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Lessons from California’s 2012–2016 Drought

Information & authors, metrics & citations, introduction, 2012–2016 drought’s hydrology, water deliveries.

Major Problem Areas

Agriculture.

Source: Data from Howitt et al. ( 2015b ).

Source: Data from California Energy Commission ( 2017a , b ).

Rural Groundwater Supplies

Sacramento–san joaquin delta.

Source: Data from California Department of Water Resources ( 2018b ).

Aquatic Ecosystems

Isolated cities, water accounting and water rights administration, why so little economic impact from drought in california, preparation, groundwater supplies for agriculture, economic structure, sizable lower-valued water uses.

Energy System Flexibility and Market

Water system flexibility and water markets, waterfowl institutional preparation and response, benefits from previous droughts.

Source: Data from Lund ( 2014a ).

Environmental Susceptibility

Innovations and future benefits from this drought, use and organization of science, conclusions, acknowledgments, information, published in.

Affiliations

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Drought: Identifying Impacts and Evaluating Solutions

PBS, WGBH Educational Foundation

In this set of activities, students learn about impacts of drought through news videos of communities facing serious water shortages, analyze drought data and models, and research and evaluate potential solutions. This lesson works well as a component within a larger unit on climate change, its impacts, and ways to address the resulting issues.

Notes from our reviewers

The CLEAN collection is hand-picked and rigorously reviewed for scientific accuracy and classroom effectiveness. Read what our review team had to say about this resource below or learn more about how CLEAN reviews teaching materials .

• Teaching Tips Even though the lesson is designated for grades 9-12, it could be used in grades 6-8. An explicit teacher guide/script is provided in the procedures. Teacher may want to preview the videos and printout accompanying handouts for each case study. Before watching the Case Study videos, it should be emphasized that technical lessons of drought will be taught through worksheets and lecture, not the videos. Rather, the take away from the videos are an account of how humans can be affected by drought.
• About the Science In these activities, students learn about the different drought characterizations and causes of drought based on both climate patterns and human interaction with the environment. The lesson discusses solutions to drought that are being explored and how these solutions are connected to different drought characterizations. These lessons do a great job of incorporating state-of-the-art science into the lesson plan. There is a great use of data from NOAA to visualize drought across the United States. The presentation does a nice job of showing how different types of drought, e.g. meteorological and agricultural, are interconnected. The study cited data when appropriate except in slides 3 & 6 of the presentation. Drought is covered in a great deal of depth in this resource and allows students to develop an intimate understanding with the subject. Comments from expert scientist: Good use of case studies from a variety of regions. Numerous small and larger scale solutions are presented, some of which are short term and some are currently short-term but may become longer term. Resources are finite and population growth is exponential, so long-term solutions will be necessary. Drought is cyclic and it would be useful to emphasize that longer-term solutions - changes in behavior will be necessary because long term uncontrolled population growth will lead to future drought impacts even in the absence of reduced precipitation.
• About the Pedagogy Students learn about the impacts of water shortages due to drought, make connections to climate patterns, and explore solutions that increase communities' capacities to respond to drought. The lesson procedure provides the ability for students to learn about both what drought is and how to mitigate the negative effects of drought. The case studies allow for students to see the effect drought has on communities. Since the three regions that are covered by the videos may not be in the students' own community, the extension activity provides a venue to explore the above mentioned topics in their community.The videos provide great visual references if students have not actually experienced a severe drought in their community. Uses the 5E model to teach on water availability, impacts of drought, patterns of drought, and the identification and evaluation of solutions. Case-studies, individual or small group work, open, whole group discussions are encouraged. Due to the use of the 5E model, the sequencing is well organized. The main lesson, as well as the extensions, allow for independent research. The handouts provide a vehicle for students to express their scientific impressions of the videos. Through videos, lectures, and worksheets the lesson plan appeals to multiple types of learning. The procedure includes example answers for assessment of student answers, but does not provide a clear avenue for how assessment can be conducted in this lesson. A diverse population is represented in the videos.
• Technical Details/Ease of Use Resource is available online but does have optional download capabilities. Integrated share to Google Classrooms button. Also can be assigned through Remind, social media platforms, or with the PBS LearningMedia Lesson Builder Tool. All videos have the capability of closed captioning and/or printable transcripts. The materials are of high technical quality.

• Geography Review
• Drought and water security: a case study from California

Smart cities

Negative greenhouse-gas emissions, drought and water security, a case study from california.

In 2015 and 2016 California faced one of its most severe droughts on record. This article looks at the challenge of climate change in the context of the Californian drought and its impact on local biodiversity. It is relevant to topics on the water cycle and water security, climate change and ecosystems under stress

• Volume 31, 2017/ 2018
• Climate change
• Resource security
• Water and carbon cycles/Earth’s life support systems

Francesca Quinn

The last ice age ended 11,000 years ago and since then, Earth’s climate has been relatively stable at approximately 14ºC. Over recent decades evidence of higher average temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, increasing sea levels, retreating glaciers and melting of sea ice and ice sheets has been recorded. Extreme weather events, including droughts, have become more frequent.

In 2015 the US state of California experienced one of the worst droughts in its history. This led to real concerns about longterm water security in the region. In October 2016, a quarter of California was lifted out of drought by autumn rains and by spring of 2017 the drought was largely over.

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• All about drought: A case study of UK drought 2010-2012 – investigating the responses

These resources combine a range of teaching approaches and embed a series of critical thinking techniques in order to further develop students’ understanding of the subject matter.

Cross-curricular links are made to literacy, numeracy and ICT enabling the students to transfer their skills across the spectrum of subjects. The lessons offer opportunities for students to conduct further research, explore the numerous websites and use a range of resources such as choropleth maps to conduct their own investigation into previous drought events and begin to predict future ones from the trends. Each lesson is accompanied by an editable PowerPoint presentation and relevant worksheets.

In this lesson, students explore a range of perspectives on the impact of the droughts. Students can use this information to evaluate the impacts.

Learning objective

• To investigate the responses to the 2010–2012 drought in the seven catchment areas and how these varied depending on sector.

The students explore a range of perspectives on the impact of the droughts. Students can use this information to evaluate the impacts.

Resources to support this lesson

UK drought 2010-2012 PowerPoint presentation

Recycling in soft fruit PDF file

Keep thinking worksheet

Summary of drought accounts worksheet

Speech to local government worksheet

Recycling in soft fruit worksheet

Learning reflection worksheet

Relevant websites

The Dry Utility

About Drought: Paul Hammett

About Drought Handbook: Outputs and Impacts

About Drought Event 2018 Highlights (Vimeo)

Other lessons in this set

Is drought a global phenomenon?

A case study of UK drought 2010-2012: considering the cause and impacts of the drought

The 1976 Drought – was it all good?

The future of drought in the UK

Changing our thinking about drought

This lesson has been co-written by the GA consultant Gemma Mawdsley and produced in collaboration with the DRY research team, ENDOWS, UWE, and About Drought.

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Impacts & Responses to Drought ( Edexcel GCSE Geography A )

Revision note.

Geography Content Creator

Why Droughts are Hazardous

Droughts, unlike earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, are not sudden hazard events

They start and end slowly, making them hard to gauge and they can last for months 

Droughts are often accompanied by high temperatures, which increases the rate of evaporation, depleting water supplies faster

The length of a drought varies from place to place

The UK suffered a drought for 16 months between 1975 and 1976

In any given year, 14% of the USA is in a drought 

The Horn of Africa is experiencing its worst drought in 40 years

Water supplies such as lakes, aquifers and rivers become depleted as people continue to abstract water during a drought

Other impacts include:

Water becomes contaminated, causing a range of diseases, such as cholera and typhoid

Farmers experience high crop or livestock losses and a reduction in land value

People may experience famine

With less moisture and rainfall, wildfires can become common, damaging crops, buildings, and even death

Businesses and services that rely on clean water may have to close, e.g. hospitals and restaurants

Conflict or war between people and countries can happen when there is pressure on water supplies

Drought can also lead to outward migration

Impacts of Drought on California and Ethiopia

California background.

California is situated on the west coast of the USA

It has a population of around 39 million people

It has a Mediterranean-like climate with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters

It has deserts to the east, with south-westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean bringing rain in winter

Annual precipitation is between 200-500 mm

50% of precipitation falls between November and March, leading to seasonal shortages

California has approximately 24 million acres (or 9.7 million ha) of farmland 

The state supplies 40% of the USA's vegetables, fruit and nuts, which generates around $50 billion each year

However, these crops need a lot of irrigation and freshwater supplies are in constant demand

Rising temperatures, falling rainfall levels and a growing population also place high demands on fresh water supplies

California relies on winter rain and snow to carry its water supply through the year

High pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean diverted the south-westerly winds away from the California coast

Keeping a dry air mass above the state for a long time

This prevented normal winter storms from reaching California 

Drought in California

California is vulnerable to drought. The graph shows how the state moves from one drought event into another, although the drought of 2011–2017 has been the longest one to date.

From 2011 to 2017, California experienced extreme drought conditions

By January 2014, the entire state was in a drought emergency, with Central Valley being the worst-affected area

With continued lower than normal precipitation and over dependence on the Colorado River, water supplies dropped

The Social, Economic and Environmental Impacts of California's Drought

Ethiopia background

Ethiopia is an emerging country located in the Horn of Africa, on the east coast of Africa

It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Somalia and Djibouti in the east, Eritrea in the north and Kenya in the south

Since the 1980s, the country has experienced many droughts, leading to famines and huge loss of life

85% of the population live in rural areas, rely on agriculture and are dependent on rainfall and traditional technologies

The worst droughts were 1984, 1994 and 2014–2016

The 2015 drought was the worst in 30 years

The threat is still ongoing 

Ethiopia relies on two rainy seasons throughout the year

Belg: afternoon showers become more frequent from February to May

Kiremt: rains nearly every day through the summer months and accounts for 50–80% of annual rainfall

Ethiopia's first crop season depends on the belg rains, while the main agricultural season relies on the summer kiremt rains

Since the 1980s, the short belg season has been getting shorter and increasingly delayed

The longer kiremt season has become unpredictable

Where it used to rain for weeks, this has now reduced to days and this fails to supply enough water for the country

There are not enough wells to access groundwater to provide irrigation when the rains fail

Since 1985, 77% of tree cover has been cut down, reducing transpiration into the air

Ongoing conflict in northern Ethiopia damages infrastructure and food supplies

Between 1950 and 2014, the population grew from 18.1 million to 96.5 million people, increasing the demand for water

The rising standard of living, economic growth and industrial development all increase water demand 

In urban areas, the demand for piped water and flush toilets has increased

Weather conditions over the Pacific, including an unusually strong El Niño , interrupted seasonal rains for two consecutive seasons

Global warming has added to the problem of increasing temperatures and changes in weather patterns

Drought in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is vulnerable to drought

The Social, Economic and Environmental Impacts of Ethiopia's Drought

Responses to Drought by California and Ethiopia

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Author: Jacque Cartwright

Jacque graduated from the Open University with a BSc in Environmental Science and Geography before doing her PGCE with the University of St David’s, Swansea. Teaching is her passion and has taught across a wide range of specifications – GCSE/IGCSE and IB but particularly loves teaching the A-level Geography. For the past 5 years Jacque has been teaching online for international schools, and she knows what is needed to get the top scores on those pesky geography exams.

Human Causes of Drought

Human activity.

Deficits in human water security are mainly caused by:

• Pollution: making water resources unsuitable for use
• Over-abstraction: taking too much water from water stores (reservoirs, rivers and aquifers)

These can be linked with wider geographical processes.

Mapping Human Threat

How human ‘ stresses ’ are impacting on human water security across the world’s rivers.

Red areas __are the __worst affected

Blue areas are the__ least__ affected

Water Security

Water security is very important going on in the future as certain areas are experiencing higher levels of drought and water insecurity.

Places such as Cape Town have had to implement water security laws to reduce over consumption.

Impacts on Environment in Different Locations

Drought in the Sahel Region of Africa

The Sahel region of Africa lies to the immediate south of the Sahara desert, it encompasses 10 countries which are demographically different but all face recurrent and increasingly serious drought.

The Sahel region has high variability of rainfall.

Under ‘normal’ conditions the mean annual rainfall varies from 100mm on the northern edge, to 800mm along the southern margins.

From year to year there is a huge variability which is often attributed to ENSO cycles .

Human factors do not cause drought but act like a positive feedback loop , enhancing the impacts of drought in the Sahel. During the__ 1999-2000__ Ethiopian- Eritrean drought about 10 million people needed food assistance.

Socio-economic conditions associated with environmental degradation from overgrazing , deforestation for fuelwood, as well as high levels of rural poverty exacerbated the impacts of drought.

The region is undergoing a processes of desertification (see fig.1) whereby semi-arid regions are over cultivated, meaning vegetation dried and the land becomes more exposed to erosion.

Rural population densities the Sahel has doubles every 20-30 years; outstripping food productions.

Agriculture in the Sahel is exclusively rain-fed making it very vulnerable to drought. Political instability in the region meant food aid was blocked.

Drought in Australia

Droughts are a regular occurrence in Australia-

• affects 30% of the country on average each year.
• This is mainly attributed to physical factors.

Australians have come to expect drought as a way of life.

Typically, 3/10 years bring deficits.

This regular cycle is also punctuated by occasional droughts of greater severity, such as the Big Dry.

The ‘Big Dry’ 2006

In 2006, a 1-in-1000-year drought event had nationwide effects which commenced in the Murray-Darling basin –Australia’s agricultural heartland- in Australia’s south east.

The impacts on Australia’s food supply was disastrous as farmers rely on water to irrigate crops and feed livestock.

Normally, the country would hope to harvest about 25m tonnes of wheat annually- in 2006 the crop yielded less than 10m tonnes.

Reservoirs fell to around 40% of their capacity despite advanced water supply schemes which are designed to withstand hydrological drought.

Australia has the world’s highest per capita water consumption therefore urban centres -such as Adelaide which draws 40% of it’s drinking water from the Murray River- experienced significant shortages.

New schemes to meet water supply are being developed with include costly desalination plants, recycling of grey water (the relatively clean waste water from baths) and more widespread strategies for conservation .

Resilience of Ecosystems

Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil (or near the surface of the soil) all year.

Hydrophytes colonise the area and nutrient rich soil is created.

Wetlands vary widely because of r__egional and local difference__s in:

• water chemistry
• Other human factors.

Between 300 and 400 million people live close to - and depend on - wetlands.

Act as a sponge to trap flood water and distribute it across the floodplain.

Protect against coastal erosion and storm surges

Recreational use

Support the carbon cycle

2.5 million square kilometres of wetland has been destroyed intentionally.

Protecting Ecosystems

RAMSAR is an international convention to protect wetlands, due to their importance.

• DOI: 10.1111/sjtg.12553
• Corpus ID: 270946898

Exploring the utility of the Enhanced Vegetation Index as rainfall and agricultural proxy in a Caribbean case study event

• Sarah F. Buckland
• Published in Singapore journal of tropical… 2 July 2024
• Environmental Science, Agricultural and Food Sciences

47 References

Drought-- national drought mitigation center 2-6-2018 developing a remotely sensed drought monitoring indicator for morocco, insights from a new high-resolution drought atlas for the caribbean spanning 1950–2016, application and comparison of the modis-derived enhanced vegetation index to viirs, landsat 5 tm and landsat 8 oli platforms: a case study in the arid colorado river delta, mexico, investigating temporal relationships between rainfall, soil moisture and modis-derived ndvi and evi for six sites in africa, mapping of agriculture drought using remote sensing and gis, climate change, drought, and jamaican agriculture: local knowledge and the climate record, regional characteristics of climate change altering effects of afforestation, spatial variability of the caribbean mid‐summer drought and relation to north atlantic high circulation, the possible role of the sahel greenbelt on the occurrence of climate extremes over the west african sahel, overview of the radiometric and biophysical performance of the modis vegetation indices, related papers.

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Drought Case Studies

Includes 2 drought case studies. Basic facts, Cause & impacts

• Created by: Curlot
• Created on: 08-05-15 17:05
• Case studies

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Different vegetation covers leading to the uncertainty and consistency of et estimation: a case study assessment with extended triple collocation.

1. Introduction

• How is the performance of three products according to the results of the ETC method?
• Does the ET merging method yield a superior ET product compared to individual products?
• How does the performance of the ET merging method vary under different vegetation covers?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. data sources, 2.2. extended triple collocation (etc) method, 2.3. evapotranspiration merging, 2.4. statistical analysis, 2.5. flowchart, 3.1. uncertainties in aet datasets based on etc approach, 3.1.1. spatial consistency of aet products globally, 3.1.2. correlation coefficient distribution of aet products, 3.1.3. best performing et products on each grid, 3.1.4. uncertainty under different vegetation coverages, 3.2. merged et dataset and the trends, 3.3. assessment of aet products and merged et, 3.3.1. assessment of aet products, 3.3.2. uncertainties compared to in situ data under different vegetation covers, 4. discussion, 4.1. evaluation of merged et and individual products, 4.2. the effect of the uncertainty, 4.3. comparison with other studies and application, 4.4. limitations and future works, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

Click here to enlarge figure

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Share and Cite

Li, X.; Sun, H.; Yang, Y.; Sun, X.; Xiong, M.; Ouyang, S.; Li, H.; Qin, H.; Zhang, W. Different Vegetation Covers Leading to the Uncertainty and Consistency of ET Estimation: A Case Study Assessment with Extended Triple Collocation. Remote Sens. 2024 , 16 , 2484. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16132484

Li X, Sun H, Yang Y, Sun X, Xiong M, Ouyang S, Li H, Qin H, Zhang W. Different Vegetation Covers Leading to the Uncertainty and Consistency of ET Estimation: A Case Study Assessment with Extended Triple Collocation. Remote Sensing . 2024; 16(13):2484. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16132484

Li, Xiaoxiao, Huaiwei Sun, Yong Yang, Xunlai Sun, Ming Xiong, Shuo Ouyang, Haichen Li, Hui Qin, and Wenxin Zhang. 2024. "Different Vegetation Covers Leading to the Uncertainty and Consistency of ET Estimation: A Case Study Assessment with Extended Triple Collocation" Remote Sensing 16, no. 13: 2484. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16132484

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