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Research starters.

Beginning a research paper on World War II can be daunting. With Research Starters, you can get a basic introduction to major WWII topics, see recommended secondary sources, and view primary sources you can use from the Museum’s collection.

Research Starters: Worldwide Deaths in World War II

See estimates for worldwide deaths, broken down by country, in World War II. 

Research Starters: D-Day

The Allied invasion of Western Europe was code named Operation Overlord. It required years of planning, training, and supplying by the United States and Great Britain, and was one of the most heavily guarded secrets of the war. 

Research Starters: US Military by the Numbers

See a breakdown of numbers in the US military, by branch and year, in World War II. 

Research Starters: The Draft and World War II

On September 16, 1940, the United States instituted the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, which required all men between the ages of 21 and 45 to register for the draft.

Research Starters: The GI Bill

Research Starters: Higgins Boats

In the late 1930s, the U.S. military began developing small boats that could carry troops from ships to open beaches.

Research Starters: The Battle of Midway

Fought between the U.S. and Japanese navies June 4-7, 1942, this battle turned the tide of the war in the Pacific in favor of the Americans.

Research Starters: Women in World War II

With ever-growing orders for war materials combined with so many men overseas fighting the war, women were called upon to work in ways previously reserved only for men.

Ration Books

Ask anyone who remembers life on the Home Front during World War II about their strongest memories and chances are they will tell you about rationing. You see, the war caused shortages of all sorts of things: rubber, metal, clothing, etc. But it was the shortages of various types of food that affected just about everyone on a daily basis.

Take A Closer Look: America Goes to War

America's isolation from war ended on December 7, 1941, when Japan staged a surprise attack on American military installations in the Pacific. 

History At a Glance: Women in World War II

American women played important roles during World War II, both at home and in uniform.

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The outbreak of war

• Forces and resources of the European combatants, 1939
• Technology of war, 1918–39
• The campaign in Poland, 1939
• The Baltic states and the Russo-Finnish War, 1939–40
• The invasion of Norway
• The invasion of the Low Countries and France
• The evacuation from Dunkirk
• Italy’s entry into the war and the French Armistice
• The Battle of Britain
• Central Europe and the Balkans, 1940–41
• Egypt and Cyrenaica, 1940–summer 1941
• East Africa
• Iraq and Syria, 1940–41
• The beginning of lend-lease
• The Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 1940–41
• German strategy, 1939–42
• Invasion of the Soviet Union, 1941
• The war in China, 1937–41
• Japanese policy, 1939–41
• Pearl Harbor and the Japanese expansion, to July 1942
• The fall of Singapore
• The Chinese front and Burma, 1941–42
• Allied strategy and controversies, 1940–42
• Libya and Egypt, autumn 1941–summer 1942
• The Germans’ summer offensive in southern Russia, 1942
• The Solomons, Papua, Madagascar, the Aleutians, and Burma, July 1942–May 1943
• Burma, autumn 1942–summer 1943
• Montgomery’s Battle of el-Alamein and Rommel’s retreat, 1942–43
• Stalingrad and the German retreat, summer 1942–February 1943
• The invasion of northwest Africa, November–December 1942
• Tunisia, November 1942–May 1943
• The Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the North Sea, 1942–45
• Air warfare, 1942–43
• German-occupied Europe
• Casablanca and Trident, January–May 1943
• The Eastern Front, February–September 1943
• The Southwest and South Pacific, June–October 1943
• Sicily and the fall of Mussolini, July–August 1943
• The Quadrant Conference (Quebec I)
• The Allies’ invasion of Italy and the Italian volte-face, 1943
• The western Allies and Stalin: Cairo and Tehrān, 1943
• German strategy, from 1943
• The Eastern Front, October 1943–April 1944
• The encirclement of Rabaul
• Western New Guinea
• The central Pacific
• The Burmese frontier and China, November 1943–summer 1944
• The Italian front, 1944
• The Allied invasions of western Europe, June–November 1944
• The Eastern Front, June–December 1944
• Air warfare, 1944
• Allied policy and strategy: Octagon (Quebec II) and Moscow, 1944
• The Philippines and Borneo, from September 1944
• Burma and China, October 1944–May 1945
• The German offensive in the west, winter 1944–45
• The Soviet advance to the Oder, January–February 1945
• The German collapse, spring 1945
• Iwo Jima and the bombing of Tokyo
• Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• The Japanese surrender
• Killed, wounded, prisoners, or missing
• The Far East

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World War II

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• Table Of Contents

World War II began in Europe on September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. Great Britain and France responded by declaring war on Germany on September 3. The war between the U.S.S.R. and Germany began on June 22, 1941, with Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . The war in the Pacific began on December 7/8, 1941, when Japan attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor and other American, Dutch, and British military installations throughout Asia.

What countries fought in World War II?

The main combatants were the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allies (France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China).

Who were the leaders during World War II?

The Allied powers were led by Winston Churchill (United Kingdom); Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union); Charles de Gaulle (France); and Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman (United States). The Axis powers were led by Adolf Hitler (Germany), Benito Mussolini (Italy), and Hideki Tojo (Japan).

The war in the Pacific turned against Japan during the Battle of Midway (June 3–6, 1942), an American victory that destroyed the Japanese first-line carrier force and, together with the Battle of Guadalcanal , ended Japan’s ability to prosecute an offensive war.

The tide of the war in Europe shifted with the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad (February 1943). More than one million Soviet troops and tens of thousands of civilians died in the defense of the city, but the destruction of two entire German armies marked the beginning of the end of the Third Reich .

The Allied landings at Normandy on June 6, 1944, opened a second front in Europe, and Germany’s abortive offensive at the Ardennes in the winter of 1944–45 marked the Third Reich ’s final push in the west. The Red Army advanced from the east and effectively claimed all the territory under its control for the Soviet sphere. The Allied armies converged on Berlin. Adolf Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945, and the war in Europe ended on May 8.

The American “island hopping” campaign had destroyed key Japanese installations throughout the Pacific while allowing bypassed islands to wither on the vine. Hundreds of thousands were killed in firebombings of Japanese cities, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 knocked Japan out of the war.

Estimates of the total number of people killed during World War II have ranged from 35,000,000 to 60,000,000—a significant span, because statistics about the war’s casualties are inexact. The Soviet Union and China are believed to have suffered the most total casualties, while an estimated 5,800,000 Poles died, which represents about 20 percent of Poland’s prewar population. About 4,200,000 Germans died, and about 1,972,000 Japanese died. In all, the scale of human losses during World War II was vast. A table that details estimated deaths by country is available here .

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World War II , conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during the years 1939–45. The principal belligerents were the Axis powers — Germany , Italy , and Japan —and the Allies— France , Great Britain , the United States , the Soviet Union , and, to a lesser extent, China . The war was in many respects a continuation, after an uneasy 20-year hiatus , of the disputes left unsettled by World War I . The 40,000,000–50,000,000 deaths incurred in World War II make it the bloodiest conflict, as well as the largest war, in history.

Along with World War I, World War II was one of the great watersheds of 20th-century geopolitical history. It resulted in the extension of the Soviet Union’s power to nations of eastern Europe , enabled a communist movement to eventually achieve power in China, and marked the decisive shift of power in the world away from the states of western Europe and toward the United States and the Soviet Union.

(Read Sir John Keegan’s Britannica entry on the Normandy Invasion.)

Axis initiative and Allied reaction

By the early part of 1939 the German dictator Adolf Hitler had become determined to invade and occupy Poland . Poland, for its part, had guarantees of French and British military support should it be attacked by Germany. Hitler intended to invade Poland anyway, but first he had to neutralize the possibility that the Soviet Union would resist the invasion of its western neighbour. Secret negotiations led on August 23–24 to the signing of the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact in Moscow . In a secret protocol of this pact, the Germans and the Soviets agreed that Poland should be divided between them, with the western third of the country going to Germany and the eastern two-thirds being taken over by the U.S.S.R.

Having achieved this cynical agreement, the other provisions of which stupefied Europe even without divulgence of the secret protocol, Hitler thought that Germany could attack Poland with no danger of Soviet or British intervention and gave orders for the invasion to start on August 26. News of the signing, on August 25, of a formal treaty of mutual assistance between Great Britain and Poland (to supersede a previous though temporary agreement) caused him to postpone the start of hostilities for a few days. He was still determined, however, to ignore the diplomatic efforts of the western powers to restrain him. Finally, at 12:40 pm on August 31, 1939, Hitler ordered hostilities against Poland to start at 4:45 the next morning. The invasion began as ordered. In response, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, at 11:00 am and at 5:00 pm , respectively. World War II had begun.

World War II Research Essay Topics

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Students are often required to write a paper on a topic as broad as World War II , but you should know that the instructor will expect you to narrow your focus to a specific thesis. This is especially true if you are in high school or college. Narrow your focus by making a list of words, much like the list of words and phrases that are presented in bold type below. Then begin to explore related questions and come up with your own cool WWII topics. The answer to questions like these can become a good starting point for a thesis statement .

Culture and People

When the U.S. entered into war, everyday life across the country changed drastically. From civil rights, racism, and resistance movements to basic human needs like food, clothing, and medicine, the aspects of how life was impacted are immense.

• African-Americans and civil rights. What impact did the war years have on the rights of African-Americans? What were they allowed or not allowed to do?
• Animals. How were horses, dogs, birds, or other animals used? Did they play a special role?
• Art. What art movements were inspired by wartime events? Is there one specific work of art that tells a story about the war?
• Clothing. How was fashion impacted? How did clothing save lives or hinder movement? What materials were used or not used?
• Domestic violence. Was there an increase or decrease in cases?
• Families. Did new family customs develop? What was the impact on children of soldiers?
• Fashion. Did fashion change significantly for civilians? What changes had to be made during wartime?
• Food preservation. What new preservation and packaging methods were used during and after the war? How were these helpful?
• Food rationing. How did rationing impact families? Were rations the same for different groups of people? Were soldiers affected by rations?
• Love letters. What do letters tell us about relationships, families, and friendships? What about gender roles?
• New words. What new vocabulary words emerged during and after WWII?
• Nutrition. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the foods available? How did nutrition change at home during the war because of the availability of certain products?
• Penicillin and other medicine. How was penicillin used? What medical developments occurred during and after the war?
• Resistance movements. How did families deal with living in an occupied territory?
• Sacrifices. How did family life change for the worse?
• Women's work at home. How did women's work change at home during the war? What about after the war ended?

Economy and Workforce

For a nation that was still recovering from the Great Depression, World War II had a major impact on the economy and workforce. When the war began, the fate of the workforce changed overnight, American factories were repurposed to produce goods to support the war effort and women took jobs that were traditionally held by men, who were now off to war.

• Advertising. How did food packaging change during the war? How did advertisements change in general? What were advertisements for?
• Occupations. What new jobs were created? Who filled these new roles? Who filled the roles that were previously held by many of the men who went off to war?
• Propaganda. How did society respond to the war? Do you know why?
• Toys. How did the war impact the toys that were manufactured?
• New products. What products were invented and became a part of popular culture? Were these products present only during war times, or did they exist after?

Military, Government, and War

Americans were mostly against entering the war up until the bombing of Pearl Harbor, after which support for the war grew, as did armed forces. Before the war, the US didn't have the large military forces it soon became known for, with the war resulting in over 16 million Americans in service.   The role the military played in the war, and the impacts of the war itself, were vast.

• America's entry into the war. How is the timing significant? What factors are not so well known?
• Churchill, Winston. What role did this leader play that interests you most? How did his background prepare him for his role?
• Clandestine operations. Governments went to great lengths to hide the true date, time, and place of their actions.
• Destruction. Many historic cities and sites were destroyed in the U.K.—Liverpool, Manchester, London, and Coventry—and in other nations.
• Hawaii. How did events impact families or society in general?
• The Holocaust. Do you have access to any personal stories?
• Italy. What special circumstances were in effect?
• " Kilroy was here ." Why was this phrase important to soldiers? 
• Nationalist Socialist movement in America. What impact has this movement had on society and the government since WWII?
• Political impact. How was your local town impacted politically and socially?
• POW camps after the war. Where were they and what happened to them after the war? Here's a starting point: Some were turned into race tracks after the war!
• Prisoners of war. How many POWs were there? How many made it home safely? What were some long-lasting effects?
• Spies. Who were the spies? Were they men or women? What side were they on? What happened to spies that were caught?
• Submarines. Were there enemy submarines on a coast near you? What role did submarines play in the war?
• Surviving an attack. How were military units attacked? How did it feel to jump from a plane that was disabled?
• Troop logistics. How were troop movements kept secret? What were some challenges of troop logistics?
• Views on freedom. How was freedom curtailed or expanded?
• Views on government's role. Where was the government's role expanded? What about governments elsewhere?
• War crime trials. How were trials conducted? What were the political challenges or consequences? Who was or wasn't tried?
• Weather. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the weather conditions? Were there places where people suffered more because of the weather?
• Women in warfare. What roles did women play during the war? What surprises you about women's work in World War II?

Technology and Transportation

With the war came advancements in technology and transportation, impacting communications capabilities, the spread of news, and even entertainment.

• Bridges and roads. What transportation-related developments came from wartime or postwar policies?
• Communication. How did radio or other types of communication impact key events?
• Motorcycles. What needs led to the development of folding motorcycles? Why was there widespread use of military motorcycles by the government?
• Technology. What technology came from the war and how was it used after the war?
• TV technology. When did televisions start to appear in homes and what is significant about the timing? What TV shows were inspired by the war and how realistic were they? How long did World War II affect TV programming?
• Jet engine technology. What advances can be traced to WWII needs?
• Radar. What role did radar play, if any?
• Rockets. How important was rocket technology?
• Shipbuilding achievements. The achievements were quite remarkable during the war. Why and how did they happen?

"America's Wars Fact Sheet." U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, May 2017.

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World War II

By: History.com Editors

Updated: March 13, 2024 | Original: October 29, 2009

World War II, the largest and deadliest conflict in human history, involved more than 50 nations and was fought on land, sea and air in nearly every part of the world. Also known as the Second World War, it was caused in part by the economic crisis of the Great Depression and by political tensions left unresolved following the end of World War I.

The war began when Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and raged across the globe until 1945, when Japan surrendered to the United States after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By the end of World War II, an estimated 60 to 80 million people had died, including up to 55 million civilians, and numerous cities in Europe and Asia were reduced to rubble.

Among the people killed were 6 million Jews murdered in Nazi concentration camps as part of Hitler’s diabolical “Final Solution,” now known as the Holocaust. The legacy of the war included the creation of the United Nations as a peacekeeping force and geopolitical rivalries that resulted in the Cold War.

Leading up to World War II

The devastation of the Great War (as World War I was known at the time) had greatly destabilized Europe, and in many respects World War II grew out of issues left unresolved by that earlier conflict. In particular, political and economic instability in Germany, and lingering resentment over the harsh terms imposed by the Versailles Treaty, fueled the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and National Socialist German Workers’ Party, abbreviated as NSDAP in German and the Nazi Party in English..

Did you know? As early as 1923, in his memoir and propaganda tract "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), Adolf Hitler had predicted a general European war that would result in "the extermination of the Jewish race in Germany."

After becoming Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler swiftly consolidated power, anointing himself Führer (supreme leader) in 1934. Obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the “pure” German race, which he called “Aryan,” Hitler believed that war was the only way to gain the necessary “Lebensraum,” or living space, for the German race to expand. In the mid-1930s, he secretly began the rearmament of Germany, a violation of the Versailles Treaty. After signing alliances with Italy and Japan against the Soviet Union , Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 and the following year annexed Czechoslovakia. Hitler’s open aggression went unchecked, as the United States and Soviet Union were concentrated on internal politics at the time, and neither France nor Britain (the two other nations most devastated by the Great War) were eager for confrontation.

Outbreak of World War II (1939)

In late August 1939, Hitler and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact , which incited a frenzy of worry in London and Paris. Hitler had long planned an invasion of Poland, a nation to which Great Britain and France had guaranteed military support if it were attacked by Germany. The pact with Stalin meant that Hitler would not face a war on two fronts once he invaded Poland, and would have Soviet assistance in conquering and dividing the nation itself. On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland from the west; two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany, beginning World War II.

On September 17, Soviet troops invaded Poland from the east. Under attack from both sides, Poland fell quickly, and by early 1940 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided control over the nation, according to a secret protocol appended to the Nonaggression Pact. Stalin’s forces then moved to occupy the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and defeated a resistant Finland in the Russo-Finnish War. During the six months following the invasion of Poland, the lack of action on the part of Germany and the Allies in the west led to talk in the news media of a “phony war.” At sea, however, the British and German navies faced off in heated battle, and lethal German U-boat submarines struck at merchant shipping bound for Britain, sinking more than 100 vessels in the first four months of World War II.

World War II in the West (1940-41)

On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark, and the war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium and the Netherlands in what became known as “blitzkrieg,” or lightning war. Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed the Meuse River and struck French forces at Sedan, located at the northern end of the Maginot Line , an elaborate chain of fortifications constructed after World War I and considered an impenetrable defensive barrier. In fact, the Germans broke through the line with their tanks and planes and continued to the rear, rendering it useless. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea from Dunkirk in late May, while in the south French forces mounted a doomed resistance. With France on the verge of collapse, Italy’s fascist dictator Benito Mussolini formed an alliance with Hitler, the Pact of Steel, and Italy declared war against France and Britain on June 10.

On June 14, German forces entered Paris; a new government formed by Marshal Philippe Petain (France’s hero of World War I) requested an armistice two nights later. France was subsequently divided into two zones, one under German military occupation and the other under Petain’s government, installed at Vichy France. Hitler now turned his attention to Britain, which had the defensive advantage of being separated from the Continent by the English Channel.

To pave the way for an amphibious invasion (dubbed Operation Sea Lion), German planes bombed Britain extensively beginning in September 1940 until May 1941, known as the Blitz , including night raids on London and other industrial centers that caused heavy civilian casualties and damage. The Royal Air Force (RAF) eventually defeated the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain , and Hitler postponed his plans to invade. With Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Prime Minister Winston Churchill began receiving crucial aid from the U.S. under the Lend-Lease Act , passed by Congress in early 1941.

Hitler vs. Stalin: Operation Barbarossa (1941-42)

By early 1941, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops overran Yugoslavia and Greece that April. Hitler’s conquest of the Balkans was a precursor for his real objective: an invasion of the Soviet Union, whose vast territory would give the German master race the “Lebensraum” it needed. The other half of Hitler’s strategy was the extermination of the Jews from throughout German-occupied Europe. Plans for the “Final Solution” were introduced around the time of the Soviet offensive, and over the next three years more than 4 million Jews would perish in the death camps established in occupied Poland.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Barbarossa . Though Soviet tanks and aircraft greatly outnumbered the Germans’, Russian aviation technology was largely obsolete, and the impact of the surprise invasion helped Germans get within 200 miles of Moscow by mid-July. Arguments between Hitler and his commanders delayed the next German advance until October, when it was stalled by a Soviet counteroffensive and the onset of harsh winter weather.

World War II in the Pacific (1941-43)

With Britain facing Germany in Europe, the United States was the only nation capable of combating Japanese aggression, which by late 1941 included an expansion of its ongoing war with China and the seizure of European colonial holdings in the Far East. On December 7, 1941, 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the major U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , taking the Americans completely by surprise and claiming the lives of more than 2,300 troops. The attack on Pearl Harbor served to unify American public opinion in favor of entering World War II, and on December 8 Congress declared war on Japan with only one dissenting vote. Germany and the other Axis Powers promptly declared war on the United States.

After a long string of Japanese victories, the U.S. Pacific Fleet won the Battle of Midway in June 1942, which proved to be a turning point in the war. On Guadalcanal, one of the southern Solomon Islands, the Allies also had success against Japanese forces in a series of battles from August 1942 to February 1943, helping turn the tide further in the Pacific. In mid-1943, Allied naval forces began an aggressive counterattack against Japan, involving a series of amphibious assaults on key Japanese-held islands in the Pacific. This “island-hopping” strategy proved successful, and Allied forces moved closer to their ultimate goal of invading the mainland Japan.

Toward Allied Victory in World War II (1943-45)

In North Africa , British and American forces had defeated the Italians and Germans by 1943. An Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy followed, and Mussolini’s government fell in July 1943, though Allied fighting against the Germans in Italy would continue until 1945.

On the Eastern Front, a Soviet counteroffensive launched in November 1942 ended the bloody Battle of Stalingrad , which had seen some of the fiercest combat of World War II. The approach of winter, along with dwindling food and medical supplies, spelled the end for German troops there, and the last of them surrendered on January 31, 1943.

On June 6, 1944–celebrated as “D-Day” –the Allies began a massive invasion of Europe, landing 156,000 British, Canadian and American soldiers on the beaches of Normandy, France. In response, Hitler poured all the remaining strength of his army into Western Europe, ensuring Germany’s defeat in the east. Soviet troops soon advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, while Hitler gathered his forces to drive the Americans and British back from Germany in the Battle of the Bulge (December 1944-January 1945), the last major German offensive of the war.

An intensive aerial bombardment in February 1945 preceded the Allied land invasion of Germany, and by the time Germany formally surrendered on May 8, Soviet forces had occupied much of the country. Hitler was already dead, having died by suicide on April 30 in his Berlin bunker.

World War II Ends (1945)

At the Potsdam Conference of July-August 1945, U.S. President Harry S. Truman (who had taken office after Roosevelt’s death in April), Churchill and Stalin discussed the ongoing war with Japan as well as the peace settlement with Germany. Post-war Germany would be divided into four occupation zones, to be controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States and France. On the divisive matter of Eastern Europe’s future, Churchill and Truman acquiesced to Stalin, as they needed Soviet cooperation in the war against Japan.

Heavy casualties sustained in the campaigns at Iwo Jima (February 1945) and Okinawa (April-June 1945), and fears of the even costlier land invasion of Japan led Truman to authorize the use of a new and devastating weapon. Developed during a top secret operation code-named The Manhattan Project, the atomic bomb was unleashed on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. On August 15, the Japanese government issued a statement declaring they would accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, and on September 2, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan’s formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

African American Servicemen Fight Two Wars

World War II exposed a glaring paradox within the United States Armed Forces. Although more than 1 million African Americans served in the war to defeat Nazism and fascism, they did so in segregated units. The same discriminatory Jim Crow policies that were rampant in American society were reinforced by the U.S. military. Black servicemen rarely saw combat and were largely relegated to labor and supply units that were commanded by white officers.

There were several African American units that proved essential in helping to win World War II, with the Tuskegee Airmen being among the most celebrated. But the Red Ball Express, the truck convoy of mostly Black drivers were responsible for delivering essential goods to General George S. Patton ’s troops on the front lines in France. The all-Black 761st Tank Battalion fought in the Battle of the Bulge, and the 92 Infantry Division, fought in fierce ground battles in Italy. Yet, despite their role in defeating fascism, the fight for equality continued for African American soldiers after the World War II ended. They remained in segregated units and lower-ranking positions, well into the Korean War , a few years after President Truman signed an executive order to desegregate the U.S. military in 1948.

World War II Casualties and Legacy

World War II proved to be the deadliest international conflict in history, taking the lives of 60 to 80 million people, including 6 million Jews who died at the hands of the Nazis during the Holocaust . Civilians made up an estimated 50-55 million deaths from the war, while military comprised 21 to 25 million of those lost during the war. Millions more were injured, and still more lost their homes and property. 

The legacy of the war would include the spread of communism from the Soviet Union into eastern Europe as well as its eventual triumph in China, and the global shift in power from Europe to two rival superpowers–the United States and the Soviet Union–that would soon face off against each other in the Cold War .

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World War 2 Essay | Essay on World War 2 for Students and Children in English

February 14, 2024 by Prasanna

World War 2 Essay: World War 2 or the Second World War is the most extensive known global human warfare to date that lasted from the year 1939 to 1945. The war was waged between two opposing military alliances: Allies and Axis, involving the majority of the Global powers and many participating countries from across Europe and the world.

It was the first state of total war where every economic, scientific, and industrial resource and labour of the participating countries were dedicated to waging full-scale warfare, eliminating military and civilian resources. The war involved over 100 million military personnel from more than 30 countries resulting in 70 to 85 million fatal casualties.

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Long and Short Essays on World War 2 for Students and Kids in English

We provide children/ students with essay samples on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic of World War 2 for reference.

Long Essay on World War 2 500 Words in English

Long Essay on World War 2 is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

The history of this world is incomplete without the inclusion of the Second World War or World War 2, the most vicious and gruelling warfare waged by humans against each other. It involved the vast majority of the countries and Global powers during the period 1939 to 1945. The war was primarily waged between two opposing military alliances: The Allies mainly comprising the United Kingdom & British Empire, the Third Republic of France, Soviet Union, United States of America and their allies, and the Axis Powers involving Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Empire of Japan and their allies.

It started on 1st September 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded Poland and placid support from the Soviet Union and the subsequent declaration of war on Germany by Poland’s allies, France and the United Kingdom. Germany’s Axis Powers had significant gains in the earlier years of the Second World war, mainly between 1939 to 1941 when it conquered and dominated much of continental Europe and parts of Africa.

The largest gain on the Axis side came with the rapid defeat of France at the hands of Germany due to Germany’s advanced warfare technique of Blitzkrieg that involved multi-frontier attack using infantry and armoured divisions. Adolf Hitler, the Dictator/ Fuhrer of Germany during the war, is mainly attributed as the perpetrator of the war due to his Nationalist Fascist and Racial supremacy-based political ideology leading to Germany’s aggressive stance in much of continental Europe.

With France’s fall in 1940, the war was primarily waged between the Axis Powers and the British Empire, with minor gains and losses on both sides. It was a multi-frontier conflict with battles occurring in various regions, including mainland Europe, Eurasia, the Balkans, the Atlantic, and the Pacific Ocean, East Asia, and Northern and Central Africa, and Ariel attacks on the British Isles.

The war took a significant turn in 1941 with two significant events:

• The Invasion of Soviet Russia and its Union in June 1941
• Leading to the largest land warfare in human history
• The Pearl Harbour bombing by Japanese Kamikaze in December 1941

It forced the United States of America to enter the war on the Allies side. Following the US declaration of war on the Imperial Japanese Empire, Germany and Italy’s European Axis powers declared war against the US in solidarity with their Asian Ally.

The Axis Powers had significant strategic gains throughout 1941, including Imperial Japan. It captured and dominated much of the Western Pacific, Eastern China and Manchuria, and Southern Asia. However, its advances were obstructed after a significant naval defeat at the US navy’s hands at the Battle of Midway on the Pacific Ocean. Fascist Italy subsequently suffered significant defeats in North Africa and the Balkans and eventually surrendered to the Allies with their Fascist Dictator, Benito Mussolini, being publicly executed.

The collective Allied invasions of Sicily and the Italian Mainland in 1943, along with German defeat at the Eastern front, forced the Axis powers to retreat on all fronts strategically. The war was concluded in 1945 with the Allied invasion of German-controlled territories, the fall of Berlin at the Soviet Union’s hands, and the Nuclear Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan by the United States of America.

Short Essay on World War 2 150 Words in English

Short Essay on World War 2 is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

World War 2 was the largest war ever waged in human history lasting from 1939 to 1945 between two primary military alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It started with Poland’s invasion by Nazi Germany and Communist Soviet Union after the secret Molotov-Ribbentrop pact between the two powers that led France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany.

The war occurred on multiple battlefronts and involved more than 100 million soldiers from over 30 countries from across the globe. It resulted in a collective casualty of over 80 million military as well as civilian deaths.

It ended with the Axis defeat after the fall of Berlin and the Nuclear Bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States. It had a profound effect on the subsequent world politics and histories like the eventual fall of the British and French Empires and their colonies’ independence, significant shifts in global politics, and the United Nations’ formation.

10 Lines on World War 2 Essay in English

1. World War 2 or Second World War occurred between 1939 and 1945 and is considered the most massive known warfare in human history. Adolf Hitler was the Fuhrer/ Dictator of Germany. Benito Mussolini was the Duce/ Dictator of Italy during the war. 2. The symbolic tussle between the great powers started much before the war with Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan signing mutual defence treaties forming the Axis Powers. 3. The National Socialist Party (NAZI) of Totalitarian Germany murdered more than 60 million Jews, Slavs, and other European People based on the ideology of Aryan Racial Supremacy during the war, and this event is remembered as the Holocaust. 4. Russian’s were said to be instrumental in World War 2 with the fact that Soviet forces killed more than 76 percent of German soldiers. 5. The United States was placid in the war until the infamous 1941 surprise bombing of the Pearl Harbour by the Japanese, resulting in 2400 civilian and military casualties. 6. The Allied Big Four: United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and China and 22 exiled governments issued the Atlantic Charter at the Declaration of the United Nations in 1942, mutually agreeing not to sign any separate peace treaties with Axis powers. 7. The United Kingdom had a significant political change during the war with Sir Winston Churchill assuming the role of Prime Minister. 8. The most extensive known casualties of the war happened on the Eastern front, with Soviet Russia suffering the highest number of human fatalities. 9. Adolf Hitler committed suicide with his wife Eva Braun in their bunker during the Fall of Berlin. 10. Nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were termed “Little Boy” and “Fat Man.”

FAQ’s on World War 2 Essay

Question 1.  Who was the major belligerent of World War 2?

Answer: Nazi Germany under the leadership of Chancellor Adolf Hitler is considered the primary belligerent of World War 2.

Question 2. Why did Imperial Japan enter a primarily European war?

Answer: The Empire of Japan was a military state that primarily aimed to create resource colonies in Manchuria, Eastern China, and South Asia, which lead them to dominate the Pacific, eventually attacking the United States, the other great power in the region

Question 3. Why did Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union Ally during the Invasion of Poland?

Answer: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Soviet Russia entered into the secret Molotov-Ribbentrop pact in 1939, effectively portioning their European neighbors’ annexed territories, including Poland, Finland, the Baltic States, and Romania.

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World War 2 Essay Topics: 50+ Ideas and Examples for Your Paper

by  Antony W

December 5, 2023

Perhaps the most difficult part about writing an essay on World War 2 is to find a title. Brainstorming ideas and doing preliminary research to determine if a topic is good can take a lot of time. To make the ideation process easier for you, we’ve put together a list of 50+ topics that you might love.

World War II is a broad subject. So you want to make sure you first read the assignment brief and narrow down your focus on a specific area that you can cover within the scope of the assignment.

Of course, a list of 50+ prewritten topics means you have an unlimited option when it comes to topic selection. Yet, given that you can cover only one topic at a time, it’s best to single out what topic would be best for you to explore and then develop it based on the assignment brief.  

Key Takeaways

• While World War II is a broad area with hundreds of History essay topics , your focus should be on a specific topic that you can explore within the scope of the assignment.
• Choose a topic that you find fascinating, especially if falls within a theme that you’ve always wanted to explore.
• Refer to the assignment prompt if you’re in doubt about your topic, or seek guidance from your teacher for further clarity.

50+ Best World War 2 Essay Topics: 50+ Ideas for Your Paper

The following is a list of some of the best World War II topics for your next essay assignment:

Economy and Workforce Topics

The United States was already struggling to recover from the Great Depression, which means that World War II did have a severe effect on the economy and workforce of the states. Here are some topic ideas to consider.

• You can write an essay on how food packaging evolved during the war and the changes that occurred in advertisements.
• What were the newly created job roles, and who filled these new positions during the war
• Explain how the society reacted to the war’s propaganda, as well as the underlying reasons for these responses.
• How did Word War II alter the production of toys during the period that it lasted?
• What were the new products introduced that became part of popular culture during and after the war?

Culture and People Topics

Your essay can focus on the drastic changes to life after the United States of America got into World War II. From racism and civil rights to basic needs and resistance movements, here are some example topics to consider:

• What changes occurred in the rights of African-Americans during wartime?
• Did horses, dogs, birds, or other animals hold specific significance or functions in World War II?
• Was there a rise or decline in domestic violence cases during this period?
• Explain how the children of soldiers cope with the impact of the World War II.
• What changes did civilian fashion undergo during World War II and what were the impacts of the alterations?
• What do letters reveal about relationships, families, and gender roles during the World War II period?
• How was penicillin used, and was there any medical progress during and after the war?

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Technology and Transportation Topics

World War II contributed quite significantly to the development of transportation and technology . This change the way news spread, how people entertained themselves, and the way human beings communicated. Here are some topic ideas that fit into this area:

• What advancements in transportation infrastructure emerged from wartime or postwar policies, specifically in bridges and roads?
• Explain how radio or other communication methods influence significant events.
• Write about the needs that drove the creation of folding motorcycles and why military motorcycles in use wide use by the government?
• State the technologies that originated from the war and explain their implementation after the World War II.
• Which TV shows drew inspiration from the war, and how accurate were they?
• Can we attribute the progress in jet engine technology to the World War II?
• How crucial was rocket technology during this period?
• Why and how did remarkable shipbuilding accomplishments occur during the war?

World War II Argumentative Essay Topics

An argumentative essa y topic on the Second World War requires you to take a side and use evidence, statistics, and reasons to defend that position. You’ll have to look at both sides of the arguments, but then use the strongest pieces of evidence to explain why you believe your take on the topic (or issue) is more believable than the other is.  Here are some examples:

• Did the World War II even alter the global balance of power?
• Evaluate the roles played by nationalism, imperialism, and totalitarianism in causing WWII.
• Are there controversies surrounding the use of atomic bombs during the World War II?
• Look at the factors that facilitated the Holocaust on a massive scale during the Second World War.
• Did women have a strong contribution to the World War II and was their fight for equality during the time reasonable?
• Did propaganda affect public perception during the World War II?
• The World War II did not play a big contribution to the technological and scientific progress at the time.
• Was the internment of Japanese-Americans during World War II a violation of their civil rights?

World War II History Topics

• How did the Treaty of Versailles contribute to and influence the outbreak of World War II?
• Explain the factors that led to the ascension of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.
• Assess the importance of the Battle of Britain in halting German advancement.
• What role did Winston Churchill play in guiding Britain through World War II?
• Examine the tactics and significant battles in the Pacific during World War 2.
• Analyze how resistance movements in occupied Europe contributed to the Allies’ success.

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About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

World War 2 Essay: Outline + 100 WW2 Research Topics

This time you have to write a World War II essay, paper, or thesis. It means that you have a perfect chance to refresh those memories about the war that some of us might forget.

So many words can be said about the war in that it seems you will simply get lost in a variety of WW2 research topics and questions.

Still, you do not know what to write about in your World War 2 essay for middle school. Of course, you may look through several free essays in search of ideas. However, you may find our suggestions interesting or get instant writing help right here.

• 🔝 Top 10 Topics
• 🎓 Essay Topics for Student
• 🎖️ WW2 Argumentative Essay Topics
• 💡 More Topic Examples
• 📑 Outline Examples
• 💁 General Info

🔗 References

🔝 top 10 ww2 essay topics.

• Was the battle of Dunkirk a failure?
• WWII technologies that changed our lives
• The outcome of the Nuremberg trials
• Medical experiments during the Holocaust
• Battle of Midway as a turning point in WWII
• Why is penicillin a wonder of World War 2?
• Why is the Bataan Death March a war crime?
• The impact of propaganda during WWII
• Racial segregation in the armed forces during WWII
• What makes the Battle of Stalingrad the deadliest in WWII?

🎓 WW2 Essay Topics for Student

• Contributions of women pilots in World War II
• “Gesture Life” and “Maus”: post-World War II injuries
• The federal government’s actions during World War II
• Rebuilding Europe after World War II
• World War II in Europe: development and costs
• World War II: maskirovka military deception and denials operations
• World War II in the Pacific region
• The second World War’s historical aspects
• The rise and fall of communism after World War II
• South Africa in World War II
• Battle of the Midway during World War II
• World War II: the history of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• What effect did the World War II wartime experience have on African Americans?
• The battle of Britain during World War II
• World War II was a continuation of World War I
• Communism in Europe and America after World War II
• Camps for displaced persons after the end of World War II
• Nazis prosecution for the World War II crimes
• World War II was avoidable
• Nazi Germany’s resources and demise in World War II
• The United States and East Asia since World War II
• Japan after World War II: main events and modifications
• Atomic bomb technology and World War II outcomes
• Pacific theater of World War II
• Impact of World War II on Balkan nationalism, states and societies
• World War II: internment of the Japanese Americans
• World War II in “The Rape of Europa” Documentary
• The characteristics of successful warfare after the second World War
• Great Depression and World War II impact on the United States economy
• Battle of the Bulge during World War II
• Escape from Sobibor: World War 2 holocaust
• World War II: why Germans lost and allies won
• World War II impact on racial issues in the United States
• Women’s representations before and after World War II
• United States-Japan relations during World War II
• Second World War: cause and technology
• American foreign policy since World War II
• World War II, the Cold War and New Europe
• The Crete battle of World War II
• Home front of the United States during the second World War

🎖️ WW2: Argumentative Essay Topics

As it happens quite often, teachers like to ask students to write an essay on World War II. However, don’t expect it to be easy. It should be something more narrow than the essay about the causes of World War II.

You can use some practical techniques to come up with a suitable topic. For instance, some of the most popular ones are mind mapping and brainstorming. Don’t forget to use questions to create a perfect thesis statement.

But we have made your life so much easier and prepared this comprehensive list of WWII argumentative essay topics. There are also short hints to help you start with your paper.

🔫 World War 2 Essay Topics: Military

• Exploring the effects of WWII on life in Hawaii. Research the impact of those events on the social life of families living there.
• Family memories of the Holocaust. Dig deep and see if you have any (distant) relatives who were the witnesses.
• Something unique about Italy in WWII. Look into some exceptional circumstances that occurred there at the time of the war.
• The origins of the phrase “Kilroy was here.” It is quite a controversial topic, so you might want to study all the sources you can find.
• Nationalist Socialists: examine the importance of the movement in the US. What was its social impact since the war? Describe this in your WW2 essay.
• Write about your town/city. Conduct research to find out about the political changes in your hometown related to war.
• The transformation of the prisoner-of-war camps . Write about what happened to the POW camps after the end of the war.
• The fate of the prisoners of war. Study the documents to get to know what happened to them and whether they continued their healthy lives.
• Describe the spies that participated in WWII. Who were they? What usually happened to those who were caught by different sides?
• The role of women . Discover the contribution of the weaker sex in warfare and write about the most surprising facts.
• How important were the weather conditions for the outcomes of WWII ? Find out which battles were lost or won due to the weather.
• War crimes: consequences. Conduct research to answer the questions about the war crime trials, their outcomes, and the most notorious cases.
• Research the role of the US government in WWII . Compare it to the other governments and analyze the strategies they were using.
• The sense of freedom during the war. For this WW2 essay topic, you would need to look critically at how freedom was suppressed or expanded.
• What was so special about the movements of the troop? Here, you would be expected to provide the answers concerning the secrecy and challenges.
• The experiences of the attack survivors. Find out what was happening during the attack on the military units and the planes.

🤖 World War 2 Essay Topics: Technology

• The role of the submarines in the war. This World War II research topic is all about the importance of the submarines.
• Estimate the destruction in the UK. Find out how many historical places were wiped out as a result of the war.
• Was Winston Churchill prepared for it? Write about the background of that influential leader and how it helped him at the wartime.
• Write about the time the US entered the war. Are there any facts that we still don’t know well enough? What about the timing?
• The miracle of the radar. This WW2 essay topic would be interesting for those who are fascinated by technology. What was the role of that device in WWII?
• Rocket technology and the war. Write about the importance of the rockets and what the moment when they changed the course of the war.
• Building the ultimate warship. What was the driving force of the developments in the field of shipbuilding during WWII?
• Describe the main means of communication during the war. Don’t forget to mention the radio and its impact on the major events in your World War 2 essay.
• The development of bridges and roads. What were the main technological achievements in this field that still impact our everyday life?
• Explain the rise of the popularity of motorcycles during the war. Feel free to mention the folding bikes and their invention.
• The technology we have thanks to the war. Dedicate your WW2 essay to the inventions we can’t live without nowadays that were created during the war.
• What about TVs? You can narrow down this World War II essay question as you wish. For example, write about the shows dedicated to the war.
• The jet engines developed by the needs of war. Look into the reasons why those engines were created during WWII.

💰 WW2 Research Topics: Economy

• What about propaganda? This WWII essay should describe how people in the US were reacting to the war and why.
• The product of war: pop culture elements. Think about products that became popular and maybe even stayed a part of culture after the war ended.
• Toy story: WWII edition. Find out how the war influenced the toy production and whether it was a part of propaganda.
• The major changes in the job market sponsored by WWII. What new roles suddenly appeared on the job market, thanks to the war?
• The power of advertising. To narrow it down, you can even mention how the food packaging was adjusted and why.

🎨 WW2 Research Topics: Culture

• Discover the world of fashion during the wartime. It is one of the cool WWII essay topics. It should be about the new trends for civilians at the time.
• The analysis of artworks created during WWII. Choose a piece of art inspired by war and analyze it. What is its story?
• New times require new family traditions. How were the customs inside the families changed by the war? What about raising children? Highlight these issues in your World War 2 essay.
• The secrets of the love letters during the war. This short essay would require you to dig into the archives and find out what the letters could tell us about the relationships back then.
• What was the unique role of animals in WWII? Dedicate your writing to some type of animal and discuss how they were used.
• The rights of African-Americans during the time of war. Write about how their civil rights were changed and try to find the root causes.
• Food preservation methods: another revolution. This example is all about food and how it was packed and preserved during the war.
• The cases of domestic violence during the cold war. Were the rates higher at the time? Did political tension cause it? This is also a great World War 2 essay topic.
• Expanding the vocabulary. Just like any other part of life, the language also went through some changes. What were the new words that emerged?
• The troubled life of housewife during WWII. Describe the work women used to do at the wartime and how it was changed.
• Still resisting: the movements created by families. Here, you should concentrate on the experience of the families that live in the occupied territories.
• Lifesaving food: the role of nutrition in WWII. Try to research and find the battles that were lost or won due to the availability of food.
• The impact of food rationing on soldiers and families. Write your WW2 essay about the struggles of families and different groups of people.
• What were the common sacrifices of families during the war? In this essay, you would need to look into the negative changes in families’ lifestyles.
• The miracle of penicillin: WWII. This research aims to uncover the importance of penicillin or any other medicine of your choice.
• The clothes that saved lives. Write about different types of clothing and materials that were used to help the soldiers on the battlefield.

💡 World War 2 Essay: More Topic Examples

Below, other suggestions on what you might write about in essays on World War II are presented:

Present in Your World War 2 Essay Alternative Decisions That Could Have Changed the Course of the War Dramatically

Such World War 2 essay will aim to explore some of the greatest decision making mistakes of the world leaders. We do not mean that you should discuss some miraculous history events like “what if Hitler had a heart attack.” In the World War 2 essay devoted to this problem, give realistic alternative decisions that were considered but not realized. Analyze those alternatives that could have changed the end of the war.

“In Your World War Ii Essay, Try to Answer the Question “When Did Hitler Lose the War?”

When did Adolf Hitler lose his chance to win World War II? What was it? These are the World War 2 essay questions you have to answer. Analyze different viewpoints of historians and present your opinion in the essay on World War 2.

Cover the Themes of Atrocity and War-Crimes in the World War 2 Essay

Acts of genocides and atrocity against civil population occurred in such countries as Japan, the Soviet Union, and Germany. Some of them were so horrific and immense that they changed the psyche of many people and different nations. When disclosing this theme in the Second World War essay, tell about Nazi concentration camps, “Death-camps,” the Holocaust , etc.

If you are interested in other  history essay  topics, read our hints for writing terrorism essays . And don’t forget to tell us in comments below your opinion about the World War 2.

📑 World War 2 Essay: Outline Examples

The next is creating a neat outline, which would become a massive help for you during the process of writing. Find examples of World War II essay outlines below!

Example 1. Analyze how some alternative decisions could have changed the course of World War II

Try to pick something realistic. Merely writing that if Hitler suddenly died and the war had never happened is just dull. Get creative and maybe take as a basis some real facts that were considered but never came into life.

• In your World War II essay introduction , present the chosen decision. Include your thesis statement in this part as well. It should be your hypothesis concerning the topic.
• In the main body , give at least three arguments why and how that decision would have changed things. Here, you prove your hypothesis to be right. You may add one counter-argument if you wish. For instance, include the opinion of a historian saying that it wouldn’t change anything.
• In conclusion , state your opinion once again, which is now supported by arguments.

Example 2. When did it happen that Germany lost the war?

Think about when Adolf Hitler might have missed his chance to win World War II. What was it? Include some details. Once again, do your research and consider the opinions of different historians.

• In the introduction to this World War 2 essay , present your point of view. In the thesis statement, write the answer to World War II essay questions clearly and coherently.
• The main body here is for you to include three to five pieces of evidence that may prove you right. If you decide to write an argumentative essay, you might add some contradicting facts, too.
• In the last part of your writing, focus on paraphrasing your thesis statement.

Example 3. World War II: discuss war crimes and atrocity

This essay title is related to all acts of cruelty against the civil population, including genocides. You may want to narrow it down according to your preferences. For instance, you can talk about how concentration camps created by Nazis have changed the people’s psyche.

• Introduce this WW2 essay topic by stating how people have changed after surviving the Death Camps. It might be a good idea to include a sentence at the beginning that may serve as a hook to make your readers interested.
• In the body , present not less than three examples of what you think might be relevant. Those should be proven historical facts if you want your essay to be persuasive.
• Conclude by providing a summary of the facts presented in the main body. Add the paraphrased thesis statement.

💁 World War 2: General Information

World war ii: timeline.

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. And on September 3, 1939, France and Britain, fulfilling their obligations to Poland, declared war on Germany and World War II began.

However, the beginning of World War II was preceded by some events, inextricably related:

• September 18, 1931. Japan attacked Manchuria
• October 2, 1935 – May 1936. Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia, conquered and annexed it
• October 25 – November 1, 1936. On October 25, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy concluded a cooperation agreement. November 1 announced the creation of the “ Rome-Berlin Axis “
• November 25, 1936. Nazi Germany and imperialist Japan concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact, directed against the USSR and the international communist movement
• July 7, 1937. Japan invaded China. The World War II began in the Pacific
• 11-13 March 1938. Germany joins Austria (the so-called Anschluss)
• September 29, 1938. Germany, Italy, Great Britain and France signed the Munich agreement obliging the Czechoslovak Republic to cede Nazi Germany to the Sudetenland (where the critical Czechoslovak fortifications were located)
• 14-15 March 1939. Under pressure from Germany, the Slovaks declared their independence and created the Slovak Republic. The Germans broke the Munich agreement , occupied the Czech lands, and established the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

• March 31, 1939. France and the United Kingdom provided guarantees of the inviolability of the borders of Poland
• 7-15 April 1939. Fascist Italy attacked Albania and annexed it
• August 23, 1939. Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact and a secret annex to it, according to which Europe was divided into spheres of influence

Some scientists think that the World War II was a continuation of the World War I ended in 1918.

September 2, 1945, is the date when the World War II ended. Japan, agreed to unconditional surrender on August 14, 1945, officially capitulates, thereby putting an end to World War II.

World War II: Key Facts

• Perhaps, the World War II was one the most destructive wars in modern history. About 27,000 people were killed each day from September 1, 1939, to September 2, 1945.
• The primary opponents were Nazi Germany, fascist Italy, Imperial Japan on the one hand, and the Soviet Union, Great Britain, France the United States , and China on the other.
• Germany capitulated on May 7, 1945 . At the same time, Japan continued to fight for another four months before their capitulation on September 2. Atomic bombs, dropped by American troops on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were first used against Japan.
• The end of the war was marked by Britain losing most of its empire . At the same time, World War II accelerated the revival of the US and Soviet economies as global superpowers.
• After the end of the World War II, the “Cold War” between the US and the USSR started.

World War 2: Casualties

The exact World War II casualties remain unknown. However, historians name that the total number of victims was over 60 million people including military and civilians killed. Below you’ll find the list of states suffered the highest losses:

• 42,000,000 people–USSR
• 9,000,000 people–Germany
• 4,000,000 people–China
• 3,000,000 people–Japan

World War II: Causes

Perhaps, there were many prerequisites for World War II:

• Japan’s victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) opened the door for Japanese expansion in the Asia-Pacific region
• The US Navy first developed plans to prepare for a naval war with Japan in 1890
• The Great Depression, and the global recession that followed
• The coming to power of Hitler and his statement about the injustice of the Versailles Treaty, signed in 1918
• The creation in 1935 of the Luftwaffe, as a direct violation of the 1919 treaty
• Remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936
• Anschluss of Austria and the annexation of part of Czechoslovakia
• Italy’s desire to create a Third Rome and Japan’s goal to create an independent state with the Pan-Asian sphere of influence

World War II: Results

The results of World War II are not limited to losses and destruction. As a result of the war, the face of the world changed: new borders and new states appeared, new tendencies of social development emerged, and significant inventions were made.

The war gave a strong impetus to the development of science and technology. Radar, jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, antibiotics, electronic computers and many other discoveries were made or entered into widespread use during the war. The foundations of the scientific and technological revolution were laid, which transformed and continued to change the postwar world.

The ideology of fascism, Nazism, racism, colonialism thoroughly discredited itself; on the contrary, the ideas of anti-fascism, anti-colonialism, democracy, and socialism gained wide popularity.

The human rights recorded in the UN Charter are internationally recognized. The influence of parties and groups that fought for democracy and social transformations–communists, socialists, social democrats, Christian democrats and other democratic forces, has sharply increased.

In many countries, significant reforms carried out: partial nationalization of industry and banks, the creation of a state system of social insurance, the expansion of workers’ rights. In some countries, including France, Italy, Germany, Japan, have adopted new, democratic constitutions. There was a profound renewal of the society, democratization of state and public institutions.

The colonial system disintegration was another significant result and consequence of the Second World War. Before the war, the vast majority of the world’s population lived in colonies, the area, and population of which many times exceeded the metropolitan countries: Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Italy, and Japan.

During the World War 2 and after its end, part of the dependent and colonial countries (Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, Burma, Philippines, and Korea) declared itself independent. In 1947, India became independent, divided into two dominions: India and Pakistan. The intense process of liberation of the colonial peoples began, which continued until the complete abolition of the colonies in the second half of the twentieth century.

As a result of the war, the balance of forces in the world has changed dramatically. Germany, Italy, Japan were defeated, for a time turned into dependent countries, occupied by foreign troops. The war destroyed their economy, and they for many years could not compete with their former competitors.

Compared with the pre-war time, the positions of France and even Great Britain weakened considerably. The USA came out of the war significantly strengthened. Having surpassed all other countries economically and militarily, the United States became the sole leader of the capitalist world.

The second “superpower” was the Soviet Union. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the most massive land army in the world and substantial industrial potential. The USSR Armed Forces were in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, East Germany and North Korea.

Some countries liberated by the Soviet Union took the road of non-capitalist development. After the liberation from the occupiers in Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, people’s democratic governments were established with the participation or under the leadership of the Communists, who began profound social transformations. By the Yalta agreements , these countries were considered to be the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union and were in fact under its control.

If the United States became the leader of the capitalist world, then the Soviet Union led the social forces that opposed capitalism. Two main poles of attraction of the world forces, conventionally called the East and the West, were formed; began to build two ideological and military-political blocs, the confrontation of which largely determined the structure of the post-war bipolar world.

The anti-fascist coalition split. Its participants came into conflict with each other, and the “ Cold War ” that lasted more than 45 years, until the collapse of the USSR.

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Collection Military Legal Resources

World war ii.

The United States entered World War II in December 1941 and became fully engaged in the war, both in the European and Mediterranean Theater as well as the Pacific Theater. This collection focuses on military legal documents and trials in the aftermath of the war, including the Nuremberg Trials, the World War II Board of Review Decisions, the Malmedy Massacre Report, and the trial of General Yamashita, in roughly chronological order.

Martial Law in Hawaii: the Papers of Major General Thomas H. Green, Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Army

On December 7, 1941, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas H. Green was Staff Judge Advocate, Hawaiian Department. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he became executive to the military governor and was responsible for countless daily operations of the American military government in the Territory of Hawaii. His personal papers—spanning his entire career from 1917 through his retirement in 1949—include notes, speeches and newspaper clippings, as well as correspondence with such historic figures as the secretaries of War, Navy, and Interior, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Generals Walter Short and Delos Emmons, and Admirals William D. Leahy and Chester Nimitz.

Martial Law in Hawaii : December 7, 1941 – April 4, 1943. Major General Green's complete, unpublished manuscript.

Nazi Saboteurs Trial

In mid-June 1942, eight German saboteurs — Ernest Peter Burger, George John Dasch, Herbert Hans Haupt, Henry Harm Heinck, Edward John Kerling, Hermann Otto Neubauer, Richard Quirin, and Werner Thiel — entered the United States by submarine in two groups, one landing on the coast of Long Island, New York, and the other at Ponte Vedra, near Jacksonville, Florida. Per the instructions of the German High Command, both groups of men carried a supply of explosives, fuses and incendiary and timing devices, to be used to destroy vital infrastructure, war-related industries, and various commercial locations in the United States. Within two weeks, George John Dasch turned himself in to the Federal Bureau of Investigation and divulged critical information that led to the arrest of the other seven saboteurs in New York City and Chicago. On July 2, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, as commander in chief of the army and navy, issued two orders that empowered a military commission to prosecute the eight saboteurs. The first, Proclamation No. 2561 — “Denying Certain Enemies Access to the Courts of the United States” — states at the outset that all enemies of the United States who commit certain acts “should be promptly tried in accordance with the law of war.” Specifically, citizens and residents of nations at war with the United States “who during time of war enter or attempt to enter the United States … through coastal or boundary defenses, and are charged with committing or attempting or preparing to commit sabotage, espionage, hostile or warlike acts, or violations of the law of war,” were to be “subject to the law of war and to the jurisdiction of military tribunals” and prohibited from seeking remedy in the federal or state courts. The second order, issued by President Roosevelt under authority of Article of War 38, appointed a military commission to try the eight Germans “for offenses against the law of war and the Articles of War.” The commission was given “power to make such rules for the conduct of the proceeding, consistent with the powers of military commissions under the Articles of War, as it shall deem necessary for a full and fair trial of the matters before it.” The order also prescribed regulations for review of the record of the trial and of any judgment or sentence of the commission.

The commission was convened on July 8, 1942. The eight saboteurs sought to file a writ of habeas corpus with the U.S District Court for the District of Columbia, but their motion was denied. In late July, while the military commission was in session, defense counsel persuaded the U.S. Supreme Court to hear oral arguments on defense challenges to the commission. The Supreme Court’s decision, Ex parte Quirin , issued on July 31, 1942, considered the petitioners’ “contention that the President is without any statutory or constitutional authority to order the petitioners to be tried by military tribunal for offenses with which they are charged” — violation of the law of war, violation of Articles 81 and 82 of the Articles of War, and conspiracy to commit these violations — and that they are consequently entitled to be tried in civil courts. The Court rejected these arguments, and ruled that the German saboteurs were “plainly within the ultimate boundaries of the jurisdiction of military tribunals, and were held in good faith for trial by military commission, charged with being enemies who, with the purpose of destroying war materials and utilities, entered or after entry remained in our territory without uniform — an offense against the law of war. Those particular acts constitute an offense against the law of war which the Constitution authorizes to be tried by military commission.” The military tribunal concluded on August 1, with a guilty verdict for all eight defendants. On August 8, 1942 Haupt, Heinck, Kerling, Neubauer, Quirin, and Thiel were executed. Burger and Dasch received prison sentences. The full text of Ex parte Quirin , linked below, is the electronic version of the final, official opinion of the Supreme Court, which is printed in the bound volumes of the United States Reports . As other documents related to the Nazi saboteurs case are converted to digital format, they will be added to this site.

Nazi Saboteurs Trial , Washington, D.C., 1942

Enactments and Approved Papers of the Control Council and Coordinating Committee, Allied Control Authority, Germany (1945-1948)

The Control Council and Coordinating Committee of the Allied Control Authority in post-World War II-occupied Germany issued a series of enactments and approved papers. This nine-volume series, compiled and printed by the Legal Division of the Office of the U.S. Military Government for Germany, represents the effort to rule an occupied country by unanimous agreement of representatives of the four occupying powers: The United Kingdom, the U.S.S.R., France, and the United States. The collection is not only of historical value, but is an important resource for current military legal scholarship.

• Volume VIII
• Legislative History, Law Index
• Legsilative History, Subject Index

Nuremberg Trials

24 major political and military leaders of Nazi Germany, indicted for aggressive war, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, were brought to trial before the International Military Tribunal. More than 100 additional defendants, representing many sectors of German society, were tried before the United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals in a series of 12 trials known as “Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings.” The four major publications linked below contain: the official proceedings of the trial of the major war criminals (The Blue Series), documentary evidence and guide materials from that trial (The Red Series), the official condensed record of the subsequent trials (The Green Series), and a final report on all the war crimes trials held in Nuremberg, Germany, from 1945 to 1949.

Nurnberg Military Tribunals: Indictments, Case No. 1-12

Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal ("Blue Series") Nuremberg, 14 November 1945 - 1 October 1946

This 42-volume series, also known as “ The Blue Series ,” is the official record of the trial of the major civilian and military leaders of Nazi Germany who were accused of war crimes. The accused were: Hermann Wilhelm Göring, Rudolf Hess, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Robert Ley, Wilhelm Keitel, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Alfred Rosenberg, Hans Frank, Wilhelm Frick, Julius Streicher, Walter Funk, Hjalmar Schacht, Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, Karl Dönitz, Erich Raeder, Baldur von Schirach, Fritz Sauckel, Alfred Jodl, Martin Bormann, Franz von Papen, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Albert Speer, Constantin von Neurath, and Hans Fritzsche. The International Military Tribunal, under the jurisdiction of the Allied Control Authority for Germany, directed the publication of this series.  The London Agreement of 8 August 1945 established the tribunal, which was composed of one member and an alternate from each of the four Allied countries: the French Republic, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America.  English, French, German, and Russian were the languages used throughout the hearings. Documents entered into evidence were reproduced in this series only in the original language, but as the result of the absence of a Soviet editorial staff, none of the Russian-language documents were published.

• Volume XIII
• Volume XVII
• Volume XVIII
• Volume XXII
• Volume XXIII
• Volume XXIV
• Volume XXVI
• Volume XXVII
• Volume XXVIII
• Volume XXIX
• Volume XXXI
• Volume XXXII
• Volume XXXIII
• Volume XXXIV
• Volume XXXV
• Volume XXXVI
• Volume XXXVII
• Volume XXXVIII
• Volume XXXIX
• Volume XLII

Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Office of the United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality ("Red Series") Nuremberg, Germany (1945-1946)

This eight-volume, 12-book series, also known as “ The Red Series ,” is a “Collection of Documentary Evidence and Guide Materials Prepared by the American and British Prosecuting Staffs for Presentation before the International Military Tribunal at Nurnberg, Germany.”  The Red Series makes available an indexed sampling of the evidence used to support the charges made against the major Nazi war criminals in their trial at Nuremberg, Germany, 1945-1946.  Volumes I and II serve as an overarching guide for the Red Series. They contain essays that summarize and link together the documents that follow.  Volume II also contains a glossary along with short biographies of the German defendants, as well as summaries of the individual cases against them.

• Opinion and Judgment
• Supplement A
• Supplement B

Trials of War Criminals Before the Nurenberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10 ("Green Series") October 1946 - April 1949

This 15-volume series, also known as “ The Green Series ,” focuses on the 12 trials of almost 200 defendants. The defendants included: diplomats, politicians and jurists, such as Ernst von Weizsaecker, the State Secretary of the Foreign Office, cabinet ministers Schwerin von Krosigk and Hans Lammers, and the Acting Minister of Justice Franz Schlegelberger; military leaders, including Field Marshals Wilhelm von Leeb, Wilhelm List, and Georg von Küchler; SS (Schutzstaffel) leaders, such as Otto Ohlendorf and Oswald Pohl; leading industrialists, such as Friedrich Flick, Alfred Krupp, and the directors of I. G. Farben; and physicians, such as Gerhard Rose. The trial proceedings, conducted in English and German, were carried out under the direct authority of the Allied Control Council, Law No. 10, the text of which is included in Volume I of “the Green Series.”  The trials lasted two and a half years, and produced more than 300,000 pages of testimony and evidence. This publication by the United States Government Printing Office is the official abridged record of the individual indictments and judgments, as well as the administrative materials that were common to all the trials.

The OCCWC (Office, Chief of Counsel for War Crimes) was officially established on October 24, 1946 and formally deactivated on June 20, 1949. The OCCWC was established in the Office of Military Government for Germany (U.S.) [OMGUS], by General Order 301, Headquarters U.S. Forces in Europe, and was the successor to the Subsequent Proceedings Division of the Office of the U.S. Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution of Axis Criminality. In this report on the Nuremberg war crimes trials, which were conducted under the authority of Control Council Law No. 10, Brigadier General Telford Taylor, Chief of Counsel for War Crimes, also describes the creation, organization, and functioning of the OCCWC. His report covers the period from the beginnings of the OCCWC in October 1945 to its deactivation in 1949.

Final Report to the Secretary of the Army on the Nuernberg War Crimes Trials Under Control Council Law No. 10 Telford Taylor, Brigadier General, Chief of Counsel for War Crimes Washington, D.C., 15 August 1949

World War II Board of Review Decisions

European Theatre : includes Volumes 1-34, index digests 1-2, and Index Supplement Digest 1

North African/Mediterranean Theatre of Operations : includes Volumes 1-7 and Digest of Opinions

Pacific Ocean Areas : includes Volume 1

Southwest Pacific Asia/Pacific : includes Volumes 1-4, Appendix, and Index

China, Burma, India/India-Burma Theater : includes Volumes 1-3

Malmedy Massacre Investigation and Record of Trial

Malmedy massacre investigation and report, malmedy, belgium, 17 december 1944.

On December 16, 1944, the German Army began the Ardennes offensive known as the Battle of the Bulge.  On December 17, 113 American soldiers surrendered to a German armored column under the command of SS Colonel Joachim Peiper [variant: Piper]. After the American prisoners were disarmed, they were assembled in a field near Malmedy, Belgium, and shot. The German soldiers involved in this massacre of the American prisoners were later prosecuted by the U.S. Army for war crimes in 1946 in what is known as the Malmedy Massacre Trial.

In March 1949, in response to charges concerning the unfair conduct of the prosecution in the Malmedy cases, the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services appointed a subcommittee to review the Army’s investigative and trial procedures. The Hon. Raymond E. Baldwin, chairman, presided over the subcommittee hearings, which were held in April, May, June, and September 1949. The subcommittee report was released by the full committee on October 13, 1949. The full text of these hearings as well as the subcommittee report are linked below.

Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services

• Part 1: April 18, 20, 22, 29; May 4, 5, 6 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24; June 1, 2, 3, and 6, 1949
• Part 2: September 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, and 28, 1949
• Report, October 13, 1949

Malmedy Massacre Record of Trial: United States v. Valentin Bersin et al., Dachau, Germany, 16 May - 16 July 1946

Following the end of World War II, the attention of the entire world was focused on the proceedings of the International Military Tribunal, which had begun in Nuremberg, Germany, in November 1945, and the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, which had begun in Tokyo, Japan, in April 1946. Both trials saw the countries’ leaders charged with, among other things, war crimes and crimes against humanity.

On May 16, 1946, an equally important, though lesser known, war crimes trial began in a courtroom at the former Dachau concentration camp. A general military government court of seven U.S. Army officers began to try members of Battle Group Pieper (so named after its commander, SS Colonel Joachim Pieper), former Waffen SS soldiers who were accused of murdering 84 American prisoners of war on December 17, 1944 at a road intersection near Malmedy, Belgium, during the Battle of the Bulge. As survivors of the massacre reached American lines, word of the killings quickly circulated among American troops and steeled their determination to halt the German offensive.

American newspapers and magazines immediately began calling these killings “the Malmedy Massacre,” the name by which these war crimes will forever be known. Army war crimes investigators immediately began collecting evidence, but it was not until mid-January 1945 that the bodies of those killed were recovered and given proper burials.

Following a two-month trial, during which survivors identified many of the accused in court and testified that many wounded Americans had been shot in the head at close range, all 73 of the accused SS soldiers were found guilty on July 11, 1946. For an excellent summary of the trial and its aftermath, see The Malmedy Massacre Trial: The Military Government Court Proceedings and the Controversial Legal Aftermath (page 22) by Fred L. Borch, III, Regimental Historian and Archivist for the U.S. Army Judge Advocate General’s Corps.

Trial of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 14 November 1945-1 October 1946

• Volume I | Volume II | Volume III
• Volume IV | Volume V | Volume VI
• Volume VII | Volume VIII | Volume IX
• Volume X | Volume XI | Volume XII
• Volume XIII | Volume XIV | Volume XV
• Volume VII includes Additional Content and appendices B-F, G-J, K-P, R-S, T-Z

*The additional content is a book presented to Ellis F. Burton, Assistant Army Judge Advocate and chief prosecutor on the Malmedy Massacre War Crimes Trial. This book is available in the Library of Congress Law Library Rare Book Room .

General Yamashita Trial and International Military Tribunal of the Far East

The case of general yamashita: a memorandum.

In September 1945, Tomoyuki Yamashita, in his capacity as commanding general of the Japanese Fourteenth Army Group in the Philippines, became a prisoner of war of the United States Army Forces and was charged with violations of the law of war. The official charge from the Judge Advocate General’s Department of the Army states that between October 9, 1944 and September 2, 1945, General Yamashita “unlawfully disregarded and failed to discharge his duty as commander to control the operations of the members of his command, permitting them to commit brutal atrocities and other high crimes against people of the United States and of its allies and dependencies, particularly the Philippines.” On December 7, 1945, a military commission found General Yamashita guilty as charged, and sentenced him to death. Yamashita filed a petition for a writ of habeas corpus to the United States Supreme Court, challenging the commission’s lawful authority and jurisdiction to try him. On February 4, 1946 the Court denied the general’s petition, and he was executed shortly thereafter.

The Case of General Yamashita: A Memorandum was written in November 1949 by U.S. Army Brigadier General Courtney Whitney to refute the arguments presented in a book written, but not at that time published, by one of Yamashita’s six defense counsels, Captain A. Frank Reel. In support of its rebuttals to Reel’s book, the memorandum cites as authorities the Supreme Court opinion, In re Yamashita , 327 U.S. 1 (1946); the United Nations War Crimes Commission Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals ; and the Judge Advocate review of the record of trial, all of which are included as appendices to the memorandum.

The memorandum takes exception to Capt. Reel’s use of the dissenting opinions in the Yamashita decision to “support his post-judicial contention that Yamashita was irregularly tried and unjustly executed.” It affirms the three major findings of the Court: the military commission which tried and convicted Yamashita was lawfully created and lawfully convened; the allegations of the charge against Yamashita adequately alleged a violation of the laws of war; and the regulations governing the procedures to be followed by the commission were not in conflict with the Articles of War and did not deprive Yamashita of due process. The memorandum notes that General MacArthur, who served as the final reviewing authority prior to ordering the execution of sentence, supported the majority opinion of the Court. The memorandum includes in its entirety General MacArthur’s statement of record enumerating his reasons for approving the military commission’s judgment.

The commentary written by the United Nations War Crimes Commission discusses at length the Yamashita decision, focusing on the questions of international law which were involved in that case. Specifically, this document addresses “the legality of the trial of war criminals after the termination of hostilities; the finding that an alleged war criminal is not entitled to the protection of the Geneva Prisoner of War Convention relating to trial; the types of evidence admitted in war crime trial proceedings; the stress placed by the Commission on the need for expeditious procedure; and the responsibility of a commander for offences committed by his troops.” The Memorandum finds the commentary’s “discussion of the validity of that part of the regulations governing the procedure to be followed by the military commission in the admissibility of evidence” to be of particular interest.

The memorandum provides a lengthy recitation of the “specifications to the charge on which Yamashita was tried, convicted, and executed,” and states that it “established a pattern of the ... misconduct of the troops under Yamashita’s command.” The memorandum also quotes extensively from the Judge Advocate General’s review of the trial record to illustrate “the voluminous evidence before the military commission pointing to full knowledge by the high command of this reign of terror instituted against non-combatants and prisoners over a wide area.” The Judge Advocate’s review of the trial concluded that the military commission was legally constituted, and had jurisdiction of Yamashita and the offense with which he was charged. It also found that the evidence in that case supported the finding of guilty, that the trial record disclosed no errors in violation of the rights of the accused, and that the sentence was legal.

The Case of General Yamashita: A Memorandum , Brig. Gen. Courtney Whitney (1949).

See also "Trial of General Tomoyuki Yamashita" in volume 4 of the U.S. Crimes Commission's Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals (1948), Case No. 21 (Page 1).

United States of America v. Tomoyuki Yamashita: Record of Trial Manila, Philipines 8 October - 7 December 1945

On October 8, 1945, a military commission—acting under authority from Gen. Douglas MacArthur—began the trial of Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita on the charge that between October 9, 1944 and September 2, 1945,

at Manila and at other places in the Philippine Islands, while a commander of [the] armed forces of Japan at war with the United States of America and its allies, [he] unlawfully disregarded and failed to discharge his duty as commander to control the operations of the members of his command, permitting them to commit brutal atrocities and other high crimes against people of the United States and of its allies and dependencies, particularly the Philippines; and he, General Tomoyuki Yamashita, thereby violated the laws of war.

Two bills of particulars, consisting of 123 distinct paragraphs alleging Yamashita’s violations of the laws of war, were introduced into evidence by the prosecution. The commission heard from 286 persons and received a total of 423 exhibits. The record of trial totaled 4,055 pages.

On December 7, 1945, the fourth anniversary of the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, the military commission found Gen. Yamashita guilty as charged and sentenced him to death by hanging. Yamashita petitioned the Supreme Court of the United States for writs of habeas corpus and prohibition. The opinion of the court, which rejected Yamashita’s petition, was delivered by Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone on February 4, 1946 ( 327 U.S. 1 ). President Harry S. Truman likewise rejected Yamashita’s plea for clemency. Gen. MacArthur reviewed the record of trial and affirmed the death sentence recommended by the commission. Yamashita was executed by hanging on February 23, 1946.

Before the Miliary Commission convened by the Commanding General, United states Army Forces, Western Pacific. United States of America vs. Tomoyuki Yamaskita. [Proceedings].

• Public Trial - 29 October 1945
• Public Trial - 30 October 1945
• Public Trial - 31 October 1945
• Public Trial - 1 November 1945
• Public Trial - 2 November 1945
• Public Trial - 3 November 1945
• Public Trial - 5 November 1945
• Public Trial - 6 November 1945
• Public Trial - 7 November 1945
• Public Trial - 8 November 1945
• Public Trial - 9 November 1945
• Public Trial - 12 November 1945
• Public Trial - 13 November 1945
• Public Trial - 14 November 1945
• Public Trial - 15 November 1945
• Public Trial - 16 November 1945
• Public Trial - 17 November 1945
• Public Trial - 19 November 1945
• Public Trial - 20 November 1945
• Public Trial - 21 November 1945
• Public Trial - 22 November 1945
• Public Trial - 23 November 1945
• Public Trial - 24 November 1945
• Public Trial - 26 November 1945
• Public Trial - 27 November 1945
• Public Trial - 28 November 1945
• Public Trial - 29 November 1945
• Public Trial - 30 November 1945
• Public Trial - 1 December 1945
• Public Trial - 3 December 1945
• Public Trial - 5 December 1945
• Public Trial - 7 December 1945
• Exhibits Volume 1 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 2 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 3 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 4 - Prosecution Exhibits
• Exhibits Volume 5 - Defense Exhibits

Judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East Tokyo, Japan; 1946-1948

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) was established by a special proclamation issued January 19, 1946, by Gen. Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. The first meeting of the IMTFE was held in Tokyo, Japan, on April 29, 1946. By the time the tribunal ended over two and a half years later, 419 witnesses had appeared in 818 court sessions and 779 affidavits and depositions had been presented. The IMTFE rendered its judgment November 4–12, 1948, in an opinion that took seven months to prepare and was 1,218 pages long. Maj. Gen. Myron C. Cramer, who served as Judge Advocate General of the Army during World War II, represented the United States at the tribunal.

Judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East

• Volume I, Part A: Chapter I | Chapter II | Chapter III
• Volume I, Part B: Chapter IV | Chapter V
• Volume II, Part B, continued: Chapter VI | Chapter VII | Chapter VIII
• Volume II, Part C: Chapter IX | Chapter X | Annexes and Appendices

Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals

Law reports of trials of war criminals selected and prepared by the united nations war crimes commission (1947-1949).

This 15-volume series summarizes the course of the more important proceedings taken against individuals accused of war crimes during World War II, excluding the major war criminals tried by the Nuremberg and Tokyo International Military Tribunals. These representative trials of war criminals were selected for this series based on the major points of municipal and international law that were raised and settled during the trials as well as the potential for the greatest legal interest. Each volume begins with a unique introduction by the Right Honorable Lord Wright of Durley, Chairman of the United Nations War Crimes Commission.

Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, Volumes 1-15

Nazi War Crimes & Japanese Imperial Government Records

In October 1998, President Clinton signed into law the Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act (NWCDA), which required the U.S. Government to locate, declassify, and release in their entirety, with few exceptions, remaining classified records about war crimes committed by Nazi Germany and its allies. The act required the President to establish an Interagency Working Group to oversee its implementation, which became the largest congressionally mandated, single-subject declassification effort in history, resulting in over 8 million pages of records being opened. This report is concerned with the process of implementing the Disclosure Acts and with the effectiveness of the acts, including the extent to which the acts resulted in the release of relevant records, the extent to which records were not released, and why. The report does not attempt to assess the historical value of the documentation covered by the acts; nor does it describe or present historical analyses or interpretations of declassified documentation. These interpretive tasks are appropriately left to historians and others with the expertise to study the raw sources made available by the Disclosure Acts. (excerpted from the introduction)

Nazi War Crimes & Japanese Imperial Government Records (April 2007)

Report of the Deputy Judge Advocate Report on War Crimes, European Command

This report was submitted by Lieutenant Colonel Clio Edwin Straight, Deputy Judge Advocate for War Crimes, European Command, to Colonel James L. Harbaugh, Jr., Judge Advocate, European Command. It covers pre-trial and trial phases of the war crimes program that dealt with so-called conventional war crimes cases, which were conducted by the United States Military Forces in Europe, from June 1944 to July 1948.

Report of the Deputy Judge Advocate Report on War Crimes, European Command June 1944 to July 1948

Report of Robert H. Jackson, United States Representative to the International Conference on Military Trials

In December 1947 Justice Robert H. Jackson submitted a “documentary record of negotiations,” which he had conducted from June to August 1945 as U.S. representative to the International Conference on Military Trials with representatives of the United Kingdom, France, and the USSR. The purpose of this conference, held in London, was to establish “methods of procedure for the prosecution and trial of the major European war criminals,” and resulted in the adoption of an agreement and charter of London, signed by representatives of the four conferring powers on August 8, 1945.

The Jackson report includes numerous preparatory documents for the 1945 conference: minutes of conference sessions; reports of the drafting committee regarding the agreement and charter; redrafts of the definitions of key terms; and amendments and other proposals submitted by the American, British, French, and Soviet delegations.

In his preface to this report, Justice Jackson highlights the difficulties in reconciling the “divergence in legal concepts and traditions” among the four delegate nations. A consistent point of separation was the difference between the Soviet practice of judicial inquiry, and the Anglo-American theory of criminal trials, coupled with opposite views of the function of the judiciary. Jackson describes these discords as “stubborn and deep,” noting the failure to include in the final charter the American proposal to define “aggression.” There was a significant “difference of viewpoint concerning the principles of conspiracy as developed in Anglo-American law,” and the most serious disagreement concerned the definition of crimes.

The charter was, however, in many respects a success. It defines three broad categories of acts as criminal—crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. It also “enacts the principle that individuals rather than states are responsible for criminal violations of international law and applies to such lawbreakers the principle of conspiracy by which one who joins in a common plan to commit crime becomes responsible for the acts of any other conspirator in executing the plan.” The procedural provisions of the charter are significant because they “represent the first tried and successful effort by lawyers from nations having profoundly different legal systems, philosophies, and traditions to amalgamate their ideas of fair procedure so as to permit a joint inquiry of judicial character into criminal charges.”

This document also includes two reports to the President of the United States submitted by Justice Jackson in June 1945 and October 1946. The 1945 report, which was widely published in the United States and throughout Europe, “was accepted by other governments as an official statement of the position of the United States and as such was placed before all of the delegations to the London Conference.” In this report Jackson outlines the basic features of the plan of prosecution on which the United States was proceeding in preparing its case. The case would begin with the assumption that “an inescapable responsibility” rested on the U.S. “to conduct an inquiry, preferably in association with others, but alone if necessary, into the culpability of those whom there is a probable cause to accuse of atrocities and other crimes.” A fair hearing would be conducted to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused, employing procedures not necessarily consistent with those of a trial under the U.S. system of justice. The hearings would bar “obstructive and dilatory tactics” by the defense, and would disallow the defense from arguing the doctrines that “a head of state is immune from legal liability, and that orders from an official superior protect one who obeys them. It will be noticed that the combination of these two doctrines means that nobody is responsible.” The defendants would consist of a large number of persons who were in authority in the German government and the military establishment, as well as in the financial and industrial sectors, “who by all civilized standards are provable to be common criminals.” Voluntary organizations such as the Gestapo, whose criminal activities subjugated the German people and their neighbors, would be accused as well, with the intent of demonstrating “their declared and covert objectives, and methods of recruitment and effectuating their programs.” The report notes that the U.S. case would need to be “factually authentic and constitute a well-documented history of” what the U.S was convinced was “a grand, concerted pattern to commit aggressions and barbarities which have shocked the world.” The report enumerates the atrocities and offenses, and violations of international law, with which the top Nazi leaders and voluntary associations were being charged. The basic premise of liability would be that “all who participate in the formulation or execution of a criminal plan involving multiple crimes are liable for each of the offenses committed and responsible for the acts of each other.” The United States “proposes to charge that a war of aggression is a crime, and that modern International Law has abolished the defense that those who incite or wage it are engaged in legitimate business. Thus may the forces of the law be mobilized on the side of peace.”

The 1946 report to the President summarizes the judgments of the International Military Tribunal sitting at Nurnberg (Nuremberg), Germany that were rendered on September 30 and October 1, 1946. It also provides statistics regarding testimony and other evidentiary material presented at this lengthy trial, which began on November 20, 1945. The report notes the subsequent war crimes work that would be supervised by Brigadier General Telford Taylor, specifically the prosecution of “representatives of all the important segments of the Third Reich including a considerable number of industrialists and financiers, leading cabinet ministers, top SS and police officials, and militarists.” The core of this report is Justice Jackson’s summary of the accomplishments of the four delegate nations. He states that the Agreement negotiated and concluded by these parties “made explicit and unambiguous that to prepare, incite, or wage a war of aggression, or to conspire with others to do so, is a crime against international society, and that to persecute, oppress, or do violence to individuals or minorities on political, racial, or religious grounds in connection with such a war, or to exterminate, enslave, or deport civilian populations, is an international crime, and that for the commission of such crimes individuals are responsible.” This agreement “is a basic charter in the International Law of the future. Its principles have been incorporated into a judicial precedent,” because from this point forward no one would be able to “deny or fail to know that the principles on which the Nazi leaders” were adjudged to have committed capital offenses “constitute law—and law with a sanction.” The Agreement is also noteworthy because it “devised a workable procedure for the trial of crimes which reconciled the basic conflicts in Anglo-American, French, and Soviet procedures.” The documentation of Nazi aggressions, persecutions, and atrocities, documented from German sources “with such authenticity and in such detail,” would preclude any “responsible denial of these crimes in the future.” Jackson concludes by stating that the Agreement and the military tribunal together have “put International Law squarely on the side of peace as against aggressive warfare, and on the side of humanity as against persecution.”

Report of Robert H. Jackson, United States Representative to the International Conference on Military Trials London, 1945

Managing Scarcity: Rationing in World War II

This essay about rationing during World War II explores its implementation and impact on civilian life. It examines how rationing managed scarce resources stabilized prices and promoted national unity through structured distribution of essential goods. The essay highlights the adaptations civilians made such as using substitute ingredients and participating in community initiatives like Victory Gardens. It also discusses the lasting innovations in agriculture and food preservation that emerged from this period emphasizing the resilience and adaptability of societies during times of crisis.

How it works

During the tumultuous era of World War II rationing emerged as a critical strategy to manage scarce resources across various nations embroiled in conflict. Rationing refers to the systematic distribution of limited goods predominantly essential items like food fuel and textiles aimed at ensuring equitable access and supporting the war effort. This essay delves into the concept of rationing during WWII exploring its implementation impact on civilian life and enduring implications.

Rationing arose as a pragmatic response to the unprecedented demands of wartime economies.

Its primary objectives were to mitigate shortages stabilize prices and efficiently allocate resources. Governments issued ration books to households outlining specific quotas for various commodities that individuals could procure over designated periods. This structured approach not only regulated consumption but also fostered a sense of national unity and shared sacrifice among civilians.

The types and quantities of goods subject to rationing varied widely by country and evolved as the war progressed. In the United States rationed items included staples such as meat sugar coffee and gasoline whereas in the United Kingdom rationing extended to encompass clothing and household goods. Governments leveraged propaganda campaigns to promote voluntary rationing and discourage illicit trade emphasizing patriotism and the collective imperative to support military efforts.

For civilians adapting to rationing necessitated significant adjustments in daily life. Households learned to innovate with substitute ingredients and adopt practices that conserved resources. Community-driven initiatives like Victory Gardens in the U.S. and Dig for Victory campaigns in the UK encouraged self-sufficiency and alleviated pressure on rationed commodities. Despite the challenges rationing fostered resilience and community cohesion leaving enduring imprints on social norms and consumption habits.

The impact of rationing transcended immediate resource management catalyzing innovations in agriculture and food preservation techniques. These advancements yielded lasting improvements in farming practices and nutritional sciences. Reflections on the rationing experience also influenced subsequent social policies and international cooperation efforts underscoring the pivotal role of governance in ensuring equitable access to essentials during times of crisis.

In summary rationing during World War II serves as a testament to the resilience and adaptability of civilian populations amid global upheaval. It epitomizes the intersection of economic pragmatism social responsibility and national solidarity in the face of extraordinary circumstances. By examining the historical context and ramifications of rationing we glean profound insights into how societies navigate scarcity confront adversity and prioritize collective well-being during periods of turmoil.

This essay has explored the definition implementation and impact of rationing during World War II emphasizing its enduring influence on social economic and political landscapes. Through this exploration we recognize the resilience of communities and the enduring lessons of unity and innovation in confronting extraordinary challenges.

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Propaganda During World War II Essay

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The Second World War was a complicated time for both the general public and the authorities since while the former worried for their safety, family, and homeland, the latter needed to maintain the national spirit and support the soldiers at the front. For such purposes, posters were implemented involving colorful images with strong words. However, while some might think that posters from the 20th century served as inspiration or plea, they were aimed to influence people psychologically.

The first propaganda poster Every minute counts! represents the influence of lost time on the battlefield failures of their soldiers. The technique used in this poster involves fear, through which the authorities strive to scare individuals working at manufacturing factories, urging them to work harder. In this sense, the poster incorporates statistics and figures, implying that every ten minutes that are lost will lead to less ammunition and weaponry, which will, in turn, postpone the victory.

Another poster, Air defense is home defense uses the technique of connecting with the audience. In their attempt to recruit as many individuals into air defense, the authorities aim to incorporate a heart-warming illustration of a family that looks in the sky and admires the national military plane. In a way, stereotypes in posters were common during wartime (Brewer 26). Here, the objective is to emphasize the pride in national defense and show the general public endorsement of the air forces.

The last poster, England expects, incorporates the technique of calling to action via bright colors, illustration of the national flag, and words. The phrase national service is written in bold red color that is contrasted by the dark blue background, which is used to catch the attention of the audience. Moreover, the number of people illustrated in the poster serves to show the national spirit, urging others to join the forces.

Hence, while some individuals might mistakenly believe that 20th-century posters acted as calls to action or acts of inspiration, their true purpose was to affect the audience psychologically. Every minute counts! is a propaganda poster that employs the technique of fear to illustrate the impact of wasted time on their soldiers’ failures on the battlefield. Another poster, Air defense is home defense , employs the audience-connection strategy. The final poster, England expects , employs the strategy of urging action via the use of bold colors, an image of the national flag, and text.

Brewer, Susan A. To Win the Peace: British Propaganda in the United States During World War II . Cornell University Press, 2019.

• American Homefront During World War II
• Media Propaganda: Poster Advertisement
• Flags of Our Fathers
• The Office of Strategic Services Operational Groups in World War II
• Warfare: Ethical and Moral Issues
• The Role of Propaganda During World War II
• The Effectiveness of WWII Bombing Campaigns
• Wartime Conferences of World War II
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Adolf Hitler — WW1 vs WW2 Comparison

Ww1 Vs WW2 Comparison

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Published: Mar 25, 2024

Words: 662 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Table of contents

The causes of world war i and world war ii, the nature of warfare, the global repercussions, in conclusion.

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