process for capturing and delivering water from air, esp. at low humidity levels (down to 20%), has not been developed. We report the design and demonstration of a device based on a porous metal-org. framework {M0F-801, [Zr604(0H)4(fumarate)6]} that captures water from the atm. at ambient conditions by using low-grade heat from natural sunlight at a flux of less than 1 sun (1 kW per square meter). This device is capable of harvesting 2.8 L of water per kg of MOF daily at relative humidity levels as low as 20% and requires no addnl. input of energy. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXmvFejtLo%253D&md5=14666dd987441772addcc6bf9c70b02a
• 90 Fujishima, A. ; Honda, K. Electrochemical Photolysis of Water at a Semiconductor Electrode . Nature 1972 , 238 , 37 – 38 ,  DOI: 10.1038/238037a0 90 Electrochemical photolysis of water at a semiconductor electrode Fujishima, Akira; Honda, Kenichi Nature (London, United Kingdom) ( 1972 ), 238 ( 5358 ), 37-8 CODEN: NATUAS ; ISSN: 0028-0836 . For electrochem. decompn. of H2O, a p.d. of >1.23 V is necessary between the anode and the cathode. This p.d. is equal to the energy of radiation with wavelength of ∼1000 nm. This energy, in the form of visible light, can be used effectively in an electrochem. system to decomp. H2O. A novel type of electrochem. cell was developed, in which a TiO2 electrode was connected with a Pt-black electrode through an external load. The direction of current revealed that oxidn. occurred at the TiO2 electrode and redn. at the Pt-black electrode. To increase the efficiency of the process, more reducible species, such as dissolved O2 or Fe3+, must be added in the Pt electrode compartment. The use of a p-type semiconductor electrode instead of Pt leads to more effective electrochem. photolysis of H2O. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaE38XltVykurw%253D&md5=71f39843802b5cdb5f7cb0deb7f0c63c
• 91 Hashimoto, K. ; Irie, H. ; Fujishima, A. TiO 2 Photocatalysis: A Historical Overview and Future Prospects . Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2005 , 44 , 8269 – 8285 ,  DOI: 10.1143/JJAP.44.8269 91 TiO2 photocatalysis: A historical overview and future prospects Hashimoto, Kazuhito; Irie, Hiroshi; Fujishima, Akira Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, Part 1: Regular Papers, Brief Communications & Review Papers ( 2005 ), 44 ( 12 ), 8269-8285 CODEN: JAPNDE ISSN: . ( Japan Society of Applied Physics ) A review. Photocatalysis has recently become a common word and various products using photocatalytic functions have been commercialized. Among many candidates for photocatalysts, TiO2 is almost the only material suitable for industrial use at present and also probably in the future. This is because TiO2 has the most efficient photoactivity, the highest stability and the lowest cost. More significantly, it has beer used as a white pigment from ancient times, and thus, its safety to humans and the environment is guaranteed by history. There are two types of photochem. reaction proceeding on a TiO2 surface when irradiated with UV light. One includes the photoinduced redox reactions of adsorbed substances, and the other is the photo-induced hydrophilic conversion of TiO2 itself. The former type has been known since the early part of the 20th century, but the latter was found only at the end of the century. The combination of these two functions has opened up various novel applications of TiO2, particularly in the field of building materials. The authors review the progress of the scientific research on TiO2 photocatalysis as well as its industrial applications, and describe future prospects of this field mainly based on the present authors' work. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28XjslGkug%253D%253D&md5=530077a085def7bc7a20e830cc4cf71d
• 92 Wu, T. ; Liu, G. ; Zhao, J. C. ; Hidaka, H. ; Serpone, N. Self-Photosensitized Oxidative Transformation of Rhodamine B under Visible Light Irradiation in Aqueous TiO 2 Dispersions . J. Phys. Chem. B 1998 , 102 , 5845 – 5851 ,  DOI: 10.1021/jp980922c 92 Photoassisted Degradation of Dye Pollutants. V. Self-Photosensitized Oxidative Transformation of Rhodamine B under Visible Light Irradiation in Aqueous TiO2 Dispersions Wu, Taixing; Liu, Guangming; Zhao, Jincai; Hidaka, Hisao; Serpone, Nick Journal of Physical Chemistry B ( 1998 ), 102 ( 30 ), 5845-5851 CODEN: JPCBFK ; ISSN: 1089-5647 . ( American Chemical Society ) COD and proton NMR, UV-vis, and spin trapping EPR spectroscopic evidence is presented to demonstrate the inverse photosensitized oxidative transformation of tetraethylated rhodamine (RhB) under visible illumination of aq. titania dispersions. Both de-ethylation and oxidative degrdn. take place with the former proceeding in a stepwise manner to yield mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-de-ethylated rhodamine species. Intermediates present after each de-ethylation step remain in a fast dynamic equil. between the titania particle surface and the bulk soln. The concn. of •OH radicals, formed from the inverse photosensitization process through the superoxide radical anion, increases upon addn. of the anionic dodecylbenzene sulfonate surfactant (DBS) because a larger no. of RhB excited states are able to inject an electron into the conduction band of the TiO2 particles. Also, intermediates that can no longer absorb the visible light, (i.e., once the dye soln. is completely bleached) are unable to drive the photosensitized degrdn. further. A mechanism for the competitive photoreactions between degrdn. and de-ethylation is described, in which de-ethylation (ζ ∼0.0035) is mostly a surface occurring process, whereas degrdn. (ζ ∼0.0015) of the RhB chromophore is predominantly a soln. bulk process. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1cXkt1CqtLo%253D&md5=b60eb6592c8ae5d15952e8ee4bec94e7
• 93 Chakraborty, I. ; Pradeep, T. Atomically Precise Clusters of Noble Metals: Emerging Link between Atoms and Nanoparticles . Chem. Rev. 2017 , 117 , 8208 – 8271 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00769 93 Atomically Precise Clusters of Noble Metals: Emerging Link between Atoms and Nanoparticles Chakraborty, Indranath; Pradeep, Thalappil Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2017 ), 117 ( 12 ), 8208-8271 CODEN: CHREAY ; ISSN: 0009-2665 . ( American Chemical Society ) A review. Atomically precise pieces of matter of nanometer dimensions composed of noble metals are new categories of materials with many unusual properties. Over 100 mols. of this kind with formulas such as Au25(SR)18, Au38(SR)24, and Au102(SR)44 as well as Ag25(SR)18, Ag29(S2R)12, and Ag44(SR)30 (often with a few counterions to compensate charges) are known now. They can be made reproducibly with robust synthetic protocols, resulting in colored solns., yielding powders or crystals. They are distinctly different from nanoparticles in their spectroscopic properties such as optical absorption and emission, showing well-defined features, just like mols. They show isotopically resolved mol. ion peaks in mass spectra and provide diverse information when examd. through multiple instrumental methods. Most important of these properties is luminescence, often in the visible-near-IR window, useful in biol. applications. Luminescence in the visible region, esp. by clusters protected with proteins, with a large Stokes shift, has been used for various sensing applications, down to a few tens of mols./ions, in air and water. Catalytic properties of clusters, esp. oxidn. of org. substrates, have been examd. Materials science of these systems presents numerous possibilities and is fast evolving. Computational insights have given reasons for their stability and unusual properties. The mol. nature of these materials is unequivocally manifested in a few recent studies such as intercluster reactions forming precise clusters. These systems manifest properties of the core, of the ligand shell, as well as that of the integrated system. They are better described as protected mols. or aspicules, where aspis means shield and cules refers to mols., implying that they are "shielded mols.". In order to understand their diverse properties, a nomenclature has been introduced with which it is possible to draw their structures with positional labels on paper, with some training. Research in this area is captured here, based on the publications available up to Dec. 2016. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXpt1Cnu70%253D&md5=a4715fc394d2a15e47d448929ad223d7
• 94 AbdulHalim, L. G. ; Bootharaju, M. S. ; Tang, Q. ; Del Gobbo, S. ; AbdulHalim, R. G. ; Eddaoudi, M. ; Jiang, D. ; Bakr, O. M. Ag 29 (BDT) 12 (TPP) 4 : A Tetravalent Nanocluster . J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015 , 137 , 11970 – 11975 ,  DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b04547 94 Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4: A Tetravalent Nanocluster AbdulHalim, Lina G.; Bootharaju, Megalamane S.; Tang, Qing; Del Gobbo, Silvano; AbdulHalim, Rasha G.; Eddaoudi, Mohamed; Jiang, De-en; Bakr, Osman M. Journal of the American Chemical Society ( 2015 ), 137 ( 37 ), 11970-11975 CODEN: JACSAT ; ISSN: 0002-7863 . ( American Chemical Society ) The bottom-up assembly of nanoparticles into diverse ordered solids is a challenge because it requires nanoparticles, which are often quasi-spherical, to have interaction anisotropy akin to atoms and mols. Typically, anisotropy was introduced by changing the shape of the inorg. nanoparticle core. The design, self-assembly, optical properties, and total structural detn. of Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4, an atomically precise tetravalent nanocluster (NC) (BDT, 1,3-benzenedithiol; TPP, PPh3) is presented. It features 4 unique tetrahedrally sym. binding surface sites facilitated by the supramol. assembly of 12 BDT (wide footprint bidentate thiols) in the ligand shell. When each of these sites was selectively functionalized by a single phosphine ligand, particle stability, synthetic yield, and the propensity to self-assemble into macroscopic crystals increased. The solid crystd. NCs have a substantially narrowed optical band gap compared to that of the soln. state, suggesting strong interparticle electronic coupling occurs in the solid state. Crystallog. data are given. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtVKit7vL&md5=cef0313247c38bda10e657fdc4b1605d
• 95 Habeeb Muhammed, M. A. ; Verma, P. K. ; Pal, S. K. ; Retnakumari, A. ; Koyakutty, M. ; Nair, S. ; Pradeep, T. Luminescent Quantum Clusters of Gold in Bulk by Albumin-Induced Core Etching of Nanoparticles: Metal Ion Sensing, Metal-Enhanced Luminescence, and Biolabeling . Chem. - Eur. J. 2010 , 16 , 10103 – 10112 ,  DOI: 10.1002/chem.201000841 95 Luminescent Quantum Clusters of Gold in Bulk by Albumin-Induced Core Etching of Nanoparticles: metal Ion Sensing, Metal-Enhanced Luminescence, and Biolabeling Habeeb Muhammed, Madathumpady Abubaker; Verma, Pramod Kumar; Pal, Samir Kumar; Retnakumari, Archana; Koyakutty, Manzoor; Nair, Shantikumar; Pradeep, Thalappil Chemistry - A European Journal ( 2010 ), 16 ( 33 ), 10103-10112, S10103/1-S10103/8 CODEN: CEUJED ; ISSN: 0947-6539 . ( Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ) The synthesis of a luminescent quantum cluster (QC) of gold with a quantum yield of ∼4 % is reported. It was synthesized in gram quantities by the core etching of mercaptosuccinic acid protected gold nanoparticles by bovine serum albumin (BSA), abbreviated as AuqC@BSA. The cluster was characterized and a core of Au38 was assigned tentatively from mass spectrometric anal. Luminescence of the QC is exploited as a "turn-off" sensor for Cu2+ ions and a "turn-on" sensor for glutathione detection. Metal-enhanced luminescence (MEL) of this QC in the presence of silver nanoparticles is demonstrated and a ninefold max. enhancement is seen. This is the first report of the observation of MEL from QCs. Folic acid conjugated AuqC@BSA was internalized to a significant extent by oral carcinoma KB cells through folic acid mediated endocytosis. The inherent luminescence of the internalized AuqC@BSA was used in cell imaging. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhtV2qsbzE&md5=a46e799647d16e2f805360781139b7ec
• 96 Ghosh, A. ; Jeseentharani, V. ; Ganayee, M. A. ; Hemalatha, R. G. ; Chaudhari, K. ; Vijayan, C. ; Pradeep, T. Approaching Sensitivity of Tens of Ions Using Atomically Precise Cluster-Nanofiber Composites . Anal. Chem. 2014 , 86 , 10996 – 11001 ,  DOI: 10.1021/ac502779r 96 Approaching Sensitivity of Tens of Ions Using Atomically Precise Cluster-Nanofiber Composites Ghosh, Atanu; Jeseentharani, Vedhakkani; Ganayee, Mohd Azhardin; Hemalatha, Rani Gopalakrishnan; Chaudhari, Kamalesh; Vijayan, Cherianath; Pradeep, Thalappil Analytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2014 ), 86 ( 22 ), 10996-11001 CODEN: ANCHAM ; ISSN: 0003-2700 . ( American Chemical Society ) A new methodol. was demonstrated for ultratrace detection of Hg2+, working at the limit of a few tens of metal ions. Bright, red luminescent atomically precise gold clusters, Au@BSA (BSA, bovine serum albumin), coated on Nylon-6 nanofibers were used for these measurements. A green emitting fluorophore, FITC (fluorescein isothiocyanate), whose luminescence is insensitive to Hg2+ was precoated on the fiber. Exposure to mercury quenched the red emission completely, and the green emission of the fiber appeared which was obsd. under dark field fluorescence microscopy. For the sensing expt. at the limit of sensitivity, the authors used individual nanofibers. Quenching due to Hg2+ ions was fast and uniform. Adaptation of such sensors to pH paper-like test-strips would make affordable water quality sensors at ultralow concns. a reality. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhsl2hsLbJ&md5=fb137d59f92c4b20a8fb81a9af34e6b0
• 97 Liang, G. ; Ren, F. ; Gao, H. ; Wu, Q. ; Zhu, F. ; Tang, B. Z. Bioinspired Fluorescent Nanosheets for Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Organic Pollutants in Water . ACS Sens. 2016 , 1 , 1272 – 1278 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.6b00530 97 Bioinspired Fluorescent Nanosheets for Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Organic Pollutants in Water Liang, Guodong; Ren, Feng; Gao, Haiyang; Wu, Qing; Zhu, Fangming; Tang, Ben Zhong ACS Sensors ( 2016 ), 1 ( 10 ), 1272-1278 CODEN: ASCEFJ ; ISSN: 2379-3694 . ( American Chemical Society ) Detection of org. pollutants in aq. media is crucial for guaranteeing water safety. Conventional methods for org. pollutant detection suffer from time-consuming operation procedures (on the order of hours) and expensive devices. Inspired by dog noses, we constructed self-assembled fluorescent nanosheets for rapid and sensitive detection of org. pollutants based on the grasp-report strategy. Tetraphenylethene decorated cyclodextrins (TPE-CDs) self-assembled into nanosheets with hydrophobic TPE layers sandwiched between 2 hydrophilic cyclodextrin layers. The hydrophobic cavity of the outer cyclodextrin layers grasped and collected org. pollutants, and subsequently transported them to the TPE layers and quenched the fluorescence emission of TPE layers. Such nanosheets allowed rapid detection of xylene (on the order of seconds) at a concn. of 5 μg/L. With the merits of the ease of synthesis, simple operation, and high sensitivity, the fluorescent nanomaterials provide a promising candidate for rapid and sensitive detection of org. pollutants. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsFWjtb3J&md5=2b775e7a4bf39f8ba4ad0e4739d47cc0
• 98 Fang, X. ; Chen, X. ; Liu, Y. ; Li, Q. ; Zeng, Z. ; Maiyalagan, T. ; Mao, S. Nanocomposites of Zr (IV)-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks and Reduced Graphene Oxide for Electrochemically Sensing Ciprofloxacin in Water . ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2019 , 2 , 2367 – 2376 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.9b00243 98 Nanocomposites of Zr(IV)-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks and Reduced Graphene Oxide for Electrochemically Sensing Ciprofloxacin in Water Fang, Xian; Chen, Xiaoyan; Liu, Ying; Li, Qiuju; Zeng, Zhongrun; Maiyalagan, T.; Mao, Shun ACS Applied Nano Materials ( 2019 ), 2 ( 4 ), 2367-2376 CODEN: AANMF6 ; ISSN: 2574-0970 . ( American Chemical Society ) Rapid detn. of trace antibiotics is crit. for environmental monitoring and the ecosystem. In this study, a sensitive and selective electrochem. sensor for ciprofloxacin (Cip) detection by anodic stripping voltammetry of Cu2+ is designed. Zr(IV)-based metal-org. framework (MOF) NH2-UiO-66 and reduced graphene oxide (RGO) composites are used as working electrodes, which have a large surface area with porous structure and high elec. cond. Because Cip can form a stable composite with Cu2+ due to the complexation reaction, the anodic stripping voltammetry method is used for Cip detn. with Cu deposition on the NH2-UiO-66/RGO-modified electrode. When Cip is present, the oxidization current of Cu2+ decreases significantly due to the formation of Cu2+-Cip complex. The prepd. NH2-UiO-66/RGO sensor can detect trace levels of Cip down to 6.67 nM with a sensitivity of 10.86 μA μM-1, and a linear working range from 0.02 to 1 μM, which is superior to other electrochem. Cip sensors reported previously. The sensor also shows high selectivity, reproducibility, and stability in Cip sensing. Meanwhile, the electrochem. sensor is capable to detect Cip in real water samples with satisfactory recoveries. The ultrasensitivity, rapid detection, and easy operation of the reported sensors present significant potentials for real-time anal. and monitoring of trace antibiotic contaminants in water. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXmvVentbY%253D&md5=9d0bb6407e7cbcc774fea30f2b6def09
• 99 Bhaskar, S. ; Ramamurthy, S. S. Mobile Phone-Based Picomolar Detection of Tannic Acid on Nd 2 O 3 Nanorod-Metal Thin-Film Interfaces . ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2019 , 2 , 4613 – 4625 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.9b00987 99 Mobile Phone-Based Picomolar Detection of Tannic Acid on Nd2O3 Nanorod-Metal Thin-Film Interfaces Bhaskar, Seemesh; Ramamurthy, Sai Sathish ACS Applied Nano Materials ( 2019 ), 2 ( 7 ), 4613-4625 CODEN: AANMF6 ; ISSN: 2574-0970 . ( American Chemical Society ) Surface plasmon-coupled emission (SPCE) has emerged as a potential sensing platform owing to its >50% fluorescence signal collection efficiency. Further advancements toward boosting the coupling efficiency can be achieved by relevant spacer and cavity engineering. Several composites of metal nanoparticles (NPs) have been used along with different templates such as low dimensional carbon substrates (1D, 2D, and 3D), ceramics, proteins, and DNA, to name a few. However, they fundamentally suffer from intrinsic parasitic losses in metals and require nonzero nanogaps between them and the metal thin film for hot-spot generation. Here, we report the first-time application and significance of high refractive index (HRI) dielec., rare earth, biocompatible Nd2O3 NPs as salient spacers to achieve template-free and metal NP-free, 118-fold emission enhancements in SPCE platform using a simple optical setup. The primary focus is on the effect of vol. and size of nanoenvironment on the coupling of Nd2O3 nanorods with silver (Ag) thin film. In addn. to this, we report a new cavity format as pseudo-MDHD (metal-dielec.-high refractive index dielec.) framework analogous to MDM (metal-dielec.-metal). This study also elaborates on the importance of Mie resonances and resonant light scattering in analyzing the emission enhancements obtained using spacer, cavity, and extended cavity interfaces. This work also demonstrates the first-time utility of cost-effective smartphone based SPCE studies for monitoring tannic acid (TA), a hazardous chem. in environmental water, at picomolar limit of detection (LOD) using HRI dielec. Nd2O3 nanorods. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtlWjt7%252FI&md5=7818ac2d16a69a324f51777ea11df18f
• 100 Fan, L. ; Zhao, G. ; Shi, H. ; Liu, M. ; Wang, Y. ; Ke, H. A Femtomolar Level and Highly Selective 17β-Estradiol Photoelectrochemical Aptasensor Applied in Environmental Water Samples Analysis . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014 , 48 , 5754 – 5761 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es405685y 100 A Femtomolar Level and Highly Selective 17β-estradiol Photoelectrochemical Aptasensor Applied in Environmental Water Samples Analysis Fan, Lifang; Zhao, Guohua; Shi, Huijie; Liu, Meichuan; Wang, Yanbin; Ke, Hongyang Environmental Science & Technology ( 2014 ), 48 ( 10 ), 5754-5761 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) Driven by the urgent demand of detg. low level of 17β-estradiol (E2) in environment, a novel and ultrasensitive photoelectrochem. (PEC) sensing platform based on anti-E2 aptamer as the biorecognition element was developed onto CdSe nanoparticles-modified TiO2 nanotube arrays. The designed PEC aptasensor exhibits excellent performances in detn. of E2 with a wide linear range of 0.05-15pM. The detection limit of 33fM is lower than the previous reports. The aptasensor manifests outstanding selectivity to E2 while used to detect 7 other endocrine disrupting compds. that have similar structure or coexist with E2. The superior sensing behavior toward E2 can be attributed to the appropriate PEC sensing interface resulting from the preponderant tubular microstructure and excellent photoelec. activity, the large packing d. of aptamer on the sensing interface, as well as the high affinity of the aptamer to E2. The PEC aptasensor was applied to the detn. of E2 in environmental water without complicate sample pretreatments, and the anal. results showed good agreement with that detd. by HPLC. Thus, a simple and rapid PEC technique for detection low level of E2 was established, with promising potential in monitoring environmental water pollution. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXmt1GjtLo%253D&md5=d786a7077f9b4da372211c0a61ebf845
• 101 Colvin, V. L. The Potential Environmental Impact of Engineered Nanomaterials . Nat. Biotechnol. 2003 , 21 , 1166 – 1170 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nbt875 101 The potential environmental impact of engineered nanomaterials Colvin, Vicki L. Nature Biotechnology ( 2003 ), 21 ( 10 ), 1166-1170 CODEN: NABIF9 ; ISSN: 1087-0156 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) With the increased presence of nanomaterials in com. products, a growing public debate is emerging on whether the environmental and social costs of nanotechnol. outweigh its many benefits. To date, few studies have investigated the toxicol. and environmental effects of direct and indirect exposure to nanomaterials and no clear guidelines exist to quantify these effects. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXns1Cltr8%253D&md5=5a0e7c0486d129d3707c9f3432e0dc2c
• 102 Kashiwada, S. Distribution of Nanoparticles in the See-Through Medaka ( Oryzias Latipes ) . Environ. Health Perspect. 2006 , 114 , 1697 – 1702 ,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.9209 102 Distribution of nanoparticles in the see-through medaka (Oryzias latipes) Kashiwada, Shosaku Environmental Health Perspectives ( 2006 ), 114 ( 11 ), 1697-1702 CODEN: EVHPAZ ; ISSN: 0091-6765 . ( U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services ) Objective: Because the environmental fate of manufd. nanoparticles is considered an emerging environmental concern, I used water-suspended fluorescent nanoparticles (solid latex soln.) to investigate the distribution of nanoparticles in the eggs and bodies of see-through medaka (Oryzias latipes). Results: Particles 39.4-42,000 nm in diam. were adsorbed to the chorion of medaka eggs and accumulated in the oil droplets; 474-nm particles had the highest bioavailability to eggs. Particles 39.4 nm in diam. shifted into the yolk and gallbladder during embryonic development. Adult medaka accumulated 39.4-nm nanoparticles mainly in the gills and intestine when exposed to a 10-mg/L nanoparticle soln. Nanoparticles were also detected in the brain, testis, liver, and blood. Concns. of nanoparticles in the blood of male and female medaka were 16.5 and 10.5 ng/mg blood protein, resp. These results suggest that nanoparticles are capable of penetrating the blood-brain barrier and that they eventually reach the brain. Salinity-dependent acute toxicity was obsd. in medaka eggs exposed for 24 h to nanoparticles. Conclusion: The bioavailability and toxicity of nanoparticles depend on environmental factors and multiple physicochem. properties. Further studies on the toxic effects of nanoparticles used in com. products and their environmental relevance, are necessary to define the risks and benefit of nanomaterial applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28XhtlWnu77I&md5=b22a101734a0252b33a5b2135ce15d80
• 103 Mauter, M. S. ; Zucker, I. ; Perreault, F. ; Werber, J. R. ; Kim, J.-H. ; Elimelech, M. The Role of Nanotechnology in Tackling Global Water Challenges . Nat. Sustain. 2018 , 1 , 166 – 175 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41893-018-0046-8 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 104 Mitrano, D. M. ; Ranville, J. F. ; Bednar, A. ; Kazor, K. ; Hering, A. S. ; Higgins, C. P. Tracking Dissolution of Silver Nanoparticles at Environmentally Relevant Concentrations in Laboratory, Natural, and Processed Waters Using Single Particle ICP-MS (SpICP-MS) . Environ. Sci.: Nano 2014 , 1 , 248 – 259 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C3EN00108C 104 Tracking dissolution of silver nanoparticles at environmentally relevant concentrations in laboratory, natural, and processed waters using single particle ICP-MS (spICP-MS) Mitrano, D. M.; Ranville, J. F.; Bednar, A.; Kazor, K.; Hering, A. S.; Higgins, C. P. Environmental Science: Nano ( 2014 ), 1 ( 3 ), 248-259 CODEN: ESNNA4 ; ISSN: 2051-8161 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) The interplay between engineered nanoparticle (ENP) size, surface area, and dissoln. rate is crit. in predicting ENP environmental behavior. Single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (spICP-MS) enables the study of ENPs at dil. (ng L-1) concns., facilitating the measurement of ENP behavior in natural systems. Here, the utility of using spICP-MS to quant. track the changes in particle diam. over time for 60 and 100 nm Ag ENPs (citrate, tannic acid, and polyvinylpyrrolidone coated) was demonstrated. Short term (<24 h) and intermediate term (1 wk) dissoln. was examd., with rates for all particles slowing by over an order of magnitude after approx. 24 h. Dissoln. was measured primarily as a decrease in particle diam. over time but direct measurement of Ag+(aq) was also completed for the expts. The importance of water chem. including chloride, sulfide, and dissolved org. carbon (DOC) was demonstrated, with higher concns. (1 mg L-1 Cl-, S2- and 20 mg L-1 DOC) resulting in negligible Ag ENP dissoln. over 24 h. Slight decreases in particle diam. (<10%) were obsd. with lower concns. of these parameters (stoichiometric Cl-, S2- and 2 mg L-1 DOC). Capping agents showed variable effects on dissoln. ENP behavior was also investigated in natural (moderately hard water, creek water) and tap water. Water chem. was the most significant factor affecting dissoln. Near complete dissoln. was obsd. in chlorinated tap water within several hours. Though modeled as first-order kinetic transformations, the dissoln. rates obsd. suggested the dissoln. kinetics might be significantly more complex. Two specific highlights of the benefits of using the spICP-MS technique to measure dissoln. in complex samples include 1) the measurement of primary particle size as the metric of dissoln. is more direct than attempting to measure the increase of Ag+ in soln. and 2) that this is possible even when known sinks for Ag+ exist in the system (e.g. DOC, sediments, biota, sampling container). >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXotFyqtb4%253D&md5=80895b03d493a5170fb110dfc1c22aed
• 105 Dobias, J. ; Bernier-Latmani, R. Silver Release from Silver Nanoparticles in Natural Waters . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013 , 47 , 4140 – 4146 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es304023p 105 Silver Release from Silver Nanoparticles in Natural Waters Dobias, J.; Bernier-Latmani, R. Environmental Science & Technology ( 2013 ), 47 ( 9 ), 4140-4146 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) are used increasingly in consumer products for their antimicrobial properties. This increased use raises ecol. concern because of the release of AgNPs into the environment. Once released, 0-valent Ag may be oxidized to Ag+ and the cation liberated or it may persist as AgNPs. The chem. form of Ag has implications for its toxicity; it is therefore crucial to characterize the persistence of AgNPs to predict their ecotoxicol. potential. We evaluated the release of Ag from AgNPs of various sizes exposed to river and lake water for ≤4 mo. Several AgNP-capping agents were also considered: polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), tannic acid (Tan), and citric acid (Cit). We obsd. a striking difference between 5, 10, and 50 nm AgNPs, with the latter being more resistant to dissoln. in oxic water on a mass basis. However, the difference decreased when Ag was surface-area-normalized, suggesting an important role of the surface area in detg. Ag loss. We propose that rapid initial Ag+ release was attributable to desorption of Ag+ from nanoparticle surfaces. We also obsd. that PVP- and Tan-AgNPs are more prone to Ag+ release than Cit-AgNPs. It is likely that oxidative dissoln. also occurs but at a slower rate. This study clearly shows that small AgNPs (5 nm, PVP and Tan) dissolve rapidly and almost completely, while larger AgNPs (50 nm) have the potential to persist for an extended period of time and could serve as a continuous source of Ag ions. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXktleksbo%253D&md5=76e9921f3e24fcdd5da7b2c765b1ca15
• 106 Hippo Roller . https://www.hipporoller.org/ (access April 20, 2020). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 107 Tiwari, B. ; Zhang, D. ; Winslow, D. ; Lee, C. H. ; Hao, B. ; Yap, Y. K. A Simple and Universal Technique to Extract One- and Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials from Contaminated Water . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015 , 7 , 26108 – 26116 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b07542 107 A Simple and Universal Technique To Extract One- and Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials from Contaminated Water Tiwari, Bishnu; Zhang, Dongyan; Winslow, Dustin; Lee, Chee Huei; Hao, Boyi; Yap, Yoke Khin ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2015 ), 7 ( 47 ), 26108-26116 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) A universal approach to ext. one- and two-dimensional nanomaterials from contaminated water is reported which is based on a microscopic oil-water interface trapping mechanism. Results indicate that carbon nanotubes, graphene, boron nitride nanotubes, boron nitride nanosheets, and zinc oxide nanowires can be successfully extd. from contaminated water at a successful rate of nearly 100%. The effects of surfactants, particle shape, and type of org. extn. fluids are evaluated. The proposed extn. mechanism is also supported by in situ monitoring of the extn. process. The authors believe that this extn. approach will prove important for the purifn. of water contaminated by nanoparticles and will support the widespread adoption of nanomaterial applications. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsl2htLrI&md5=9144975073829545a054bb66988fdc17
• 108 Gao, W. ; Majumder, M. ; Alemany, L. B. ; Narayanan, T. N. ; Ibarra, M. A. ; Pradhan, B. K. ; Ajayan, P. M. Engineered Graphite Oxide Materials for Application in Water Purification . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2011 , 3 , 1821 – 1826 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am200300u 108 Engineered Graphite Oxide Materials for Application in Water Purification Gao, Wei; Majumder, Mainak; Alemany, Lawrence B.; Narayanan, Tharangattu N.; Ibarra, Miguel A.; Pradhan, Bhabendra K.; Ajayan, Pulickel M. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2011 ), 3 ( 6 ), 1821-1826 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) Retaining the inherent hydrophilic characteristics of GO (graphite-oxide) nanosheets, sp2 domains on GO are covalently modified with thiol groups by diazonium chem. The surface modified GO adsorbs 6-fold higher concn. of aq. mercuric ions than the unmodified GO. Core-shell adsorbent granules, readily usable in filtration columns, are synthesized by assembling aq. GO over sand granules. The nanostructured GO-coated sand retains ≥5-fold higher concn. of heavy metal and org. dye than pure sand. These results could open avenues for developing low-cost water purifn. materials for the developing economies. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXmsFGhtr8%253D&md5=85e1e2511b410cb4f765fc86e56603b6
• 109 Gupta, S. S. ; Sreeprasad, T. S. ; Maliyekkal, S. M. ; Das, S. K. ; Pradeep, T. Graphene from Sugar and Its Application in Water Purification . ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012 , 4 , 4156 – 4163 ,  DOI: 10.1021/am300889u 109 Graphene from Sugar and its Application in Water Purification Gupta, Soujit Sen; Sreeprasad, Theruvakkattil Sreenivasan; Maliyekkal, Shihabudheen Mundampra; Das, Sarit Kumar; Pradeep, Thalappil ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ( 2012 ), 4 ( 8 ), 4156-4163 CODEN: AAMICK ; ISSN: 1944-8244 . ( American Chemical Society ) This paper describes a green method for the synthesis of graphenic material from cane sugar, a common disaccharide. A suitable methodol. was introduced to immobilize this material on sand without the need of any binder, resulting in a composite, referred to as graphene sand composite (GSC). Raman spectroscopy confirmed that the material is indeed graphenic in nature, having G and D bands at 1597 and 1338/cm, resp. It effectively removes contaminants from water. We use Rhodamine 6G (R6G) as a model dye and chloropyrifos (CP) as a model pesticide to demonstrate this application. The spectroscopic and microscopic analyses coupled with adsorption expts. revealed that phys. adsorption plays a dominant role in the adsorption process. Isotherm data in batch expts. show an adsorption capacity of 55 mg/g for R6G and 48 mg/g for CP, which are superior to that of activated C. The adsorbent can be easily regenerated using a suitable eluent. This quick and cost-effective technique for the into a com. water filter with appropriate engineering. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtVSqtrrN&md5=1832794828c1c3d6034fde0f6a6a4481
• 110 AMRIT - Arsenic and Metal Removal by Indian Technology ; IIT Madras : Chennai , 2015 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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• 112 Hartikainen, H. ; Venäläinen, S. ; Nuopponen, M. ; Meriluoto, A. Water Treatment . U.S. Patent 20190039918 . February 7, 2019 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 113 Pure US Sourced and Produced Clinoptilolite Zeolite . KMI Zeolite . https://www.kmizeolite.com/ (accessed 2019/07/18). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 114 Revanur, R. ; Roh, I. ; Klare, J. E. ; Noy, A. ; Bakajin, O. Thin Film Composite Membranes for Forward Osmosis, and Their Preparation Methods . U.S. Patent 8920654 . December 30, 2014 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 115 Ratto, T. V. ; Holt, J. K. ; Szmodis, A. W. Membranes with Embedded Nanotubes for Selective Permeability . U.S. Patent 7993524 . August 9, 2011 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 116 Jensen, P. H. ; Keller, D. ; Nielsen, C. H. ; Aquaporin, A. S. Membrane for Filtering of Water . U.S. Patent 7857978 . December 28, 2010 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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• 123 Kim, H. ; Yang, S. ; Narayanan, S. ; Umans, A. S. ; Wang, E. N. ; Rao, S. R. Sorption-Based Atmospheric Water Harvesting Device . U.S. Patent 20180171604 . June 21, 2018 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 124 Pradeep, T. ; Chaudhary, A. ; Sankar, M. U. ; Rajarajan, G. Sustained Silver Release Composition for Water Purification . U.S. Patent 15677618 . July 5, 2018 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 125 Servida, T. ; Servida, E. C. I. ; Idropan Dell’orto Depuratori Srl. Apparatus for Purifying a Liquid and Method for Operating Said Apparatus . U.S. Patent 20180037479 . February 8, 2018 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 126 Cobianu, C. P. ; Dumitru, V. G. ; Serban, B. C. ; Stratulat, A. ; Brezeanu, M. ; Buiu, O. Honeywell Romania SRL. Metal Oxide Nanocomposite Heterostructure Methods and Hydrogen Sulfide Sensors Including the Same . U.S. Patent 10067107 . September 4, 2018 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 127 Mi, B. ; Hu, M. ; University of Maryland, Baltimore. Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Graphene Oxide Membranes via Electrostatic Interaction and Eludication of Water and Solute Transport Mechanisms . U.S. Patent 9902141 . February 27, 2018 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 128 George, S. J. ; Kumar, M. ; Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research . Chromophores for the Detection of Volatile Organic Compounds . U.S. Patent 9376435 . June 28, 2016 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 129 Ghosh, A. ; Chhetri, B. P. ; University of Arkansas . Doped Carbonaceous Materials for Photocatalytic Removal of Pollutants under Visible Light, Making Methods and Applications of Same . U.S. Patent 20190015818 . January 17, 2019 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 130 Nair, R. R. ; Budd, P. ; Geim, A. ; University of Manchester . Separation of Water Using a Membrane . U.S. Patent 9844758 . December 19, 2017 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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• 132 Hussain, I. ; Ahamad, K. U. ; Nath, P. Low-Cost, Robust, and Field Portable Smartphone Platform Photometric Sensor for Fluoride Level Detection in Drinking Water . Anal. Chem. 2017 , 89 , 767 – 775 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03424 132 Low-Cost, Robust, and Field Portable Smartphone Platform Photometric Sensor for Fluoride Level Detection in Drinking Water Hussain, Iftak; Ahamad, Kamal Uddin; Nath, Pabitra Analytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2017 ), 89 ( 1 ), 767-775 CODEN: ANCHAM ; ISSN: 0003-2700 . ( American Chemical Society ) Groundwater is the major source of drinking water for people living in rural areas of India. Pollutant like fluoride in ground water may present in much higher concn. than the permissible limit. Fluoride does not give any visible coloration to water and hence no effort is made to remove or reduce the concn. of this chem. present in drinking water. This may lead to serious health hazard for those people taking ground water as their primary source of drinking water. Sophisticated spectrophotometric tool from Hach and microOptix are com. available for in-field detection of fluoride level in drinking water. However, these tools are generally expensive and require expertise to handle. In this paper, we demonstrate the working of a low cost, robust and field portable smartphone platform fluoride sensor that can detect and analyze fluoride level concn. in drinking water. For development of the proposed sensor, we utilize the ambient light sensor (ALS) of the smartphone as light intensity detector and its LED flash light as an optical source. An android application 'FSense' has been developed which can detect and analyze the fluoride level concn. in water samples. The custom developed application can be used for sharing of in-field sensing data from any remote location to the central water quality monitoring station. We envision that the proposed sensing technique could be useful for initiating fluoride removal program undertaken by governmental and non-governmental organization here in India. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhvFynt7nK&md5=3e68e8d88b49dd9bb246eaa008c6c21e
• 133 Vikesland, P. J. Nanosensors for Water Quality Monitoring . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 651 – 660 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0209-9 133 Nanosensors for water quality monitoring Vikesland, Peter J. Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 8 ), 651-660 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) A review. Nanomaterial-enabled sensors are being designed for high-efficiency, multiplex-functionality and high-flexibility sensing applications. Many existing nanosensors have the inherent capacity to achieve such goals; however, they require further development into consumer- and operator-friendly tools with the ability to detect analytes in previously inaccessible locations, as well as at a greater scale than heretofore possible. Here, how nanotechnol.-enabled sensors have great, as yet unmet, promise to provide widespread and potentially low-cost monitoring of chems., microbes and other analytes in drinking water are discussed. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVGhu7%252FN&md5=8d44a875b6edec99a298e6f84c842ee2
• 134 Lim, R. J. ; Xie, M. ; Sk, M. A. ; Lee, J.-M. ; Fisher, A. ; Wang, X. ; Lim, K. H. A Review on the Electrochemical Reduction of CO 2 in Fuel Cells, Metal Electrodes and Molecular Catalysts . Catal. Today 2014 , 233 , 169 – 180 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2013.11.037 134 A review on the electrochemical reduction of CO2 in fuel cells, metal electrodes and molecular catalysts Lim, Rern Jern; Xie, Mingshi; Sk, Mahasin Alam; Lee, Jong-Min; Fisher, Adrian; Wang, Xin; Lim, Kok Hwa Catalysis Today ( 2014 ), 233 ( ), 169-180 CODEN: CATTEA ; ISSN: 0920-5861 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) A review; in this review article, we report the development and utilization of fuel cells, metal electrodes in aq. electrolyte and mol. catalysts in the electrochem. redn. of CO2. Fuel cells are able to function in both electrolyzer and fuel cell mode and could potentially reduce CO2 and produce energy at the same time. However, it requires considerably high temps. for efficient operation. Direct redn. using metal electrodes and mol. catalysts are possible at room temps. but require an addnl. applied potential and generally have low current densities. D. functional theory (DFT) studies have been used and have begun to unveil possible mechanisms involved which could lead to improvements and development of more efficient catalysts. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhvFOmtbbF&md5=1fbf2016e0a472e6d4650e8d4513f82c
• 135 Energy Statistics (25th issue); Central Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India , New Delhi , 2018 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 136 Census of India. Housing, Household Amenities And Assets ; Government of India : Karnataka; Bangalore , 2011 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 137 Lele, S. ; Srinivasan, V. ; Jamwal, P. ; Thomas, B. K. ; Eswar, M. ; Zuhail, T. M. Water Management in Arkavathy Basin: A Situation Analysis . Environment and Development Discussion Paper No. 1 ; Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment : Bengaluru , 2013 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 138 Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board . https://www.bwssb.gov.in/com_content?page=3&info_for=3 (accessed 2019/07/19). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 139 Parameshwara Murthy, P. M. ; Sadashiva Murthy, B. M. ; Kavya, S. Qualitative Characterization of Greywater from a Residential Complex in Bengaluru City, Karnataka, India . Int. J. Eng. Res. 2016 , V5 , 194 – 199 ,  DOI: 10.17577/IJERTV5IS090136 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 140 Hodges, B. C. ; Cates, E. L. ; Kim, J.-H. Challenges and Prospects of Advanced Oxidation Water Treatment Processes Using Catalytic Nanomaterials . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 642 – 650 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0216-x 140 Challenges and prospects of advanced oxidation water treatment processes using catalytic nanomaterials Hodges, Brenna C.; Cates, Ezra L.; Kim, Jae-Hong Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 8 ), 642-650 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) Centralized water treatment has dominated in developed urban areas over the past century, although increasing challenges with this model demand a shift to a more decentralized approach wherein advanced oxidn. processes (AOPs) can be appealing treatment options. Efforts to overcome the fundamental obstacles that have thus far limited the practical use of traditional AOPs, such as reducing their chem. and energy input demands, target the utilization of heterogeneous catalysts. Specifically, recent advances in nanotechnol. have stimulated extensive research investigating engineered nanomaterial (ENM) applications to AOPs. In this Perspective, we critically evaluate previously studied ENM catalysts and the next-generation treatment technologies they seek to enable. Opportunities for improvement exist at the intersection of materials science and treatment process engineering, as future research should aim to enhance catalyst properties while considering the unique roadblocks to practical ENM implementation in water treatment. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVGhu7zP&md5=86c51ef7572f8de6e37126c3ccdcf43d
• 141 Vreeland, J. M. The Revival of Colored Cotton . Sci. Am. 1999 , 280 , 112 – 118 ,  DOI: 10.1038/scientificamerican0499-112 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 142 Singh, A. How Colourful is the Future of Naturally Coloured Cotton? . Cotton Statistics and News ; Cotton Association of India : Mumbai, India , 2014 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 143 Boopathi, N. M. ; Sathish, S. ; Dachinamoorthy, P. ; Kavitha, P. ; Ravikesavan, R. Usefulness and Utilization of Indian Cotton Germplasm . World Cotton Germplasm Resources ; InTech : Rijeka, Croatia , 2014 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 144 Das, S. K. ; Khan, M. M. R. ; Parandhaman, T. ; Laffir, F. ; Guha, A. K. ; Sekaran, G. ; Mandal, A. B. Nano-Silica Fabricated with Silver Nanoparticles: Antifouling Adsorbent for Efficient Dye Removal, Effective Water Disinfection and Biofouling Control . Nanoscale 2013 , 5 , 5549 ,  DOI: 10.1039/c3nr00856h 144 Nano-silica fabricated with silver nanoparticles: antifouling adsorbent for efficient dye removal, effective water disinfection and biofouling control Das, Sujoy K.; Khan, Md. Motiar R.; Parandhaman, T.; Laffir, Fathima; Guha, Arun K.; Sekaran, G.; Mandal, Asit Baran Nanoscale ( 2013 ), 5 ( 12 ), 5549-5560 CODEN: NANOHL ; ISSN: 2040-3372 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) A nano-silica-AgNPs composite material is proposed as a novel antifouling adsorbent for cost-effective and ecofriendly water purifn. Fabrication of well-dispersed AgNPs on the nano-silica surface, designated as NSAgNP, was achieved through protein mediated redn. of Ag at ambient temp. for development of sustainable nanotechnol. The coated proteins on AgNPs led to the formation of stable NSAgNP and protected the AgNPs from oxidn. and other ions commonly present in water. The NSAgNP exhibited excellent dye adsorption capacity both in single and multicomponent systems, and demonstrated satisfactory tolerance against variations in pH and dye concn. The adsorption mainly occurred through electrostatic interaction, though π-π interaction and pore diffusion also contributed to the process. Moreover, the NSAgNP showed long-term antibacterial activity against both planktonic cells and biofilms of Gram-neg. Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antibacterial activity of AgNPs retarded the initial attachment of bacteria on NSAgNP and thus significantly improved the antifouling properties of the nanomaterial, which further inhibited biofilm formation. Scanning electron and fluorescence microscopic studies revealed that cell death occurred due to irreversible damage of the cell membrane upon electrostatic interaction of pos. charged NSAgNP with the neg. charged bacterial cell membrane. The high adsorption capacity, reusability, good tolerance, removal of multicomponent dyes and E. coli from the simulated contaminated water and antifouling properties of NSAgNP will provide new opportunities to develop cost-effective and ecofriendly water purifn. processes. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXosFehsL8%253D&md5=19ed385d86272aab9a0fcd4a917734cd
• 145 Mack, E. A. ; Wrase, S. Erratum: Correction: A Burgeoning Crisis? A Nationwide Assessment of the Geography of Water Affordability in the United States (PloS One (2017) 12 1 (E0169488)) . PLoS One 2017 , 12 , e0176645  DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176645 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 146 Baidya, A. ; Das, S. K. ; Ras, R. H. A. ; Pradeep, T. Fabrication of a Waterborne Durable Superhydrophobic Material Functioning in Air and under Oil . Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2018 , 5 , 1701523 ,  DOI: 10.1002/admi.201701523 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 147 Oßmann, B. E. ; Sarau, G. ; Holtmannspötter, H. ; Pischetsrieder, M. ; Christiansen, S. H. ; Dicke, W. Small-Sized Microplastics and Pigmented Particles in Bottled Mineral Water . Water Res. 2018 , 141 , 307 – 316 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.027 147 Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water Ossmann, Barbara E.; Sarau, George; Holtmannspoetter, Heinrich; Pischetsrieder, Monika; Christiansen, Silke H.; Dicke, Wilhelm Water Research ( 2018 ), 141 ( ), 307-316 CODEN: WATRAG ; ISSN: 0043-1354 . ( Elsevier Ltd. ) The smallest analyzed particle size was 5μm. However, due to toxicol. reasons, esp. microparticles smaller than 1.5μm are critically discussed. In the present study 32 samples of bottled mineral water were investigated for contamination by microplastics, pigment and additive particles. Due to the application of aluminum coated polycarbonate membrane filter and micro-Raman spectroscopy, a lowest analyzed particle size of 1μm was achieved. Microplastics were found in water from all bottle types: in single use and reusable bottles made of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) as well as in glass bottles. The amt. of microplastics in mineral water varied from 2649±2857 per L in single use PET bottles up to 6292±10521 per L in glass bottles. While in plastic bottles, the predominant polymer type was PET; in glass bottles various polymers such as polyethylene or styrene-butadiene-copolymer were found. Pigment particles were detected in high amts. in reusable, paper labeled bottles (195047±330810 pigment particles per L in glass and 23594±25518 pigment particles per L in reusable paper labeled PET bottles). Pigment types found in water samples were the same as used for label printing, indicating the bottle cleaning process as possible contamination route. On av. 708±1024 particles per L of the additive Tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphite were found in reusable PET bottles. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtVSgu7jN&md5=63fb618bf0884336520e006b97e82ebf
• 148 Cordner, A. ; De La Rosa, V. Y. ; Schaider, L. A. ; Rudel, R. A. ; Richter, L. ; Brown, P. Guideline Levels for PFOA and PFOS in Drinking Water: The Role of Scientific Uncertainty, Risk Assessment Decisions, and Social Factors . J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2019 , 29 , 157 – 171 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41370-018-0099-9 148 Guideline levels for PFOA and PFOS in drinking water: the role of scientific uncertainty, risk assessment decisions, and social factors Cordner Alissa; De La Rosa Vanessa Y; Schaider Laurel A; Rudel Ruthann A; De La Rosa Vanessa Y; Richter Lauren; Brown Phil; Brown Phil Journal of exposure science & environmental epidemiology ( 2019 ), 29 ( 2 ), 157-171 ISSN: . Communities across the U.S. are discovering drinking water contaminated by perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and determining appropriate actions. There are currently no federal PFAS drinking water standards despite widespread drinking water contamination, ubiquitous population-level exposure, and toxicological and epidemiological evidence of adverse health effects. Absent federal PFAS standards, multiple U.S. states have developed their own health-based water guideline levels to guide decisions about contaminated site cleanup and drinking water surveillance and treatment. We examined perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) water guideline levels developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state agencies to protect people drinking the water, and summarized how and why these levels differ. We referenced documents and tables released in June 2018 by the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) to identify states that have drinking water and groundwater guideline levels for PFOA and/or PFOS that differ from EPA's health advisories (HAs). We also gathered assessment documents from state websites and contacted state environmental and health agencies to identify and confirm current guidelines. Seven states have developed their own water guideline levels for PFOA and/or PFOS ranging from 13 to 1000 ng/L, compared to EPA's HA of 70 ng/L for both compounds individually or combined. We find that the development of PFAS guideline levels via exposure and hazard assessment decisions is influenced by multiple scientific, technical, and social factors, including managing scientific uncertainty, technical decisions and capacity, and social, political, and economic influences from involved stakeholders. Assessments by multiple states and academic scientists suggest that EPA's HA is not sufficiently protective. The ability of states to develop their own guideline levels and standards provides diverse risk assessment approaches as models for other state and federal regulators, while a sufficiently protective, scientifically sound, and enforceable federal standard would provide more consistent protection. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3cnptleksg%253D%253D&md5=da37836046a0f5666b1d73a3f0fca8f9
• 149 Saleh, N. B. ; Khalid, A. ; Tian, Y. ; Ayres, C. ; Sabaraya, I. V. ; Pietari, J. ; Hanigan, D. ; Chowdhury, I. ; Apul, O. G. Removal of Poly-and per-Fluoroalkyl Substances from Aqueous Systems by Nano-Enabled Water Treatment Strategies . Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol. 2019 , 5 , 198 – 208 ,  DOI: 10.1039/C8EW00621K 149 Removal of poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances from aqueous systems by nano-enabled water treatment strategies Saleh, Navid B.; Khalid, Arsalan; Tian, Yuhao; Ayres, Craig; Sabaraya, Indu V.; Pietari, Jaana; Hanigan, David; Chowdhury, Indranil; Apul, Onur G. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology ( 2019 ), 5 ( 2 ), 198-208 CODEN: ESWRAR ; ISSN: 2053-1419 . ( Royal Society of Chemistry ) Exceptional properties at the nano-scale, if appropriately harnessed, will lead to innovations in water treatment. Nanomaterials can enable treatment processes with accelerated reaction kinetics, self-healing or self-regeneration abilities, and a high degree of selectivity for targeted pollutant removal. These materials can also introduce new pathways for the removal of contaminants that are challenging to degrade employing traditional techniques. One such class of contaminants is poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are widely detected in waterways of the U.S. and drinking water supplies. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has listed two PFAS (i.e., perfluorooctanesulfonic acid or PFOS and perfluorooctanoic acid or PFOA) in the Contaminant Candidate List and recently has revised the lifetime health advisories. PFAS mols. are persistent in the environment over long periods because they are not photolyzed or biodegraded. Current mitigation technologies mostly depend on non-destructive phase transfer processes (e.g., adsorption, filtration, or ion exchange) which results in a concd. waste stream. Few destructive mitigation methods transform PFAS by cleaving C-C bonds but it is not clear if the transformation products (e.g., shorter chain PFAS) are less toxic or less persistent. Thus, the central challenge for PFAS transformation lies in cleaving the strong C-F bonds. Nanomaterials can enable treatment options by providing high-energy reaction pathways; e.g., electrolysis, thermolysis, or photolysis. This perspective aims to present a crit. review on reported PFAS removal/destruction techniques, provide mol.-level insights into possible removal/destruction pathways, and propose potential nano-enabled remediation options for these persistent contaminants. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXisFeksb%252FO&md5=4da56a4d2be44ef5f4daf118c22b31e8
• 150 Chen, C. ; Liu, D. ; He, L. ; Qin, S. ; Wang, J. ; Razal, J. M. ; Kotov, N. A. ; Lei, W. Bio-Inspired Nanocomposite Membranes for Osmotic Energy Harvesting . Joule 2020 , 4 , 247 – 261 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2019.11.010 150 Bio-inspired Nanocomposite Membranes for Osmotic Energy Harvesting Chen, Cheng; Liu, Dan; He, Li; Qin, Si; Wang, Jiemin; Razal, Joselito M.; Kotov, Nicholas A.; Lei, Weiwei Joule ( 2020 ), 4 ( 1 ), 247-261 CODEN: JOULBR ; ISSN: 2542-4351 . ( Cell Press ) Osmotic energy represents a widespread and reliable source of renewable energy with minimal daily variability. The key technol. bottleneck for osmotic electricity is that membranes must combine highly efficient ion rectification and high ionic flux with long-term robustness in seawater. Here, we show that nanocomposite membranes with structural organization inspired by soft biol. tissues with high mech. and transport characteristics can address these problems. The layered membranes engineered with mol.-scale precision from aramid nanofibers and BN nanosheets simultaneously display high stiffness and tensile strength even when exposed to repeated pressure drops and salinity gradients. The total generated power d. over large areas exceeded 0.6 W m-2 and was retained for as long as 20 cycles (200 h), demonstrating exceptional robustness. Furthermore, the membranes showed high performance in osmotic energy harvesting in unprecedentedly wide ranges of temp. (0°C-95°C) and pH (2.8-10.8) essential for the economic viability of osmotic energy generators. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXnslemtbk%253D&md5=32b18204968f905e0e5cde9789cf56dc
• 151 Logan, B. E. ; Elimelech, M. Membrane-Based Processes for Sustainable Power Generation Using Water . Nature 2012 , 488 , 313 – 319 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nature11477 151 Membrane-based processes for sustainable power generation using water Logan, Bruce E.; Elimelech, Menachem Nature (London, United Kingdom) ( 2012 ), 488 ( 7411 ), 313-319 CODEN: NATUAS ; ISSN: 0028-0836 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) A review. H2O has always been crucial to combustion and hydroelec. processes, but it could become the source of power in membrane-based systems that capture energy from natural and waste waters. Two processes are emerging as sustainable methods for capturing energy from sea water: pressure-retarded osmosis and reverse electrodialysis. These processes can also capture energy from waste heat by generating artificial salinity gradients using synthetic solns., such as thermolytic salts. A further source of energy comes from org. matter in waste waters, which can be harnessed using microbial fuel-cell technol., allowing both wastewater treatment and power prodn. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xht1WktL3E&md5=3fc1e5ea10fd74e24f3e90a9e615891d
• 152 The Methanol Industry . Methanol Institute . https://www.methanol.org/the-methanol-industry/ (accessed 2019/07/19). There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 153 Artz, J. ; Müller, T. E. ; Thenert, K. ; Kleinekorte, J. ; Meys, R. ; Sternberg, A. ; Bardow, A. ; Leitner, W. Sustainable Conversion of Carbon Dioxide: An Integrated Review of Catalysis and Life Cycle Assessment . Chem. Rev. 2018 , 118 , 434 – 504 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00435 153 Sustainable Conversion of Carbon Dioxide: An Integrated Review of Catalysis and Life Cycle Assessment Artz, Jens; Mueller, Thomas E.; Thenert, Katharina; Kleinekorte, Johanna; Meys, Raoul; Sternberg, Andre; Bardow, Andre; Leitner, Walter Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2018 ), 118 ( 2 ), 434-504 CODEN: CHREAY ; ISSN: 0009-2665 . ( American Chemical Society ) A review. CO2 conversion covers a wide range of possible application areas from fuels to bulk and commodity chems. and even to specialty products with biol. activity such as pharmaceuticals. In the present review, we discuss selected examples in these areas in a combined anal. of the state-of-the-art of synthetic methodologies and processes with their life cycle assessment. Thereby, we attempted to assess the potential to reduce the environmental footprint in these application fields relative to the current petrochem. value chain. This anal. and discussion differs significantly from a viewpoint on CO2 utilization as a measure for global CO2 mitigation. Whereas the latter focuses on reducing the end-of-pipe problem "CO2 emissions" from todays' industries, the approach taken here tries to identify opportunities by exploiting a novel feedstock that avoids the utilization of fossil resource in transition toward more sustainable future prodn. Thus, the motivation to develop CO2-based chem. does not depend primarily on the abs. amt. of CO2 emissions that can be remediated by a single technol. Rather, CO2-based chem. is stimulated by the significance of the relative improvement in carbon balance and other crit. factors defining the environmental impact of chem. prodn. in all relevant sectors in accord with the principles of green chem. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhvFemsrbL&md5=5348e984489e8e3e18368ed6a9088ec1
• 154 Vundavalli, R. ; Vundavalli, S. ; Nakka, M. ; Rao, D. S. Biodegradable Nano-Hydrogels in Agricultural Farming - Alternative Source For Water Resources . Procedia Mater. Sci. 2015 , 10 , 548 – 554 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mspro.2015.06.005 154 Biodegradable Nano-Hydrogels in Agricultural Farming - Alternative Source For Water Resources Vundavalli, Ramesh; Vundavalli, Suresh; Nakka, Mamatha; Rao, D. Srinivasa Procedia Materials Science ( 2015 ), 10 ( ), 548-554 CODEN: PMSREM ; ISSN: 2211-8128 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) The desertification and lack of water are serious problems in many parts of the world because of compromise agriculture farming. Desertification is the degrdn. of land in arid, semiarid and dry areas resulting from various factors including climatic variations, but primarily human activities. The soln. of this problem is by the use of synthetic materials with good water absorption and retention capacities under high pressure or temp. Systems of this type are the Super Absorbent Polymers (SAPs). Due to their excellent properties, these SAPs were already well established in various applications such as disposable diapers, hygienic napkins, cement, drug delivery systems, sensors, and agriculture. The most essential components of these applications are water absorbency and water retention. The present research work is aimed to establish biodegradable Nano-polymers for sustainable agricultural farming. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtlSisLnJ&md5=1e3f491baccfbf3eff1d4908deb13223
• 155 Amarasinghe, U. A. ; McCornick, P. G. ; Shah, T. India’s Water Demand Scenarios to 2025 and 2050: A Fresh Look . Strategic Analyses of the National River Linking Project (NRLP) of India; Series 2 ; International Water Management Institute : Bangalore , 2009 ; pp 23 – 61 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 156 Koehler, A. ; Wildbolz, C. Comparing the Environmental Footprints of Home-Care and Personal-Hygiene Products: The Relevance of Different Life-Cycle Phases . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009 , 43 , 8643 – 8651 ,  DOI: 10.1021/es901236f 156 Comparing the Environmental Footprints of Home-Care and Personal-Hygiene Products: The Relevance of Different Life-Cycle Phases Koehler, Annette; Wildbolz, Caroline Environmental Science & Technology ( 2009 ), 43 ( 22 ), 8643-8651 CODEN: ESTHAG ; ISSN: 0013-936X . ( American Chemical Society ) An in-depth life-cycle assessment of 9 home-care and personal hygiene products was conducted to det. the ecol. relevance of different life-cycle phases and to compare environmental profiles of products serving equal applications. Using detailed industry and consumer-behavior study data, a broad range of environmental impacts were analyzed to identify the main drivers for life-cycle stage and potentials to improve environmental footprints. Although chem. prodn. significantly adds to environmental burdens, substantial impacts are caused in the consumer-use phase. As such, this work provides product development, supply chain management, product policies, and consumer use recommendations. To reduce environmental burdens, products should, e.g., be produced in concd. form, while consumers should use correct product doses and low water temps. during product application. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXht12msrnK&md5=68a9945fdd6acd026e8c42addfa823dd
• 157 Eco-Indicator 99 Manual for Designers ; Ministry of Housing ; Spatial Planning and the Environment: Communications Directorate : The Netherlands , 2000 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 158 Sankar, M. U. ; Aigal, S. ; Maliyekkal, S. M. ; Chaudhary, A. ; Anshup ; Kumar, A. A. ; Chaudhari, K. ; Pradeep, T. Biopolymer-Reinforced Synthetic Granular Nanocomposites for Affordable Point-of-Use Water Purification . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2013 , 110 , 8459 – 8464 ,  DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1220222110 158 Biopolymer-reinforced synthetic granular nanocomposites for affordable point-of-use water purification Sankar, Mohan Udhaya; Aigal, Sahaja; Maliyekkal, Shihabudheen M.; Chaudhary, Amrita; Anshup; Kumar, Avula Anil; Chaudhari, Kamalesh; Pradeep, Thalappil Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ( 2013 ), 110 ( 21 ), 8459-8464, S8459/1-S8459/26 CODEN: PNASA6 ; ISSN: 0027-8424 . ( National Academy of Sciences ) Creation of affordable materials for const. release of Ag ions in water is one of the most promising ways to provide microbially safe drinking water for all. Combining the capacity of diverse nanocomposites to scavenge toxic species such as As, Pb, and other contaminants along with the above capability can result in affordable, all-inclusive drinking water purifiers that can function without electricity. The crit. problem in achieving this is the synthesis of stable materials that can release Ag ions continuously in the presence of complex species usually present in drinking water that deposit and cause scaling on nanomaterial surfaces. We show that such const. release materials can be synthesized in a simple and effective fashion in water itself without the use of elec. power. The nanocomposite exhibits river sand-like properties, such as higher shear strength in loose and wet forms. These materials were used to develop an affordable water purifier to deliver clean drinking water at US $2.5/yr-family. The ability to prep. nanostructured compns. at near ambient temp. has wide relevance for adsorption-based water purifn. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhtV2qtr7E&md5=e9a475b7d56f65a30ed1813094efc21b
• 159 McGuire, D. ; Jakhete, S. Enhanced Water Treatment for Reclamation of Waste Fluids and Increased Efficiency Treatment of Potable Waters . U.S. Patent 7699994 , April 20, 2010 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 160 Ranade, V. V. ; Bhandari, V. M. Industrial Wastewater Treatment, Recycling and Reuse ; Butterworth-Heinemann : Oxford, U.K. , 2014 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 161 Yun, C. ; Islam, M. I. ; LeHew, M. ; Kim, J. Assessment of Environmental and Economic Impacts Made by the Reduced Laundering of Self-Cleaning Fabrics . Fibers Polym. 2016 , 17 , 1296 – 1304 ,  DOI: 10.1007/s12221-016-6320-3 161 Assessment of environmental and economic impacts made by the reduced laundering of self-cleaning fabrics Yun, Changsang; Islam, Md. Imranul; LeHew, Melody; Kim, Jooyoun Fibers and Polymers ( 2016 ), 17 ( 8 ), 1296-1304 CODEN: FPIOA6 ; ISSN: 1229-9197 . ( Korean Fiber Society ) Despite the belief that self-cleaning fabrics would be environmentally friendly for their reduced laundering needs, little research provides feasible evidence of it. The purpose of this study was to develop a logical assessment method for providing quant. evidence of environmental and economic impacts made by reduced laundering efforts when selfcleaning fabrics were used in daily life. The assessment method developed included: (1) evaluation of functional effectiveness and functional lifetime of soil resistant fabrics, (2) measurement of the reduced laundering frequency and the resulting saving in electricity and water consumption, and (3) conversion of savings to CO2 equivalent (CO2 eq.) and monetary utility cost. To examine the self-cleaning ability in practical soiling situation, the treated fabrics were tested for self-cleaning ability against two types of food soils and cleaned by water-spraying using the modified AATCC test method 22-2005. The self-cleaning ability was evaluated by the subjective visual assessment and the quant. measurement of color difference ΔE. The level of ΔE that gave the discernible color difference by the visual assessment was about 3.7, and ΔE of 3.7 was used as the criteria to det. the laundering needs. From the developed assessment method, the self-cleaning fabrics saved up to 84 % of water and electricity during lifetime laundering of 50 cycles. This study provides an objective assessment methodol. that can be applied to functional textiles to det. the quantified environmental and economic impacts such as CO2 eq. and monetary cost. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsVamsrbM&md5=de5da49877d14c4f55f3c50c06ce0810
• 162 Erdmann, W. ; Gienke, T. ; Heinrich, H.-J. Waterless Vacuum Toilet System for Aircraft . U.S. Patent 6977005 , December 20, 2005 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 163 Simha, P. ; Ganesapillai, M. Ecological Sanitation and Nutrient Recovery from Human Urine: How Far Have We Come? A Review . Sustain. Environ. Res. 2017 , 27 , 107 – 116 ,  DOI: 10.1016/j.serj.2016.12.001 163 Ecological Sanitation and nutrient recovery from human urine: How far have we come? A review Simha, Prithvi; Ganesapillai, Mahesh Sustainable Environment Research ( 2017 ), 27 ( 3 ), 107-116 CODEN: SERUBY ; ISSN: 2468-2039 . ( Elsevier B.V. ) To address the shortcomings of modern wastewater treatment, Ecol. Sanitation (EcoSan) has been advocated as a sustainable approach to promote closed-loop flows of resources and nutrients from sanitation to agriculture. In this study, we discuss the rationale behind its conception and provide a state-of-the-art review on the subject. Through an exhaustive literature anal. of EcoSan systems, its historical developments and programs implemented worldwide we (i) validate the potential applicability and feasibility of decentralized, source-based sanitation and (ii) depict fundamental problems in EcoSan systems design that have stalled its adoption and proliferation. Specifically, we focus on urine diversion to demonstrate its potential to elegantly sep., collect and conc. products that we require (nutrients) and those that we wish to regulate (pathogens and micropollutants). Since recent research efforts have been devoted to the technol. recovery of nutrients from human urine, we believe that we are witnessing a paradigm shift within a paradigm shift as it represents a change in emphasis from 'split-stream collection and reuse' to 'split-stream collection, resource recovery and safe reuse'. Our anal. of various nutrient recovery technologies for human urine indicates that provisioning of urine-diverting toilets tends to reduce sanitary risks; however, to contain and completely eliminate these risks continued research effort is needed to envision and implement integrated technol. pathways that ensure simultaneous nutrient recovery, pathogen inactivation and redn. of pharmaceuticals and active substances. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhvFyhtbnI&md5=c64ad403064f3b6829284a862c0597c5
• 164 Abraham, J. ; Vasu, K. S. ; Williams, C. D. ; Gopinadhan, K. ; Su, Y. ; Cherian, C. T. ; Dix, J. ; Prestat, E. ; Haigh, S. J. ; Grigorieva, I. V. ; Carbone, P. ; Geim, A. K. ; Nair, R. R. Tunable Sieving of Ions Using Graphene Oxide Membranes . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2017 , 12 , 546 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2017.21 164 Tunable sieving of ions using graphene oxide membranes Abraham, Jijo; Vasu, Kalangi S.; Williams, Christopher D.; Gopinadhan, Kalon; Su, Yang; Cherian, Christie T.; Dix, James; Prestat, Eric; Haigh, Sarah J.; Grigorieva, Irina V.; Carbone, Paola; Geim, Andre K.; Nair, Rahul R. Nature Nanotechnology ( 2017 ), 12 ( 6 ), 546-550 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Graphene oxide membranes show exceptional mol. permeation properties, with promise for many applications. However, their use in ion sieving and desalination technologies is limited by a permeation cutoff of ∼9 Å (ref. 4), which is larger than the diams. of hydrated ions of common salts. The cutoff is detd. by the interlayer spacing (d) of ∼13.5 Å, typical for graphene oxide laminates that swell in H2O. Achieving smaller d for the laminates immersed in H2O proved to be a challenge. Here, the authors describe how to control d by phys. confinement and achieve accurate and tunable ion sieving. Membranes with d from ∼9.8 Å to 6.4 Å are demonstrated, providing a sieve size smaller than the diams. of hydrated ions. In this regime, ion permeation is thermally activated with energy barriers of ∼10-100 kJ mol-1 depending on d. Importantly, permeation rates decrease exponentially with decreasing sieve size but H2O transport is weakly affected (by a factor of <2). The latter is attributed to a low barrier for the entry of H2O mols. and large slip lengths inside graphene capillaries. Building on these findings, the authors demonstrate a simple scalable method to obtain graphene-based membranes with limited swelling, which exhibit 97% rejection for NaCl. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXls1Gru70%253D&md5=262d57c0d4658bacdfe7006439e85672
• 165 Heiranian, M. ; Farimani, A. B. ; Aluru, N. R. Water Desalination with a Single-Layer MoS 2 Nanopore . Nat. Commun. 2015 , 6 , 8616 ,  DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9616 165 Water desalination with a single-layer MoS2 nanopore Heiranian, Mohammad; Farimani, Amir Barati; Aluru, Narayana R. Nature Communications ( 2015 ), 6 ( ), 8616 CODEN: NCAOBW ; ISSN: 2041-1723 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) Efficient desalination of water continues to be a problem facing the society. Advances in nanotechnol. have led to the development of a variety of nanoporous membranes for water purifn. Here we show, by performing mol. dynamics simulations, that a nanopore in a single-layer molybdenum disulfide can effectively reject ions and allow transport of water at a high rate. More than 88% of ions are rejected by membranes having pore areas ranging from 20 to 60 Å2. Water flux is found to be two to five orders of magnitude greater than that of other known nanoporous membranes. Pore chem. is shown to play a significant role in modulating the water flux. Pores with only molybdenum atoms on their edges lead to higher fluxes, which are ∼70% greater than that of graphene nanopores. These observations are explained by permeation coeffs., energy barriers, water d. and velocity distributions in the pores. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhs1KksLrO&md5=fd000f5bfc8ba6c5c9f21a5205356dd5
• 166 Patel, P. ; Biedermann, L. Will Next-Generation Membranes Rise to the Water Challenge? . MRS Bull. 2018 , 43 , 406 – 407 ,  DOI: 10.1557/mrs.2018.130 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 167 Ogolo, N. A. ; Olafuyi, O. A. ; Onyekonwu, M. O. Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Nanoparticles. SPE 160847-MS . Proceedings from the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium and Exhibition , Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, April 8–11, 2012; OnePetro : Richardson, Texas , 2012 . There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 168 Prathap, A. ; Sureshan, K. M. Organogelator-Cellulose Composite for Practical and Eco-Friendly Marine Oil-Spill Recovery . Angew. Chem. 2017 , 129 , 9533 – 9537 ,  DOI: 10.1002/ange.201704699 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 169 Alvarez, P. J. J. ; Chan, C. K. ; Elimelech, M. ; Halas, N. J. ; Villagrán, D. Emerging Opportunities for Nanotechnology to Enhance Water Security . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 634 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0203-2 169 Emerging opportunities for nanotechnology to enhance water security Alvarez, Pedro J. J.; Chan, Candace K.; Elimelech, Menachem; Halas, Naomi J.; Villagran, Dino Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 8 ), 634-641 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) No other resource is as necessary for life as water, and providing it universally in a safe, reliable and affordable manner is one of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first century. Here, we consider new opportunities and approaches for the application of nanotechnol. to enhance the efficiency and affordability of water treatment and wastewater reuse. Potential development and implementation barriers are discussed along with research needs to overcome them and enhance water security. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVGhu7%252FO&md5=de70e328500c395c2a9787166b28f988
• 170 Hilal, N. ; Wright, C. J. Exploring the Current State of Play for Cost-Effective Water Treatment by Membranes . npj Clean Water 2018 , 1 , 8 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41545-018-0008-8 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 171 Peng, B. ; Tang, J. ; Luo, J. ; Wang, P. ; Ding, B. ; Tam, K. C. Applications of Nanotechnology in Oil and Gas Industry: Progress and Perspective . Can. J. Chem. Eng. 2018 , 96 , 91 – 100 ,  DOI: 10.1002/cjce.23042 171 Applications of nanotechnology in oil and gas industry: Progress and perspective Peng, Baoliang; Tang, Juntao; Luo, Jianhui; Wang, Pingmei; Ding, Bin; Tam, Kam Chiu Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering ( 2018 ), 96 ( 1 ), 91-100 CODEN: CJCEA7 ; ISSN: 0008-4034 . ( John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ) Nanotechnol. has been successfully implemented in many applications, such as nanoelectronics, nanobiomedicine, and nanodevices. However, this technol. has rarely been applied to the oil and gas industry, esp. in upstream exploration and prodn. The oil and gas industry needs to improve oil recovery and exploit unconventional resources. The cost of research and oil prodn. is under immense pressure, and it is becoming more difficult to justify such investment when the crude oil price is weak and depressed. There is a widespread belief that nanotechnol. may be exploited to develop novel nanomaterials with enhanced performance to combat these technol. barriers. Increasing funding resources from governmental and global oil industry have been allocated to exploration, drilling, prodn., refining, and wastewater treatment. For example, nanosensors allow for precise measurement of reservoir conditions. Nanofluids prepd. using functional nanomaterials may exhibit better performance in oil prodn. processes, and nanocatalysts have improved the efficiency in oil refining and petrochem. processes. Nanomembranes enhance oil, water and gas sepn., oil and gas purifn., and the removal of impurities from wastewater. Functional nanomaterials can play an important role in the prodn. of smart, reliable, and more durable equipment. In this review paper, we summarize the research progress and prospective applications of nanotechnol. and nanomaterials in the oil and gas industry. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhslOksL3K&md5=ac979d73b033783dad2d9095c509aef6
• 172 Lin, S. ; Yu, T. ; Yu, Z. ; Hu, X. ; Yin, D. Nanomaterials Safer-by-Design: An Environmental Safety Perspective . Adv. Mater. 2018 , 30 , 1705691 ,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.201705691 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 173 Ali, I. New Generation Adsorbents for Water Treatment . Chem. Rev. 2012 , 112 , 5073 – 5091 ,  DOI: 10.1021/cr300133d 173 New Generation Adsorbents for Water Treatment Ali, Imran Chemical Reviews (Washington, DC, United States) ( 2012 ), 112 ( 10 ), 5073-5091 CODEN: CHREAY ; ISSN: 0009-2665 . ( American Chemical Society ) There is no expanded citation for this reference. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XptFWjs78%253D&md5=61e8bcd5f333f7c847c3042ffe1a6be0
• 174 Westerhoff, P. ; Atkinson, A. ; Fortner, J. ; Wong, M. S. ; Zimmerman, J. ; Gardea-Torresdey, J. ; Ranville, J. ; Herckes, P. Low Risk Posed by Engineered and Incidental Nanoparticles in Drinking Water . Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018 , 13 , 661 – 669 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0217-9 174 Low risk posed by engineered and incidental nanoparticles in drinking water Westerhoff, Paul; Atkinson, Ariel; Fortner, John; Wong, Michael S.; Zimmerman, Julie; Gardea-Torresdey, Jorge; Ranville, James; Herckes, Pierre Nature Nanotechnology ( 2018 ), 13 ( 8 ), 661-669 CODEN: NNAABX ; ISSN: 1748-3387 . ( Nature Research ) A review. Natural nanoparticles (NNPs) in rivers, lakes, oceans and ground water predate humans, but engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) are emerging as potential pollutants due to increasing regulatory and public perception concerns. This Review contrasts the sources, compn. and potential occurrence of NNPs (for example, 2-dimensional clays, multifunctional viruses and metal oxides) and ENPs in surface H2O, after centralized drinking H2O treatment, and in tap H2O. While anal. detection challenges exist, ENPs are currently orders of magnitude less common than NNPs in waters that flow into drinking H2O treatment plants. Because such plants are designed to remove small-sized NNPs, they are also very good at removing ENPs. Consequently, ENP concns. in tap H2O are extremely low and pose low risk during ingestion. However, after leaving drinking H2O treatment plants, corrosion byproducts released from distribution pipes or in-home premise plumbing can release incidental nanoparticles into tap H2O. The occurrence and toxicity of incidental nanoparticles, rather than ENPs, should therefore be the focus of future research. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVGhu77E&md5=bf4c08101b7a65417f72d80ae4d5bd0a
• 175 Shannon, M. A. ; Bohn, P. W. ; Elimelech, M. ; Georgiadis, J. G. ; Mariñas, B. J. ; Mayes, A. M. Science and Technology for Water Purification in the Coming Decades . Nature 2008 , 452 , 301 – 310 ,  DOI: 10.1038/nature06599 175 Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades Shannon, Mark A.; Bohn, Paul W.; Elimelech, Menachem; Georgiadis, John G.; Marinas, Benito J.; Mayes, Anne M. Nature (London, United Kingdom) ( 2008 ), 452 ( 7185 ), 301-310 CODEN: NATUAS ; ISSN: 0028-0836 . ( Nature Publishing Group ) A review highlighting science and technol. being developed to improve water disinfection and decontamination and efforts to increase water supplies through safe re-use of wastewater and efficient desalination of seawater and brackish water is given. Topics discussed include: disinfection; decontamination; re-use and reclamation; desalination; and conclusions. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXjsFCns7s%253D&md5=8eca80d34b155b0484e00fc8d32fcdb5
• 176 Lu, L. ; Guest, J. S. ; Peters, C. A. ; Zhu, X. ; Rau, G. H. ; Ren, Z. J. Wastewater Treatment for Carbon Capture and Utilization . Nat. Sustain. 2018 , 1 , 750 – 758 ,  DOI: 10.1038/s41893-018-0187-9 There is no corresponding record for this reference.
• 177 Babu, P. ; Nambiar, A. ; He, T. ; Karimi, I. A. ; Lee, J. D. ; Englezos, P. ; Linga, P. A Review of Clathrate Hydrate Based Desalination to Strengthen Energy-Water Nexus . ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2018 , 6 , 8093 – 8107 ,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b01616 177 A Review of Clathrate Hydrate Based Desalination To Strengthen Energy-Water Nexus Babu, Ponnivalavan; Nambiar, Abhishek; He, Tianbiao; Karimi, Iftekhar A.; Lee, Ju Dong; Englezos, Peter; Linga, Praveen ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering ( 2018 ), 6 ( 7 ), 8093-8107 CODEN: ASCECG ; ISSN: 2168-0485 . ( American Chemical Society ) A review. Water resource management impacts almost all aspects of the economy, in particular health, food prodn. and security, domestic water supply and sanitation, energy, industry and environmental sustainability. For the last several decades, seawater has become an important source of fresh water as it is one of the most abundant resources on earth. Desalination is the process of removal of salts from seawater and is postulated to be a core technol. in alleviating this problem. Clathrate hydrate based desalination (HyDesal) is a potential technol. for seawater desalination. Salts are excluded from hydrate formation, thereby resulting in solid hydrate and concd. brine. After sepn. from brine, the solid hydrate crystals upon dissocn. produce pure water. In this work, a detailed review of the literature (both patents and publications) so far on HyDesal is critically evaluated, and prospects and directions to commercialize the HyDesal process are presented. Further, innovation by coupling LNG cold energy with HyDesal can make it economically attractive and can strengthen the energy-water nexus. >> More from SciFinder ® https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtVWlt7fM&md5=697f8e1e57274f7206d5094d7b1d5545
• Supporting Information

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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	Title	Type
1		journal	14.577 Q1	419	262	637	10044	17562	466	27.42	38.34	28.93
2		journal	9.191 Q1	640	2652	4816	205113	141178	4781	28.44	77.34	32.35
3		journal	6.484 Q1	116	239	609	23341	16977	608	29.81	97.66	34.55
4		journal	5.496 Q1	402	3240	6403	227642	125554	6369	18.99	70.26	33.52
5		journal	4.593 Q1	478	2057	5134	133225	83625	5091	15.41	64.77	33.30
6		journal	3.483 Q1	175	275	635	24164	9420	605	13.75	87.87	39.78
7		journal	3.411 Q1	550	1575	3877	73244	40031	3856	9.68	46.50	30.18
8		journal	3.348 Q1	294	3459	4300	231291	57031	4280	13.08	66.87	34.99
9		journal	3.016 Q1	435	389	1797	26953	24853	1797	13.06	69.29	40.56
10		journal	2.539 Q1	164	1543	2037	99401	21708	2027	10.92	64.42	37.30
11		journal	2.058 Q1	311	5109	17878	272179	159673	17856	8.33	53.27	34.37
12		journal	2.052 Q1	239	780	2387	44861	27387	2378	11.19	57.51	40.28
13		journal	1.840 Q1	109	478	1132	37071	12176	1131	10.46	77.55	41.81
14		journal	1.738 Q1	227	515	1730	18599	10537	1714	5.73	36.11	26.49
15		journal	1.660 Q1	277	1194	4876	61161	33684	4874	6.65	51.22	26.89
16		journal	1.586 Q1	252	1508	4756	76732	25006	4741	4.94	50.88	29.30
17		journal	1.571 Q1	97	77	220	11752	2017	219	8.30	152.62	34.55
18		journal	1.416 Q1	285	1687	5922	109910	36760	5909	5.76	65.15	34.18
19		journal	1.273 Q1	179	443	1559	33731	12840	1554	6.74	76.14	43.56
20		journal	1.246 Q2	246	394	1204	26666	7657	1193	6.12	67.68	34.87
21		journal	1.016 Q2	147	0	507	0	3296	507	5.85	0.00	0.00
22		journal	0.957 Q2	338	2489	8171	135898	28460	8136	3.32	54.60	29.37
23		journal	0.941 Q2	190	336	2149	19294	11018	2145	5.01	57.42	35.69
24		journal	0.902 Q2	103	149	567	4939	2386	566	4.12	33.15	18.91
25		journal	0.863 Q2	151	103	467	5846	2335	465	4.51	56.76	44.90
26		journal	0.848 Q2	35	5	26	302	170	26	5.53	60.40	61.11
27		journal	0.821 Q2	107	36	215	2378	934	210	3.69	66.06	43.62
28		journal	0.739 Q2	20	32	75	1477	336	74	3.88	46.16	24.82
29		journal	0.680 Q2	47	31	184	1457	425	171	2.33	47.00	16.41
30		journal	0.670 Q2	135	146	531	9430	2150	493	3.54	64.59	42.13
31		journal	0.659 Q2	73	119	198	4764	744	194	4.10	40.03	32.04
32		journal	0.631 Q2	228	771	3787	41379	11455	3786	2.98	53.67	32.77
33		journal	0.578 Q2	102	42	180	2220	656	177	3.08	52.86	32.16
34		journal	0.572 Q2	66	117	186	8811	734	186	3.73	75.31	27.29
35		journal	0.529 Q2	112	259	1348	12553	4336	1340	3.11	48.47	29.17
36		journal	0.524 Q2	101	113	1032	6025	3759	1023	3.37	53.32	25.23
37		journal	0.520 Q2	81	100	404	5515	1173	400	2.74	55.15	33.10
38		journal	0.516 Q2	78	65	254	5509	774	252	2.71	84.75	34.12
39		journal	0.512 Q2	54	45	219	2372	792	215	4.21	52.71	42.86
40		journal	0.503 Q3	111	104	395	4745	1111	393	2.69	45.63	27.27
41		journal	0.489 Q3	57	132	415	6259	1129	412	2.27	47.42	34.21
42		journal	0.476 Q3	145	139	502	5827	1206	502	2.61	41.92	24.56
43		journal	0.437 Q3	72	386	720	18594	2461	719	3.56	48.17	30.45
44		journal	0.435 Q3	94	110	344	3935	911	344	2.26	35.77	20.33
45		journal	0.416 Q3	142	255	867	15434	2121	864	2.10	60.53	39.69
46		journal	0.410 Q3	47	69	215	3048	590	214	2.60	44.17	28.38
47		journal	0.409 Q3	22	44	113	885	153	75	1.51	20.11	31.19
48		journal	0.394 Q3	105	315	1017	8834	1954	1012	1.85	28.04	24.83
49		journal	0.393 Q3	45	65	166	1617	309	142	1.78	24.88	19.70
50		journal	0.390 Q3	79	218	643	6780	1449	642	2.33	31.10	31.69

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Nanotechnology from lab to industry – a look at current trends

First published on 1st August 2022

Nanotechnology holds great promise and is hyped by many as the next industrial evolution. Medicine, food and cosmetics, agriculture and environmental health, and technology industries already profit from nanotechnology innovations and their influence is expected to increase drastically in the near future. However, there are also many challenges that need to be overcome to bring a nanotechnological product or business to the market. In this article we discuss current examples of nanotechnology that have been successfully introduced in the market and their relevance and geographical spread. We then discuss different partners for scientists and their role in the commercialization process. Finally, we review the different steps it takes to bring a nanotechnology to the market, highlight the many difficulties related to these steps, and provide a roadmap for the journey from lab to industry which can be beneficial to researchers.

1. Introduction

	Possible applications of nanomaterials.

2. Nanotechnology developments

	The top 25 countries involved in the publishing of nanotechnology discoveries. (a) And patenting of inventions including at least one claim related to nanotechnology or patents classified with an International Patent Classification (IPC) code related to nanotechnology in the year 2020. (b) (https://statnano.com/).

All inhabited continents are represented among the top countries involved in scientific publishing; however, only Europe (14 countries), Asia (8 countries), North America (2 countries), and Oceania (1 country) are included among the top 25 countries involved in the patenting of nanotechnology developments. Seventeen countries were common factors among both publishing and patenting discoveries. It is also noteworthy that the two countries that had the highest investments in scientific research (China and The USA) produced highest numbers of publications and patents, respectively. Patents can be used as technological indicators as they provide an insight into the research and development activities that are intended for commercial gain. 12 The transfer of these nanotechnology advancements to commercialized end products is however a major challenge that the scientific community faces. However, it has to be noted here that there are also quite some differences in culture when it comes to patenting. There are differences between countries in how buerocratic the patent process is. Additionally, there are differences in how much is patented at all. In some cultures, it might be more common to keep innovation a secret than to patent. There are also differences in how patents are made. In some places there is a high number of smaller patents while in others there are a few more elaborate ones.

2.1. Nanotechnology industries worldwide

Company	Operation	Country
Operations listed might not be exhaustive.
3M	Manufactures numerous nanomaterials	USA
Advanced Material Development	Develops 2D nanotechnologies and metamaterial systems	UK
Applied Graphene Materials	Develops and applies graphene nanoplatelet dispersions	UK
BNNano, Inc.	Manufactures boron nitride nanotubes (NanoBarbs™)	USA
CelluForce	Produces a form of cellulose nanocrystals (CelluForce NCC™)	Canada
Cerion	Manufactures metal, metal oxide, and ceramic nanomaterials	USA
INNOVNANO	Manufactures ultra-fine nanostructured ceramic powders	Portugal
Nanogap	Manufactures novel nanomaterials from atomic quantum clusters	Spain
Nanomakers	Develops and commercializes nanoparticles of silicon carbide	France
OCSiAl Luxembourg	Produces graphene nanotubes	Luxembourg
RAS AG	Produces and distributes of nanomaterials	Germany
Rezenerate NanoFacial	Develops nanofacials using innovative devices for cosmetics delivery	USA
Superbranche	Develops functionalized metallic oxide nanoparticles	France
Zeon Corporation	Manufactures single-walled carbon nanotube	Japan
INNOVNANO	Manufactures ultra-fine nanostructured ceramic powders	Portugal
Nanogap	Manufactures novel nanomaterials from atomic quantum clusters	Spain
Nanomakers	Develops and commercializes nanoparticles of silicon carbide	France
OCSiAl Luxembourg	Produces graphene nanotubes	Luxembourg
RAS AG	Produces and distributes of nanomaterials	Germany
Rezenerate NanoFacial	Develops nanofacials using innovative devices for cosmetics delivery	USA
Superbranche	Develops functionalized metallic oxide nanoparticles	France
Zeon Corporation	Manufactures single-walled carbon nanotube	Japan

3. The business of ‘lab-to-industry’

	Roadmap for the commercialization of nanotechnology-derived products.

3.1. Ideation

These two approaches show how innovation relies on technology seeds and market needs. One might ponder which of the two approaches is better. There are both merits and challenges associated with each approach. While each can lead to innovation, a pairing of the two is recommended. When closely integrated, the potential impact of the innovation increases. This synchronization of the ‘seed’ and ‘need’ approaches is called accelerated innovation. It enables the restructuring of research and development, and innovation processes to make new product development dramatically faster and less costly. 15 Furthermore, it also facilitates functional thinking and exaptation where the latter refers to the discovery of unintended functions for technologies. Altogether creating the ideal conditions for researchers to make radical innovations and bridge the gap between academia and industry.

3.2. Business model

Breakthrough technologies, especially those incorporating the use of nanotechnology, are intended to create value. Value is created via this technology when there is meaningful performance improvement or when the cost of solving problems is significantly reduced. There is however a major challenge for nanotechnology innovations in terms of a business model, and that is, the challenge of taking the product to customers. Several factors can influence this (for example, having limited resources) and for this reason, a go-to-market strategy is critical.

A joint-development partnership is an agreement between two organizations to develop a new product or service. It is a strategic alliance that serves to leverage the assets of each company to create a new offering for commercialization that would be difficult to achieve individually. This type of partnership is commonly used for product development or beta testing. Typically, these agreements are not binding and one party can quit at any time. Profits, access, expenses, and losses are usually shared between the companies. With this type of business partnership, it is important to have a close business relationship with the company before engaging in this agreement. As is the case with licensing arrangements, the most ideal joint-development partnership can be determined with the assistance of an attorney. Matters relating to the ownership and access to intellectual property, responsibilities, disengagement, and termination are some of the issues to be discussed with a suitable attorney before engaging a potential partner.

In partnerships, securing intellectual property early remains crucial. In an innovative nanotechnology business, the science underpinning the technology is critical and must be protected. This can be achieved by engaging an intellectual property counsel. The services of a corporate counsel should also be acquired early to ensure the start-up is properly incorporated. These parties should be appointed at the early stages as they help with structuring the company. The technology transfer process which is discussed in Section 3.3 helps to get these counsels on board.

There are some key players that are needed to guarantee a good business model and these are outlined in Fig. 4 . To assure a diversity of skills that are necessary for success, an often overlooked group of individuals is needed. This is a company board. This can include a board of advisors and a board of directors. The functions of these two bodies bear some similarities and differences. The board of advisors is composed of business professionals who fill skill and expertise gaps and can offer guidance to the management team. This can include matters concerning business performance, market trends, long-term goals of the company, and financing to name a few. While the additional skill set required in a science-based industry might be in business management, it is not unusual for additional technical expertise to be warranted. This can include the skills of fellow scientists who have had prior success in transitioning science to the marketplace. These scientists, when recruited, could form a scientific or technical advisory board. Regardless of the composition of the advisory board, their core function is to provide non-binding strategic advice. Their role is not fiduciary. This means that the team of experts and community leaders has no legal responsibility to the company. Their role however remains critical as they can compensate for some of the weaknesses within the management team and bring different opinions, perspectives, and experiences to the table. The board of advisors is particularly helpful for start-ups. A board of directors, on the other hand, is essentially a panel of people elected or appointed to represent shareholders. They oversee the activities of the company and have a fiduciary responsibility to represent and protect the members' or investors' interests in the company. The management team however reports to the board of directors. Larger companies that will require significant funding need a board of directors. Both the boards of advisors and directors can assist with strategic planning, the development of new ideas, improvement of management structure, improving company image and reputation, reassuring stakeholders and investors, and overall, help to ensure the success of the company.

	Key players to support a budding nanotechnology start-up.

The management team and the company board can together decide on the most suitable business model for the company. In making this decision, special focus should be placed on the model that will create and deliver great value to customers while simultaneously delivering great margins. The model should also hedge against customer dissatisfaction or dissonance and issues securing adequate funding. While the team is now multifaceted, additional support to make the right decisions that will position the company for success can be sought. This can be achieved using accelerators and incubators (which might be available within the university or municipality), government agencies such as the local chamber of commerce, and small business and technology development centers. Start-ups are generally encouraged to not employ at the early stages and to instead contract personnel for specific functions if necessary.

3.3. Technology transfer process

The efficiency of the transfer of nanotechnology innovations from the lab to the industry is dependent on the efficacy of the technology transfer process. Countries that invest in improving nanotechnology transfer policies and practices have greater nanotechnology outputs. This is evident in the United States where the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) was developed. It is a collaboration of federal departments and agencies with interests in nanotechnology research, development, and commercialization. 17 Within the NNI are agencies such as the Nano manufacturing and Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) programs, and the NNI's National Nanotechnology Coordination Office (NNCO) that are concerned with the transfer of newly developed nanotechnologies into products for commercial use. In Asia, there has been an increase in expenditure towards nanotechnology research and deliberate efforts to transfer research findings to industries. While the production of nanotechnology publications in China is higher than in other countries ( Fig. 2a ), the transfer of these technologies to industries is not equivalent. 18 The National Steering Committee for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (NSCNN) was established to oversee and coordinate nanotechnology policies and programs in China. Some key members of this group include the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), and the Chinese Academy of Engineering. These agencies are expected to impact the technology transfer process within the country.

The success of the transfer of technology in The United States reveals that more favorable environments for nanotechnology transfer need to be created globally. This will create a stronger ecosystem for nanotechnology research and innovation, and in turn, result in greater success in the use of intellectual property to facilitate the creation of start-ups formed from the ground up or through partnerships. Some nanotechnology and nano-engineering associations across the world that can be modelled in other countries to positively impact the transfer of technology are outlined in Table 2 . These associations were selected from the Nanotechnology 2020 Market Analysis. 9

Association	Country
Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer	USA
American National Standards Institute Nanotechnology Panel	USA
Centre for Nano and Soft Matter Sciences	India
Collaborative Centre for Applied Nanotechnology	Ireland
Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science	India
Iranian Nanotechnology Laboratory Network	Iran
Nano Medicine Roadmap Initiative	USA
National Cancer Institute	USA
National Institutes of Health	USA
National Research Council Nanotechnology Research Centre	Canada
Russian Nanotechnology Corporation	Russia
S.N. Bose national Centre for Basic Sciences	India
Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology	Canada

3.4. Readiness for commercialization

	A cloverleaf framework for market entry readiness assessment of nanotechnology inventions.

Technology readiness evaluates the technology itself and seeks to determine if the technology will maintain itself in the market. This is usually determined by performing a technology readiness assessment (TRA). It is recommended that this TRA is done at several points during the ‘life cycle’ of the new technology or system. Possible components of this assessment include an evaluation of the conceptual design, a clear protocol to facilitate a decision from among several competing design options, and similarly, a defined approach to decide when to begin full-scale development. These decisions might be made by the research team or they can be more complex and warrant an external, independent peer-review process. 20 Market readiness assesses how marketable the technology is; that is, how well the technology will be accepted by the target market. This is generally done by examining whether the technology offers meaningful identifiable and quantifiable benefits, has distinct advantages over competing products, has access to a market of a suitable size that is defined and is growing (demand-based), has immediate market uses, and has feasible manufacturing requirements. 21

The commercialization readiness assessment also evaluates the readiness of the technology's business model. This is done to verify the stability and readiness of the foundation upon which the technology will be delivered. Within this component, parameters for assessment include determining whether prospective licensees are identified, if industry contacts are available, and if further development or patenting is possible based on the availability of financial support for the licensee. Additionally, anticipated future royalty revenue of the license, access to venture capital, a profitable investment, and availability of government support for additional development for innovations resulting from universities are also crucial. 22 The last key area is management readiness which assesses the readiness of the management team that is responsible for the technology. It addresses matters such as the ability of the inventor to champion the innovation as a team player, whether the inventor's expectations for success are realistic, if the inventor is recognized and reputable in the field, if commercialization skills such as sales and marketing skills are available, whether management capabilities are available, and also whether the inventor is the patent holder for innovations resulting from government labs. 23

A method of quantifying the judgments made for each criterion of the four areas of the Cloverleaf framework to determine the degree to which each condition is met was suggested. 19 If all components of the criteria list for the four ‘leaves’ assessing readiness are satisfied, then the technology is ready for commercialization. If a partnership agreement is being utilized, some components should be completed before engaging a partner and others should be finalized with the partner. Regardless of the business model, if any area is found lacking, additional preparation is warranted to ensure the success of the venture when it enters the market.

Alternative to the Cloverleaf framework is the Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) model. This was developed by NASA and is a type of measurement system that is used to permit more effective assessment and communication regarding the maturity of new technologies. 20 The different levels of the framework are outlined in Fig. 6 . There are nine technology readiness levels. A project is evaluated against the parameters for each technology level and is then assigned a TRL rating based on its progress. TRL 1 is the lowest level and indicates that a technology requires further research and development, and testing. TRL 9 is the highest level and signifies a mature technology that is proven to work and may be put into use and commercialized.

	Technology readiness levels (TRL).

3.5. Financials

	Phases of a company's growth (a), (b) and the different funding instruments that are available at the different stages (c).

Another type of capital provider is venture capitalists. These private investors provide funds to early-stage companies that are pursuing big opportunities with high growth potential. Venture capital firms exchange capital for equity ownership and can also provide strategic assistance, and an invaluable network. To capture the interest of a venture capitalist, a start-up should have a good “elevator pitch” and a strong investor pitch deck for their innovative product. This should therefore include the strength of the management team and clearly outline the large potential market for the nanotechnology innovation, and a unique product or service with a strong competitive advantage. Another entity that can provide financing and has a similar structure to a venture capital firm is a family office. This is a special investment firm that manages the wealth owned by individuals and families with a high net worth. 26 Family offices make optimal investors and are increasingly entering venture investment as a relatively new capital provider. They are comprised of qualified professionals with extensive experience and tend to offer more patient capital and expect lower returns than traditional investors.

4. The challenge of moving technology from lab to industry

	Summary of start-up lifetime and the most common reasons for failure. Adapted from Cantamessa et al. with permissions from MDPI.

Biological or environmental challenges are other factors that can impede the transfer of nanotechnology from the lab to the industry. Biological challenges include insufficient knowledge involving the interaction of nanomaterials in vitro and in vivo , inadequate information on their bioaccumulation in target organs, tissues, and cells, and also limited information on their biocompatibility. 30,31 Physical properties such as particle size, composition, surface area, surface charge, surface chemistry, and agglomeration state all influence the biocompatibility of nanomaterials and so more information is needed on their safety in vivo . 31 Environmental challenges include nanomaterials entering the environment either directly or indirectly (for example, via landfills). Nanomaterials can have potentially adverse effects on natural systems and can enter the environment at different stages of their life cycle. Three emission scenarios that are generally of relevance are (i) release during the production of various nanotechnology products or nano-enabled products; (ii) release during use; and (iii) release after disposal. 32 While present in the environment, nanomaterials can then undergo many transformations. These include chemical transformations (for example, photo-degradation), physical transformations (such as aggregation), biologically-mediated transformations (for instance, redox reactions in biological systems), and interactions with macromolecules (for example, flocculation). 30 The interplay between these transformations and the transport of the nanomaterial within the ecosystem ultimately determine their fate and ecotoxicity.

Possible biological and environmental impacts of nanotechnology innovations should be determined with in vitro and in vivo models, as well as within aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The production process from which the nanomaterial results should also be considered so that any such material emitted during this time or released from nano-enabled devices during their fabrication, use, recycling or disposal can be studied and minimized. Biological and environmental challenges can also be mitigated by providing employers and the extended workforce with information on the potential toxicity of nanomaterials at different stages of their life cycle. With the help of modelling, recent developments have been geared towards predicting the fate, behavior, and concentration of nanomaterials in the environment. 33 While these simulations can be helpful, more efficient and reliable analytical instruments and methods must be developed so that nanomaterials can be satisfactorily characterized and quantified, and the necessary tools developed to detect, monitor and track them in biological media and complex environmental matrixes.

The nanotechnology industry plays a major role in economic development; however, several economic challenges can hinder the transfer of innovations from the lab to the industry. Generally, these include limited investment in relevant research and development activities and a lack of appropriate mechanisms to secure these investments, lack of laboratory equipment and appropriate infrastructure to facilitate research and its commercialization, and insufficient funding opportunities to engage in research that has the potential for commercialization. Constraints imposed on the activities needed to commercialize nanotechnology outputs are also impacted by the socio-economic dynamics of innovation. While many believe the rapid growth in nanotechnology will have significant economic benefits, some advocate to reduce or halt its development. The backlash against nanotechnology by this group is based on the belief that it will exacerbate problems concerning existing socio-economic inequity and power imbalance caused by inequality. This, they suggest, will cause a nano-divide which refers to differing access to nanotechnology between low-, middle-, and high-income countries. 34,35 The ethical criticism is mainly concerned with inequity based on where knowledge is developed and retained and a country's capacity to engage in these processes. 35 An attempt to combat these challenges is outlined in the European Union's Framework Programs through the Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) approach. This approach ‘anticipates and assesses potential implications and societal expectations concerning research and innovation, intending to foster the design of inclusive and sustainable research and innovation’ (https://ec.europa.eu). These measures which are intended to facilitate broader access to nano-technology and its innovations globally are critical in addressing a nano-divide.

The final category of challenges that can significantly impact the transfer of nanotechnology from the lab to the industry is regulatory challenges. These are concerned with a lack of clear regulatory guidelines for nanotechnology and nanotechnology-enabled products. Some regulatory challenges include inadequate policies to foster the development and operation of nanotechnology businesses or insufficient strategies implemented by governments to attract nanotechnology business initiatives. Additionally, a lack of technology transfer protocols, or requisites for regulatory approvals to facilitate the movement of innovation from the lab to commercial products are problematic. 36 The multidisciplinary nature of nanotechnology also presents regulatory challenges. With its cross-industry applications, policing and enforcement nanotechnology patents have proven to be prohibitively expensive (WIPO, 2011). New intellectual property practices and protocols are therefore required to simplify the pathway from lab to industry thereby reducing time and expense.

The technical, biological, environmental, economic, and regulatory challenges of nanotechnology need to be addressed urgently. Policies governing all aspects of nanotechnology research and subsequent commercialization must balance its potential benefits with its current challenges. Combatting these challenges will require considerable efforts to prevent any possible harmful effects of nanotechnology while also facilitating the awareness of its benefits to society. 37 The involvement of scientific, governmental, industry, and labor force representatives is therefore critical in decision making so the challenges associated with the commercialization of nanotechnology can be controlled, minimized or mitigated.

5. Conclusions

The necessary risk assessment to understand the potentially harmful effects of products resulting from nanotechnology have however not kept pace with their proliferation; and researchers are racing to address this knowledge gap. 38 Companies resulting from the transfer of nanotechnology innovations from the lab to the marketplace must therefore have rigorous risk management protocols where risks are identified, control measures are planned and implemented, and risks communication. 37 Identified regulatory impediments should also be addressed and technology transfer policies and practices implemented. Entrepreneurial education and training, and the establishment of business incubators should also be supported within the necessary departments or research institutes. Improvement in the understanding of nanotechnology within society would also help commercialization efforts. Overall, societal actors such as researchers, policymakers, investors, citizens etc. must work together during the research and commercialization stages so that the many benefits of nanotechnology outputs can be aligned with the needs and expectations of society.

Conflicts of interest

Notes and references.

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Nanotechnology in Cosmetics and Cosmeceuticals—A Review of Latest Advancements

Vaibhav gupta.

1 Nanotechnology Lab, School of Pharmaceutics Education and Research (SPER), Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi 110062, Delhi, India; moc.oohay@nggvahbiav (V.G.); moc.liamg@eenabis (S.M.); moc.liamg@114amzu (U.F.); moc.liamg@5229vahsek (K.K.)

Sradhanjali Mohapatra

Harshita mishra.

2 Smart Society Research Team, Faculty of Business and Economics, Mendel University, 61300 Brno, Czech Republic; moc.liamg@8801arhsimatihsrah

Uzma Farooq

Keshav kumar, mohammad javed ansari.

3 Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Alkharj 16278, Saudi Arabia or [email protected] (M.J.A.); [email protected] (M.F.A.); [email protected] (A.S.A.)

Mohammed F. Aldawsari

Ahmed s. alalaiwe, mohd aamir mirza, zeenat iqbal, associated data.

Not applicable.

Nanotechnology has the potential to generate advancements and innovations in formulations and delivery systems. This fast-developing technology has been widely exploited for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Today, cosmetic formulations incorporating nanotechnology are a relatively new yet very promising and highly researched area. The application of nanotechnology in cosmetics has been shown to overcome the drawbacks associated with traditional cosmetics and also to add more useful features to a formulation. Nanocosmetics and nanocosmeceuticals have been extensively explored for skin, hair, nails, lips, and teeth, and the inclusion of nanomaterials has been found to improve product efficacy and consumer satisfaction. This is leading to the replacement of many traditional cosmeceuticals with nanocosmeceuticals. However, nanotoxicological studies on nanocosmeceuticals have raised concerns in terms of health hazards due to their potential skin penetration, resulting in toxic effects. This review summarizes various nanotechnology-based approaches being utilized in the delivery of cosmetics as well as cosmeceutical products, along with relevant patents. It outlines their benefits, as well as potential health and environmental risks. Further, it highlights the regulatory status of cosmeceuticals and analyzes the different regulatory guidelines in India, Europe, and the USA and discusses the different guidelines and recommendations issued by various regulatory authorities. Finally, this article seeks to provide an overview of nanocosmetics and nanocosmeceuticals and their applications in cosmetic industries, which may help consumers and regulators to gain awareness about the benefits as well as the toxicity related to the continuous and long-term uses of these products, thus encouraging their judicious use.

1. Introduction

Nanotechnology and nanodelivery systems are innovative areas of science that comprise the design, characterization, manufacturing, and application of materials, devices, and systems at the nanoscale level (1–100 nm). Nanotechnology, being recognized as one of the revolutionizing technologies, is extensively studied in the area of cosmetics and cosmeceuticals [ 1 , 2 ]. The incorporation of nanotechnology has led to advancements in cosmetic science, resulting in increased consumer demand throughout the world [ 3 ]. Presently, nanomaterials are attracting attention in this area, as they offer greater advantages over traditionally used cosmetic products. Further, the amalgamation of nanomaterials has greatly contributed to the global increase in the market share of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. In the year 2019, the international market size of nanomaterials was estimated to be USD 8.5 billion and is expected to increase with up to a 13.1% compound annual growth rate from the years 2020 to 2027 [ 4 ]. Although the concept of nanomaterials (gold and silver nanoparticles) has been used in cosmetics for several years, the extensivity of applications has intensified in recent years.

Cosmetics are preparations that have been used by humans for a long time, primarily for regenerative purposes, and are appreciated by both genders. They can be defined as preparations that are typically used externally and can be formulated from a single or combination of substances obtained from either natural or artificial sources [ 5 ]. The US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) defines cosmetics as a formulation “intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body’s structure or functions”. This expansive definition encompasses any material proposed for use as a component of a cosmetic item, although soap is explicitly excluded from this class [ 6 ]. However, under this act, the word “cosmeceutical” has no definition. As per the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act), there is no such word as “cosmeceutical”. This word is only used for industrial purposes to refer to cosmetic products with therapeutic actions. The European Union Cosmetics Directive (EUCD) defines cosmetics as “any substance or preparation intended to be placed in contact with the various external parts of the human body (epidermis, hair system, nails, lips and external genital organs) or with the teeth and the mucous membranes of the oral cavity with a view exclusively or mainly of cleaning them, perfuming them, changing their appearance and/or correcting body odours and/or protecting them or keeping them in good condition” [ 7 ]. The Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940 and Rules 1945 defines a cosmetic as “any article intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled or sprayed on, or introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body or any part thereof for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance, and includes any article intended for use as a component of cosmetic” [ 8 ]. Despite these definitions, the legal meaning of cosmetics in many nations is more extensive. In some Western nations, cosmetics are normally interpreted as just beautifying products, such as lipstick, mascara, eyeliners, highlighter, and a few other items of this kind [ 9 ].

Cosmeceuticals can be described as preparations that contain therapeutically active ingredients that specifically possess remedial effects upon surface application with traditionally used cosmetics. These products have quantifiable restorative effects on the skin and hair and are utilized for the treatment of different conditions, such as damaged hair, wrinkles, photoaging, skin dryness, light spots, hyperpigmentation, etc. Acting as a bridge between drugs and beauty care products, they promise an improvement in appearance [ 10 , 11 ]. Presently, cosmeceuticals are considered one of the fastest-growing segments of the personal care industry, and the market for individual consideration is massively expanding [ 2 ]. It is one of the most rapidly developing ventures, demanding an expansion in nanocosmeceuticals research, exploration, and applications.

The manipulation of materials at the atomic level by utilizing nanotechnology has great potential in the area of cosmeceuticals, opening up new avenues for the cosmetics industry. The incorporation of various nanomaterials during the development of cosmetic/cosmeceutical products results in nanocosmetics/nanocosmeceuticals, respectively. Prolongation of action, augmented bioavailability, and improved aesthetic appeal of products are a few of the advantages associated with nanotechnology-based cosmeceuticals. These products offer several other benefits over traditionally used cosmeceuticals, such as small size and huge surface-to-volume ratio, which makes them effective adjuvants in cosmeceuticals. Further, the inclusion of nanoparticles in cosmetic formulations does not change the properties of cosmeceuticals but improves their appearance, coverage, and adherence to the skin. Cosmetic manufacturers employ nanosized ingredients to improve UV protection, skin penetration, color, the release of fragrance, finish quality, anti-aging effect, and a variety of other properties. They prolong the duration of action by either controlling the delivery of active ingredients, causing site-specificity, improving biocompatibility, or enhancing the drug-loading capacity. All of these factors make them more popular among consumers, necessitating clinical trials in this area to address their safety concerns. Nanocosmeceuticals have also been highly exploited for formulating various anti-aging formulations. They are successfully marketed as skincare, hair care, and nail care products, among others, claiming to stimulate their growth, protect their structure, and increase hydration power, thus improving their effectiveness as cosmetic products [ 12 , 13 ]. Although they have several benefits, at the same time, they possess limitations related to stability, scalability, toxicity, cost, etc. Moreover, the safety and toxicity profiles of nanomaterials are still debatable. The small size, increased surface area, and positive surface charge of nanoparticles improve their ability to interact with the microenvironment biologically. On the other hand, they have dose-dependent toxicity through different routes of administration. It is well known that the bioavailability of an active ingredient is better influenced by the dosage rather than the physicochemical properties of the active moiety [ 14 ]. Hence, in the case of cosmetic products, a major concern in the advancement of nanoformulations is that they may enhance the concentration of active ingredients reaching the blood and impact the toxicity [ 15 ]. Figure 1 depicts the overall action of nanoparticles in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals.

Advantages of nanocosmeceuticals.

Based on these facts, a narrative review of all of the relevant articles and reports was conducted by searching related keywords across different sources. Google Patents was used to collect data regarding related patents. Selected studies were compared and condensed to obtain a qualitative output based on existing theories and principles. The present review outlines various nanoparticles and nanodelivery systems used for cosmetic and cosmeceutical products, highlighting their positive and negative characteristics along with related patents. It also discusses the health and environmental risks linked with nanocosmeceuticals with suggested solutions. Further, the present review highlights the regulatory scenarios and compares the various regulations related to cosmetics. Additionally, it is intended to assist the industry and other stakeholders in identifying potential safety issues associated with nanomaterials in cosmetics. It also discusses various guidelines and recommendations prescribed by different regulatory agencies. Finally, this article aims to provide an overview of nanocosmetics and nanocosmeceuticals and their applications in cosmetic industries and suggest future directions, which may help consumers and regulators to gain awareness about the benefits as well as the toxicity related to the continuous and long-term uses of these products, thus encouraging their judicious use.

2. Nanomaterials Used in Cosmetic Products

Nanomaterials are materials having at least one dimension in the nano range and significantly distinct physicochemical properties. These materials have been commonly used in the cosmetic industry for many years. Cosmetics incorporating nanomaterials show more advantages as compared to microscale cosmetics. The large surface area of these particles is responsible for their efficient transportation, absorption, bioavailability, and transparency and the sustained effect of the product. However, consideration should be given to the concentration to circumvent the associated toxicity. The following Table 1 describes different nanomaterials used in the cosmetic industry.

Different nanomaterials used for preparing cosmetics and cosmeceuticals.

S. No.	Nanomaterial	Advantage	Disadvantage	Uniqueness	Type of Cosmeceutical	Commercially Available Product	Reference
	Inorganic particles (TiO , ZnO)	Hydrophilic, biocompatible, safe, and stable	Pulmonary toxicity	Absorb/reflect UV light	Sunscreen	Phytorx UV Defense Sun Block SPF 100—Lotus Professionals	[ , ]
	Silica (SiO )	Hydrophilic, ↓ manufacturing cost	Pulmonary toxicity	Used as filler to ↑ the bulk of the cosmetic formulation	Lipstick	Face FWD >> Blush Stick—Sugar Cosmetics	[ ]
	Carbon black	Light weight, ↑ chemical and thermal stability, and ↓ cost	Cytotoxicity; alters the phagocytic property of macrophages	Color pigment	Facemask	Face Masque—Carbon BAE	[ , ]
					Mascara	Mascara Black—Lakme
	Nano-organic (tris-biphenyl triazine)	Powerful and photostable filter	Hazardous to the aquatic environment	Most efficient UVB and UVA 2 filter	Sunscreen	Extra UV Gel—Allie	[ , ]
	Nano-hydroxyapatite	Dental desensitizer and polish remineralization of teeth	Very brittle nature	Safe in pediatric toothpaste	Toothpaste	Kinder Karex Hydroxyapatite	[ , , ]
						APAGARD M plus—Sangi
	Gold and silver nanoparticles	Uniform shape, size, and branch length; tuned pharmacokinetics and biodistribution; antibacterial and antifungal activity; and chemical stability	Damages human cells and DNA at high doses; pulmonary toxicity	Surface-enhanced Raman scattering	Facemask	Gold Radiance Peel Off Mask–VLCC	[ , , , ]
					Anti-aging cream	Nano Gold Firming Treatment—Chantecaille
	Buckyballs (buckminsterfullerene/C60)	Exhibits antioxidant activity, thermostability, and photostability; prevents many skin problems related to oxidative stress	Pulmonary toxicity; damages brain tissues; highly hydrophobic	Potent scavenger of free radicals	Face cream	Brightening Essence—Juva Skincare	[ , , ]

2.1. Inorganic Particles

These are more hydrophilic, more biocompatible, safer, and exceptionally more stable particles as compared to natural nanoparticles. They can be significantly distinct, as these nanoparticles are derived from inorganic components (Ag, Au, Ti, etc.), while the natural ones are manufactured from polymers. Figure 2 shows the percentages of different inorganic nanoparticles in cosmetic and cosmeceutical formulations.

Proportions of different inorganic nanoparticles in cosmetics formulation.

There are many inorganic nanoparticles used in cosmeceuticals. A few important particles are described below.

2.1.1. Titanium Dioxide and Zinc Oxide

Sunscreens are useful for shielding the skin from the hazardous impacts of solar radiation, including UVB, UVA-2, and UVA-1 [ 27 , 28 ]. They usually consist of zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) as inorganic UV radiation filters, which prevent the harmful radiation of sunlight from reaching the skin. It has been established that ZnO is more effective for obstructing UVA, and TiO 2 is better for the UVB range. Hence, the appropriate proportion of the mixture of these particles guarantees wide-range UV protection [ 29 ]. TiO 2 is possibly the most broadly utilized and efficient inorganic nanoparticle for sunscreens and has a higher sun protection factor (SPF) at the nanoscale, which makes it more effective and results in a superior restorative effect due to its transparency, in contrast with its original color. These properties of TiO 2 are attributable to its large surface-area-to-volume ratio in the nano range [ 30 ], as it makes it be highly capable of carrying molecules when their sizes are reduced to 10–20 nm. Further, it has been reported that nanoscale TiO 2 and ZnO show incredible benefits over numerous materials that are larger than the nano range [ 31 ]. TiO 2 and ZnO nanoparticles used as UV filters in sunscreens [ 32 ] start at a size of 20 nm. They show better scattering and produce a superior restorative or protective effect. On the other hand, inhalation of a large amount of these nanoparticles has been shown to be harmful [ 33 ]. Thus, an alternate route of administration (i.e., dermal application) focuses on normal sunscreen ingredients, as these are safer, and there is no evidence of their infiltration into the epidermis or significant toxicity issues [ 16 , 34 ]. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies TiO 2 as an IARC Group 2B carcinogen [ 32 ]. An investigation was carried out on rodents exposed to large quantities of TiO 2 nanoparticles and pigments, which resulted in cellular breakdown in the lungs of the rodents; this situation is comparable to working in dusty environments, causing serious harmful effects in individuals exposed to them. However, ZnO is considered a safe entity by the USFDA for use as a UV filter in cosmetics or cosmeceuticals. As an alternative, naturally occurring nanoparticles, such as ivy nanoparticles, which are secreted from the roots of English ivy (Hedera helix), are generally safer and employed for their UV-protective effects [ 35 ]. The enhanced visual transparency and safety of Ivy nanoparticles make them an attractive alternative to replace other toxic nanoparticles, reducing the impact on the health and environment.

2.1.2. Gold and Silver Nanoparticles

Gold and silver nanoparticles display antibacterial as well as antifungal properties [ 36 ] and are widely utilized in cosmetic formulations such as antiperspirants, anti-aging creams, and face masks. Gold has a long history of usage for skin health management and beauty care products in Egypt, where gold was used to maintain skin complexion. Egyptians believed that gold improved their skin composition and flexibility. Currently, gold is incorporated into different skincare items, such as salves, creams, and skincare treatments. Generally, gold in skincare products is called colloidal gold or, more precisely, nanogold if it is in the size range of 5 nm to 400 nm. Its color ranges from red to purple, depending upon the size and total surface area [ 2 , 37 ]. Gold nanoparticles have diverse shapes, such as nanospheres, nanorods, nanoclusters, nanostars, nanoshells, nanocubes, and nanotriangles, and the state of these particles determines their cell uptake and optical behavior. Properties such as stability and biocompatibility make them more appropriate for skincare and cosmetics [ 2 ]. Furthermore, their antifungal, antibacterial, and anti-aging benefits are well established, which are highly significant in cosmeceutical industries and in wound healing applications [ 38 ]. Gold nanoparticles play a substantial role in fixing skin damage and improving skin surface, grace, and flexibility. The soothing properties of gold make it an exceptional agent for treating skin inflammation, sunburn, and hypersensitivity. Hence, it can be successfully used in face masks and other cosmetics.

Silver nanoparticles can be utilized as successful inhibitors of various microorganisms. Silver and silver-based mixtures can be utilized to control bacterial development in different formulations [ 39 ]. The utilization of silver in cosmetics can be problematic, as silver readily precipitates in silver-based mixtures, which can be overcome by the utilization of silver nanoparticles. In Europe, the safety of colloidal silver in nanostructures concerning its use in oral and dermal cosmetic items is ambiguous [ 40 ]. In the USA, due to the lack of FDA regulations, cosmetic items are thought to lack promising antibacterial properties [ 41 ]. According to research, the use of silver nanoparticles as an additive in cosmetics makes the formulation stable, without showing sedimentation, for more than 1 year. Furthermore, silver nanoparticles showed adequate protection against microbes and their growth and did not enter human skin [ 42 ].

2.1.3. Silica (SiO 2 )

Because silica nanoparticles have hydrophilic surfaces favoring extended distribution and low manufacturing costs, interest towards these materials has increased, particularly in the cosmetic sector. Nanosilica is utilized to improve the adequacy, surface, and period of actual usability of cosmetic items [ 43 ]. It has been shown that silica nanoparticles may help to improve the appearance and appropriation of shades in lipsticks and keep colors in place [ 44 ]. Silica nanoparticles are present as nanodispersions with a size range of 5 to 100 nm and can deliver both hydrophilic and lipophilic entities to their respective targets by encapsulation [ 12 ]. These nanoparticles are generally found in leave-on and wash-off cosmetic items for hair, skin, lips, face, and nails, and the further expansion of silica nanoparticles in cosmetic items is expected [ 45 ]. However, the practical uses of silica-based nanoparticles are questionable and raise concerns about their safety, but factors such as size and surface changes ought to be considered while surveying its toxicity [ 45 , 46 ]. However, the commercial use of silica nanoparticles in beautifying agents is still ambiguous, requiring long-term trials [ 16 ].

2.1.4. Carbon Black

Carbon black, CI 77266, is known to be a significant ingredient in cosmetic formulations and is frequently utilized as a colorant in eye and skin cosmetic products. The EU has approved it for use in its nanostructure form and as a colorant at a maximum percentage of 10%. An evaluation of carbon black nanoparticles showed that they displayed a higher propensity for causing cytotoxicity, aggravation, and changes in phagocytosis in human monocytes as compared to micron-sized nanoparticles [ 47 ]. As per the EU, it can be utilized in cosmetic items when there is no danger of being breathed in [ 16 ].

2.1.5. Nano-Hydroxyapatite

Nano-hydroxyapatite is utilized in cosmetic items specifically meant for oral preparations that are used for treating extreme dental sensitivity and polish remineralization of the teeth [ 48 ]. It is regarded as a promising and safe option for these purposes by the US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) [ 49 ]. These particles have been incorporated into oral formulations, such as dentifrices and mouthwashes, owing to their remineralization and desensitization properties. Such preparations could provide an alternative to fluoride toothpaste [ 16 ].

2.2. Nano-Organic (Tris-Biphenyl Triazine)

Tris-biphenyl triazine is a novel, powerful, and photostable filter specifically used in sunscreen formulations [ 50 ]. In its nano form, it functions as a broad-spectrum UV protectant and is thus frequently used in sunscreen preparations. It offers significant photostability and is an approved UV protectant in Europe. It is used under the name TINOSORB ® A2B by BASF SE. Methylene bis-benzo triazolyl tetramethyl butylphenol (nano), or MBBT, is another approved UV protectant in the EU market and can be utilized at percentages of up to 10% w/w in dermally applied cosmetic preparations. According to the Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) assessment, MBBT does not represent a danger to people if applied to solid, unbroken skin. Nonetheless, it has raised concerns related to possible harmful impacts and has the potential to bioaccumulate in selected tissues [ 16 ].

2.3. Bucky Balls (Buckminsterfullerene/C60)

Carbon fullerene has been extensively used in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals due to its antioxidative properties. Fullerenes are widely used in skin-rejuvenating cosmeceutical formulations because of their potent scavenging ability of free radical oxygen species, thus helping to reduce the effects of UV damage, such as hyperpigmentation and wrinkles [ 51 ]. Fullerene is a three-dimensional spherical compound that comprises a carbon ring with an odd number of carbon atoms [ 52 ] and is hence called “buckyballs” or buckminsterfullerene. Fullerenes alone have limited applications because of their hydrophobic nature, but the use of surface-active agents in a suitable concentration has improved their aqueous solubility and hence has successfully increased their utilization in pharmaceutical applications [ 36 , 53 ].

2.4. Miscellaneous

Nanoparticles utilized in cosmetics or cosmeceuticals can be comprehensively classified into two categories: biodegradable nanoparticles (made up of lipids, chitosan, etc.) and non-biodegradable nanoparticles (ZnO, silica-based nanoparticles, etc.) [ 54 ]. Chitin and its deacetylated derivative chitosan are another class that is of extraordinary interest to the cosmeceutical industry owing to their special organic and mechanical properties [ 55 ]. Nanofibrils of chitin are obtained from the shellfish exoskeleton with the removal of protein fractions and carbonate [ 54 ]. Chitin nanofibrils in emulsions can organize into a hygroscopic subatomic film that hinders water dissipation and adds to skin hydration [ 16 , 56 ].

3. Nano-Drug Delivery Systems Used in Cosmetics

Over the past few decades, nanotechnology has been providing novel solutions to several problems in the medical and pharmaceutical arenas. This same concept has been applied in cosmetics, resulting in novel formulations termed nanocosmeceuticals and providing customized remedies for cosmeceutical problems. The novel benefits may be attributed to a smaller size that helps to acquire new properties, such as better solubility, transparency, chemical reactivity, and stability. Several nanomaterials, such as liposomes, ethosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanocapsules, dendrimers, nanocrystals, cubosomes, and nanoemulsions, are used in the cosmetic industry. Currently, cosmetic formulations incorporating nanoscience are extensively marketed. The following sections, including Figure 3 and Table 2 , describe various submicron-sized novel drug delivery systems used in cosmetic industries to deliver active ingredients.

Various nanoformulations used in the cosmetic industry.

Nanoformulations used for preparing various cosmeceuticals.

S. No.	Nanoformulation	Advantage	Disadvantage	Uniqueness	Type of Cosmeceutical	Commercially Available Product	Reference
1.	Nanoliposomes	Biodegradable, biocompatible, amphiphilic, and ↑ skin penetration	May trigger an immune response, ↓ medication stacking, ↓ reproducibility, and physicochemical flimsiness	Ability to compartmentalize and solubilize both hydrophilic and lipophilic materials	Moisturizer	Dermosome—Microfluidics	[ , , ]
					Anti-wrinkle cream	Capture Totale—Dior
2.	Niosomes	↑ Efficiency, penetration, bioavailability, and stability of drugs	↑ Cost of production, physical and chemical instability, leakage of the drug, time-consuming production	Surface development and alteration are extremely simple due to presence of useful functional groups on the hydrophilic head	Anti-aging cream	Lancome —Loreal, Paris	[ ]
3.	Ethosomes	↑ Efficiency and penetration of cosmetic delivery into the skin	Poor yield problems, ↓ stability, and possibility of coalescence	Consist of a relatively high percentage of ethanol	Moisturizer	Supravir Cream—Trima, Israel	[ , ]
4.	Sphingosomes	Reestablishment of barrier function of skin and repair of dehydrated and damaged skin	Poor entrapment efficiency and expensive	Consist of sphingolipid, which makes them more stable than phospholipid liposomes	Anti-cellulite cream	Noicellex—NTT, Israel	[ , ]
5.	Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)	↑ Duration of action, ease of large-scale production, ↑ bioavailability and biodegradability	↓ Shelf life, decreased drug encapsulation	Crystalline in nature, ↑ drug loading matrix; consists of solid lipid	Perfume and cream	Chanel Allur	[ , , ]
6.	Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs)	↑ Shelf life, ease of large-scale production	↓ Duration of action, higher drug encapsulation	The matrix consists of a blend of solid and liquid lipids	Face spa cream	Dr. Rimpler—Cutanova	[ , ]
7.	Nanocapsules	Protection of ingredients, masking of undesirable odors, resolution of incompatibility issues between formulation components, sustained release formulation	Additional purification step is required after nanocapsule formulation	Formation of micelles and amphiphilic in nature	Anti-wrinkle cream	Primordiale Intense—L’Or’ea	[ , , ]
					Hair care	Nano Collagen—Braziliss
8.	Dendrimers	↑ Solubility of the lipophilic drug, controlled-release drug formulation, and maintenance of the stability of the drug in cosmetic formulations	Not good materials for hydrophilic drugs, cellular toxicity, ↑ manufacturing cost	↑ Shelf life of the cosmetic formulation	Sunscreen	Topical Resveratrol Formulation	[ ]
9.	Nanoemulsions	Transparent, stable, and amphiphilic	Preparation is difficult in cosmetic formulations, acid-sensitive, and ↓ duration of action	Creams containing nanoemulsions do not show problems of inherent creaming, flocculation, coalescence, or sedimentation	Body lotions, skin creams, balsams, salves, and gels	Cosmeceutical Vitamin A, D, E, K—Vitalipid	[ , ]
					Moisturizer	Nano Emulsion Multi-PeptideMoisturizer—Hanacure
10.	Nanocrystal	↑ Drug solubility, particle distribution, adhesiveness, dissolution rate, skin penetration of poorly water-soluble drugs	Possibility of aggregation, not appropriate for aqueous APIs, only stable to a certain extent	100% drug loading ability	Moisturizer	Nano-In Hand and Nail Moisturizing Serum and Foot Moisturizing Serum—Nano-Infinity Nanotech	[ , , , , ]
					Toothpaste	Nano WhiteningToothpaste—Whitewash

3.1. Nanoliposomes

These are a nanometric form of liposomes that can be described as vesicles with concentric bilayers, where the fluid volume is encapsulated by bilayers of phospholipids [ 1 ], and are widely used as controlled release systems. Conventional liposomes are large and are actually liposomes inside another liposome; hence, they have a limited ability to enter narrow blood vessels or the skin, whereas nanoliposomes have better penetration ability. Being biodegradable and biocompatible, they behave as an exceptionally versatile nanomaterial in the field of cosmetics [ 68 ]. Cosmetic formulations incorporating liposomes have greater stability on the skin, as they are not easily washed off. These are ideal carriers of cells and biomembranes and can be successfully applied to the skin because they resemble the biological composition of the skin. They can also be utilized for fixing and transporting nutrients and for imparting pleasant scents to body wash, lipsticks, and antiperspirants [ 12 ]. Nanoliposomes in cosmetics enhance the hydration of the skin due to the smaller size of the particles, making the skin smooth and elastic. These are able to transport active moieties into the deeper layers of the skin, even to the systemic circulation, and can act as a transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) in cosmeceutical applications. However, despite their promising features, low medication stacking, low reproducibility, and physicochemical fragility issues have restricted their commercial applications in beauty care products [ 16 , 69 , 70 ]. In the cosmetic industry, they are primarily employed for moisturizing and anti-aging purposes.

Recently, Han et al. demonstrated a novel approach to improve the absorption profile of collagen peptides obtained from Asterias pectinifera by using elastic nanoliposomes. This combination led to a promising formulation that not only resulted in a reduction in the expression of MMP-1 (produced upon exposure to UV radiation), thus preventing light-induced aging, but also may be used as an eco-friendly source of materials for anti-aging cosmetics [ 71 ]. Further, Kocic et al. performed an experiment that compared the moisturizing effect of marketed creams and nanoliposome creams incorporating skimmed donkey milk. They concluded that the nanoliposome encapsulated cream was able to penetrate deeper layers, resulting in reasonable moisturizing capacity with a rapid rate of hydration, and it therefore may contribute to anti-aging activity [ 72 ].

3.2. Ethosomes

The largest organ of the human body is the skin, which is known to restrict the movement of substances into the systemic circulation owing to the presence of a thick stratum corneum, which acts as a key physiological barrier. Ethosomes containing a very high concentration of ethanol and lipids are soft and flexible vesicles used as carriers to enhance transdermal delivery of a variety of cosmetic agents [ 73 ]. They can be customized for the safe and effective skin permeation of cosmeceutical products incorporating antioxidants, anti-wrinkle agents, salicylic acid, and many others. These systems are much more efficient than conventional liposomes in delivering topically applied cosmetics to the skin [ 74 ].

Research has found that the ethosomal formulation of niacinamide and melatonin can improve their ability to penetrate the skin with increased efficacy [ 75 ]. Another study claimed that ethosomes incorporating phenylethyl resorcinol delivered the active agent successfully into the skin for its skin-lightening activity [ 76 , 77 ]. One of the studies carried out by Yücel et al. claimed that the transdermal application of ethosomes loaded with rosmarinic acid (having anti-aging properties) exhibited better efficiency than that of the liposomal formulation. The skin permeation profile for the ethosomal formulation was found to be high with increased transdermal flux as compared to that of the rosmarinic acid solution and liposomes [ 78 ]. Another investigation conducted by Pravalika et al. with ethosomal vesicles incorporating minoxidil (a drug for the treatment of baldness) showed that the ethosomal gel had improved penetration as compared to other marketed formulations, which was concluded from both ex vivo permeability and hair growth experiments [ 79 ].

3.3. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs)

These are two novel delivery systems made up of a single layer of shells having a lipoidal center [ 2 , 63 ] and are used for formulating pharmaceutical as well as cosmeceutical products [ 80 ]. These formulations are characterized by a solid-state lipid matrix having a size in the nano range. The small size of the formulations permits direct entry into the corneum layer, which enhances the infiltration of active ingredients into the skin [ 81 , 82 ]. They show improved biocompatibility and safety and act as a successful transporter delivery system in cosmeceutical applications [ 12 ]. Since 2005, SLNs have been used in several dermal cosmetic products to achieve good outcomes [ 83 , 84 ]. SLNs are widely used in formulating sunscreens, where they act as active carriers for molecular sunscreen agents. They reduce the necessary amount of the sunscreen agent while offering the same protection as compared to conventionally used formulations. SLNs formulated with tocopherol acetate prevented chemical degradation, and improvement in the UV-blocking capacity was reported [ 85 ]. Another investigation incorporating a combination of chemical UV absorbers, chitin, and tocopherol in SLNs showed enhanced UVB protection action [ 86 ]. They are also used for film formation, which helps in the re-enforcement and repair of the skin barrier, making them perfect for cosmeceuticals that are used to treat irritated and itchy skin and dermatitis. Comparing the two, the crystalline nature of SLNs leads to less drug encapsulation efficiency as compared to NLCs, which have comparatively better encapsulation. Additionally, SLNs have a short shelf life along with slower drug release rates compared to NLCs [ 83 ].

A recent experimental study carried out on an SLN formulation integrating fucoxanthin (protects against UVB light) concluded that the presence of the SLN carrier improved the bioavailability of fucoxanthin and can be a promising carrier for sunscreen cosmetics, showing greater stability and good sunscreen-boosting action [ 84 , 87 ]. Another study combined the capability of the flavonoid as a natural antioxidant with NLCs to form an effective system for delivery into the cells. Further, the produced NLCs were incorporated into the skin with good stability and no significant cytotoxicity, suggesting that they can be used as anti-aging and moisturizing cosmetics in the future [ 88 ].

3.4. Nanocapsules

These are polymeric nanomaterials that encapsulate an oily or water phase within them. They are employed in beauty care products for protecting ingredients, masking undesirable odors, and mitigating incompatibility issues between various components in the formulations. Polymeric nanocapsule suspensions can be applied on the skin directly or can be fused into semisolid systems and used as carriers. The level of skin penetration can be regulated by the use of polymers and surfactants in the formulation [ 89 ]. In one study, nanoprecipitation was used to fabricate stable poly-l-lactic acid nanocapsules with a size of around 115 nm, and the continual release of fragrance was successfully established by encapsulating odorous atoms in a polymeric nano-transporter [ 90 ]. This sort of encapsulation of atoms in biocompatible nanocapsules can assume a critical role in antiperspirant formulations to enhance their effectiveness [ 16 ]. Recently, researchers developed novel stimuli-responsive nanocapsules that were developed to carry vitamins and extracts and finally were incorporated into semisolid formulations such as creams. When these formulations were applied on the skin, stimuli induced by damaged skin, such as a pH change and the presence of enzymes, forced the nanocapsules to release their active ingredients at the particular location of the skin [ 91 ].

Recently, one study demonstrated the successful incorporation of perfluorodecalin (oxygen carrier) into a silica nanocapsule core as a new tactic for topical therapy of aging skin due to the inherent instability of perfluorocarbon emulsions. Furthermore, this combination displayed better delivery and stability compared to emulsions [ 92 ]. Barbosa et al. developed nanocapsules composed of poly(ε-caprolactone) carrot oil and Pluronic containing benzophenone-3 in a sunscreen formulation. These nanocapsules improved the stability of the benzophenone in the topical formulation and also showed synergistic SPF activity with a non-irritant profile [ 93 ].

3.5. Dendrimers

Dendrimers are three-dimensional nanostructured macromolecules that are extensively branched, and this assembly accounts for their great adaptability [ 12 ]. They are generally polymers, and because of their stability, they are helpful in delivering active ingredients through the skin [ 82 ]. These molecules can be used in formulating shampoos and antiperspirants with increased efficiency. The surface movement and branches of dendrimers are due to the hydrophobic properties of their peripheral regions combined with the hydrophilic attributes of their central regions [ 68 ]. Moreover, properties such as monodispersion, polyvalence, and dependability make them ideal transporters for drug and cosmetic delivery [ 2 ]. Dendrimers of resveratrol (having antioxidant and anti-aging activities) have been developed and have assisted in improving the general solubility and skin infiltration [ 94 ], which later encouraged the scale-up and commercialization of this dendrimer structure-based formulation [ 16 ].

3.6. Nanocrystals

These are clusters made up of thousands of molecules joined together in a fixed pattern to form a group with sizes ranging from 10 to 400 nm and are usually utilized for the administration of poorly soluble drugs [ 95 ]. Nanocrystals mainly incorporate bioactive compounds and help to improve their dissolution rate. “Juvedical”, developed by Juvena in the year 2000, was the first marketed formulation containing nanocrystals with rutin as a key ingredient [ 96 ].

A study claimed that nanocrystals of rutin showed higher bioactivity as compared to the normal rutin glycoside [ 97 ]. In one of the latest studies carried out by Köpke et al. on the anti-pollution agent SymUrban, the solubility and the penetration profiles were observed to remarkably increase in its nanocrystal form. These nanocrystals increased the dermal bioavailability of the poorly soluble active ingredient in SymUrban and appeared to be a favorable delivery system for this material [ 98 ].

3.7. Cubosomes

Cubosomes are nanoparticles, particularly fluid crystalline particles, of a specific surfactant with an appropriate proportion of water combined in a nanostructure. Monoglyceride glycerol monoolein is the most common surfactant used to make cubosomes. These are distinct nanostructured particles that are used as cosmeceuticals for skincare formulations and also used in antiperspirant preparations. A number of investigations in collaboration with cosmetic organizations are attempting to utilize cubosomes for absorbing pollutants from cosmeceutical formulations and also employ them as a stabilizer for the oil-in-water type of emulsions [ 36 , 99 , 100 ].

Khan et al. reported a cubosome formulation containing erythromycin and concluded that the said non-invasive formulation exhibited better activity and effectiveness in preventing and treating acne and worked in a prolonged-release manner [ 101 ]. Further, one of the clinical studies conducted by El-Komy et al. claimed that the prepared cubosomal topical gel formulation incorporating alpha-lipoic acid is a safe and efficacious alternative for improving skin aging problems [ 102 ].

3.8. Nanoemulsions

Nanoemulsions are normally water-in-oil (w/o) or oil-in-water (o/w) colloidal solutions that range from a couple of nanometers to 200 nm [ 103 ]. The small size of the droplets is responsible for their alluring optical, rheological, and improved drug delivery properties, as compared to traditional formulations. Further, low viscosity, high solubilization ability, and increased kinetic stability due to sedimentation and flocculation make it more popular. Generally, these are transparent and stable and are employed for cleansing purposes, specifically in the cosmetic industry. These materials are used as powerful vehicles in the cosmetic industry for formulating body lotions, skin creams, sunscreens, etc. Nanoemulsions are also used in designing novel delivery systems for drugs and fatty materials such as essential oils, fatty acids, flavors, and colors. These systems are most appropriate for delivering lipophilic compounds, thus increasing their concentration in the skin; hence, they play a significant role in cosmetic formulations. An increase in patent-filing activity identified for nanoemulsions shows the emerging interest of industries in nanoemulsions [ 104 ]. An O/W nanoemulsion incorporating hydroglycolic extract of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill was formulated and characterized by high strength and saturating capacity [ 105 ]. Further studies revealed that nanoemulsions could generally impact the distribution profiles of atoms, specifically O/W nanoemulsions, which significantly improved the penetration profiles of polar ingredients relative to traditional emulsions [ 16 , 106 ].

Antioxidants play a significant role in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries but suffer from various limitations, such as insolubility and instability. To overcome these problems, researchers have fabricated antioxidants as nanoemulsions with enhanced efficacy [ 107 ]. In one of the investigations, to overcome the poor aqueous solubility problems of ellagic acid, Zhang et al. fabricated an oil-in-water nanoemulsion. They concluded that the developed nanoformulation had increased aqueous solubility and permeability through the skin, thus strengthening its whitening effect [ 108 ].

3.9. Micellar Nanoparticles

These are recognized as one of the most effective nanotechnology-based particles and have been widely used in the cosmetic industry. They offer a robust and versatile platform to encompass wide-ranging lipophilic active ingredients possessing diverse physicochemical properties in cosmetic formulations. Smaller particle size, better encapsulation efficiency, and reasonable manufacturing cost are the key features of these particles that make them more efficient than other nanocarriers [ 109 , 110 ]. Usually, they are employed in skin cleansing products for effective removal of oil and dirt from the skin without affecting barrier integrity and are used as an alternative to conventional cleansers [ 36 , 111 ]. These nanoparticles have led to a revolution in transdermal drug delivery (TDD). Micellar nanoparticle-based emulsions are attractive candidates for systemic drug delivery through topical application. The technology permits a high concentration of the drug to permeate the skin, creating a drug formulation attaining the same benefits as those of TDD, making the formulation more acceptable. Facial cleansing formulations incorporating micellar nanotechnology are claimed to be the most effective products by different cosmetic brands.

In one of the investigations by Zięba et al., the authors formulated a micellar shampoo and concluded that it had a higher viscosity and increased ability to emulsify fatty deposits as compared to traditional shampoos.

4. Health Risks Associated with Nanocosmeceuticals

It has been well established that nanoparticles pose serious health risks to humans due to their potential toxicity, which may further depend upon the quantity, route, and time of exposure of the nanoparticles. Other factors may include shape, surface structure, surface charge, chemical composition, and solubility [ 112 ]. Due to their small size and shape, nanoparticles can move easily inside the human body and are able to cross membranes and gain access to cells, tissues, and organs that are not accessible to larger-sized particles [ 113 ]. They can even enter cells, causing more damage or cell death [ 114 ].

At the nanoscale, the fundamental properties of substances become altered. For the same substance, the physicochemical properties differ between the nanoparticulate and larger particulate states. At the nano level, the chemical reactivity and biological activity are often higher as compared to those of larger-sized particles, which is attributed to their higher surface-area-to-volume ratios. Further, nanoparticles experience higher chemical reactivity, resulting in increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), including free radicals [ 115 ]. This is one of the key mechanisms of toxicity initiation that may lead to inflammation, oxidative stress, and consequent damage to membranes, proteins, and DNA. Nanomaterials may induce toxicity in various human systems, such as pulmonary, reticuloendothelial, neurological, and cardiovascular systems, and also have endocrine-disrupting or immunological effects.

The entry of nanoparticles into the body primarily occurs by three different routes, namely, inhalation, ingestion, and through the skin.

Inhalation is the most widely recognized route of exposure to airborne nanoparticles, as per the National Institute of Occupational Health and Safety (NIOHS). For instance, during the manufacturing of nanocosmeceutical products, workers may be exposed and may breathe in nanomaterials. Further, customers may also breathe in nanomaterials when applying products that contain them. For example, sunscreen sprays consisting of nanoscale TiO 2 may cause the inhalation of nanomaterials, which may travel through the nasal nerves to reach the cerebrum (brain) and sensory system and enter the blood and various organs, causing life-threatening adverse effects [ 116 , 117 ].

Further, the ingestion of nanomaterials may take place accidentally via transfer from the hand to the mouth or may be ingested intentionally. After ingestion, a moderate amount of the nanoparticles may be taken up by the body and move into vital organs and tissues, causing side effects [ 116 , 117 ].

Topical use of nanomaterials may also cause harmful effects. Various experimental data have shown that certain nanomaterials gain entry into the deeper layers of pig skin within 24 h of exposure [ 118 ]. As per investigations by the US Government Accountability Office (GAO), nanomaterials present in sunscreens can enter through damaged skin, causing serious side effects [ 116 , 117 ]. Figure 4 illustrates different diseases related to nanoparticle exposure.

Diseases associated with nanoparticle exposure [ 119 ].

As per the Yearly Meeting of the American Association for Disease Research, 2007, nanoparticles can damage DNA and lead to malignancy. Nanoparticles are small enough to infiltrate cell layers, yet they are large enough to alter normal cell functions, according to researchers at the University of Massachusetts. Because of their tiny size, they can be hard to separate by traditional separation procedures, and they can come across malignant cells and can cause significant damage, as per Sara Pacheco, a scientist at the College of Massachusetts. However, due to their small size, it is difficult to confirm exactly how they interact with the environment and how they affect human health [ 120 ].

Neonatal toxicity is another area of toxicity where exposure to these particles may cause severe harm in pregnant women. Nanoparticles used for various purposes may enter the placenta, endometrium, yolk sac, or fetus, resulting in oxidative stress and irritation. These problems may lead to placental damage, delayed neonatal development, fetal deformities, neurotoxicity, and reproductive dysfunction in infants. Further, nanoparticles may induce cytokine production in pregnant women, which may enter the fetus and result in poor development of the fetal brain [ 121 ].

5. Environmental Risks of Nanoparticles

In the modern era, nanotechnology is exploited as a useful tool to improve the quality of the environment, such as water and air, by cutting down waste production, reducing the emission of greenhouse gases, and decreasing the discharge of hazardous chemicals in the environment. However, they also have a negative impact on the environment. Owing to the novel and unique physical and chemical properties of nanoparticles, they can easily enter very small spaces [ 122 , 123 ]. They can cause biochemical interference by participating in reactions in biological systems. The mechanisms by which a nanomaterial can cause cell impairments can include bioaccumulation, ROS formation, oxidative stress, autophagy or lysosomal dysfunctions, etc. [ 124 ]. The influences of nanoparticles on the environment depend on the way that they are used in the workplace, their segregation mechanism in diverse media (such as air, water, and soil), their mobility, and their stability. Further, nanotechnology exposure in the environment and transportation are the fundamental factors that determine the overall influence on the environment. Nanoparticles are essential elements in various biogeochemical processes, and hence, any global-scale impact of specific nanoparticles on elemental cycles should be considered. Additionally, the environmental impact of these particles depends on factors such as solution chemistry, biochemical reactions, redox potential, temperature, pressure, presence of coating, etc., which should also be taken into consideration.

During the manufacturing process, nanomaterials may discharge into the water, air, and soil, causing serious environmental risks. As indicated by an investigation by the US Government Accountability Office (GAO), nanomaterials having antibacterial properties, whenever delivered in sufficient quantities, might interfere with the useful activity of microbes in water treatment plants and result in failure of the water proposed for reuse [ 1 ]. Nanoparticulate TiO 2 , used to decompose pollutants and for disinfection purposes, may have the ability to stimulate other organic transformations and have an influence on photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. Likewise, in an investigation coordinated by the University of Toledo, it was found that nano-TiO 2 , which is considered a close-to-home element, reduced the organic functions of microbes after an hour of exposure. Hence, it has been suggested that these particles, which end up at civil sewage treatment plants, could affect organisms that provide indispensable functions in the environment and thus should be used judiciously [ 1 ].

It has been evident that nanoparticulate TiO 2 , which is a key constituent of sunscreen, is released in significant quantities, causing potential damage to marine life with chronic exposure. In many sunscreen products, TiO 2 acts as a protective chemical coating, but when exposed to water, this defensive coating tends to be lost due to the influence of either UV light or seawater composition, releasing the toxic TiO 2 into the aquatic environment, specifically to algae and daphnids. This ultimately affects aquatic ecological balances [ 125 , 126 ]. Carbon-based nanomaterials show severe cytotoxic effects not only in human beings but also in other mammals by accumulating in different organs, such as lungs and kidney tissues [ 127 ]. At higher concentrations, they disturb the metabolic activity of microbes by interrupting the biogeochemical cycle of nutrients and also upsetting the nutrient balance. Further, metal nanoparticles have a high affinity for proteins [ 128 ] and can induce harmful cellular reactions and produce toxic effects on cells. An investigation carried out on the effects of titanium, polystyrene, and fullerene nanoparticles indicated that they are more toxic under biotic conditions than abiotic conditions because they induce oxidative stress [ 129 ].

In one of the studies carried out on carbon fullerenes, it was concluded that they can cause mild harm in largemouth bass (fish) [ 130 ], an animal used as a model for characterizing ecotoxicological impacts. Fullerenes have similarly been found to destroy water fleas and have bactericidal properties [ 131 ]. The Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology of Rice University, Houston (USA), has called attention to the binding of nanoparticles to chemicals in the climate, such as cadmium and petrochemicals. This tendency would make nanoparticles a likely component of long-term and long-range vehicles of contaminants in groundwater [ 132 , 133 ].

These nanomaterials also affect plants after their absorption and translocation, producing severe effects. Nanoparticles of Ag, ZnO, fullerenes, silica, etc., are taken up by plants and algae, thereby producing toxicity and also hindering seed germination, as confirmed by researchers. They also impede the metabolic pathways affecting the growth and functioning of cells. In this way, these particles may enter the food chain and become biomagnified.

A workshop conducted by the National Science Foundation and the US Environmental Protection Agency was launched to identify the critical risk issues relating to nanomaterials. The workshop’s specific goals were to determine the exposure and toxicity of manufactured nanoparticles, the ability to deduce manufactured nanoparticle toxicity using existing particle and fiber toxicology archives, and the recyclability and total sustainability of manufactured nanomaterials.

At present, there is very little information available relating to the environmental risk of manufactured nanomaterials. Only a few findings have been published that describe the direct and indirect impacts of nanomaterials. To assess their risks, it is essential to have basic information about the behaviors and risks of nanoparticles. However, to date, there are no accurate data or guidelines available to quantify such effects. Further, it is essential to identify the sources, environmental paths, and uses of nanoparticles, along with plants and animals that are sensitive to nanoparticles, for the environmental risk assessment.

Currently, several researchers are determining the concentrations of a variety of nanoparticles in indoor and outdoor working areas. This helps to determine the levels of exposure of employees for that particular purpose and also for precautionary measures. Few studies have been published on the impacts of this type of exposure to nanomaterials. However, extensive research is still needed to evaluate the interactions of nanoparticles with biological systems as well as the ecosystem. Additionally, research should be conducted to establish the absorption, interaction, biodistribution, and excretion pathways of nanoparticles in living systems, along with nanotoxicological studies [ 134 ].

The biosynthesis of new nanomaterials from existing ones, polymeric coatings of metal nanoparticles to prevent leaching, combustion of carbon-based nanomaterials, recycling of metal-based nanoparticles, and bioaccumulation by means of plants or fungi can be used as effective methods for removing nanoparticles from different media. Green technology or green manufacturing can be used as a remedial solution for ecological protection. This is an environmentally friendly technology that intends to produce nanoparticles with reduced raw materials, minimum energy utilization, and less waste production, aiming to conserve natural resources. It employs green chemicals that are less toxic to the environment and is an energy-efficient procedure [ 135 , 136 ]. Lastly, awareness of individuals about the toxicity of nanomaterials, as well as attention to the use of safe and eco-friendly alternatives, may help resolve the problem [ 137 ].

6. Regulatory Guidelines of Cosmetics and Cosmeceuticals

The worldwide cosmetic market, valued at USD 532.43 billion in the year 2017, is predicted to reach USD 805.61 billion by the year 2023, with an annual growth rate of 7.14% [ 111 ]. Table 3 lists various patents linked with cosmeceuticals that may highlight the current global trend of cosmeceuticals. Looking at this increasing market value, it is necessary to regulate the cosmetics market with appropriate legal guidelines that will help to ensure the well-being of consumers. Although it is challenging to fulfill legal obligations for personalized products, it can be achieved with the correct approach and sustained compliance.

List of patents related to cosmeceuticals.

S. No.	Patent No.	Country	Title	Application	Proof of Concept
1.	CN100386064C	China	Biological wave nano-bioactive skin protection product	↑ Microcirculation of the skin, hence ↑ metabolism and activation of cells, thereby improving the quality and activity of the skin, wherein vitamin E and ginsenosides can prevent skin aging and nourish the skin with good freckle removal effects. Prevents skin aging, nourishes the skin, and has ultraviolet resistance capacity.	A biological wave nano-bioactive skin protectant product comprising nanoparticles of ZrO and ZnO, vitamin E, and biological wave functional materials, such as ginsenosides and bioactive materials
2.	KR101224378B1	South Korea	Composite Pigment for cosmetic compositions and manufacturing method and manufacturing apparatus thereof	Complexing nanosized pigment particles (shell particles) to the surface of the extender pigment (core particles) to prevent reaggregation of nanosized pigment particles as shell particles and absorption into the human body	A composite pigment for cosmetics and a method for its manufacturing, wherein the composite pigment for cosmetics is coated with shell particles by physical pressure on the surface of the core particles
3.	CN106660812A	China	Porous silica particles, a method for producing same, and cosmetic compounded with same	Porous silica particles in a cosmetic formulation act as a texture enhancer	This provides porous silica particles with a small specific surface area and a large pore volume, provides a method for producing the particles, and provides a cosmetic in which porous silica particles are present
4.	BR102015012999A2	Brazil	Composition, the process of preparation and use of nanocosmetic based on arnauba wax and quercetin with moisturizing, antioxidant and photoprotective action	A nanoparticle of carnauba wax lipid incorporating quercetin with 3-fold higher effectiveness as moisturizer, photoprotector, and antioxidant	The present invention describes a composition and process for the preparation and use of nanocosmetics consisting of lipid nanoparticles formulated with carnauba wax and quercetin incorporated into cosmetic formulations in gel, cream, lotion, or gel–cream forms
5.	KR101578466B1	South Korea	Porous sphere type zinc oxide powder of nanosize, manufacturing method thereof and color cosmetic composition using the same	Provides a spherical porous zinc oxide powder having a uniform particle size which ↑ the use by ↓ the opacity of the powder	The present invention relates to a spherical porous zinc oxide powder at the nano-scale, a process for its production, and a color cosmetic composition containing the same
6.	KR20120091509A	South Korea	Nano-emulsion containing niacinamide and cosmetic composition comprising the same	A cosmetic composition containing niacinamide-containing nanoemulsions is provided to ↑ the transdermal absorption of niacinamide and to effectively and safely treat dry skin	Associated with niacinamide-containing nanoemulsion and a cosmetic formulation comprising the same
7.	KR101528741B1	South Korea	Silica-containing complex nanoparticles and hydrogel moisturizing patches comprising the same	Silica/zwitterionic polymer complex nanoparticles are able to strongly bind to moisture and accordingly ↓ vaporization speed, thereby having the effects of maintaining moisture and reinforcing the skin barrier	A silica/zwitterionic polymer complex nanoparticle, a manufacturing method thereof, and a hydrogel moisturizing patch
8.	US9700042B2	USA	Nanoformulation of musk-derived bioactive ingredients for nanocosmetic applications	Nanoformulation is applicable to cosmetic and textile manufacturing for providing fragrance and antimicrobial properties in cosmetic and textile products	Nanocarrier composition consists of hyaluronic acid (15–25%) and fatty acids (50–70%) cross-linked with ultra-low-molecular-weight chitosan (15–25%) incorporating isolated compounds from musk and their combinations
9.	CN102274129A	China	Nano-sized core-shell composite material used for cosmetics and preparation method thereof	The composite material has sun-screening and moisturizing functions and dispersibility	The invention comprises a nanosized core–shell composite material composed of titanium oxide and zinc oxide based on the integration of characteristics of the 2 compounds, belonging to the field of skincare cosmetic chemicals
10.	BR102015021346B1	Brazil	Anti-inflammatory, healing and moisturizing tropic cosmeceutical formulation with active ingredients from Atallea Speciosa mart. Ex spreng (Babacu)	Provides anti-inflammatory, healing, and moisturizing activity and may be an alternative and/or therapeutic complement in the treatment of inflammation, tissue healing, and skin hydration processes	Topical anti-inflammatory, healing, and moisturizing cosmetic formulation with active ingredients of Mart. ex Spreng (babaçu) as plant bioactive compounds containing standardized mesocarp extract and almond oil capable of providing anti-inflammatory, healing, and moisturizing activity
11.	TW201143840A	Taiwan	Compositions and methods for providing ultraviolet radiation protection	Provides excellent UV protection	Sunscreen compositions and related methods that can include a cosmetically acceptable carrier and a multitude of nanoparticles dispersed in the carrier
12.	KR20120058795A	South Korea	Cosmetic composition containing carbon dioxide with nanopore	Provides excellent UV protection	Contains titanium dioxide to ensure high adhesion to the skin and excellent UV protection ability
13.	KR101191268B1	South Korea	Capsule composition contained nano inorganic particles for sunscreen product by hydrogel-forming polymers and manufacturing method thereof	Used to prevent skin penetration of nano-inorganic particles, as deep tissue penetration of nanoparticles results in various types of toxicity	Contains nano-inorganic particles providing UV protection and a method for manufacturing to form a thin hydrogel film
14.	CN108401417A	China	Including improving the cosmetics of nano-particles and preparation method thereof of active principle containing whitening	Excellent nanoparticle for ↑ active principle containing whitening with long-term stability and cutaneous permeation of active principle	A cosmetic incorporating nanoparticles for ↑ active principle with skin-whitening effects; in more detail, the composition functions by ↑ the nanoparticle solubility to hydrophobic whitening active principle via micellization
15.	CN104958189B	China	Light-sensitive color-matching makeup-removal-preventing nanopowder composition and application thereof in cosmetics	The novel skincare product can selectively reflect or scatter external light, only allows skin color light to enter skin, modifies dark skin and uneven surface shadows, and enables the skin to be bright and glossy	A light-sensitive color-matching makeup-removal-preventing nanopowder composition and a preparation method of the composition in cosmetics and application in cosmetics
16.	KR20190085395A	South Korea	Patch composition comprising dog bone gold nano rod, graphene oxide or charcoal	The patch composition can be used as a patch, gel mask, and mask pack with excellent drug delivery into the skin and serves the function of causing an exothermic reaction when activated by LED light source having a wavelength of 700–1200 nm in the near-infrared region	A patch composition containing dog bone gold nanorod or charcoal or graphene oxide having ↑ visible light absorption; it can be used as a mask pack, having the effect of ↑ the drug delivery efficiency into the skin by implementing the target photothermal effect temperature of 41–45 °C by using an exothermic reaction
17.	CN107001774B	China	Positive spherical monodisperse nanoparticle polyester resin water system dispersion and manufacturing method, positive spherical monodisperse nanoparticle polyester resin particle and cosmetics	Provides a kind of cosmetic that has good ductility in which there is good water resistance, softening skin	A novel technical method that is simple and inexpensive, steadily obtains useful positive spherical monodispersed nano-particle polyester resin particles and and water system dispersion
18.	CN102958505B	China	Nanofiber laminate sheet	Appropriately used as a sheet-shaped make-up cosmetic	A nanofiber laminate sheet consisting of a layer of nanofibers composed of a water-insoluble polymeric compound, and a layer of a water-soluble polymeric compound includes a cosmetic component/a medicinal component
19.	KR20130134580A	South Korea	Cosmetic compositions and layer comprising ultra-thin carbon	The thin-layer-laminated structure forms a coating film of the cosmetic composition on the skin, thereby having structural effects of making the active ingredients of the cosmetic composition useful for a long time and exhibiting excellent physical properties through a synergy effect	A cosmetic composition containing an ultra-thin carbon material having a surface diameter of 5–50 μm, which is a plate-type material made from graphite and has 1–10 molecular layers.
20.	KR20140030395A	South Korea	The sunblock through hybrid of nanoparticle of a metal compound, the process for producing thereof, and the cosmetic utilizing thereof	Excellent UV protection	A sunblock agent formed by hybridization of nanoparticles of a metal compound, a process for producing the same, and cosmetic products utilizing the sunblock. More specifically, an organic and inorganic hybrid sunblock causes organic and inorganic hybridization by binding metal oxide nanoparticles of TiO or ZnO with one or more types of silane
21.	TW200846027A	Taiwan	Nanocomposite pigments in a topical cosmetic application	↑ Aesthetics and skin appearance	Introduction and the preparation of nano-pigments, with their role in ↑ aesthetic properties and skin appearance
22.	US20100003291A1	USA	Nano-particles for cosmetic applications	↑ Characteristics of nanocosmetics and nanocosmeceuticals	Nanocosmetic and nanocosmeceutical preparations and their role in ↑ characteristics by improving the shortcomings of the traditional cosmetic preparation
23.	CN101909580A	China	The Nanoparticulate compositions of enhanced color are provided to cosmetic formulations	↑ Aesthetic properties, specifically color and skin appearance	The pharmaceutical composition comprises 1 or more pigments and the method for ↑ the external appearance of the biological surface by the optical characteristics
24.	TW200533379A	Taiwan	Healthcare and cosmetic compositions containing nanodiamond	↑ Mechanical strength of the cosmetic formulation	Shows ↑ binding capacity with the biological system and thus ↑ its mechanical strength; used in a variety of cosmetic formulations such as shampoo, nail polish, deodorants, eyeliners, etc.
25.	KR20120058795A	South Korea	Cosmetic composition containing carbon dioxide with nanopore	Outstanding UV skin protectant due to good adhesive properties	Formulation containing 0.1–10 wt % TiO having a size in the range of 200–500 nm, providing protection against UV radiation and making the formulation softer
27.	CA3124455A1	Canada	Microparticles of cellulose nanocrystals with pigment nanoparticles bound thereto and method of production thereof	Preparation of several nanocosmeceuticals and nanocosmetics	Microparticles are formed by clustering nanocrystals and nanoparticle pigments, which are absorbed on the surface of nanocrystals
28.	CN102112100B	China	Preparation of cationic nanoparticles and personal care compositions comprising said nanoparticles	Used as an antimicrobial agent in the cosmetic preparation	Utilization of cationic nanoparticles in the cosmetic formulation and their method of preparation and applications
29.	KR100740275B1	South Korea	Method for preparing zinc oxide powder with nanosize	UV protectant with ↑ transparency and adhesiveness	Method of preparation of nano-range ZnO particles by one-step wet preparation and their application in cosmetics
30.	KR100785484B1	South Korea	Base composition encapsulating high concentration of idebenone with nano sizes, its manufacturing method thereof, and cosmetic compositions containing it	Easily alter the viscosity of the cosmetic and hence ↑ the efficiency of production with ↓ cost	Method of preparation and application of the nanoencapsulation of ↑ concentration of idebenone in a bioactive base for cosmetics production
31.	WO2021144889A1	WIPO (PCT)	Nanobubble-containing cosmetic	Preparation of stable nanobubble solution	Introduction of nanobubble solution in the cosmetic formulation as an active ingredient
32.	KR101436540B1	South Korea	UV protection cosmetic composition comprising titania nanorod	UV protectant and transparency in cosmetics	Synthesis of a cosmetic formulation comprising titania nanorods as a potential sun protectant
33.	CN102397168B	China	Flexible nanoliposomes with charges for cosmetics and preparation method thereof	↑ Stability, permeability, efficiency, retention time, and action of the active ingredients	Introduction to flexible nanoliposomes and their utilization in the cosmetic formulations

There are many regulatory documents that are intended to assist the cosmetics industry and other stakeholders (academicians, researchers, etc.) in identifying and investigating the safety aspects of nanomaterials in cosmetics. There are compilations in the literature that summarize the legal aspects of nanomaterials [ 138 ] or the use of nanomaterials specifically in cosmetics [ 139 ]. Here, we briefly summarize the main recommendations of a few important guidance documents.

6.1. Food and Drug Administration (FDA): Guidance for Industry Safety of Nanomaterials in Cosmetic Products

This document provides guidance to industry and other stakeholders on the FDA’s current thinking on the safety assessment of nanomaterials in cosmetic products. The FDA’s guidance documents, including this guidance, do not establish legally enforceable responsibilities. Instead, guidance should be viewed only as recommendations unless specific regulatory or statutory requirements are cited.

This guidance also refers to other relevant reports, such as the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Working Party on Manufactured Nanomaterials “Preliminary Review of OECD Test Guidelines for their Applicability to Manufactured Nanomaterials”, the Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) “Guidance on the Safety Assessment of Nanomaterials in Cosmetics”, and relevant ICCR reports, such as on the “Currently Available Methods for Characterization of Nanomaterials,” and “Principles of Cosmetic Product Safety Assessment.”

This guidance presents recommendations very comprehensively. However, in summary, for any cosmetic product that has new or altered properties, data needs and testing methods should be evaluated to address any unique properties and functions of the nanomaterials used in the cosmetic products. The FDA recommends that the safety assessment of cosmetic products using nanomaterials address several important factors, including:

• The physicochemical characteristics,
• Agglomeration and size distribution of nanomaterials under the conditions of toxicity testing and as expected in the final product,
• Impurities,
• Potential routes of exposure to the nanomaterials,
• Potential for aggregation and agglomeration of nanoparticles in the final product,
• Dosimetry for in vitro and in vivo toxicology studies, and
• In vitro and in vivo toxicological data on nanomaterial ingredients and their impurities, dermal penetration, potential inhalation, irritation (skin and eye), sensitization studies, and mutagenicity/genotoxicity studies.

The safety of a cosmetic product should be evaluated by analyzing the physicochemical properties and the relevant toxicological endpoints of each ingredient in relation to the expected exposure resulting from the intended use of the finished product. If the manufacturer wishes to use a nanomaterial in a cosmetic product, either new material or an altered version of an already marketed ingredient, this guidance recommends that it meets with the FDA to discuss the test methods and data needed to substantiate the product’s safety, including short-term toxicity and other long-term toxicity data, as appropriate [ 140 ].

6.2. International Cooperation on Cosmetics Regulation (ICCR): Report of the ICCR Working Group—Safety Approaches to Nanomaterials in Cosmetics

Discussions at the 4th annual meeting of International Cooperation on Cosmetics Regulation (ICCR-4) on cosmetics and cosmetic-like drugs in Canada in July 2010 led to the formation of a Joint Industry/Regulator Working Group (WG) for nanomaterial safety. The purpose of this Joint WG was to examine existing safety approaches for their applicability to nanomaterials relevant to activities within the cosmetic industry. The main task was to carry out a review of existing safety approaches, identify any specific aspects relevant to consumer safety that should be taken into consideration when assessing nanomaterials in cosmetics, and produce a draft report for discussion by the ICCR members.

The members of the Joint WG discussed the main issues and prepared a report after considering several key reports, opinions, guidance documents, and relevant publications. The report’s aim is to provide information to those intending to use or assess the safety of nanomaterials in a cosmetic product. This report expresses the views of the experts on the key safety aspects that need to be assessed when using nanomaterials in cosmetic products.

The main highlights of the report are:

• The existing risk assessment pattern (exposure assessment, hazard identification, hazard characterization, and risk characterization) used for conventional chemicals is also applicable to nanomaterials.
• The WG identified physicochemical parameters that should be measured for nanomaterials at the raw material stage.
• The assessment should include the investigation of systemic exposure, local effects, possible routes of exposure (dermal, respiratory, or oral), and foreseeable uses of the cosmetic product.
• If systemic absorption is seen, it should be further investigated to confirm whether the absorbed material was in particle form or in a solubilized/metabolized form. The absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) profile should be investigated to assess the fate and behavior of the nanoparticles in the body and identify the plausible target organs.
• For nanomaterials having very low absorption, processes such as accumulation should also be considered.
• The effects of the formulation should also be considered, as certain formulations may alter the bioavailability and toxicological profile of active ingredients.
• The EU Cosmetics Regulation bans the testing of cosmetics on animals. This makes the safety evaluation of new nanomaterial cosmetic ingredients difficult. Though there are several validated alternative methods that can be used in place of animal tests for conventional substances, none of those methods is yet validated for nanomaterials. However, they may still be useful for hazard identification and provide additional supporting evidence to the results of in vivo studies [ 141 ].

6.3. Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS): Guidance on the Safety Assessment of Nanomaterials in Cosmetics

This document is an up-to-date guidance on the safety assessment of nanomaterials in cosmetic products, covering the main elements of safety assessment, i.e., general considerations, material characterization, exposure assessment, hazard identification/dose–response characterization, and risk assessment.

The main points of this guidance may be summarized as follows.

6.3.1. Definition of Nanomaterial

Material specifications such as particle size distribution, solubility, and persistence should be considered to decide whether a cosmetic ingredient is a nanomaterial or not. Imaging by electron microscopy may be used for further clarification if needed. Where a cosmetic ingredient qualifies to be defined as a nanomaterial, it will be subjected to safety assessment based on the data relevant to nanoscale properties.

6.3.2. Material Characterization

Considering the special behavior of the nanomaterials, their clear identification and detailed characterization are essential requirements for safety assessment. The characterization of the nanomaterial needs to be carried out at the raw material stage, in the cosmetic formulation, and during exposure for toxicological evaluations. The characterization data must identify the materials in accordance with Cosmetics Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009. Measurements must be carried out using generally accepted techniques, and detailed documentation must be provided. Particle size, being the most important factor, must be measured by more than one method, one of which should be electron microscopy.

6.3.3. Exposure Assessment

Safety assessment of nanomaterials is performed using the same procedure as for non-nano-ingredients, but with special attention to the nano aspects. Firstly, the likelihood and extent of local and systemic exposure need to be determined in relation to dermal, oral, and inhalation exposure routes. The potential translocation of nanoparticles across skin, lung, or gastrointestinal barriers should be determined. The methods used for this purpose should be mainstream and state-of-the-art with a low limit of detection. ADME parameters should be studied to determine the extent of systemic exposure, fate, and behavior of the nanomaterial and to identify the target organs. If systemic exposure is indicated, further investigations should be carried out to confirm whether the absorbed material was in particle form or in a solubilized/metabolized form. In cases where systemic exposure is not indicated, local exposure and local adverse effects should be investigated.

6.3.4. Hazard Identification/Dose–Response Characterization

Data from toxicological studies on local/systemic effects are required as per SCCS Notes of Guidance. Hazard identification/dose–response characterization includes consideration of insoluble or partially soluble particulate forms, aggregation and agglomeration behavior of the particles, potential penetration of nanoparticles through biological membranes, possible interaction with biological entities at local and systemic levels, surface adsorption/binding of other substances, surface-catalyzed reactions, persistence, etc. The prohibition of animal testing as per the Cosmetics Regulation must be observed in any toxicological testing. The SCCS can accept results from methods that may not have been formally validated for nanomaterials but can be demonstrated to be scientifically valid for hazard identification, provided that they are carried out with due consideration of the nano-related aspects and appropriate controls.

6.3.5. Safety Assessment

With the EU ban on animal testing of cosmetic ingredients/products, the applicant needs to collect relevant data from different alternative methods and provide evidence to support the safety of the cosmetic ingredient. Where safety assessment is based on in vitro test results, extrapolation of in vitro to in vivo (IVIVE) data will be required [ 142 ].

6.4. Comparison of Regulation of Cosmetics/Cosmeceuticals across Different Countries

The safety and efficacy of cosmetic products are governed by different regulatory bodies of countries all around the world according to their own guidelines. In a few countries, the final product’s safety is assured before marketing approval by the manufacturers. The label should contain all constituents of the formulation along with the limits that are identified for the cosmetic and cosmeceutical ingredients and products, and the mentioned limits should comply with the established limits. Simultaneously, many countries lack these regulations. The following section lists a few of the current regulatory scenarios of cosmetic products in the United States of America (USA), the European Union (EU), and India [ 7 ], and Table 4 compares the regulation of cosmetics/cosmeceuticals in these regions. This may help the reader to understand various regulatory procedures in different countries.

Comparison of regulation of cosmetics/cosmeceuticals in the USA, the European Union, and India [ 7 ].

Country	Regulatory Authority	Rules	Approval (Premarket)	Labeling	Labeling Declarations	Language of Label	Expiry Date	Safety	Warning
USA	USFDA	Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act	No specific requirement	Must conform with the FP&L and FD&C	21 CFR 701 and 740 of USFDA	English	Not required	Manufacturer responsibility	On the primary display panel
EU	EMEA	Council Directive 76/768/EEC	No specific requirement	Based on Council Directive	Cosmetic Directive, Article 6	National or member state	If the stability is <30 months → Date of minimum stability is mentioned; If stability is >30 months → days/months/years after opening is mentioned	Information file of the product is being maintained by the manufacturer	On both outer and inner label
India	CDSCO	Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940	Required under the state government licensing	Comply with D&C rules 1945—Part XV	BIS and PCRO	English	It should have “Use before date”	The records of the product’s safety must be maintained by the manufacturer	On inner label

6.4.1. United States of America

In the USA, the regulation of cosmetics is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) and controlled by the Food Drug and Cosmetic Act (FDCA). It is well known that drugs are regulated by the FDA. They must either have FDA’s premarket approval or follow the final regulations specifying conditions to be recognized as safe and effective, but cosmetics lack this premarket approval procedure, except for color additives [ 7 ].

The most commonly used cosmetics include toothpaste; nail polish, skin, eye, and facial creams, lotions, lipsticks, perfumes, antiperspirants, shampoos, hair products, etc. Soaps mainly comprising a soluble base salt of unsaturated fat used for cleaning the human body are not regarded as cosmetics as per the law (USFDA, 2014). Cosmetic products do not have comprehensive rules for approval before their marketing, in contrast to drugs. In the United States, at a minimum, the manufacturers, distributors, and packagers of the cosmetic item are expected to use the Voluntary Cosmetic Registration Program (VCRP), which offers benefits for participation. VCRP provides information to the FDA about beauty care products and their manufacturing, distribution, and recurrence activity. The producer or wholesaler must prepare a documentary report, which is known as a Cosmetic Product Ingredient Statement, for each item that the firm has brought to the market. According to the law of the organization, the USFDA might carry out an examination, inspect items and the organization wherein items are manufactured or stored, and identify misbranded or tainted cosmetic or cosmeceutical products. The Personal Product Act 2013 was established to enable the USFDA to guarantee that cosmetic items are completely safe and contain no harmful entities [ 7 ].

The cosmetic regulatory guidelines that apply to contaminated and misbranded products are provided in the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which requires a one-year-long registration of an operation involving advertisement, manufacturing, or dispensing cosmetics. It also requires the disclosure of data and the labeling of active ingredients as well as excipients and also should reveal the related adverse effects, if any [ 7 ].

The act requires the organization to maintain standard records of restricted constituents and the constituents that are completely safe and unregulated for the purpose of utilization in cosmetic formulations. Along with this, the manufacturers are required to conduct certain basic important tests of the constituents to ensure their safety. Additionally, this act puts forth prerequisites identified for nanotechnology in the production of cosmetics, compulsory and voluntary review of beauty care products, and alternatives to testing on animals. To share the information, the act establishes the Interagency Council on Cosmetic Safety (ICCS) and, just as importantly, helps the organization that looks after the safety of cosmetics with government analysts. As per the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 2013, cosmetic products that fail to justify their labels are considered misbranded. The label and the packaging of the product should provide buyers with exact information on how to use or apply it, and the packaging should have information on the comparable quantities of ingredients in the particular product as per the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act. Additionally, the above-mentioned label should be wrapped around the product or placed within it. The principal display panel (part of the label most plainly visible when displayed under the standard environmental factors in settings where it is available for purchase) should show the item name and provide an accurate report of the net quantity of ingredients in the formulation as a measure, weight, count, or a combination thereof. The declaration should be noticeable, situated on the front of the packaging, and at a size proportionate to the size of the package. The packaging must incorporate inserts, booklets, risers, or some other printed or data associated with the product (Cosmetic Labeling Guide, 2015). All of the essential guidelines should be written in the English language and should be placed within the label in such a way that they can be easily noticed and observed by the consumer [ 7 ].

In 2006, the FDA established an interior nanotechnology team to manage nanoparticle-based items. This step was taken to improve the safety and effectiveness of nanomaterials. Later, in 2007, alterations were recommended by the FDA; many have been executed, and a few are under investigation. Further, in 2014, the FDA identified three rules concerning the safety of nanoparticles; two of them are associated with cosmetic products. The first rule elucidated the assurance of FDA-managed formulations incorporating nanoparticles. The second one is focused on the safety of nanomaterials in cosmetic items. Additionally, the FDA has not been required to disclose the list of nanomaterials incorporated in formulations on labels [ 143 ] and regularly updates manufacturers about nanomaterial-linked risks for continual improvement in the safety of the cosmetics. By implementing this process, formulations are continuously adjusted so that the utilization of hazardous substances is limited [ 111 ].

6.4.2. European Union

The European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA) is the regulatory agency for cosmetics in Europe, which is under the direct control of Council Directive 76/768/EEC. It covers the safety associated with the use of cosmetic items and the record of permitted colorants. The safety of cosmetics and smooth operation for all administrators in this area are governed by European Regulation 1223/2009. The above-mentioned regulation provides a strong, universally recognized system that establishes product safety considering the most recent scientific data, including the feasible utilization of nanomaterials [ 7 ].

According to the EU, a product safety report should be made prior to entering the market. Only cosmetic products for which a natural or legal individual is delegated can be sold on the cosmetics market; genuine undesirable effects should be communicated to public government agencies, which will later accumulate related data from health experts and clients and will inform the other EU Member States. Preservatives, colorants, and UV protectants with materials in the nano range should be approved. Formulations containing nanomaterials are not under the control of the EU cosmetic regulation and have to go through a complete examination under the supervision of EU experts. The manufacturer will provide information about its formulation with the help of an EU notification portal known as the EU cosmetic products notification portal (CPNP); it should mention the market name and the registered address of the manufacturer [ 7 ].

European Commission Regulation No. 1907/2006 regulates nanomaterials in the EU. The nanomaterial ingredients should be suffixed with the term “nano”, e.g., “zinc oxide (nano)”, as per European Commission, 2015 [ 144 ]. According to EU guidelines, nanomaterials are characterized as insoluble material and deliberately fabricated with at least one external measurement or an inner dimension in the size of 1–100 nm. Data on the item detailing undesirable effects, the safety profile, and toxicity should be provided half a year before the market approval of nanocosmeceutical/nanoparticle-based items. It requires premarket approval for nano-based cosmeceuticals, anti-aging creams, colorants, and sunscreen items [ 111 ].

6.4.3. India

In India, the cosmetic market is known to be the quickest rising retail segment, and the active Indian market offers freedom for foreign brands. It permits access to imported beautifying agents with no restrictions. In the last 20 years, many different participants have entered the Indian cosmetic market, hence demanding strict regulations to preserve the safety of consumers. The Central Drug Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) regulates all activities related to cosmetics or cosmeceuticals in India and is controlled by the Drug and Cosmetics Act and Rules. Further, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) regulates the labeling contents of cosmetics or cosmeceuticals. It sets the minimum quality of cosmetic products for the recorded items and provides details about hair care products and creams. Under CDSCO, the Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) regulates all related activities [ 7 ].

In India, as indicated by the Drug and Cosmetics Act, labels, whether external or internal, should contain the name of the cosmetics and the address of the manufacturer. If the size of the package is small, then the name of the manufacturer’s address with a pin code is sufficient. The external label should contain the name of the ingredients along with their quantities in the formulation. The internal label should include directions for the use of the product and the name and quantity of poisonous or hazardous substances that are used, along with warnings, if any. The particular batch number, which is indicated by the letter “B”, should be included in all cosmetic or cosmeceutical formulations, but in the case of soap, the manufacturing month and year must be present, omitting the letter “B” in the label. However, this is not the case for solid or semisolid cosmetic formulations having a weight equal to or less than 10 g and for liquid cosmetic formulations having a volume equal to or less than 25 mL. The manufacturing license number must be present on the label, which is indicated by the letter “M”, as per Drugs and Cosmetics Act and Rules, 2013 [ 7 ].

The Government of India invested in the nanoscience and technology initiative and provided efficient resources to different colleges, scholar societies, public research facilities, and new companies with R&D units. In India, the important bodies involved in the public health research frameworks are the Indian Council of Medical Research, the Department of Science and Technology, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Exploration, and the Department of Biotechnology (all in New Delhi, India). The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (New Delhi, India) plays an essential role in the prevention and control of health-related issues in India. Furthermore, the Nanotechnology Sectional Committee, which includes specialists subsidiary to different research foundations and associations, is effectively responsible for the standardization of nano-based items and their safety [ 111 ]. Currently, nanomaterial concerns are continuously evolving in India and demand special attention for the improved safety of the public.

7. Conclusions and Future Direction

Currently, nanotechnology is regarded as a promising and revolutionizing field and is being utilized and appreciated in the areas of cosmetics, cosmeceuticals, dermatology, biomedical applications, etc. The introduction of newer advancements and novel drug delivery systems make cosmetics and cosmeceuticals more popular with increased market share. Today, these cosmetics are an indispensable part of the daily routine; further, the introduction of nanotechnology to cosmetics has enhanced its acceptance among users all around the world. However, its associated toxicity owing to its penetrability is a major concern that is often overlooked, leading to adverse health issues. Presently, novel nanocarriers such as liposomes, ethosomes, cubosomes, NLC, SLNs, nanoemulsions, niosomes, etc., are exploited to formulate various cosmetics and cosmeceuticals with enhanced outcomes. Nanosystems carry and deliver these formulations across the skin by diverse mechanisms and impart several functions, such as sun protection, moisturization, wrinkle reduction, etc. Even though these nanomaterial products are gaining impressive market value, there is tremendous debate concerning their safety and toxicity in humans, demanding more careful investigations. Hence, the cosmetic legislation should provide a specific list of references as well as the ingredients that produce unintended environmental effects for all users of cosmetic products, such as consumers and professional users, thus ensuring the safety of the usage of cosmetic products. Long-term toxic or carcinogenicity studies of cosmetics, including nanocosmetics and nanocosmeceuticals (and their ingredients), should be conducted before the commercialization of these products. Nanocosmeceuticals should be manufactured in such a way that they add value to the health of consumers. Moreover, careful clinical trials of cosmeceuticals should be conducted, such as those performed for drugs, to assure the safety of the formulations in humans. Additionally, stringent regulations should be imposed on the manufacturing, storage, import, and marketing of cosmeceuticals and nanoparticles incorporated therein. Universal collaborative efforts among researchers as well as global regulatory agencies are required to develop standard rules and regulations for using nanosystems in cosmetics and help address the existing gaps in the related data. Non-governmental organizations and government bodies should work in a coordinated manner to develop and propagate effective education materials for consumers. They should establish special programs, such as written and video materials, through multimedia or seminars with the aim to provide education for the wise use of cosmetics containing nanocosmetics and nanocosmeceuticals. Finally, there is a need to harmonize regulations internationally to establish a better regulatory framework for safety, efficacy, and marketing, which ultimately helps the cosmetic industries and also protects consumers from potential hazards. Moreover, awareness among consumers can also help to improve this situation by enabling informed choices of products.

Acknowledgments

The authors are highly grateful to Jamia Hamdard and DST for providing support in the form of DST PURSE.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, V.G. and S.M.; methodology, S.M.; software, M.A.M., M.J.A. and H.M.; data curation, U.F. and K.K.; writing—original draft preparation, V.G. and S.M.; writing—review and editing, S.M. and H.M.; visualization, U.F. and K.K.; supervision, M.A.M. and Z.I.; project administration, M.A.M., M.J.A. and Z.I.; funding acquisition, M.F.A. and A.S.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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