legal essay on domestic violence

Domestic Violence - Essay Examples And Topic Ideas For Free

Domestic violence refers to abusive behaviors in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. Essays on domestic violence could discuss its prevalence, the psychological and societal factors contributing to it, the impact on victims and communities, and the legal and social services aimed at preventing and addressing domestic violence. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Domestic Violence you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Domestic Violence: the Effect it has on Children

Growing up, children need a safe environment. A home where they can feel secure, and have a sense of stability. Where parents love and protect their children. A home free of violence, and when things go wrong in the outside world, home is a place of comfort and support. But for over 1.5 million children in the United States, this is not the case. Every year, hundreds of millions of children in the United States experience one parent violently assaulting […]

Domestic Violence and the Physicological Affects

Domestic violence is presented throughout all the United States, whether the people of society recognize it, or it is under the radar and not seen. Domestic violence can be distinct in many ways because there are several diverse types of domestic abuse. Domestic violence are behaviors used by one person in a relationship to control the other. Partners may be married or not married, heterosexual, gay or lesbian, living together, separated or dating (Siemieniuk, 2010). Abuse is physical, sexual, emotional, […]

Gender Equality and Crime

The court and the Judiciary, in general, are guided by the basic principles of justice to all. Judges usually give rulings based on the rule of law with the intention of protecting the public, deterring crime, rehabilitating law offenders, punishing offenders and offering reparation to the victim. The principles of justice mean fairness, protecting the rights of all regardless of gender, race or religion. However, gender equality has been a significant issue for many years, and there has been a […]

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Domestic Violence Family Therapy Interventions

The traditional therapeutic approach to working with those who commit domestic violence has been the Duluth educational model. However, this model faces a significant amount of criticism in its gender-divided model that does not allow for relevant psychological factors to be considered. In this paper, I will review the points of the Duluth model that have been criticized and provide two alternative approaches that have shown to consider important therapeutic factors and benefits to both families and couples seeking treatment […]

What are the Possible Causes and Signs of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is a destructive issue that is very common and affects many Americans today. Abuse can occur in heterosexual couples and in same-sex partnerships, and occurs within all age ranges, ethnic backgrounds, and economic levels. It is disastrous for the batterer and the battered, and can be fatal. One in four women are abused by their partners, and nearly more than 10 million people are abused every year. Domestic violence is consistent violent or aggressive behavior towards another person […]

The Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse

Abstract This paper discusses the effects that childhood sexual abuse has on children. It states the basics and statistics of sexual abuse in children in our society. The immediate symptoms and signs of childhood sexual abuse are discussed as well as long term emotional effects, long lasting physical effects and psychological disorders due to sexual abuse. The treatment of childhood sexual abuse is also discussed to show how positive resources can help victims of sexual abuse. Introduction In the United […]

Domestic Violence and Women’s Mental Health

Domestic violence occurs worldwide irrespective of culture, geographical and historical period. There are many factors that cause or lead to domestic violence and they are: Unmet role expectations. Unmet role expectations on the part of the wife or husband could lead to domestic violence in the family. If women fail to fulfil basic domestic responsibilities such as cooking, cleaning, managing household budgets and taking care of child, it often leads to domestic violence. Child care was a source of argument […]

Children and Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence has effected and still continues to effect the lives of many individuals. Statics on domestic violence states Every 9 seconds in the US a woman is assaulted or beaten Domestic violence is not only found amongst adults but even children and teenagers are victims of domestic violence or are the abuser in an abusive violent relationship .To briefly define and understand Domestic violence, it is an abusive relationship between individuals who abuse one another, aggressively, physically and even […]

Child Abuse and Neglect

English Composition Final Proposal Essay: Child Abuse and Neglect There have been countless studies focused around how the mind of a child is warped when transitioning into their adulthood after experiencing neglect and abuse. It's evidently very difficult for a victim of this certain issue to forget their traumatic experiences, ultimately impacting their physiological and physical health. Child abuse and neglect refer to any harmful behavior by caregivers, parents, legal guardians, and other adults that is outside the norms of […]

Domestic Violence in the United States

Abstract Domestic violence, a combination of crimes that have been perpetrated for centuries is a big concern today to the American society. The government acknowledges that the scope of domestic violence is wide as there are different forms of crimes that are termed as domestic. Example of these home abuse includes sexual, verbal, physical, and emotional abuses. According to National statistics on Domestic violence women and children form the majority of the domestic violence. Domestic violence has an adverse impact […]

The Rise of Domestic Violence in our Society and Culture

The definition of the term domestic violence is, violence or abuse of one person against another taking place in a domestic setting, for example: marriage, cohabitation, etc. Therefore the topic of domestic violence is a serious one, because it takes place in homes, in some of the most personal and intimate of settings. The truth is that violence comes closer to many families than we would like to admit. Domestic violence is America's dark little secret - Former Senator Bill […]

National Center on Child Abuse

According to the Staus, over 14 out of every 100 American children, ranging from 3 to 17, are subjected to abusive violence each year. This means that approximately six and a half million are abused each year in the United States out of the 46 million children that are categorized into the age group 3 to 17. These statistics are different from the statistic represented by the U.S. National Center on Child Abuse. According to the U.S. National Center on […]

Domestic Violence in Ethiopia

Many men claim that men and women are equal or they will say I don't abuse women and its common to hear them saying we are treated equally but the truth is very different. Many women around the world are victims of domestic violence. Domestic violence is an abusive behavior usually at home that is mostly involving a spouse and a partner. Domestic violence is a serious issue all over the world especially in a country where gender inequality still […]

Various Type of Domestic Violence

This review will be divided into four-subsection to focus in explain the general factors in Domestic violence against in various type of gender and include animals. Many researchers have different opinion and summarize different factors that causes to abusive violence. Each gender have own different ability and perspectives. I analyses theses literatures in order to fulfill my understanding about Domestic Violence in various gender type and how it relate to the other living things such as animals. Mostly the article […]

The Affect Domestic Violence has on Children

Introduction The proposed research will define domestic violence focusing on children. It will outline affects domestic violence has on children and examine whether or not their physical, mental, and/or social development is delayed with prolonged domestic violence. It will also study whether or not a child's health and education is affected. The research will aim to identify different trends associated with helping those children in the midst of domestic violence within find safe alternatives to cope with the violence. Articles […]

Domestic Violence with Children

Even though domestic violence for adults is harmful enough to lead to suicide children play a tremendou role in this by affecting their development growth and high risk of depression, Exposure to domestic violence impact children in different types of ways because children exposed to domestic violence usually never recover from it and can follow up to affect their future family and this affects children's education, social, emotional, and behavioral growth though it's different with every kid. According to the […]

Family Violence and Child Abuse

Family Violence and Child Abuse Seldomly do people realize how often child are abused by parents, not always through violence, but in other various factors that can traumatize a child. The textbook Heavy Hands written by Denise Kindschi Gosselin has an entire chapter on child abuse and the different types of abuse that are involved against these children. Historical accounts tell us that children have always been abused and neglected by one or both parents; it is not uncommon or […]

The Effects of Domestic Violence: Family & Society

Unspoken, destructive, and hidden from the outside world. Domestic violence. In grade school it is rarely talked about. October is Domestic Violence awareness month, yet no one said a word. In order to prevent this, we must first understand it. What is domestic violence? It is a pattern of controlling and manipulating behavior that is meant to subdue and take all the power in a relationship. Intimate partner violence is a more specific type of domestic violence, it is any […]

How does Domestic Violence Affect Children’s Development in School

Introduction My fieldwork was done at Bolton Refuge House where women can go to seek refuge from an abuser and escape a situation of domestic violence. The mission of Bolton Refuge House is to offer tools that will empower victims and create a safe environment for survivors of domestic violence and sexual assault. Bolton Refuge House has an emergency shelter that is available for victims of domestic violence or sexual assault who do not feel safe in their own homes. […]

Types of Domestic Violence

Why Research Domestic Violence? To raise awareness about this silent killer To gather statistics that show that this can happen to anyone To Put a story and name to the numbers What is Domestic violence? Domestic violence (also called intimate partner violence (IPV), domestic abuse or relationship abuse) is a pattern of behaviors used by one partner to maintain power and control over another partner in an intimate relationship. Forms of Domestic violence: Physical abuse Sexual Abuse Emotional Abuse Financial […]

Spousal Abuse and Domestic Violence

Domestic violence or violence between intimate partners, results in the deaths of approximately four women every day and accounts for thirty-one percent of female homicides in the United States. (Mills). For a long time, domestic violence was looked at as a private and personal matter that didn't necessarily call for police and prosecution concern. In some cases, the victim would have to pay the prosecutors a fee in order to have their abuser prosecuted (Mills). Now, when it comes to […]

Exploitation and Spiteful Crimes against Women in the United States

For many years the exploitation and spiteful crimes against women in the United States was not seen as a major concern in the nation. Women were and are still being abused by their intimate partner, sexually assaulted, and stalked. Generally, domestic violence is just seen as physical abuse. However, domestic violence is a legal concept that refers to physical, sexual, emotional, or financial abuse. It is rare but domestic violence is not just men being abusive to women but women […]

Witness to Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is commonly known as an unspoken situation among individuals around the world. The behaviors are physically, emotionally, and mentally unstable for many individuals. It can sometimes be linked to many theories; one theory being "The Social Learning Theory. If done coercively, the behavior can be viewed as one partner dominant of the other. This Literature Review is a reflection on views around the world as they pertain domestic violence related to women. Trends From 1993-2000 The article by […]

Mass Shootings and Domestic Violence

I. INTRODUCTION For my research paper, I decided to study the link between domestic violence and the five deadliest mass shootings that have occurred in the United States. Mass shootings seem to be at an all-time high over the past few years, and people are starting to see a pattern develop among the perpetrators: most have a history of domestic violence or violence toward women in general. The cases I studied, in descending order are: the Texas Church shooting on […]

Domestic Violence and Traditional Feminist Philosophy and Beliefs

Throughout the country a majority of domestic violence programs are based off the traditional feminist philosophy and beliefs. The feminist approach is defined as an approach that aims to understand gender inequality(source). The approach examines women’s and men’s social roles, experiences, interests, chores, and politics with a goal to empower the oppressed (source). Although this belief is meant to be a positive movement for all women and fight against domestic violence it is not completely ethical to just use that […]

Relationship between Police and Involvement and Domestic Violence

Literature Review Literature has suggested that domestic violence reporting and victims of domestic violence, are issues that have very little research. On top of this, the research that has been conducted is not as accurate because the definition of domestic violence has been generalized. This means that research of domestic violence could include anything from fighting with friends, to abuse within intimate partner relationships, abuse against women, and family violence. Within the relationships alone, definitions can also differ. For example, […]

The Tough Guy Image in Black Families

Poverty can lead to the black male adherence to the tough guy image in black families. The tough guy image is the leading cause of death amongst black families. The fear of black on blacks is another cause by the tough guy image. According to the book the overwhelming number of offenses committed by African American are directed towards other African Americans. Interpersonal amongst blacks is the leading cause of death for blacks. Black males are known to make up […]

A Proposal for Companion Animal Supports in a Domestic Violence Shelter in Massachusetts

Veterinary social work is an emerging field which incorporates social work practices, values, and ideals into animal care settings. Currently, most veterinary social work is concerned with animal bereavement services, including end of life counseling, pet loss support groups, and one-on-one counseling after the death of a pet. There are, however, more uses of social work in animal care settings, as well as animal care in social work settings. One such example of animal care in a social work setting […]

Faith Harper Domestic Violence Case Study

Violence Question 3~The Return/Supervised Visits1. Investigate the child protection process in your local state and county. The Texas county law demands that anyone who believes that a child is neglected or abused should report to the law enforcement organization, Child Protective Services organization of the Texas Section of Family and Protecting Services. The law gives mandate and power to CPS to investigate any report given to protect all children (Puplampu & Codjoe 2001). According to the Texas law, it defines […]

Domestic Violence in Zora Neale Hurston’s their Eyes were Watching God

In Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God, Janie faces obstacles throughout her life and ultimately learns to grow from them. Hurston portrays love, dominance, independence, discrimination, and abuse in her novel. Hurston uses domestic abuse story. During the 20’s women were not treated fairly nor with respect. Janie’s first marriage to Logan Killicks was arranged by Janie’s grandmother who valued financial security and respectability. In Janies marriage, Logan treated her with love and respect for about a year […]

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How To Write an Essay About Domestic Violence

Understanding domestic violence.

Before starting an essay about domestic violence, it's important to understand what constitutes domestic violence and its impact on individuals and society. Domestic violence refers to a pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. It can include physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. Begin your essay by defining domestic violence, discussing its various forms, and addressing common misconceptions. It's also crucial to explore the psychological and social factors that contribute to domestic violence, as well as its short and long-term effects on victims, families, and communities.

Developing a Thesis Statement

A strong essay on domestic violence should be anchored by a clear, focused thesis statement. This statement should present a specific viewpoint or argument about domestic violence. For example, you might discuss the societal factors that contribute to domestic violence, the challenges in seeking justice for victims, or the effectiveness of intervention and support programs. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and provide a structured approach to your analysis.

Gathering Supporting Evidence

Support your thesis with relevant data, research, and examples. This might include statistics on the prevalence of domestic violence, case studies, or research findings on the effects of domestic violence on individuals and society. Use this evidence to support your thesis and build a persuasive argument. Remember to consider different perspectives and include voices of survivors in your discussion.

Analyzing the Impact of Domestic Violence

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing the impact of domestic violence. Discuss various aspects, such as the physical and mental health consequences for victims, the social and economic costs, and the effect on children and families. Explore both the immediate and long-term effects, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the issue.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of addressing domestic violence in society. You might also want to highlight areas where further research or policy development is needed, or suggest ways individuals and communities can help combat domestic violence.

Reviewing and Refining Your Essay

After completing your essay, review and edit it for clarity and coherence. Ensure that your arguments are well-structured and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers or experts in the field to refine your essay further. A well-written essay on domestic violence will not only demonstrate your understanding of the topic but also your ability to engage with complex social issues.

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A Simple Way to Protect Domestic Violence Orders Against the Next Constitutional Challenge

• Fredrick Vars

Media reports of the Supreme Court’s decision this June in United States v. Rahimi have stated that the Court upheld the federal ban on gun possession by individuals subject to domestic violence restraining orders (DVROs), but this is only half true.  The federal statute creating that ban on firearms possession has two parts, and the second half is at risk, with potentially deadly consequences.  Access to a firearm increases the likelihood of domestic abuse turning deadly by five-fold , with an average of 70 women shot and killed each month.  Thankfully, there are a few simple steps states can take to preempt future Second Amendment challenges. 

Under the first part of the federal statute , known as the “credible threat” prong, a DVRO prohibits gun possession if a judge has found that the restrained individual “ represents a credible threat to the physical safety of [an] intimate partner or child .”  Zackey Rahimi’s DVRO included a “credible threat” finding based on a long history of violent abuse.  The Court rejected Rahimi’s Second Amendment challenge to the DVRO.  Chief Justice Roberts’ majority opinion definitively held: “An individual found by a court to pose a credible threat to the physical safety of another may be temporarily disarmed consistent with the Second Amendment.”  But the Court emphatically (and repeatedly) limited its holding to this type of DVRO.

That leaves the second half of the statute vulnerable to Constitutional challenge.  By its terms, this second category of DVRO does not require a judicial finding of dangerousness.  If a DVRO “ explicitly prohibits” certain types of “physical force ” –– even without a finding of a credible threat of violence –– that is enough to trigger the federal prohibition on gun possession.  The Supreme Court has left open the possibility that people who lose their right to bear arms based solely on the order’s prohibition of physical force may not pose a sufficient risk of violence to justify suspending their right to bear arms.

However, in most cases, there is a strong argument that even those falling solely within the second part of the statute have implicitly been found to be dangerous.  In general, court orders are employed to prohibit people from doing something they would otherwise be legally allowed to do or to require them to do something that, absent the order, they would not be required to do. In other words, court orders either add or subtract legal duties, not restate existing ones.

DVROs that prohibit certain types of physical force remind individuals to refrain from acts they never had a legal right to commit.  Why would a court enter such a seemingly gratuitous order?  Because the court must believe a real risk exists that the order is necessary to change the status quo –– that absent the order, such acts of violence are likely to occur.  But there is a real chance that the Supreme Court will require express judicial findings of dangerousness, ignoring caselaw to the contrary.

This is an important problem.  Several states do not require an explicit “credible threat” finding for a DVRO to issue ( California , for example).  The constitutional validity of DVROs in these states, and the lives they protect, are in real peril.  In fact, a federal case presenting this exact question is already on appeal, perhaps on its way to the Supreme Court.

Thankfully, there are simple solutions that do not require overturning the Court’s illogical Second Amendment jurisprudence.  The easiest way for a judge to protect a DVRO is to include an express “credible threat” finding.  Adding a single sentence would bring the DVRO squarely within the first part of the federal ban, which Rahimi held did not violate the Second Amendment.  No new legislation is needed to implement this solution; judges can and should exercise their discretion to do it right now.

A stronger fix would be for states to amend their DVRO laws to require an express “credible threat” finding.  This would make mandatory what is currently a matter of discretion.  To be clear, this mandate would apply only to the prohibition on gun possession.  States that have a lower standard for the issuance of a DVRO could impose other aspects of the order, like not coming within a certain distance of the protected individual, without a finding of credible threat.

To bulletproof DVROs, states could also include a statutory exception for self-defense.  Such an exception would allow anyone subject to a protective order who can demonstrate a particularized need for a gun for self-defense to regain the right to bear arms.  The Court has not expressly required such an exception, but there are a few concerning hints.  To support its holding in Rahimi , the Court relied heavily on the historical precedent of “surety” laws, noting that these laws often included self-defense exceptions.  In the landmark Heller case, the Court declared that the Second Amendment protects “the core lawful purpose of self-defense.”  And Justice Gorsuch’s concurrence in Rahimi raised the possibility that the lack of a self-defense carveout might violate the Second Amendment.

Lower federal courts have not read Heller to require a self-defense exception.  To the contrary, courts have rejected this argument, stating, “the fact that [the defendant] may have possessed the handgun for purposes of self-defense . . . is irrelevant .”   But the current Supreme Court majority does not consider itself bound by even its own precedents , let alone the precedents of lower federal courts.  In such uncharted and unpredictable territory, it would be prudent for states to consider adding a self-defense exception –– especially since few domestic abusers will be able to convince judges that their need for self-defense is greater than the risk of killing or seriously injuring their intimate partner with a firearm.

It is remarkable that Chief Justice Roberts wrote an opinion in Rahimi that garnered eight votes.  That consensus was possible only by focusing on an extremely narrow question.  One byproduct is that the Court’s reasoning in favor of one type of DVRO casts doubt on another significant category.  But with a few simple changes, judges and states can eliminate any doubts.  Countless lives are at stake.

• Constitutional Interpretation
• Constitutional Law
• Criminal Justice
• Second Amendment

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Essay On Domestic Violence

500 words essay on domestic violence.

Domestic violence refers to the violence and abuse which happens in a domestic setting like cohabitation or marriage. It is important to remember that domestic violence is not just physical but any kind of behaviour that tries to gain power and control over the victim. It can affect people from all walks of life and it basically subjects towards a partner, spouse or intimate family member. Through an essay on domestic violence, we will go through its causes and effects.

Causes of Domestic Violence

Often women and children are the soft targets of domestic violence. Domestic violence is a gruesome crime that also causes a number of deaths. Some of the most common causes of domestic violence are illiteracy and economical dependency on the menfolk.

The male-dominated society plays an important role in this problem. Further, dowry is also one of the leading causes which have the consequence of violence against newly-wed brides. In many parts of the world, physically assaulting women and passing horrendous remarks is common.

Moreover, children also become victims of this inhuman behaviour more than often. It is important to recognize the double standards and hypocrisy of society. A lot of the times, the abuser is either psychotic or requires psychological counselling.

However, in a more general term, domestic violence is the outcome of cumulative irresponsible behaviour which a section of society demonstrates. It is also important to note that solely the abuser is not just responsible but also those who allow this to happen and act as mere mute spectators.

Types of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence has many ill-effects which depend on the kind of domestic violence happening. It ranges from being physical to emotional and sexual to economic. A physical abuser uses physical force which injures the victim or endangers their life.

It includes hitting, punching, choking, slapping, and other kinds of violence. Moreover, the abuser also denies the victim medical care. Further, there is emotional abuse in which the person threatens and intimidates the victim. It also includes undermining their self-worth.

It includes threatening them with harm or public humiliation. Similarly, constant name-calling and criticism also count as emotional abuse. After that, we have sexual abuse in which the perpetrator uses force for unwanted sexual activity.

If your partner does not consent to it, it is forced which makes it sexual abuse. Finally, we have economic abuse where the abuser controls the victim’s money and their economic resources.

They do this to exert control on them and make them dependent solely on them. If your partner has to beg you for money, then it counts as economic abuse. This damages the self-esteem of the victim.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of the Essay on Domestic Violence

To conclude, domestic violence has many forms which include physical aggression like kicking and biting and it can also be sexual or emotional. It is essential to recognize the signs of domestic violence and report the abuser if it is happening around you or to you.

FAQ of Essay on Domestic Violence

Question 1: Why is domestic violence an issue?

Answer 1: Domestic violence has a major impact on the general health and wellbeing of individuals. It is because it causes physical injury, anxiety, depression. Moreover, it also impairs social skills and increases the likelihood that they will participate in practices harmful to their health, like self-harm or substance abuse.

Question 2: How does domestic violence affect a woman?

Answer 2: Domestic violence affects women in terms of ill health. It causes serious consequences on their mental and physical health which includes reproductive and sexual health. It also includes injuries, gynaecological problems, depression, suicide and more.

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Essay on Domestic Violence

Essay generator.

Domestic violence, a critical social issue, plagues numerous households worldwide. It’s a pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. This essay seeks to explore the multifaceted aspects of domestic violence, its psychological underpinnings, and the broader implications for society.

Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence involves physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. It includes any behaviors that intimidate, manipulate, humiliate, isolate, frighten, terrorize, coerce, threaten, blame, hurt, injure, or wound someone.

Types of Domestic Violence

• Physical Abuse : Hitting, slapping, shoving, grabbing, pinching, biting, hair pulling, etc., are types of physical abuse. It also includes denying a partner medical care or forcing alcohol/drug use.
• Emotional Abuse : Undermining an individual’s sense of self-worth and/or self-esteem. This may include constant criticism, diminishing one’s abilities, name-calling, or damaging one’s relationship with their children.
• Economic Abuse : Making or attempting to make an individual financially dependent by maintaining total control over financial resources, withholding access to money, or forbidding attendance at school or employment.
• Sexual Abuse : Coercing or attempting to coerce any sexual contact or behavior without consent. This includes, but is not limited to, marital rape, attacks on sexual parts of the body, forcing sex after physical violence, and treating one in a sexually demeaning manner.
• Psychological Abuse : Causing fear by intimidation; threatening physical harm to self, partner, children, or partner’s family or friends; destruction of pets and property; and forcing isolation from family, friends, or school and/or work.

The Psychology Behind Domestic Violence

Understanding the psychology behind domestic violence is complex. It often involves an intricate interplay of power, control, and deep-seated psychological issues.

• Power and Control : Abusers often feel the need to exert dominance over their partner, stemming from deep insecurities and a desire to control.
• Cycle of Abuse : Domestic violence usually follows a pattern known as the cycle of abuse, consisting of the tension-building phase, the abusive incident, the honeymoon phase, and calm before the cycle starts again.
• Childhood Trauma : Many abusers have histories of traumatic childhoods, including physical or emotional abuse, which can perpetuate a cycle of violence.
• Societal Influences : Societal norms and cultural backgrounds that perpetuate gender inequality and glorify aggression can contribute to domestic violence.

The Impact of Domestic Violence

The impact of domestic violence is profound and far-reaching.

• Physical and Mental Health : Victims of domestic violence suffer from various physical ailments, mental health issues like depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and in extreme cases, death.
• Impact on Children : Children who witness domestic violence are at increased risk for emotional and behavioral problems, and may repeat the cycle of violence in their own relationships.
• Societal Cost : Domestic violence impacts society through increased healthcare costs, legal costs, and lost productivity.

Addressing Domestic Violence

Combating domestic violence requires a multifaceted approach:

• Awareness and Education : Raising awareness about the signs of domestic violence and educating people about its unacceptable nature is crucial.
• Support Systems : Robust support systems including hotlines, shelters, counseling, and legal assistance are vital for victims.
• Legal Framework : Strong legal frameworks that protect victims and hold abusers accountable are essential.
• Community Involvement : Community education and involvement in prevention programs are necessary to change societal norms and behaviors.

Writing About Domestic Violence

For students writing about domestic violence:

• Use a Sensitive Tone : Given the delicate nature of the topic, it’s important to use a tone that is empathetic and respectful.
• Incorporate Data and Research : Use statistics, studies, and research to provide a factual basis for the essay.
• Personal Stories : While maintaining confidentiality and sensitivity, incorporating stories can provide powerful insights into the issue.
• Discuss Solutions and Prevention : Go beyond outlining the problem to propose potential solutions and preventive measures.

In conclusion, Domestic violence is a complex issue that requires deep understanding and concerted efforts to address. It’s imperative to recognize the signs, understand the underlying causes, and work towards effective solutions. For students participating in essay writing competitions, delving into this topic is not only an academic exercise but also an opportunity to contribute to the critical discourse on this pressing social issue. By understanding and articulating the nuances of domestic violence, one can advocate for change and a safer, more equitable society.

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Domestic Violence: Reason, Forms and Measures Essay

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Introduction

Problem statement, literature review, forms and causes of domestic violence.

Domestic or family violence involves abusive behavior patterns that individuals go through in an intimate relationship. Domestic violence takes place in families where parents may abuse their children or in marriages where one spouse abuses the other.

The term domestic violence is defined by American Medical Association Diagnostic and Treatment Guidelines on Domestic Violence (AMADTGDV) as the state, in which powerful individuals in an intimate relationship dominate, misuse their power and victimize the less powerful.

Some of the factors that maintain power differences include differences in financial positions, age differences and state of health. Powerful people use their position to intimidate and control the less fortunate people. According to Buzawa and Buzawa (2003), some people go the extent of using physical violence.

Although all people can experience domestic violence, the most affected are women. Husbands and boyfriends in a relationship are the main perpetrators of violence while girl friends and women end up being the victims. Violence against women is a major problem all over the world in the present days.

This is because the number of women abused and misused by their husbands increases from day to day. Men act as victims of domestic violence in other cases. For instance, in homosexual relationships, powerful men victimize their fellow men.

Domestic violence is a major problem that many people overlook and term as a family issue. Its impacts can however be much more than people may think. Domestic violence has major impacts to families and societies. The main aim of this paper is to determine the reason behind the rapid increase of domestic violence, forms of domestic violence and measures that should be taken to reduce its effects (Aron, Aron & Coups, 2011).

Domestic violence is an important topic that should be clearly understood by people. The topic is very important because many problems arising in modern societies are because of domestic violence. Women, children and the whole society feel the effects of domestic violence.

This makes it a society’s matter of concern. Domestic violence against children is common in many societies. For instance, in the United States of America, it is estimated that more than three million children experience domestic violence sometime during their life. Studies have shown that domestic violence affects the physical, mental and psychological development of children.

Children exposed to traumatic experience become depressed in life. It is important for parents to measure the kind of punishments that they administer to their children when they do something wrong. This is because some of the punishments may be more of mistreatments than punishments for instance making children go without food (Buzawa &Buzawa, 2003).

Other children are abused sexually by their parents. Rape cases between parents and children are common. In many societies, incest taboo is observed where closely related people should not engage in sexual affairs in addition to this, transmission of sexually transmitted diseases becomes common. Incest reduces the respect between parents and their children.

When parents disagree between each other, children are greatly affected. Shipway (2004) points out that when parents divorce, children lack full parental care because they are left in the care of one parent. He further asserts that they may also lack full financial support that contributes to termination of important activities like education.

Injuries resulting from domestic violence affect the health of people. Wife battering is very common in many marriages where husbands beat and hit their wives. Use of physical power leads to head injuries, broken bones and internal bleeding. Some injuries are severe to the extend that they may need medical attendance.

There are cases in which some husbands beat up their wives to the extend they become disabled even after recovery or they die in the process. Pregnant mothers experiencing domestic violence are at greater risks of having miscarriages or giving birth before the fetus is mature enough. Arthritis, ulcers and pelvic pain are some of the health conditions associated with exposure to domestic violence (Shipway, 2004).

Victims living with perpetrators suffer psychologically because of stress, anxiety and fear. The victims are depressed because of the challenges facing them. Exposure to psychological stress increases the risks of the victim committing suicide during the relationship or even after terminating it.

Anxiety and panic is especially common to women whose husbands abuse them physically. They are confused a condition, which makes most of them loose, focuses. Financial problems arise out of domestic violence. There are some cases in which the husband decides not to cater for the needs of the family.

In this case, children and their mothers suffer from financial problems. If the wife does not have income of her own, then the problem is more severe. Being the head of families, some men take it as their duty to budget for all income in the family including the salary of their wives.

Some make sure that women remain with little of their own money. In cases of divorce, women find it hard to take good care of their families financially. Effects of domestic violence are therefore severe and this is why studying the topic is important. Knowledge of effects of domestic violence in families will help in reducing it (Shipway, 2004).

Violence against women and girls is a worldwide problem affecting physical, social, psychological and economic lives of women. The practice makes women not to exercise their rights and freedoms by making them inferior to men.

All countries experience the problems of violence against women but the degree varies from one society to another. Some of the groups that are vulnerable to violence include the minority groups, indigenous people, refugees and migrant women, disabled women, elderly women and children.

Cultural factors requiring women to be submissive to men encourage the practice. It is very hard to come up with reliable information but studies indicate that 20 to 50% of the total population of women in all countries experience violence from a family member or their companions (Summers, 2002).

According to Summers (2002), studies of domestic violence all over the world show that out of three women, one of them has been beaten up by their husbands, forced into sex or any other form of mistreatment sometime in her life. More than 324 000 expectant mothers are mistreated by their husbands during their pregnancy.

It is the main cause of injuries among women aged between the ages of 15 and 44 in the United States of America and other countries. This is mainly because of increase in wife battering. For students in high schools, it is estimated that for every five girls one of them experience sexual and physical abuse from their partners.

They are forced into having sex or doing it without protection and sometimes bitten when they conflict with each other. Studies have also shown that out of four raped women, their companions committed the crime. Domestic violence is a major cause of homelessness.

A study of 46 cities conducted by Conference of Mayors in the United States of America confirmed wife battering as a cause of homelessness. In addition, a study done by the Ford Foundation found that half of homeless women and children were running way from abuse. Instead of maintaining a stressful marriage, many women decide to run away from homes to search for peace from elsewhere (Summers, 2002).

Rape cases are very high in the United States of America. The number of rape cases goes as high as 683000 per year. This means that at least one woman is raped in every minute. Even though rape cases are high, some of them go unreported. Usually, people well known to the victim do perpetration of rape.

Disabled women are at a higher risk of experiencing abuse than non-disabled ones. Crime cases against disabled people are likely to go unreported than with normal human beings. This may be because of difficulties in communication, physical and social discrimination of the disabled and ignorance of the system of justice.

In addition, the victim may fail to report because it will be a shame to them, the offender may be their primary caregivers and therefore fear that they will be neglected or abused by family members. The disabled are vulnerable to victimization because they cannot run away easily or fight against their enemy. 83% of disabled women and 32% of men are at a high-risk sexual harassment. Increase in rape cases puts people at high risk of unwanted pregnancies and transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (Summers, 2002).

Summers (2002) argue that physical abuse involves body contact aimed at causing pain, intimidation or harm to the body. It involves punching, slapping, choking, pushing and hitting. Physical abuse also involves preventing lack of enough sleep and medical care.

When an individual inflicts injury on children or pets with the aim of harming the victim, this is physical abuse. Forcing people into sexual matters out of their will is sexual abuse. Cases of rape are common even among married couples.

Psychological abuse occurs when an individual does something with the aim of embarrassing the other. Discrimination causes psychological stress. Insults and threatening partners that they will die if they leave the relationship is emotional abuse.

Domestic violence is caused by a number of factors that vary from one person to another. Consumption of drugs and alcohol are main causes of domestic violence. Studies have shown that drunkard men are likely to beat their wives than non-drunkard ones.

External stress like from work places may lead to domestic violence. Some men transfer work issues to their wives. Failures to meet financial requirements, disruption of families are other causes of violence in families (Cefrey, 2008).

Getting accurate information is very difficult because not all cases of domestic violence. Some women decide to keep the problem to themselves or others fear that if they report, their husbands will divorce them (Cefrey, 2008).

In addition, the respondents may give invalid information to researchers or hide some information. The researcher can be bias so that he manipulates information given by respondent. He can also fail to note down some information provided to him during research. It is therefore difficult to get reliable data.

Violence against women has decreased in the modern world compared to the olden days. This is because wife battering which was allowed by some cultures is now a crime punishable like other crimes. The governments in all countries take strict measures against husbands found abusing their wives either financially, physically or emotionally.

Education for girl child has reduced instances of violence against women. Education has narrowed down the gap that existed between the boy child and the girl child. They work in the same places and earn equal salaries making them equal.

Girls have also known their rights and cannot allow men to interfere with them otherwise; they can take strict measures against them. Through education, men have been enlightened on the major roles that women play in the society. Large numbers of men now appreciate their wives. It is clear that violence has reduced greatly and people look forward to a generation that will be free from domestic violence (Soileau, 2008).

• Domestic violence influences the society negatively by causing:
• Difficulties in life
• High rates of divorce
• Deaths through injuries

Women and girls lead difficult lives because of exposure to domestic violence. Girls are forced to drop out of schools because of pregnancies arising from rape cases. Others conduct sexually transmitted diseases. Women lead stressful lives because their husbands are not willing to cooperate with them.

The belief that they should be submissive to men is a disadvantage to women because they cannot engage in decision-making. Men think that women cannot make sound decisions and therefore take control over everything in the household.

Women do not have say also on sexual matters. Deaths and injuries caused by intimate persons are common among women. Many pregnant mothers miscarry their babies because of exposure to stressful conditions. Other men beat their wives to the extend that they need medical attention.

Finally, divorce and homelessness are caused by domestic violence. Many families have broken up if one partner is abusing the other. Women leave their homes to search for peace in other areas like towns. Domestic violence has negative impacts to the well being of families as well as development of the society (Renzetti & Bergen, 2005).

Domestic violence is abusive behavior that an individual goes through in a intimate relationship. The main victims of domestic violence are women even though homosexual relationships put men at a risk of becoming a victim.

Violence against women should be avoided because its effects are severe. Domestic violence increases mortality rate of many countries by causing deaths of wives, children and unborn babies. Other victims commit suicide because of psychological and emotional stress.

Violence against women is linked to occurrence of certain diseases like ulcers that cause death if untreated. Since domestic violence is a global matter of concern, necessary measures should be taken to ensure that it is completely eradicated in all societies.

This can be achieved by taking strict measures against spouses found mistreating their partners and children. Living in a domestic violence free area will improve the standards of living of wives (Shipway, 2004).

Aron, A., Aron, E. & Coups, E. (2011). Statistics for the behavioral and social sciences: A brief course . New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall.

Buzawa, C. & Buzawa, E. (2003). Domestic violence: The criminal justice response . New York, NY: Sage.

Cefrey, H. (2008). Domestic violence . Washington, DC: The Rosen Publishing Group.

Renzetti, C. & Bergen, R. (2005). Violence against women . New Jersey, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield.

Shipway, L. (2004). Domestic violence: A handbook for health professionals . New York, NY: Routledge.

Soileau, M. (2008 ). Domestic violence: The forgotten victims . New York, NY: Xulon Press.

Summers, R. (2002). Domestic violence: A global view . London: Greenwood Publishing Group.

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Chapter 4 Outline answers to essay questions

Is the range of possible legal responses to domestic abuse sufficient to protect victims?

Domestic abuse goes beyond physical abuse and can include psychological, emotional, sexual, financial and emotional abuse. Domestic abuse can affect adults in all types of relationship and can also include violence between parents and children. 

Explain the legal response to domestic violence, including: 

• Non-molestation and Occupation orders under the Family Law Act 1996
• Injunctions under the Protection from Harassment Act 1997
• Domestic Violence Protection Notices and Orders under s24-33 of the Police & Security Act 2010
• Injunctions under the Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007

Criminal Law

• Offences of violence under the Offences Against the Person Act 1861
• Public order offences under the Public Order Act 1986
• Offences of harassment under the 1997 Act (and amendments to cover stalking made by the Protection of Freedom Act 2012
• Offence of coercive and controlling behaviour under s76 Serious Crime Act 2015
• Offence of forced marriage under s121 Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 (and breach under s120 ).

Given the breadth of conduct included in the Home Office definition of domestic violence, do you think that the legal response is adequate? There are lots of things you could comment on, for example:

• Is there enough variety in the available remedies? For example, do these remedies work in the same way for violence between adults and violence by a parent against a child?
• What do you think about the use of criminal law? Might some people be against reporting their parent or partner to the police? Should it be up to the victim to decide?
• Do civil remedies protect the right people? Consider Helen Reece's arguments in ‘The End of Domestic Violence’ (2006) 99(5) MLR 770.
• Occupation orders may involve removing someone from their home. In some cases the person with the benefit of an occupation order may not otherwise have been able to occupy the property.
• Does the new offence of coercive control better capture the nature of domestic abuse?
• Consider Choudry and Herring’s article about whether criminal law is the appropriate way to deal with domestic abuse in ‘In Practice: Prosecuting Domestic Violence’ [2008] Fam Law

It is also worth considering that the criteria for claiming legal aid are very restrictive and that many victims of domestic violence would not meet them.

Conclude with your assessment of the current law and, if you think that the law should be reformed, explain how it should be reformed.

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Exploring factors influencing domestic violence: a comprehensive study on intrafamily dynamics

Cintya lanchimba.

1 Departamento de Economía Cuantitativa, Facultad de Ciencias Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador

2 Institut de Recherche en Gestion et Economie, Université de Savoie Mont Blanc (IREGE/IAE Savoie Mont Blanc), Annecy, France

Juan Pablo Díaz-Sánchez

Franklin velasco.

3 Department of Marketing, Universidad San Francisco de Quito USFQ, Quito, Ecuador

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Introduction

This econometric analysis investigates the nexus between household factors and domestic violence. By considering diverse variables encompassing mood, depression, health consciousness, social media engagement, household chores, density, and religious affiliation, the study aims to comprehend the underlying dynamics influencing domestic violence.

Employing econometric techniques, this study examined a range of household-related variables for their potential associations with levels of violence within households. Data on mood, depression, health consciousness, social media usage, household chores, density, and religious affiliation were collected and subjected to rigorous statistical analysis.

The findings of this study unveil notable relationships between the aforementioned variables and levels of violence within households. Positive mood emerges as a mitigating factor, displaying a negative correlation with violence. Conversely, depression positively correlates with violence, indicating an elevated propensity for conflict. Increased health consciousness is linked with diminished violence, while engagement with social media demonstrates a moderating influence. Reduction in the time allocated to household chores corresponds with lower violence levels. Household density, however, exhibits a positive association with violence. The effects of religious affiliation on violence manifest diversely, contingent upon household position and gender.

The outcomes of this research offer critical insights for policymakers and practitioners working on formulating strategies for preventing and intervening in instances of domestic violence. The findings emphasize the importance of considering various household factors when designing effective interventions. Strategies to bolster positive mood, alleviate depression, encourage health consciousness, and regulate social media use could potentially contribute to reducing domestic violence. Additionally, the nuanced role of religious affiliation underscores the need for tailored approaches based on household dynamics, positioning, and gender.

1. Introduction

Intimate partner violence is a pervasive global issue, particularly affecting women. According to the World Health Organization ( 1 ), approximately 30% of women worldwide have experienced violence from their intimate partners. Disturbingly, recent studies indicate that circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic, which disrupt daily lives on a global scale, have exacerbated patterns of violence against women ( 2 – 4 ). Data from the WHO ( 1 ) regarding gender-based violence during the pandemic reveals that one in three women felt insecure within their homes due to family conflicts with their partners.

This pressing issue of intimate partner violence demands a thorough analysis from a social perspective. It is often insidious and challenging to identify, as cultural practices and the normalization of abusive behaviors, such as physical aggression and verbal abuse, persist across diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. However, all forms of violence can inflict physical and psychological harm on victims, affecting their overall well-being and interpersonal relationships WHO ( 5 ). Furthermore, households with a prevalence of domestic violence are more likely to experience child maltreatment ( 6 ).

In this context, the COVID-19 pandemic has had profound effects on individuals, families, and communities worldwide, creating a complex landscape of challenges and disruptions. Among the numerous repercussions, the pandemic has exposed and exacerbated issues of domestic violence within households. The confinement measures, economic strain, and heightened stress levels resulting from the pandemic have contributed to a volatile environment where violence can escalate. Understanding the factors that influence domestic violence during this unprecedented crisis is crucial for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies.

This article aims to explore the relationship between household factors and domestic violence within the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. By employing econometric analysis, we investigate how various factors such as mood, depression, health consciousness, social media usage, household chores, density, and religious affiliation relate to violence levels within households. These factors were selected based on their relevance to the unique circumstances and challenges presented by the pandemic.

The study builds upon existing research that has demonstrated the influence of individual and household characteristics on domestic violence. However, the specific context of the pandemic necessitates a deeper examination of these factors and their implications for violence within households. By focusing on variables that are particularly relevant in the crisis, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics that contribute to intrafamily violence during the pandemic.

The findings of this study have important implications for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers involved in addressing domestic violence. By identifying the factors that either increase or mitigate violence within households, we can develop targeted interventions and support systems to effectively respond to the unique challenges posed by the pandemic. Furthermore, this research contributes to the broader literature on domestic violence by highlighting the distinct influence of household factors within the context of a global health crisis.

The structure of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides a comprehensive review of the relevant literature on household violence. Section 3 presents the case study that forms the basis of this research. Section 4 outlines the methodology employed in the study. Section 5 presents the results obtained from the empirical analysis. Finally, Section 6 concludes the paper, summarizing the key findings and their implications for addressing domestic violence.

2. Literature review

2.1. violence at home.

Throughout human history, the family unit has been recognized as the fundamental building block of society. Families are comprised of individuals bound by blood or marriage, and they are ideally regarded as havens of love, care, affection, and personal growth, where individuals should feel secure and protected. Unfortunately, it is distressingly common to find alarming levels of violence, abuse, and aggression within the confines of the home ( 7 ).

Domestic violence, as defined by Tan and Haining ( 8 ), encompasses any form of violent behavior directed toward family members, regardless of their gender, resulting in physical, sexual, or psychological harm. It includes acts of threats, coercion, and the deprivation of liberty. This pervasive issue is recognized as a public health problem that affects all nations. It is important to distinguish between domestic violence (DV) and intimate partner violence (IPV), as they are related yet distinct phenomena. DV occurs within the family unit, affecting both parents and children. On the other hand, IPV refers to violent and controlling acts perpetrated by one partner against another, encompassing physical aggression (such as hitting, kicking, and beating), sexual, economic, verbal, or emotional harm ( 9 , 10 ). IPV can occur between partners who cohabit or not, and typically involves male partners exerting power and control over their female counterparts. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that there are cases where men are also victims of violence ( 11 ).

Both forms of violence, DV and IPV, take place within the home. However, when acts of violence occur in the presence of children, regardless of whether they directly experience physical harm or simply witness the violence, the consequences can be profoundly detrimental ( 12 , 13 ).

Understanding the intricacies and dynamics of domestic violence and its impact on individuals and families is of paramount importance. The consequences of such violence extend beyond the immediate victims, affecting the overall well-being and social fabric of society. Therefore, it is crucial to explore the various factors that contribute to domestic violence, including those specific to the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to inform effective prevention and intervention strategies. In the following sections, we will examine the empirical findings regarding household factors and their association with domestic violence, shedding light on the complexities and nuances of this pervasive issue.

2.2. Drivers of domestic violence

As previously discussed, the occurrence of violence within the home carries significant consequences for individuals’ lives. Consequently, gaining an understanding of the underlying factors that contribute to this violence is crucial. To this end, Table 1 provides a comprehensive summary of the most commonly identified determinants of domestic violence within the existing literature.

Determinants of domestic violence.

Adapted and improved from the classification proposed by Visaria ( 16 ).

Identifying these determinants is a vital step toward comprehending the complex nature of domestic violence. By synthesizing the findings from numerous studies, Table 1 presents a consolidated overview of the factors that have been consistently associated with domestic violence. This compilation serves as a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers seeking to address and mitigate the prevalence of domestic violence.

The determinants presented in Table 1 encompass various variables, including socio-economic factors, mental health indicators, interpersonal dynamics, and other relevant aspects. By examining and analyzing these determinants, researchers have made significant progress in uncovering the underlying causes and risk factors associated with domestic violence.

It is important to note that the determinants listed in Table 1 represent recurring themes in the literature and are not an exhaustive representation of all potential factors influencing domestic violence. The complex nature of this issue necessitates ongoing research and exploration to deepen our understanding of the multifaceted dynamics at play. Thus, we categorize these factors into two groups to provide a comprehensive understanding of the issue.

Group A focuses on variables that characterize both the victim and the aggressor, which may act as potential deterrents against femicide. Previous research by Alonso-Borrego and Carrasco ( 17 ), Anderberg et al. ( 18 ), Sen ( 19 ), and Visaria ( 16 ) has highlighted the significance of factors such as age, level of education, employment status, occupation, and religious affiliation. These individual characteristics play a role in shaping the dynamics of domestic violence and can influence the likelihood of its occurrence.

Group B aims to capture risk factors that contribute to the presence of violence within the home. One prominent risk factor is overcrowding, which can lead to psychological, social, and economic problems within the family, ultimately affecting the health of its members. Research by Van de Velde et al. ( 21 ), Walker-Descartes et al. ( 23 ), Malik and Naeem ( 2 ) supports the notion that individuals experiencing such distress may resort to exerting force or violence on other family members as a means of releasing their frustration. Additionally, Goodman ( 32 ) have highlighted the increased risk of violence in households with multiple occupants, particularly in cases where individuals are confined to a single bedroom. These concepts can be further explored through variables related to health, depression, anxiety, and stress, providing valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying domestic violence.

By investigating these factors, our study enhances the existing understanding of the complex dynamics of domestic violence within the unique context of the pandemic. The COVID-19 crisis has exacerbated various stressors and challenges within households, potentially intensifying the risk of violence. Understanding the interplay between these factors and domestic violence is essential for the development of targeted interventions and support systems to mitigate violence and its consequences.

2.3. Demographic characteristics (A)

2.3.1. education level (a1).

According to Sen ( 19 ), the education level of the victim, typically women, or the head of household is a significant antecedent of domestic violence. Women’s access to and completion of secondary education play a crucial role in enhancing their capacity and control over their lives. Higher levels of education not only foster confidence and self-esteem but also empower women to seek help and resources, ultimately reducing their tolerance for domestic violence. Babu and Kar ( 33 ), Semahegn and Mengistie ( 34 ) support this perspective by demonstrating that women with lower levels of education and limited work opportunities are more vulnerable to experiencing violence.

When women assume the role of the head of the household, the likelihood of violence within the household, whether domestic or intimate partner violence, increases significantly. This has severe physical and mental health implications for both the woman and other family members, and in the worst-case scenario, it can result in the tragic loss of life ( 22 , 23 , 35 ).

Conversely, men’s economic frustration or their inability to fulfill the societal expectation of being the “head of household” is also a prominent factor contributing to the perpetration of physical and sexual violence within the home ( 36 ).The frustration arising from economic difficulties, combined with the frequent use of drugs and alcohol, exacerbates the likelihood of violent behavior.

These findings underscore the importance of addressing socio-economic disparities and promoting gender equality in preventing and combating domestic violence. By enhancing women’s access to education, improving economic opportunities, and challenging traditional gender roles, we can create a more equitable and violence-free society. Additionally, interventions targeting men’s economic empowerment and addressing substance abuse issues can play a pivotal role in reducing violence within the home.

2.3.2. Employment and occupation (A2)

Macroeconomic conditions, specifically differences in unemployment rates between men and women, have been found to impact domestic violence. Research suggests that an increase of 1% in the male unemployment rate is associated with an increase in physical violence within the home, while an increase in the female unemployment rate is linked to a reduction in violence ( 37 ).

Moreover, various studies ( 34 , 35 , 38 , 39 ) have highlighted the relationship between domestic violence and the husband’s working conditions, such as workload and job quality, as well as the income he earns. The exercise of authority within the household and the use of substances that alter behavior are also associated with domestic violence.

Within this context, economic gender-based violence is a prevalent but lesser-known form of violence compared to physical or sexual violence. It involves exerting unacceptable economic control over a partner, such as allocating limited funds for expenses or preventing them from working to maintain economic dependence. This form of violence can also manifest through excessive and unsustainable spending without consulting the partner. Economic gender-based violence is often a “silent” form of violence, making it more challenging to detect and prove ( 40 ).

Empowerment becomes a gender challenge that can lead to increased violence, as men may experience psychological stress when faced with the idea of women earning more than them ( 14 , 18 ). Lastly, Alonso-Borrego and Carrasco ( 17 ) and Tur-Prats ( 41 ) conclude that intrafamily violence decreases only when the woman’s partner is also employed, highlighting the significance of economic factors in influencing domestic violence dynamics.

Understanding the interplay between macroeconomic conditions, employment, and economic control within intimate relationships is crucial for developing effective interventions and policies aimed at reducing domestic violence. By addressing the underlying economic inequalities and promoting gender equality in both the labor market and household dynamics, we can work toward creating safer and more equitable environments that contribute to the prevention of domestic violence.

2.3.3. Religion (A3)

Religion and spiritual beliefs have been found to play a significant role in domestic violence dynamics. Certain religious interpretations and teachings can contribute to the acceptance of violence, particularly against women, as a form of submission or obedience. This phenomenon is prevalent in Middle Eastern countries, where religious texts such as the Bible and the Qur’an are often quoted to justify and perpetuate gender-based violence ( 20 ).

For example, in the book of Ephesians 5:22–24, the Bible states that wives should submit themselves to their husbands, equating the husband’s authority to that of the Lord. Similarly, the Qur’an emphasizes the importance of wives being sexually available to their husbands in all aspects of their relationship. These religious teachings can create a belief system where women are expected to endure mistreatment and forgive their abusive partners ( 15 ).

The influence of religious beliefs and practices can complicate a woman’s decision to leave an abusive relationship, particularly when marriage is considered a sacred institution. Feelings of guilt and difficulties in seeking support or ending the relationship can arise due to the belief that marriage is ordained by God ( 15 ).

It is important to note that the response of religious congregations and communities to domestic violence can vary. In some cases, if abuse is ignored or not condemned, it may perpetuate the cycle of violence and hinder efforts to support victims and hold perpetrators accountable. However, in other instances, religious organizations may provide emotional support and assistance through dedicated sessions aimed at helping all affected family members heal and address the violence ( 20 ).

Recognizing the influence of religious beliefs on domestic violence is crucial for developing comprehensive interventions and support systems that address the specific challenges faced by individuals within religious contexts. This includes promoting awareness, education, and dialog within religious communities to foster an understanding that violence is never acceptable and to facilitate a safe environment for victims to seek help and healing.

2.4. Presence of risk factor (B)

2.4.1. depression, anxiety, and stress (b1).

Within households, the occurrence of violence is unfortunately prevalent, often stemming from economic constraints, social and psychological problems, depression, and stress. These factors instill such fear in the victims that they are often hesitant to report the abuse to the authorities ( 42 ).

Notably, when women assume the role of heads of households, they experience significantly higher levels of depression compared to men ( 21 ). This study highlights that the presence of poverty, financial struggles, and the ensuing violence associated with these circumstances significantly elevate the risk of women experiencing severe health disorders, necessitating urgent prioritization of their well-being. Regrettably, in low-income countries where cases of depression are on the rise within public hospitals, the provision of adequate care becomes an insurmountable challenge ( 21 ).

These findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive support systems and targeted interventions that address the multifaceted impact of domestic violence on individuals’ mental and physical health. Furthermore, effective policies should be implemented to alleviate economic hardships and provide accessible mental health services, particularly in low-income settings. By addressing the underlying factors contributing to violence within households and ensuring adequate care for those affected, society can take significant strides toward breaking the cycle of violence and promoting a safer and more supportive environment for individuals and families.

2.4.2. Retention tendency (B2)

Many societies, particularly in Africa, are characterized by a deeply ingrained patriarchal social structure, where men hold the belief that they have the right to exert power and control over their partners ( 31 ). This ideology of patriarchy is often reinforced by women themselves, who may adhere to traditional gender roles and view marital abuse as a norm rather than recognizing it as an act of violence. This acceptance of abuse is influenced by societal expectations and cultural norms that prioritize the preservation of marriage and the submission of women.

Within these contexts, there is often a preference for male children over female children, as males are seen as essential for carrying on the family name and lineage ( 43 ). This preference is also reflected in the distribution of property and decision-making power within households, where males are given greater rights and authority. Such gender-based inequalities perpetuate the cycle of power imbalances and contribute to the normalization of violence against women.

It is important to note that men can also be victims of domestic violence. However, societal and cultural norms have long portrayed men as strong and superior figures, making it challenging for male victims to come forward and report their abusers due to the fear of being stigmatized and rejected by society ( 16 ). The cultural expectations surrounding masculinity create barriers for men seeking help and support, further perpetuating the silence around male victimization.

These cultural dynamics underscore the complexity of domestic violence within patriarchal societies. Challenging and dismantling deeply rooted gender norms and power structures is essential for addressing domestic violence effectively. This includes promoting gender equality, empowering women, and engaging men and boys in efforts to combat violence. It also requires creating safe spaces and support systems that encourage both women and men to break the silence, seek help, and challenge the harmful societal narratives that perpetuate violence and victim-blaming.

2.4.3. Density (B3)

Moreover, the issue of overcrowding within households has emerged as another important factor influencing domestic violence. Overcrowding refers to the stress caused by the presence of a large number of individuals in a confined space, leading to a lack of control over one’s environment ( 44 ). This overcrowding can have a detrimental impact on the psychological well-being of household members, thereby negatively affecting their internal relationships.

The freedom to use spaces within the home and the ability to control interactions with others have been identified as crucial factors that contribute to satisfaction with the home environment and the way individuals relate to each other. In this regard, studies have shown that when households are crowded, and individuals lack personal space and control over their living conditions, the risk of violence may increase ( 45 ).

Furthermore, investigations conducted during periods of extensive confinement, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have shed light on the significance of other environmental factors within homes ( 46 ). For instance, aspects like proper ventilation and adequate living space have been found to influence the overall quality of life and the health of household inhabitants.

These findings emphasize the importance of considering the physical living conditions and environmental factors within households when examining the dynamics of domestic violence. Addressing issues of overcrowding, promoting healthy and safe living environments, and ensuring access to basic amenities and resources are crucial steps in reducing the risk of violence and improving the well-being of individuals and families within their homes.

2.4.4. Reason for confrontation (B4)

Another form of violence that exists within households is abandonment and neglect, which manifests through a lack of protection, insufficient physical care, neglecting emotional needs, and disregarding proper nutrition and medical care ( 47 ). This definition highlights that any member of the family can be subjected to this form of violence, underscoring the significance of recognizing its various manifestations.

In this complex context, negative thoughts and emotions can arise, leading to detrimental consequences. For instance, suspicions of infidelity and feelings of jealousy can contribute to a decrease in the partner’s self-esteem, ultimately triggering intimate partner violence that inflicts physical, social, and health damages ( 32 , 48 ).

Furthermore, it is important to acknowledge the intimate connection between domestic violence and civil issues. Marital conflicts, particularly when accompanied by violence, whether physical or psychological, can lead to a profound crisis within the relationship, often resulting in divorce. Unfortunately, the process of obtaining a divorce or establishing parental arrangements can be protracted, creating additional friction and potentially exacerbating gender-based violence ( 49 ).

These dynamics underscore the complex interplay between domestic violence and broader social, emotional, and legal contexts. Understanding these interconnected factors is crucial for developing effective interventions and support systems that address the multifaceted nature of domestic violence, promote healthy relationships, and safeguard the well-being of individuals and families within the home.

Finally, despite the multitude of factors identified in the existing literature that may have an impact on gender-based violence, we have selected a subset of variables for our study based on data availability. Specifically, our analysis will concentrate on the following factors reviewed: (A3) religion, (B1) depression, health consciousness, and mood, (B2) retention tendency as reflected by household chores, and (B3) density.

The rationale behind our choice of these variables stems from their perceived significance and potential relevance to the study of domestic violence. Religion has been widely acknowledged as a social and cultural determinant that shapes beliefs, values, and gender roles within a society, which may have implications for power dynamics and relationship dynamics within households. Depression, as a psychological construct, has been frequently associated with increased vulnerability and impaired coping mechanisms, potentially contributing to the occurrence or perpetuation of domestic violence. Health consciousness and mood are additional constructs that have garnered attention in the context of interpersonal relationships. Health consciousness relates to individuals’ awareness and concern for their own well-being and that of others, which may influence their attitudes and behaviors within the household. Mood, on the other hand, reflects emotional states that can influence communication, conflict resolution, and overall dynamics within intimate relationships.

Furthermore, we have included the variable of retention tendency, as manifested through household chores. This variable is indicative of individuals’ willingness or inclination to maintain their involvement and responsibilities within the household. It is hypothesized that individuals with higher retention tendencies may exhibit a greater commitment to the relationship, which could influence the occurrence and dynamics of domestic violence. Lastly, we consider the variable of density, which captures the population density within the living environment. This variable may serve as a proxy for socio-environmental conditions, such as overcrowding or limited personal space, which can potentially contribute to stress, conflict, and interpersonal tensions within households.

By examining these selected factors, we aim to gain insights into their relationships with domestic violence and contribute to a better understanding of the complex dynamics underlying such occurrences. It is important to note that these variables represent only a subset of the broader range of factors that influence gender-based violence, and further research is warranted to explore additional dimensions and interactions within this multifaceted issue.

3. Data collection and variables

The reference population for this study is Ecuadorian habitants. Participants were invited to fill up a survey concerning COVID-19 impact on their mental health. Data collection took place between April and May 2020, exactly at the time of the mandatory lockdowns taking place. In this context governmental authorities ordered mobility restrictions as well as social distancing measures. We conduct three waves of social media invitations to participate in the study. Invitations were sent using the institutional accounts of the universities the authors of this study are affiliated. At the end, we received 2,403 answers, 50.5% females and 49.5% males. 49% of them have college degrees.

3.1. Ecuador stylized facts

Ecuador, a small developing country in South America, has a population of approximately 17 million inhabitants, with a population density of 61.85 people per square kilometer.

During the months under investigation, the Central Bank of Ecuador reported that the country’s GDP in the fourth quarter of 2020 amounted to $16,500 million. This represented a decrease of 7.2% compared to the same period in 2019, and a 5.6% decline in the first quarter of 2021 compared to the same quarter of the previous year. However, despite these declines, there was a slight growth of 0.6% in the GDP during the fourth quarter of 2020 and 0.7% in the first quarter of 2021 when compared to the previous quarter.

In mid-March, the Ecuadorian government implemented a mandatory lockdown that lasted for several weeks. By July 30, 2020, Ecuador had reported over 80,000 confirmed cases of COVID-19. The statistics on the impact of the pandemic revealed a death rate of 23.9 per 100,000 inhabitants, ranking Ecuador fourth globally behind the UK, Italy, and the USA, with rates of 63.7, 57.1, and 36.2, respectively. Additionally, Ecuador’s observed case-fatality ratio stood at 8.3%, placing it fourth globally after Italy, the UK, and Mexico, with rates of 14.5, 14, and 11.9%, respectively ( 50 ). As the lockdown measures continued, mental health issues began to emerge among the population ( 51 ).

The challenging socioeconomic conditions and the impact of the pandemic on public health have had significant repercussions in Ecuador, highlighting the need for comprehensive strategies to address both the immediate and long-term consequences on the well-being of its population.

3.2. Dependent variable

The dependent variable in this study is Domestic Violence, which is measured using a composite score derived from five items. These items were rated on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (very frequent), to assess the frequency of intrafamily conflict and violence occurring within the respondents’ homes. The five items included the following statements: “In my house, subjects are discussed with relative calm”; “In my house, heated discussions are common but without shouting at each other”; “Anger is common in my house, and I refuse to talk to others”; “In my house, there is the threat that someone will hit or throw something”; and “In my house, family members get easily irritated.”

To evaluate the internal consistency of the measurement, Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated and found to be 0.7. This indicates good internal consistency, suggesting that the items in the scale are measuring a similar construct and can be considered reliable for assessing the level of domestic violence within the households under investigation.

3.3. Independent variables

3.3.1. mood.

The mood construct, based on Peterson and Sauber ( 52 ), is measured using three Likert scale questions. The respondents rate their agreement on a scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The questions included: “I am in a good mood,” “I feel happy,” and “At this moment, I feel nervous or irritable.” The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for this construct is 0.7757, indicating good internal consistency.

3.3.2. Depression

The depression construct, based on the manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales by Lovibond S and Lovibond P, is measured by summing the results of 13 Likert scale questions. The scale ranges from strongly disagreeing to strongly agreeing. The questions include: “I feel that life is meaningless,” “I do not feel enthusiastic about anything,” “I feel downhearted and sad,” and others. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for this construct is 0.9031, indicating high internal consistency.

3.3.3. Health consciousness

The health consciousness construct, based on Gould ( 53 ), is measured using four Likert scale questions. The respondents rate their agreement on a scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The questions include: “I’m alert to changes in my health,” “I am concerned about the health of others,” “Throughout the day, I am aware of what foods are best for my health,” and “I notice how I lose energy as the day goes by.” The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for this construct is 0.7, indicating acceptable internal consistency.

3.3.4. Household chores

The respondents were asked to rate their involvement in various household chores on a scale from “not at all” to “a lot.” The listed household chores include cooking, washing dishes, cleaning restrooms, doing laundry, home maintenance, and helping with children/siblings. It can serve as a proxy for Retention Tendency.

3.3.5. Density

It is measured as the number of people per bedroom, indicating the level of overcrowding within households.

3.3.6. Religion

The religion construct is measured as the sum of four Likert scale items based on Worthington et al. ( 54 ). The respondents rate their agreement on a scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The items include: “My religious beliefs lie behind my whole approach to life,” “It is important to me to spend periods in private religious thought and reflection,” “Religion is very important to me because it answers many questions about the meaning of life,” and “I am informed about my local religious group and have some influence in its decisions.” The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for this construct is 0.8703, indicating good internal consistency.

3.4. Control variables

3.4.1. social media.

The respondents were asked to indicate the number of hours they spend on social networks during a typical day. The scale ranges from “I do not review information on social networks” to “More than three hours.”

Sex is measured as a binary variable, where 1 represents female and 0 represents male.

Age refers to the age of the respondent.

3.4.4. Age of householder

Age of householder refers to the age of the individual who is the primary occupant or head of the household.

3.5. Describe statistics

Table 2 reports the means, standard deviation, and correlation matrix. Our dataset has not the presence of missing values.

Summary statistics.

* p < 0.01.

Descriptive statistics reveal that the variables in the sample exhibit a considerable degree of homogeneity, as evidenced by the means being larger than the standard deviations. Moreover, the strong correlation between Depression and mood suggests that these two variables should not be included together in the same model.

4. Methodological approach

Our empirical identification strategy comprises the following linear model:

We employed ordinary least squares (OLS) regression techniques to examine the relationship between our selected exogenous variables and household violence during the period of mandatory lockdowns. To ensure the robustness of our regression model, we conducted several diagnostic tests. Firstly, we tested for heteroscedasticity using the Breusch-Pagan test, yielding a chi-square value of 223.58 with a value of p of 0, indicating the presence of heteroscedasticity in the model. Secondly, we assessed multicollinearity using the variance inflation factor (VIF), which yielded a VIF value of 1.07, indicating no significant multicollinearity issues among the variables. Furthermore, we conducted the Ramsey Reset test to examine the presence of omitted variables in the model. The test yielded an F-statistic of 2.06 with a value of p of 0.103, suggesting no strong evidence of omitted variables. Lastly, we checked the normality of the residuals using the skewness and kurtosis tests, which yielded a chi-square value of 97.9 with a value of p of 0, indicating departure from normality in the residuals.

Hence, our analysis revealed the presence of heteroscedasticity issues and non-normality in the residuals. Consequently, it is imperative to employ an alternative estimation technique that can handle these challenges robustly. In light of these circumstances, we opted for Quantile Regression, as proposed by Koenker and Bassett ( 55 ), which allows for a comprehensive characterization of the relationship between the input variable(s) x and the dependent variable y.

4.1. Quantile regression

While an OLS predicts the average relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable, which can cause the estimate to be unrepresentative of the entire distribution of the dependent variable if it is not identically distributed, Quantile Regression allows estimating parts of the dependent variable. Distribution of the dependent variable and thus determine the variations of the effect produced by the exogenous variables on the endogenous variable in different quantiles ( 56 ). The Quantile Regression methodology also presents the benefit that, by providing them with a weight, the errors are minimal. Quantile Regression is defined as follows:

where: Y i is dependent variable, X i is vector of independent variables, β(ϑ): is vector of parameters to be estimated for a given quantile ϑ, e ϑ i : is random disturbance corresponding to the quantile ϑ, Q ϑ ( Y i ) is qth quantile of the conditional distribution of Y i given the known vector of regressors X i .

The Quantile Regression model provides predictions of a specific quantile of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable and is considered the generalization of the sample quantile of an independent and identically distributed random variable ( 57 ). By considering a range of quantiles, Quantile Regression offers a more nuanced understanding of the conditional distribution, making it a valuable technique for analyzing various aspects of the relationship between variables.

The estimation results are reported in Table 3 . The regressions 1 and 3 consider individuals who are not household heads, while regressions 2 and 4 involve the respondent being the household head. In regressions 5 and 6, the respondent is not the household head and is also female, whereas in regressions 7 and 8, the respondents are household heads and male. The regressions exhibit a coefficient of determination ranging between 9 and 11.

Standard errors in brackets. * p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.

The effects of the different variables studied on violence are presented below: Across all regressions, it can be observed that the mood of a person, which indicates whether they are in a good mood or feeling cheerful, nervous, or irritated, is statistically significant at all levels of confidence. This implies that violence decreases when the mood is good. On the other hand, depression has a positive and significant sign. This tells us that, on average, an increase of one unit in the depression, anxiety, and stress scale is associated with an increase in the measurement of conflict and intrafamily violence in a household, whether the respondent is a household head or not.

On the other hand, Health Consciousness has a negative and significant sign, indicating that violence decreases as Health Consciousness increases. However, it is noteworthy that it loses significance when the survey respondent is a woman, regardless of whether she is a household head or not.

Regarding Household chores, which refers to the time spent on household tasks, it can be observed that it is only significant and negative when the respondent is not a household head, and this significance holds even when the respondent is male. In other words, less time spent on household chores decreases violence in households where the respondent is not a household head.

The variable religion generally has a positive and significant sign in most regressions, but loses significance in regressions (1) and (5), where the respondent is not the household head and is female, respectively. This suggests that being religious would increase the levels of violence.

In general, density increases violence in the surveyed households, as indicated by a positive and significant sign. However, it is interesting to note that it is only significant again when the respondent is not a household head and is female, or when the respondent is a household head and is male.

As for the control variables, the variable Social media, which indicates the number of hours a person spends on social media, is positive and significant whether the respondent is a household head or not, and even when the respondent is male. This suggests that violence decreases with access to social media, possibly due to increased access to information. Finally, the variables sex, age of the respondent, and age of the household head were not significant.

6. Discussion

Interestingly, the prevalence and intensity of domestic violence appear to vary across different segments of society. Goodman ( 33 ) have highlighted the existence of variations in episodes of domestic violence among social strata. They have also identified several factors that act as deterrents to domestic violence, including income levels, educational attainment, employment status of the household head, household density, consumption of psychotropic substances, anxiety, and stress. These factors increase the likelihood of experiencing instances of violence within the home.

Within this context, the COVID-19 pandemic has had far-reaching implications for individuals and families worldwide, with significant impacts on various aspects of daily life, including domestic dynamics. This study explores the relationship between household factors and violence within the context of the pandemic, shedding light on the unique challenges and dynamics that have emerged during this period.

Our findings highlight the importance of considering mental well-being in the context of domestic violence during the pandemic. We observe that positive mood is associated with a decrease in violence levels within households. This suggests that maintaining good mental health and emotional well-being during times of crisis can serve as a protective factor against violence. With the increased stress and anxiety caused by the pandemic, policymakers and practitioners should prioritize mental health support and interventions to address potential escalations in violence within households.

Furthermore, our results indicate that depression exhibits a positive association with violence. As individuals grapple with the impacts of the pandemic, such as job loss, financial strain, and social isolation, the prevalence of depression may increase. This finding underscores the urgent need for accessible mental health resources and support networks to address the heightened risk of violence stemming from increased levels of depression.

The study also reveals that health consciousness plays a crucial role in reducing violence within households. As individuals become more aware of the importance of maintaining their health amidst the pandemic, violence levels decrease. This suggests that promoting health awareness and encouraging healthy lifestyle choices can serve as protective factors against domestic violence. Public health initiatives and educational campaigns aimed at fostering health-conscious behaviors should be emphasized as part of comprehensive violence prevention strategies.

Interestingly, our analysis uncovers a mitigating effect of social media usage on violence levels during the pandemic. With the increased reliance on digital platforms for communication and information sharing, access to social media may provide individuals with alternative channels for expression and support, ultimately reducing the likelihood of violence. Recognizing the potential benefits of social media, policymakers and practitioners should explore ways to leverage these platforms to disseminate violence prevention resources, provide support, and promote positive social connections within households.

Additionally, our findings highlight the role of household chores and density in shaping violence levels during the pandemic. Less time spent on household chores is associated with decreased violence, indicating that redistributing domestic responsibilities may alleviate tension and conflict within households. The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted routines and added new challenges to household dynamics, making it essential to consider strategies that promote equitable distribution of chores and support mechanisms for individuals and families.

Moreover, the positive association between household density and violence emphasizes the impact of living conditions during the pandemic. With prolonged periods of confinement and restricted mobility, crowded living spaces may intensify conflicts and escalate violence. Policymakers should prioritize initiatives that address housing conditions, promote safe and adequate living environments, and provide resources to mitigate the negative effects of overcrowding.

In this line, our study delves into the intricate relationship between household factors and violence during the COVID-19 pandemic, primarily within our specific context. However, it is valuable to consider how our findings align or diverge when juxtaposed with research from developed countries, where economic, social, and healthcare systems are typically more advanced. In developed countries, the impact of crises, such as the pandemic, could manifest differently due to varying levels of financial stability, access to support networks, and well-established healthcare systems.

For instance, while we observe that maintaining mental well-being serves as a protective factor against violence, developed countries might have better access to mental health resources and support networks, potentially magnifying the impact of positive mental health on violence prevention ( 58 ). Similarly, the positive association between health consciousness and reduced violence levels could be influenced by different perceptions of health and well-being in developed countries, where health awareness campaigns are more prevalent ( 51 ).

The mitigating effect of social media on violence levels during the pandemic might also vary across contexts. Developed countries might have more widespread and equitable access to digital platforms, leading to a stronger impact on violence reduction through alternative channels for communication and support ( 59 ). Conversely, regions with limited digital infrastructure could experience a smaller effect.

Additionally, comparing the role of religious affiliation and its influence on violence with findings from developed countries could reveal cultural variations in the interplay between religious teachings, gender dynamics, and violence ( 60 ). While our study suggests the need for interventions promoting peaceful religious interpretations, it is crucial to examine whether similar efforts have been successful in developed nations with distinct cultural norms and religious landscapes.

In this context, this study makes a significant contribution to the field of gender-based violence research by intricately examining the intersection of diverse socio-economic and psychological factors within the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic. The uniqueness of this article lies in its holistic approach to comprehend domestic violence dynamics amidst a global crisis. By dissecting and analyzing how mental health, health awareness, social media utilization, household chore distribution, living space density, and religious affiliation interact to influence violence levels, this study provides a deeper and nuanced insight into the factors contributing to the manifestation and prevention of gender-based violence. Moreover, by pinpointing areas where traditional gender norms and religious beliefs might exacerbate violence, the article suggests novel avenues for research and intervention development that account for cultural and contextual complexities. Ultimately, this work not only advances the understanding of gender-based violence during a critical period but also offers practical and theoretical recommendations to inform policies and preventive actions both throughout the pandemic and in potential future crises.

In considering the limitations of our study, we acknowledge that while our findings provide crucial insights into the role of religious affiliation in shaping violence levels during the pandemic, there are certain aspects that warrant further investigation. Firstly, our analysis primarily focuses on the association between religious beliefs and violence without delving deeply into the underlying mechanisms that drive this relationship. Future research could employ qualitative methodologies to explore how specific religious doctrines and practices interact with broader cultural norms to influence gender dynamics and contribute to violence within households. Additionally, our study does not extensively address variations in religious interpretations across different communities, which could lead to distinct outcomes in terms of violence prevention efforts. To address these limitations, scholars could conduct comparative studies across religious affiliations and denominations to uncover nuanced insights into the interplay between religious teachings, cultural contexts, and violence dynamics.

Furthermore, while our study suggests that policymakers and practitioners should consider developing targeted interventions promoting peaceful religious interpretations to mitigate violence, the precise design and effectiveness of such interventions remain areas ripe for exploration. Future research could involve collaboration with religious leaders and communities to develop and test intervention strategies that align with both religious teachings and contemporary gender equality principles. This interdisciplinary approach could yield actionable insights into fostering cultural change and enhancing the role of religion in promoting non-violence within households.

In conclusion, our study provides valuable insights into the dynamics of domestic violence within households during the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings underscore the importance of addressing mental health, promoting health consciousness, leveraging social media, redistributing household chores, improving housing conditions, and considering the nuanced role of religious beliefs. By incorporating these findings into policy and intervention strategies, policymakers and practitioners can work toward preventing and mitigating domestic violence in the context of the ongoing pandemic.

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

CL played a crucial role in this research project, being responsible for the data collection, conducting the econometric analysis, contributing to the literature review, introduction, and discussion sections of the manuscript. JD-S made significant contributions to the project and assisted in the data collection process, contributed to the literature review, and provided insights in the discussion section. FV assisted with the data collection process and reviewed the article for accuracy and clarity. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This project receives funding from Vicerrectorado de Investigación y Proyección Social, Escuela Politécnica Nacional.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the Escuela Politécnica Nacional for this support on this project.

Center for Gun Violence Solutions

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Supreme Court Upholds Domestic Violence Gun Ban: Implications for the Second Amendment and Survivors of Domestic Violence

In United States v. Rahimi , the U.S. Supreme Court in an 8-1 decision upheld a federal statute prohibiting individuals subject to domestic violence protective orders (DVPOs) from possessing firearms. The case had significant implications for gun safety regulations and the protection of domestic violence survivors who we know are at greater risk of injury and death from armed abusers.   

“This decision is a crucial first step in continuing to safeguard the lives of domestic violence survivors and public health at-large. It reaffirms policymakers’ ability to impose necessary restrictions on gun possession for those who pose a danger,” says Kelly Roskam, JD, Law and Policy Director of the Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Violence Solutions.   

While many domestic violence survivors, victims, and advocates are relieved with the Supreme Court’s ruling, the Court’s continued reliance on a murky, history-focused test leaves the door open for future challenges to firearm safety policies.

Case Background  

The case centered around Zackey Rahimi, who was indicted for possessing a firearm while under a DVPO. In 2019, Rahimi assaulted his girlfriend and the mother of his child—identified as C.M. in court documents— in a parking lot in Arlington, Texas. He also threatened to shoot her if she told anyone what had happened. C.M. sought a DVPO, recounting the assault in the parking lot as well as other assaults and threats. The court, with the consent of Rahimi and C.M., entered a DVPO against Rahimi finding that he was a credible threat to the physical safety of C.M. and their child. Rahimi was found in possession of firearms, which is in violation of federal law and indicted. Rahimi challenged the indictment, arguing that the prohibition violated his Second Amendment rights. The district court denied his motion, but following the Supreme Court’s decision in New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen , the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the district court’s ruling. In Bruen , the Supreme Court articulated a new test for evaluating Second Amendment cases which requires the government to show that the modern law is sufficiently analogous to historical firearms laws. The Fifth Circuit, through a stringent application of Bruen , held that the federal law under which Rahimi had been indicted violated the Second Amendment because the court could discern no analogous historical tradition to support its constitutionality.   

The Decision  

Chief Justice Roberts, delivering the majority opinion of the Court, stated that temporary disarmament when an individual has been found by a court to pose a credible threat to the physical safety of another is consistent with the Second Amendment. The Court ruled that the federal law prohibiting possession of firearms by persons subject to DVPOs fits within the historical tradition of firearm regulation, aligning with principles dating back to the founding era. This is the first time the court has applied the historical test created in their 2022 Bruen decision.   

“Though the Court’s ruling makes clear that Bruen’s history-driven test is still the controlling framework for assessing Second Amendment cases going forward, the Court’s application of Bruen in this case does provide some flexibility to the historical approach and cautions against courts applying Bruen too narrowly in Second Amendment challenges to other gun safety laws,” says Kari Still, JD, Law and Policy Advisor at the Center.   

The Court's decision reemphasized that the Second Amendment is not unlimited and identified a historical principle that individuals posing a threat can be disarmed consistent with the Second Amendment. The ruling also clarified that modern regulations need not be identical to historical laws but should be relevantly similar in purpose and application.  

Meanwhile, Justice Clarence Thomas, who authored the court’s Bruen opinion, rejected the majority’s assertion that the country has a historical tradition of disarming dangerous individuals. He searched for a historical twin and claimed “not a single historical regulation justifies the statute at issue.” His lone dissent highlighted the divergence over the application of Bruen ’s history-focused test that he helped create.  

“The majority decision in Rahimi marks the beginning, not the end, of managing the damage to Constitutional law and public safety wrought by Bruen . The court was careful to keep its decision narrow, leaving many contentious questions open for lower courts to face with minimal guidance,” says Tim Carey, JD, Law & Policy Advisor at the Center.  

In the wake of the Rahimi decision, the Justice Department has already requested additional clarity from the Court in five other pending Second Amendment cases.   

Implications for Survivors of Domestic Violence  

The decision has significant implications for survivors of domestic violence. By upholding federal law, the Court has reinforced the legal framework that protects survivors from armed abusers. This ruling ensures that individuals deemed a credible threat by the courts cannot possess firearms, potentially preventing further violence.  

The research is clear that these policies work to protect public health. One study found that DVPO firearm prohibitions are associated with significant reductions in intimate partner violence. These orders also impact the safety of the general public. Researchers found 68% of mass shooters from 2014-2019 either killed family or intimate partners or had a history of domestic violence.    

“Every survivor of partner violence in the U.S. has been anxiously awaiting this decision,” says Lisette Johnson, a survivor of domestic violence from Virginia. “This is a step in the right direction to make sure other women and their children don't have to go through the lifelong trauma my children and I have after my husband shot me and took his life just feet away from them.”   

Evidence shows that a domestic abuser’s access to firearms is one of the most significant risk factors for domestic violence turning deadly. An abused woman is five times more likely to be killed by a male partner when there is a firearm in the house.    

“By affirming the disarmament of individuals who pose a threat of violence, this protects public health, reducing the risk of firearm-related injuries and deaths among our most vulnerable populations,” says Alex McCourt, JD, PhD ’19, MPH, core faculty of the Center. “While we’re pleased with the court’s decision, more must be done to disarm domestic abusers and protect victims.”  

Conclusion  

The Supreme Court’s decision in United States v. Rahimi is a significant affirmation of the constitutionality of disarming individuals who pose a threat to others, particularly in the context of domestic violence. By instructing courts to rely on the principles underpinning historical firearms laws, rather than demanding the government identify historical “twins,” the Court has started to clarify how history justifies policies today that address the uniquely modern crisis of gun violence.   

For more in-depth discussion of United States v. Rahimi and its implications for the future of gun violence prevention laws, tune in to the forthcoming episode of Sufficiently Analogous .   

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Tennessee enacts law requiring GPS tracking of violent domestic abusers, the first of its kind in U.S.

By Meg Oliver

July 1, 2024 / 9:03 PM EDT / CBS News

A new law took effect Monday in Tennessee that requires GPS monitoring of the most violent domestic offenders. Born from an unspeakable tragedy, the law is the first of its kind in the U.S.

On April 12, 2021, Debbie Sisco and her daughter, Marie Varsos, were shot and killed outside Nashville by Marie's estranged husband, Shaun Varsos, who later took his own life.

Varsos broke into his mother-in-law's house, where Marie was staying, with guns, zip ties, and battery acid ready to hunt them down.

He had been out on bail after strangling his wife and threatening her with a gun a month earlier.

Alex Youn, Marie's brother and Debbie's son, was devastated.

"Two people that I love dearly were just quickly ripped out of my life," Youn said.

Varsos was considered enough of a threat that the judge could have required a GPS tracking device as a condition of his bail, but he didn't. Youn believes his mother and sister may still be alive if the judge had required it.

"That's a question for the judge. It's one that infuriates me," Youn said.

Judges can require GPS monitoring as a condition of bail, but often don't.

Youn turned his pain and anger into a successful push for mandated GPS tracking of aggravated assault offenders in domestic violence cases. Tennessee's new law is called the Debbie and Marie Domestic Violence Protection Act.

One in four women and one in seven men are victims of domestic violence, according to the CDC.

"When there's firearms at play, when there's strangulation, when there's elevated stalking, [offenders] are more likely to do it again," said Jennifer Waindle, a deputy director of non-profit Battered Women's Justice Project.

That's how GPS tracking could potentially be the difference between life and death. With the technology, victims are notified through a phone app or electronic device when an offender violates an order of protection, such as moving within a certain radius of the victim or breaching an exclusion zone, like their house. When that happens, the victim can receive multiple alerts like texts and emails, while a monitoring center calls law enforcement.

Ray Gandolf, director of business development for Tennessee AMS, is helping to lead the charge on using GPS technology as a safety tool.

"Every second matters," Gandolf said.

Gandolf said the alerts can allow victims to look for help or find cover. "They can position themselves in a safe place, lock themselves in a place where they have the opportunity to call 911 and to get help dispatched to them immediately," Gandolf said.

In Tennessee, Youn has made sure the names of Debbie Sisco and Marie Varsos will live on.

"I'm hopeful that other states will potentially sort of look at what Tennessee is sort of doing and take this and implement it in other states as well," Youn said.

If you or someone you know is experiencing domestic violence, contact the National Domestic Violence Hotline by calling 1-800-799-SAFE (7233), visiting www.thehotline.org or texting "START" to 88788.

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Meg Oliver is a correspondent for CBS News based in New York City. Oliver is a veteran journalist with more than two decades of reporting and anchoring experience.

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Five years is up: What goals the Collaborative Commission on Domestic Violence has accomplished so far

Co-chairs talk about progress, addressed new needs for next five years.

Courtney Friedman , Anchor/Reporter

Adam Barraza , Photojournalist

Alex Gamez , Photojournalist

SAN ANTONIO – Bexar County’s domestic violence crisis is no secret; KSAT reports extensively on the issue and has tracked a court-ordered commission since it began in 2019.

The Collaborative Commission on Domestic Violence (CCDV) was created to assess our abuse problem and find ways to fill the many gaps in prevention and service.

It joined leaders from every community sector, from law enforcement and judicial to health and education.

This month, they released a required self-assessment at the culmination of their original five-year plan.

“Improving the protective order process for all of those involved, improving the justice system process, expanding legal capacity for families, dealing with domestic violence on the civil side,” said 150th Civil District Court Judge Monique Diaz.

Judge Diaz mainly handles domestic violence civil cases, and in 2019, became the co-chair and one of the creators of the CCDV.

Protective orders

The protective order process has come under fire for years, so survivors are celebrating these changes.

“We have shortened the time period to serve respondents with protective orders, increasing safety for those families. We have expanded the legal capacity for folks to apply for protective orders,” Diaz said.

The biggest change noticeable to survivors is the availability to now apply for protective orders online.

“After COVID, with the help of the Bexar County Family Justice Center , we created a process that was not available before,” Diaz said.

It also ensures people know that getting a protective order will now connect them with services.

“Ensure that when you’re getting a protective order, you’re also getting services for the whole family: counseling for the person that’s used harm, for the children and for the applicant, things like that to ensure that the family is safe from moving forward,” Diaz said.

Law enforcement

The community’s other huge concern has been interaction with law enforcement.

“That interaction is critical, as they are the first individuals to be able to attest to what’s happening with that family,” said CCDV Co-Chair and Deputy City Manager Maria Villagomez.

The San Antonio police department transitioned to a victim-centered model in 2020. This model seeks to minimize re-traumatization associated with the criminal justice process by providing support through crisis advocates and service providers, empowering survivors as engaged participants in the process, and supporting victims and their families for as long as needed.

While funding has always been an issue, the city council freed up funds a few years ago to add 20 new detectives to the police department so that it could provide services to the victims overnight and also during the weekend.

If this issue is to be addressed 24/7, more experts are needed, and they need to have a deep understanding of trauma-informed care.

“We actually transitioned the crisis response advocates that we had in the police department and moved them to Metro Health, and almost triple(d) the number of advocates that we have today,” Villagomez said.

That system, combining more detectives and advocates, has created a situation in which they’re less overwhelmed and can stick with cases longer.

“The difference is now that we stay with the victim for as long as they want us to stay with them, rather than not just when we’re investigating the case,” Villagomez said.

The commission has also coordinated training for SAPD and BCSO focusing on what’s called a lethality assessment, how likely it is that a victim at a scene is at risk of dying from abuse.

“At SAPD a new danger assessment that we implemented last year. We actually have three of our seven substations that are using it (with) three more to go,” Villagomez said.

At the Bexar County Sheriff’s Office, KSAT has extensively reported on a new assessment partnership with STRAC that started in 2021.

The Domestic Violence Navigation Line is the first of its kind, connecting the Bexar County Sheriff’s Office to a 24/7 call center to assess a survivor’s level of risk for serious harm or death and connect them with available resources.

“To be able to determine if somebody needs to be removed from a situation that could endanger their lives,” Villagomez said.

Removing guns from perpetrators

Another crucial goal was not only to address the connection between guns and domestic violence but to take action.

The commission reports that the presence of a firearm in a household increases the chance of domestic violence homicide by 500%.

“We’ve seen here in Texas alone, in 2022, 70 percent of women who were murdered by domestic violence were murdered by a firearm. And over the last ten years in Texas, the rate of domestic violence homicide by firearm has doubled,” Diaz said.

The commission has attempted to strengthen compliance with court orders, requiring a convicted domestic violence offender to turn in their guns. There were two probation positions added that focus solely on following up with those perpetrators who have been ordered to turn in their guns.

Community education

A big focus was set on prevention, meaning educating the community about what domestic violence entails, what resources they have, and how to have healthy relationships.

The commission developed the Annual Domestic Violence Awareness Symposium to facilitate education on current practices to prevent, intervene, and provide support for people who have experienced domestic violence, whether as a survivor or a person who has caused harm.

KSAT has facilitated several town halls during those symposiums addressing the specific topics being highlighted each year.

They also developed a communications campaign by partnering with city, business, and community stakeholders to make public service announcements that aired on local TV stations.

From 2020 to 2022, they distributed more than 10,000 decals to restaurants, businesses, government agencies, and community organizations, which help people quickly identify local domestic violence intervention and support services.

Future goals

The co-chairs are proud of all these accomplishments but are transparent about the fact that there is still a lot of work to do.

They’re hearing that from survivors, which is why the strategic plan for the next five-year plan is heavily focused on their input.

“In the next 12 months, to be able to do a survey and ask them, ‘How are we doing?” Villagomez said.

They also plan to expand that community education to other platforms.

“That involves social media. We want to meet people where they are,” Diaz said.

The other pillar focuses on educating families early in life on what a healthy relationship is. These lessons can not only prevent violence in general, but they can break long-term cycles of violence.

Anyone who wants to learn more or get involved in the CCDV, head to their website .

You can read the CCDV’s full progress report and strategic plan below:

SA Metro Health CCDV Progress Report & Strategic Plan by Mason on Scribd

If you or someone you know is dealing with domestic violence, there is so much help for you. KSAT has a long list of resources on its Domestic Violence webpage , which also explains how to identify the different types of abuse.

If it’s an emergency, text or call 911. For wrap around services including the Battered Women and Children’s Shelter, call Family Violence Prevention Services at (210) 703-8810. You can also contact the Bexar County Family Justice Center that also provides wrap around services at (210) 631-0100.

Copyright 2024 by KSAT - All rights reserved.

About the Authors

Courtney friedman.

Courtney Friedman anchors KSAT’s weekend evening shows and reports during the week. Her ongoing Loving in Fear series confronts Bexar County’s domestic violence epidemic. She joined KSAT in 2014 and is proud to call the SA and South Texas community home. She came to San Antonio from KYTX CBS 19 in Tyler, where she also anchored & reported.

Adam Barraza

Adam Barraza is a photojournalist at KSAT 12 and an El Paso native. He interned at KVIA, the local ABC affiliate, while still in high school. He then moved to San Antonio and, after earning a degree from San Antonio College and the University of the Incarnate Word, started working in news. He’s also a diehard Dodgers fan and an avid sneakerhead.

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Better protection for victim survivors of domestic and family violence from today

Published: 1 July 2024

Released by: Attorney General, Minister for Police and Counter-terrorism, Minister for the Prevention of Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault

From today, victim-survivors of domestic, family and sexual violence have stronger protections in New South Wales, with the criminalisation of coercive control and stronger bail laws coming into effect.

The New South Wales Government is working to provide enhanced, ongoing, wraparound support for victim-survivors of domestic, family, and sexual violence, and strengthened laws are an important foundation for this work.

As of today, New South Wales is the first Australian jurisdiction to have a standalone dedicated offence of coercive control.

Significant bail reforms, introduced to Parliament by the Minns Labor Government in May, will also come into effect from today, making it more difficult for those accused of serious domestic violence offences to get bail.

Criminalisation of Coercive Control

Following the passing of the Crimes Legislation Amendment (Coercive Control) Act 2022, if found guilty, perpetrators can face up to seven years in prison.

Coercive control is an insidious form of abuse which can manifest in different ways. It is a pattern of behaviour that may include financial and emotional abuse, violence and intimidation, threats against pets or loved ones, tracking someone’s movements, or isolating them from family and friends.

Coercive control has been strongly linked to intimate partner homicide. The NSW Domestic Violence Death Review Team has found that 97% of intimate partner domestic violence homicides in NSW between 2000 and 2018 were preceded by the perpetrator using emotional and psychological abuse as a form of coercive control towards the victim.

Training has been provided to ensure this law is appropriately implemented and prosecuted, and accompanied by support for victim-survivors:

• NSW Police have undergone, and are continuing, training to recognise and respond to the complex and nuanced signs of coercive control.
• The Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions, the Judicial Commission of NSW and Legal Aid have delivered training on coercive control to judicial officers, legal staff and key justice agencies.
• A free training program is being delivered to approximately 1,000 specialist domestic and family violence workers which will cover behavioural indicators, practical interventions, and how coercive control may be experienced in different communities.

Training and implementation have been overseen by the Implementation and Evaluation Taskforce and its reference groups.

Stronger bail laws to protect victim survivors

Under the new laws, people charged with serious domestic violence offences will be required to show cause why they should not be detained until their case is determined.

This will apply to those charged with offences, in the context of intimate partner relationships, that carry a maximum penalty of 14 or more years jail.

These offences include sexual assault, kidnapping, and choking to render someone unconscious with intent to commit another indictable offence.

The show cause test will also apply to the coercive control offence.

The unacceptable risk test in the Bail Act is also strengthened from today. Under these changes, before granting bail, bail decision makers must consider:

• ‘Red flag’ behaviour that could constitute domestic abuse, such as behaviour that is physically abusive or violent; behaviour that is sexually abusive, coercive or violent; behaviour that is stalking; behaviour that causes death or injury to an animal; behaviour that is verbally abusive; or behaviour that is intimidation.
• The views of victims and their family members about safety concerns in domestic violence matters involving intimate partners.

The commencement of this legislation also means that from today:

• The categories of offences for which bail decisions can be ‘stayed’ are expanded to include serious domestic violence offences, the coercive control offence, and serious sexual assault offences. This means that the accused person remains in custody while prosecutors bring a detention application before the Supreme Court.
• It is easier to prosecute perpetrators who use tracking devices in a domestic violence context.

Attorney General Michael Daley said:

“From today, coercive control in current and former intimate partner relationships will be a crime punishable by up to seven years’ imprisonment.

“Abuse against a current or former intimate partner is unacceptable and will not be tolerated.

"In terms of the bail laws, we believe in the presumption of innocence, but it is also important to recognise the right of victim survivors to be safe from harassment, intimidation or violence at the hands of a current or former intimate partner.

“The safety of victim-survivors must be a paramount consideration.”

Minister for Police and Counter-terrorism Yasmin Catley said:

“The criminalisation of coercive control in NSW is a significant day for victim/survivors. Not only does it add further legal weight to their experiences but gives the NSW Police Force another mechanism to address domestic and violence.

“NSW is leading the country with these laws. Criminalising coercive control sends a strong message: this vile, criminal behaviour is not tolerated.

“The mandatory training is thorough, it shows how seriously the NSW Police Force are taking this, and it ensures all operational police can identify and take action against coercive control offences in NSW. The feedback I’m getting from the police on the ground is that the training is valuable, comprehensive and officers feel well supported.”

Minister for the Prevention of Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault Jodie Harrison said:

“The NSW Government is committed to keeping women and girls safe and reducing the incidents of domestic and family violence.

“Today’s commencement of coercive control and bail laws sends a strong message to perpetrators that abuse is unacceptable.

“We have listened to the lived experience of victim-survivors about reforms that are needed in the system, including implementing a Primary Prevention Strategy to address the drivers of violence and stop it before it starts.”

Related ministerial media releases

See all ministerial media release, related information.

• Coercive control
• What is coercive control?

Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Domestic Violence — Breaking Free from Abusive Relationship: Domestic Violence

Breaking Free from Abusive Relationship: Domestic Violence

• Categories: Domestic Violence Relationship Victim

About this sample

Words: 1738 |

Published: Jun 5, 2019

Words: 1738 | Pages: 4 | 9 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, understanding domestic violence: a complex web of abusive relationships, escaping domestic violence: a complex process, preventing further violence: predictive tools, forms of abuse in abusive relationships.

• Physical Abuse: This form of abuse involves physical harm inflicted upon the victim. It includes acts such as hitting, kicking, slapping, choking, or any other form of bodily violence. Often, the physical scars are visible, serving as a grim reminder of the trauma endured.
• Sexual Abuse: Sexual abuse within abusive relationships involves non-consensual sexual activities imposed upon the victim. This may range from unwanted sexual advances and coercion to sexual assault. Victims often grapple with profound feelings of violation and shame.
• Psychological and Emotional Abuse: Psychological and emotional abuse is insidious, leaving no visible marks but causing severe psychological harm. It encompasses tactics like manipulation, verbal threats, humiliation, isolation, and control. The scars of emotional abuse run deep, eroding the victim's self-esteem and sense of self-worth.
• Financial Abuse: Abusers often exercise control over their victims' financial resources, leaving them financially dependent and powerless. This form of abuse may involve withholding money, preventing employment, or sabotaging the victim's financial stability.
• Digital Abuse: In the digital age, abusers have found new avenues to exert control. Digital abuse includes actions like cyberbullying, stalking on social media, or using technology to monitor and intimidate the victim.

The Complex Dynamics of Abusive Relationships

• Cycle of Abuse: Abusive relationships often follow a cyclical pattern. The cycle typically begins with a period of tension building, characterized by escalating conflict and tension. This tension culminates in an acute abusive incident, such as physical violence. Following the abusive episode, an abuser may display remorse and offer apologies, initiating a phase of reconciliation. However, this reconciliation phase is often short-lived and eventually gives way to renewed tension, perpetuating the cycle.
• Isolation: Abusers frequently isolate their victims, cutting them off from friends and family. Isolation serves to control the victim's social interactions and limit their support network, making it harder for them to seek help or escape the relationship.
• Gaslighting: Gaslighting is a manipulative tactic used by abusers to make victims doubt their reality. Abusers may deny their actions, trivialize the abuse, or shift blame onto the victim, causing them to question their perception of events.
• Dependency: Abusers often foster financial and emotional dependency, making it challenging for victims to imagine a life outside the relationship. This dependency can be a significant barrier to leaving the abuser.
• Emotional Bonding: Paradoxically, abusive relationships may involve moments of intimacy and affection. These intermittent displays of love can create a strong emotional bond that keeps victims attached to their abusers, hoping for change.
• Patterns of Escalation: Recognizing patterns of escalating abuse is essential. Victims and their support networks should be vigilant about increases in the frequency or severity of violence, as this can signal a heightened risk.
• Isolation and Control: Assess the extent to which the abuser isolates and controls the victim. Isolation tactics and increased control can indicate a greater risk, as they may signify the abuser's desperation to maintain dominance.
• Access to Weapons: Determine the abuser's access to weapons. The presence of firearms or other deadly weapons can significantly elevate the risk of lethal violence.
• History of Violence: Consider the abuser's history of violence. If they have a documented history of violent behavior, including previous arrests or restraining orders, this should be taken seriously as a predictive factor.
• Escalation of Threats: Monitor any escalation in threats made by the abuser. Expressions of intent to harm the victim or themselves should be treated as urgent warning signs.
• Support System: Assess the strength of the victim's support system. A robust support network can be a protective factor, potentially reducing the risk of further violence.
• Legal Intervention: Evaluate whether legal interventions, such as restraining orders, have been sought or granted. Understanding the legal measures in place can provide insights into the victim's safety.
• Campbell, J. C. (2003). Danger assessment: Validation of a lethality risk assessment instrument for intimate partner femicide. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(11), 1153-1176.
• Adams, D. M. (2016). Why do they kill? Men who murder their intimate partners. Vanderbilt University Press.
• Babcock, J. C., Green, C. E., & Robie, C. (2004). Does batterers' treatment work? A meta-analytic review of domestic violence treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(8), 1023-1053.
• Stark, E. (2007). Coercive control: How men entrap women in personal life. Oxford University Press.
• Golding, J. M. (1999). Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental disorders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Family Violence, 14(2), 99-132.
• Johnson, M. P. (2008). A typology of domestic violence: Intimate terrorism, violent resistance, and situational couple violence. Northeastern University Press.
• National Domestic Violence Hotline. (n.d.). Danger assessment. https://www.thehotline.org/identify-abuse/danger-assessment/

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Amnesty International has accused authorities in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KR-I) of neglecting their duty to hold perpetrators of domestic violence accountable, according to a new report released on Wednesday. Titled “Daunting and Dire: Impunity and Underfunded Institutions Undermine Protection of Women and Girls from Domestic Violence in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq,” the report highlights critical deficiencies despite legislative efforts to address domestic violence.

Amnesty International’s findings reveal systemic barriers that hinder survivors from accessing essential protection and justice. Aya Majzoub, Amnesty’s deputy regional director for the Middle East and North Africa, stated , “Survivors of domestic violence in the Kurdistan region of Iraq face failures at every turn.”

Based on interviews with 57 individuals, including survivors, government officials, and NGO workers, the report sheds light on the dire situation faced by women and girls in KR-I. Though official reports indicate alarming numbers of violence-related deaths, underreporting and systemic barriers likely obscure the true extent. According to the report, at least 30 women were killed in the region in 2023, with 44 fatalities reported the previous year.

Amnesty pointed out that state prosecutors rarely pursue cases against abusers. Instead, women and girls must file complaints themselves, often facing reprisals to drop charges. In Iraqi Kurdistan, despite a 2011 law criminalizing domestic violence, the offense remains a misdemeanor with a maximum three-year prison term. Amnesty urged abolishing the mandatory reconciliation process before trial and criticized judges for bias favoring abusers and prioritizing family unity over women’s safety.

The report underscores that while KR-I boasts progressive legal frameworks, implementation remains insufficient, with little tangible impact on the ground. Amnesty International called on authorities to urgently address impunity by ensuring effective investigations that prioritize survivor well-being. Key recommendations include eliminating mandatory reconciliation processes, increasing funding for support institutions, and improving living conditions in shelters.

In May, Amnesty International called on authorities in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq to halt assaults on press freedom.

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Leading NT barrister says community legal sector collapsing, as crossbench calls for urgent funding injection

Twenty-eight federal crossbenchers have written to the country's top law officers urging an additional $174 million in funding to community legal centres.

The group says to provide pathways out of family violence, governments must step up, a NT barrister agrees and says the system is "collapsing".

What's next?

The country's attorneys-general will meet in Canberra this week and are expected to speak about funding arrangements for the sector.

A Darwin barrister has raised the alarm on the NT's community legal sector, saying it is 'collapsing', and will only get worse if a nation-wide funding shortfall for community legal centres isn't filled.

John Lawrence SC has worked in the Northern Territory as a lawyer for more than 30 years, and said the community legal sector — which provides advice to women fleeing domestic violence, and other vulnerable groups — was so under threat right now that some were not receiving legal advice they're entitled to.

"It's dysfunctional, chaotic … people in the court system, the criminal justice system, particularly Aboriginal people, are not being represented," he said.

"There are people languishing in remand: boys, girls, men, women, for months, sometimes over a year at a time.

"We don't know who the lawyer is, we don't know when the court case is, we have the prisons overflowing."

The former head of the NT's Criminal Lawyer's Association has backed calls by a group of 28 crossbenchers, who have penned a letter to the country's attorneys general pleading with them to fill a funding gap identified in a recent report by Dr Warren Mundy into the funding of community legal services.

The group — led by independent senator Lidia Thorpe, and including the teals, Greens, and independents like Andrew Wilkie and Senator David Pocock — say it's critical the country's top law officers find a way to meet the remaining deficit when they meet in Canberra for the Standing Council of Attorneys General this week.

"We are concerned that the government has not fulfilled the 2024-25 funding recommendations laid out by Dr Mundy in response to critical needs in the community," the letter reads.

"To provide safe pathways away from violence for women and children, governments must provide adequate funding for legal assistance services."

In May Dr Warren Mundy's independent Review of the National Legal Assistance Partnership (LNAP) found current funding levels insufficient to meet Australia's legal needs, and recommended an additional $215.3 million in urgent top-up funding for this financial year.

This year's federal budget allocated an additional $44 million for legal assistance services, an amount the crossbench group says "falls short of meeting what is needed to ensure frontline legal services can continue to operate and meet growing community needs."

Questions if Labor is 'fair dinkum' about preventing domestic violence

Senator Thorpe challenged the Albanese government to increase funding, following increasing awareness of family and domestic violence.

"Labor, if you are fair dinkum about preventing violence against women in this country, then stop sitting on your hands and fund these under-funded services that will actually save people's lives," she told the Senate on Wednesday afternoon.

The independent senator said it would be Indigenous people across the country that would be left worse off by the funding deficit, saying it would leave them vulnerable to 'violence, child removal and further criminalisation'.

Dr Mundy's review into the community legal sector was handed to the federal government in March, but not released until May, after the Federal Budget was released.

Independent MP and signatory to the letter Andrew Wilkie MP said this was not acceptable.

"The federal government failed to provide sorely needed funds in the budget, despite having ample time to consider the recommendations from the Independent Review of the National Legal Assistance Partnership before the budget was handed down," he said in a statement.

Federal Attorney-General Mark Dreyfus has responded to the letter.

"The Albanese government recognises the pressures Community Legal Centres are under, and the importance of strengthening the legal assistance sector," a statement from his spokesperson read.

"The Commonwealth, states and territories are now considering Dr Warren Mundy's review of the National Legal Assistance Partnership 2020-2025 and how the next agreement could better provide access to justice for all who need it."

NT Attorney-General Chansey Paech has been contacted for comment.

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