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The transformative power of education in the fight against poverty

October 16, 2023.

Zubair Junjunia, a Generation17 young leader and the Founder of ZNotes, presents at EdTechX.

Zubair Junjunia

Generation17 Young Leader and founder of ZNotes

Time and again, research has proven the incredible power of education to break poverty cycles and economically empower individuals from the most marginalized communities with dignified work and upward social mobility. 

Research at UNESCO has shown that world poverty would be more than halved if all adults completed secondary school. And if all students in low-income countries had just basic reading skills, almost 171 million people could escape extreme poverty. 

With such irrefutable evidence, how do we continue to see education underfunded globally? Funding for education as a share of national income has not changed significantly over the last decade for any developing country. And to exacerbate that, the COVID-19 shock pushed the level of learning poverty to an estimated 70 percent .

I have devoted the past decade of my life to fighting educational inequality, a journey that began during my school years. This commitment led to the creation of ZNotes , an educational platform developed for students, by students. ZNotes was born out of the problem I witnessed first-hand; the inequities in end-of-school examination, which significantly influence access to higher education and career opportunities. It is designed as a platform where students can share their notes and access top-quality educational materials without any limitations. ZNotes fosters collaborative learning through student-created content within a global community and levels the academic playing field with a student-empowered and technology-enabled approach to content creation and peer learning. 

Although I started ZNotes as a solo project, today, it has touched the lives of over 4.5 million students worldwide, receiving an impressive 32 million hits from students across more than 190 countries, especially serving students from emerging economies. We’re proud to say that today, more than 90 percent of students find ZNotes resources useful and feel more confident entering exams , regardless of their socio-economic background. These globally recognized qualifications empower our learners to access tertiary education and enter the world of work.

Sixteen-year-old Zubair set up a blog to share the resources he created for his IGCSE exams. Through word of mouth, his revision notes were discovered by students all over the world and ZNotes was born.

In rapidly changing job market, young people must cultivate resilience and adaptability. World Economic Forum highlights the importance of future skills, encompassing technical, cognitive, and interpersonal abilities. Unfortunately, many educational systems, especially in under-resourced regions, fall short in equipping youth with these vital skills.

To address this challenge, I see innovative technology as a crucial tool both within and beyond traditional school systems. As the digital divide narrows and access to devices and internet connectivity becomes more affordable, delivering quality education and personalized support is increasingly achievable through technology. At ZNotes, we are reshaping the role of students, transforming them from passive consumers to active creators and proponents of education. Empowering youth through a community-driven approach, students engage in peer learning and generate quality resources on an online platform.

Participation in a global learning community enhances young people's communication and collaboration skills. ZNotes fosters a sense of global citizenship, enabling learners to communicate with a diverse range of individuals across race, gender, and religion. Such spaces also result in redistributing social capital as students share advice for future university, internship and career pathways.

“Studying for 14 IGCSE subjects wasn't easy, but ZNotes helped me provide excellent and relevant revision material for all of them. I ended up with 7 A* 7 A, and ZNotes played a huge role. I am off to Cornell University this fall now. A big thank you to the ZNotes team!"

Alongside ensuring our beneficiaries are equipped with the resources and support they need to be at a level playing field for such high stakes exams, we also consider the skills that will set them up for success in life beyond academics. Especially for the hundreds of young people who join our internship and contribution programs , they become part of a global social impact startup and develop both academic skills and also employability skills. After engaging with our internship programs, 77% of interns reported improved candidacy for new jobs and internships. 

ZNotes addresses the uneven playing field of standardized testing with a student-empowered and technology-enabled approach for content creation and peer learning.

A few years ago, Jess joined our team as a Social Impact Analyst intern having just completed her university degree while she continued to search for a full-time role. She was able to apply her data analytics skills from a theoretical degree into a real-world scenario and was empowered to play an instrumental role in understanding and developing a Theory of Change model for ZNotes. In just 6 months, she had been able to develop the skills and gain experiences that strengthened her profile. At the end of internship, she was offered a full-time role at a major news and media agency that she is continuing to grow in!

Jess’s example applies to almost every one of our interns . As another one of them, Alexa, said “ZNotes offers the rare and wonderful opportunity to be at the center of meaningful change”.

Being part of an organization making a significant impact is profoundly inspiring and empowering for young people, and assuming high-responsibility roles within such organizations accelerates their skills development and sets them apart in the eyes of prospective employers.

On the International Day for the Eradication of Poverty, it is a critical moment to reflect and enact on the opportunity that we have to achieving two key SDGs, Goal 1 and 4, by effectively funding and enabling access to quality education globally.

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How does education affect poverty?

For starters, it can help end it.

Aug 10, 2023

Access to high-quality primary education and supporting child well-being is a globally-recognized solution to the cycle of poverty. This is, in part, because it also addresses many of the other issues that keep communities vulnerable.

Education is often referred to as the great equalizer: It can open the door to jobs, resources, and skills that help a person not only survive, but thrive. In fact, according to UNESCO, if all students in low-income countries had just basic reading skills (nothing else), an estimated 171 million people could escape extreme poverty. If all adults completed secondary education, we could cut the global poverty rate by more than half. 

At its core, a quality education supports a child’s developing social, emotional, cognitive, and communication skills. Children who attend school also gain knowledge and skills, often at a higher level than those who aren’t in the classroom. They can then use these skills to earn higher incomes and build successful lives.

Here’s more on seven of the key ways that education affects poverty.

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1. Education is linked to economic growth

Education is the best way out of poverty in part because it is strongly linked to economic growth. A 2021 study co-published by Stanford University and Munich’s Ludwig Maximilian University shows us that, between 1960 and 2000, 75% of the growth in gross domestic product around the world was linked to increased math and science skills. 

“The relationship between…the knowledge capital of a nation, and the long-run [economic] rowth rate is extraordinarily strong,” the study’s authors conclude. This is just one of the most recent studies linking education and economic growth that have been published since 1990.

“The relationship between…the knowledge capital of a nation, and the long-run [economic] growth rate is extraordinarily strong.” — Education and Economic Growth (2021 study by Stanford University and the University of Munich)

2. Universal education can fight inequality

A 2019 Oxfam report says it best: “Good-quality education can be liberating for individuals, and it can act as a leveler and equalizer within society.” 

Poverty thrives in part on inequality. All types of systemic barriers (including physical ability, religion, race, and caste) serve as compound interest against a marginalization that already accrues most for those living in extreme poverty. Education is a basic human right for all, and — when tailored to the unique needs of marginalized communities — can be used as a lever against some of the systemic barriers that keep certain groups of people furthest behind. 

For example, one of the biggest inequalities that fuels the cycle of poverty is gender. When gender inequality in the classroom is addressed, this has a ripple effect on the way women are treated in their communities. We saw this at work in Afghanistan , where Concern developed a Community-Based Education program that allowed students in rural areas to attend classes closer to home, which is especially helpful for girls.

Four ways that girls’ education can change the world

Gender discrimination is one of the many barriers to education around the world. That’s a situation we need to change.

3. Education is linked to lower maternal and infant mortality rates

Speaking of women, education also means healthier mothers and children. Examining 15 countries in sub-Saharan Africa, researchers from the World Bank and International Center for Research on Women found that educated women tend to have fewer children and have them later in life. This generally leads to better outcomes for both the mother and her kids, with safer pregnancies and healthier newborns. 

A 2017 report shows that the country’s maternal mortality rate had declined by more than 70% in the last 25 years, approximately the same amount of time that an amendment to compulsory schooling laws took place in 1993. Ensuring that girls had more education reduced the likelihood of maternal health complications, in some cases by as much as 29%. 

4. Education also lowers stunting rates

Children also benefit from more educated mothers. Several reports have linked education to lowered stunting , one of the side effects of malnutrition. Preventing stunting in childhood can limit the risks of many developmental issues for children whose height — and potential — are cut short by not having enough nutrients in their first few years.

In Bangladesh , one study showed a 50.7% prevalence for stunting among families. However, greater maternal education rates led to a 4.6% decrease in the odds of stunting; greater paternal education reduced those rates by 2.9%-5.4%.  A similar study in Nairobi, Kenya confirmed this relationship: Children born to mothers with some secondary education are 29% less likely to be stunted.

What is stunting?

Stunting is a form of impaired growth and development due to malnutrition that threatens almost 25% of children around the world.

5. Education reduces vulnerability to HIV and AIDS…

In 2008, researchers from Harvard University, Imperial College London, and the World Bank wrote : “There is a growing body of evidence that keeping girls in school reduces their risk of contracting HIV. The relationship between educational attainment and HIV has changed over time, with educational attainment now more likely to be associated with a lower risk of HIV infection than earlier in the epidemic.” 

Since then, that correlation has only grown stronger. The right programs in schools not only reduce the likelihood of young people contracting HIV or AIDS, but also reduce the stigmas held against people living with HIV and AIDS.

6. …and vulnerability to natural disasters and climate change

As the number of extreme weather events increases due to climate change, education plays a critical role in reducing vulnerability and risk to these events. A 2014 issue of the journal Ecology and Society states: “It is found that highly educated individuals are better aware of the earthquake risk … and are more likely to undertake disaster preparedness.… High risk awareness associated with education thus could contribute to vulnerability reduction behaviors.”

The authors of the article went on to add that educated people living through a natural disaster often have more of a financial safety net to offset losses, access to more sources of information to prepare for a disaster, and have a wider social network for mutual support.

Climate change is one of the biggest threats to education — and growing

Last August, UNICEF reported that half of the world’s 2.2 billion children are at “extremely high risk” for climate change, including its impact on education. Here’s why.

7. Education reduces violence at home and in communities

The same World Bank and ICRW report that showed the connection between education and maternal health also reveals that each additional year of secondary education reduced the chances of child marriage — defined as being married before the age of 18. Because educated women tend to marry later and have fewer children later in life, they’re also less likely to suffer gender-based violence , especially from their intimate partner. 

Girls who receive a full education are also more likely to understand the harmful aspects of traditional practices like FGM , as well as their rights and how to stand up for them, at home and within their community.

Fighting FGM in Kenya: A daughter's bravery and a mother's love

Marsabit is one of those areas of northern Kenya where FGM has been the rule rather than the exception. But 12-year-old student Boti Ali had other plans.

Education for all: Concern’s approach

Concern’s work is grounded in the belief that all children have a right to a quality education. Last year, our work to promote education for all reached over 676,000 children. Over half of those students were female. 

We integrate our education programs into both our development and emergency work to give children living in extreme poverty more opportunities in life and supporting their overall well-being. Concern has brought quality education to villages that are off the grid, engaged local community leaders to find solutions to keep girls in school, and provided mentorship and training for teachers.

More on how education affects poverty

6 Benefits of literacy in the fight against poverty

Child marriage and education: The blackboard wins over the bridal altar

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Impact of Poverty on Education: Understanding the Effects and Seeking Solutions

Introduction.

Poverty has long been identified as a significant social issue that affects various aspects of individuals’ lives, including education. Many studies have shown that poverty and educational outcomes are strongly correlated, with children from low-income families experiencing significant academic achievement and educational attainment challenges. In this article, we will explore the impact of poverty on education, the barriers that prevent students from low-income families from accessing quality education, and some possible solutions to address this issue.

The Impact of Poverty on Education

Poverty affects education in multiple ways..

Firstly, financial constraints restrict access to educational resources, including books, technology, and other materials that can enhance learning. Children from low-income families are less likely to have access to quality preschool education, significantly impacting their readiness for kindergarten and subsequent academic success.

Secondly, poverty can lead to inadequate nutrition and healthcare, hindering cognitive development and negatively impacting academic performance. Children from low-income families often face food insecurity, which can lead to malnutrition, leading to health issues, and reduced attention and retention during learning.

Thirdly, poverty often leads to unstable home environments, including frequent moves, stress, and a lack of resources. These factors can lead to emotional and behavioral problems, making it challenging for children to focus on their studies and achieve their potential.

Barriers to Education for Low-Income Students

The impact of poverty on education is often exacerbated by systemic barriers that limit access to quality education for low-income students. For example, schools in low-income areas are often under-resourced, leading to overcrowded classrooms, outdated materials, and fewer opportunities for extracurricular activities. This can result in a lower quality of education and limited exposure to enrichment programs that may be beneficial.

Moreover, inadequate teacher training and support can lead to ineffective teaching and reduced student outcomes. Teachers may not have the necessary resources or expertise to address the unique needs of students from low-income families, such as language barriers, learning disabilities, and trauma.

Solutions to Address Poverty and Education Inequality

To address the impact of poverty on education, we need to implement systemic solutions that focus on reducing the disparities in access to quality education for low-income students. Some possible solutions include:

• Providing equitable funding for schools in low-income areas to improve resources and materials.
• Investing in high-quality preschool education to improve readiness for kindergarten and future academic success.
• Offering teacher training and support to address the unique needs of students from low-income families.
• Providing access to nutrition and healthcare services to support cognitive development and academic success.
• Engaging parents and communities in education to foster a culture of learning and support.

In conclusion, the impact of poverty on education is a significant issue that requires attention and action. By understanding the challenges and barriers that low-income students face, we can develop and implement practical solutions to address the issue.

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Lack of access to education is a major predictor of passing poverty from one generation to the next, and receiving an education is one of the top ways to achieve financial stability.

In other words: education and poverty are directly linked.

Increasing access to education can equalize communities, improve the overall health and longevity of a society , and help save the planet .

The problem is that about 258 million children and youth are out of school around the world, according to UNESCO data released in 2018. 

Children do not attend school for many reasons — but they all stem from poverty.

Here are all the statistics, facts, and answers to questions you might have that shed light on the connection between poverty and education. 

How does poverty affect education?

Families living in poverty often have to choose between sending their child to school or providing other basic needs. Even if families do not have to pay tuition fees, school comes with the added costs of uniforms, books, supplies, and/or exam fees. 

Countries across sub-Saharan Africa, where the world’s poorest children live, have made a concerted effort to abolish school fees . While the ratio of students completing lower secondary school increased  in the region from 23% in 1990 to 42% in 2014, enrollment is low compared to the 75% global ratio. School remains too expensive for the poorest families. Some children are forced to stay at home doing chores or need to work. In other places, especially in crisis and conflict areas with destroyed infrastructure and limited resources, unaffordable private schools are sometimes the only option .

Why does poverty stop girls from going to school? 

Poverty is the most important factor that determines whether or not a girl can access education, according to the World Bank. If families cannot afford the costs of school, they are more likely to send boys than girls. Around 15 million girls will never get the chance to attend school, compared to 10 million boys. 

Read More: These Are the Top 10 Best and Worst Countries for Education in 2016 

Gender inequality is more prevalent in low-income countries. Women often perform more unpaid work, have fewer assets, are exposed to gender-based violence, and are more likely to be forced into early marriage, all limiting their ability to fully participate in society and benefit from economic growth. 

When girls face barriers to education early on, it is difficult for them to recover. Child marriage is one of the most common reasons a girl might stop going to school. More than 650 million women globally have already married under the age of 18. For families experiencing financial hardship, child marriage reduces their economic burden , but it ends up being more difficult for girls to gain financial independence if they are unable to access a quality education.

Lack of access to adequate menstrual hygiene management also stops many girls from attending school. Some girls cannot afford to buy sanitary products or they do not have access to clean water and sanitation to clean themselves and prevent disease. If safety is a concern due to lack of separate bathrooms, girls will stay home from school to avoid putting themselves at risk of sexual assault or harassment. 

Read More: 10 Barriers to Education Around the World

An educated girl is not only likely to increase her personal earning potential but can help reduce poverty in her community, too. 

“Educated girls have fewer, healthier, and better-educated children,” according to the Global Partnership for Education.

When countries invest in girls’ education, it sees an increase in female leaders, lower levels of population growth, and a reduction of contributions to climate change. 

Can education help break the cycle of poverty? 

Education promotes economic growth because it provides skills that increase employment opportunities and income. Nearly 60 million people could escape poverty if all adults had just two more years of schooling, and 420 million people could be lifted out of poverty if all adults completed secondary education, according to UNESCO. 

Education increases earnings by roughly 10% per each additional year of schooling. For each $1 invested in an additional year of schooling, earnings increase by $5 in low-income countries and $2.5 in lower-middle income countries. 

Read More: 264 Million Children Are Denied Access To Education, New Report Says

Education reduces many issues that stop people from living healthy lives, including infant and maternal deaths, stunting, infant and maternal deaths, vulnerability to HIV/AIDS, and violence.

How can we end extreme poverty through education?

There are more children enrolled in school than ever before — developing countries reached a 91% enrollment rate in 2015 — but we must fully close the gap. 

World leaders gathered at the United Nations headquarters to address the disparity in 2015 and set 17 Global Goals to end extreme poverty by 2030. Global Goal 4: Quality Education aims to "end poverty in all its forms everywhere."

Read More: How We Can Be the Generation to End Extreme Poverty

The first step to achieving quality education for all is acknowledging that it is a vital part of sustainable development. Citizens, governments, corporations, and philanthropists all have an important role to play. Learn how to ensure global access to education to end poverty by taking action here .

Global Citizen Explains

Defeat Poverty

Understanding How Poverty is the Main Barrier to Education

Feb. 7, 2020

What is Learning Poverty?

All children should be able to read by age 10. Reading is a gateway for learning as the child progresses through school—and conversely, an inability to read slams that gate shut. Beyond this, when children cannot read, it’s usually a clear indication that school systems aren’t well organized to help children learn in other areas such as math, science, and the humanities. And although it is possible to learn later in life with enough effort, children who don’t read by age 10—or at the latest, by the end of primary school—usually fail to master reading later in their schooling career.

In recent years, it has become clear that many children around the world are not learning to read proficiently. Even though most children are in school, a large proportion are not acquiring fundamental skills. Moreover, 260 million children are not even in school. This is the leading edge of a learning crisis that threatens c ountries’ efforts to build human capital and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Without foundational learning, students often fail to thrive later in school or when they join the workforce. They don’t acquire the human capital they need to power their careers and economies once they leave school, or the skills that will help them become engaged citizens and nurture healthy, prosperous families. As a major contributor to human capital deficits, the learning crisis undermines sustainable growth and poverty reduction.  

To spotlight this crisis, we are introducing the concept of Learning Poverty, drawing on new data developed in coordination with the UNESCO Institute for Statistics.  Learning poverty means being unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10. This indicator brings together schooling and learning indicators:  it begins with the share of children who haven’t achieved minimum reading proficiency (as measured in schools) and is adjusted by the proportion of children who are out of school (and are assumed not able to read proficiently).

Using a measure developed jointly by the World Bank and UNESCO’s Institute of Statistics , we have determined that 53 percent of children in low- and middle-income countries cannot read and understand a simple story by the end of primary school. In poor countries, the level is as high as 80 percent. Such high levels of illiteracy are an early warning sign that all global educational goals and other related sustainable development goals are in jeopardy.

Progress in reducing learning poverty is far too slow to meet the SDG aspirations:  at the current rate of improvement, in 2030 about 43% of children will still be learning-poor. Even if countries reduce their learning poverty at the fastest rates we have seen so far in this century, the goal of ending it will not be attained by 2030.

There is an urgent need for a society-wide commitment to invest more and better in people. If children cannot read, all education SDGs are at risk. Eliminating learning poverty is as important as eliminating extreme monetary poverty, stunting, or hunger. To achieve it in the foreseeable future requires far more rapid progress at scale than we have yet seen.

The learning poverty indicator focuses on reading for three reasons:

• Reading proficiency is an easily understood learning measure
• Reading is a student’s gateway to learning in other areas
• Reading proficiency can serve as a proxy for foundational learning in other subjects

The learning poverty indicator allows us to illustrate progress toward SDG 4’s broader goal to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education for all. It particularly highlights progress towards SDG 4.1.1(b), which specifies that all children at the end of primary reach at least a minimum proficiency level in reading.

Methodology

The indicator combines the share of primary-aged children out-of-school who are schooling deprived (SD) , and the share of pupils below a minimum proficiency in reading, who are learning deprived (LD) . By combining schooling and learning, the indicator brings into focus both “more schooling”, which by itself serves a variety of critical functions, as well as “better learning” which is important to ensure that time spent in school translates into acquisition of skills and capabilities. 

How Learning Poverty is defined

The learning poverty indicator is calculated as follows:

Lp = [ld x (1-sd)] + [1 x sd].

LP = Learning poverty

LD = Learning deprivation , defined as share of children at the end of primary who read at below the minimum proficiency level, as defined by the Global Alliance to Monitor Learning (GAML) in the context of the SDG 4.1.1 monitoring

SD = Schooling deprivation , defined as the share of primary aged children who are out-of-school. All out-of-school children are assumed to be below the minimum proficiency level in reading.

Learning poverty can be improved in two ways: (i) by reducing learning deprivation as countries raise proficiency levels for children below the minimum proficiency threshold, or (ii) by reducing schooling deprivation as countries expand coverage and bringing out-of-school population into the system.

While schooling deprivation can be directly observed depending on whether the child is enrolled or not enrolled in school, learning deprivation cannot be directly observed, and is measured through standardized assessments using SDG’s definition of minimum proficiency level, where reading proficiency is defined as:

Three complementary concepts: Learning poverty level, gap, and severity

The learning poverty level (or headcount ratio) shown above, that is the share of 10-year-olds who are not in school (schooling deprived) or are below the minimum proficiency level (learning deprived), has limitations. It does not capture the average learning shortfall among children under the minimum proficiency level. Hence, we include the  learning poverty gap , that measures the average distance of a learning deprived child to the minimum proficiency level and indicates the average increase in learning required to eliminate learning poverty.

However, the gap measure cannot distinguish between an increase in the learning gap driven by students near the threshold and one driven by those at the very bottom of the learning distribution.  Learning poverty severity  captures the inequality of learning among the learning poor population and is the gap squared in relation to the minimum proficiency squared.

The concepts of  learning poverty gap  and  learning poverty severity  are important to fully understand children’s access to learning. It is possible that countries with the same learning poverty level have different learning poverty gaps, or countries with the same learning poverty gaps have different learning poverty severity, with implications for policies used to address learning poverty.

For example, where two countries have the same level of learning poverty, but one has a higher  learning poverty gap , the latter would need greater effort to bring children above the minimum proficiency level. At the same time, where two countries have the same  learning poverty gap , but one has higher  learning poverty severity , the latter would need to adopt strategies that address the unequal distribution of learning among those below the minimum proficiency threshold. Furthermore, as we anticipate  learning losses  due to the pandemic, or the growing share of children who are learning poor, we can examine widening inequalities with the gap and severity calculations.

Calculation details

The implementation of this indicator and the production of the global estimates rely on:

• Reporting window  of 9 years, a ±4 interval around a reference year. In the first release of the learning poverty, the reference year was set to 2015, implying data from 2011-2019 could be included. In practice, most recent data was from 2017.
• Learning assessments  with a minimum proficiency threshold benchmarked by Global Alliance to Monitor Learning (GAML), which occurred within the reporting window. If a country has multiple eligible learning assessments, the following hierarchy is applied: PIRLS reading > TIMSS science > Regional assessments > National assessments. Between two rounds of the same assessments, the one closest to the reference year is preferred.
• School participation  is derived from  adjusted net enrollment rate (ANER)  for primary schools and computed by the UIS using administrative records. Adjusted net enrollment is a measure of both “stock” and “flow” and accounts for both age- and grade-based distortions, as it is the percent of primary school age children enrolled either in primary or secondary education, as opposed to gross enrollment which is the share of children of any age that are enrolled in primary school, or net enrollment which is the share of primary school age children that are enrolled in primary school. We use the same year of school participation as the preferred learning assessment for each country.
• Aggregations  for each region comprise the average learning poverty of countries with available data, weighted by their population ages 10–14 years old. To obtain a global estimate, we weight the regional aggregations by the 10–14-year-old population regardless of data availability. This is equivalent to imputing missing country data using regional values.

Note:  While the reference age for Learning Poverty is age 10, learning assessments are sampled based on specific grades and not age. To incorporate assessments administered at different grades, we chose for each country the grade between 4 and 6 where relevant and reliable data were available.

You can download the Learning Poverty data directly from  Development Data Hub . The database contains pooled and gender-disaggregated indicators for percent of children in learning poverty, percent of primary school-aged children who are out of school, and percent of children below minimum proficiency in reading at the end primary.

You may also access the learning poverty data directly through  EdStats .

To load the Learning Poverty data directly in  Stata  you can use this code:

// Install the user-written command if you don't have itcapture which wbopendataif _rc == 111 ssc install wbopendata // Query Learning Poverty indicator from World Bank APIwbopendata, indicator(SE.LPV.PRIM) latest long clear

To load the Learning Poverty data directly in  Python  you can use this code:

# Load the packageimport wbgapi as wb # Query the most recent non-empty value (mrnev parameter)df = wb.data.DataFrame('SE.LPV.PRIM', db=12, mrnev=1, columns='time', numericTimeKeys=True)

Current findings

Learning poverty map.

The map below is a snapshot of Learning Poverty across the world. You can also view the indicator for females and males. You may edit this map directly in  DataBank .

Learning Poverty Map

Figure 1 Learning Poverty around the World (hover to see country numbers)

How does learning poverty vary by gender?

Using all available cross-country assessments (as well as gender-disaggregated enrollment data from UIS), we have computed gender-specific learning poverty rates. Given data availability, we have only been able to compute this disaggregation for 92 countries. Access to microdata in some countries, particularly in South Asia, has been a significant challenge to compute gender-disaggregated outcomes.

Learning Poverty gender gap, by country

Despite the barriers confronting girls in some areas of education, in virtually all countries for which we have data, girls have lower rates of learning poverty than boys do.

Replicate our results in GitHub

Our processes are documented on the  LearningPoverty  Github repository, which also includes instructions on how to  replicate  our numbers. You can find information about data source selection, calculations, aggregations  here .

Forthcoming update

The recent release of new learning assessment results – TIMSS 2019, SEA-PLM 2019, and PASEC 2019 – calls for an update of the learning poverty indicator. A public update of the regional and global estimates is planned for September 2021 , to include the forthcoming LLECE 2019 results.

Significant changes are anticipated in some country estimates due to the replacement of national learning assessments by international ones. The initial learning poverty estimate was 52.7 percent in low- and middle-income countries, anchored in 2015. It used data from 62 countries, covering 80 percent of the target population. In September 2021, we plan to publish a corporate update of these global numbers. Using 2017 as the reference year implies accepting assessments from 2013 onwards, including the recently released TIMSS, SEA-PLM, PASEC from 2019 and the forthcoming LLECE 2019. With the new data, the coverage of the indicator will increase to 66 countries and 81 percent of the target population. The new update will also allow temporal comparisons in instances where countries have results from the same assessment in the last round.

Learning Poverty serves as an early-warning indicator for the Human Capital Project. For more information, visit  website .

• "Literacy Makes Sense" campaign
• Ending Learning Poverty
• Country Learning Poverty Briefs
• Human Capital Project
• Education Homepage
• World Bank Human Capital Index
• Accelerator Program
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Reducing Poverty Through Education - and How

About the author, idrissa b. mshoro.

There is no strict consensus on a standard definition of poverty that applies to all countries. Some define poverty through the inequality of income distribution, and some through the miserable human conditions associated with it. Irrespective of such differences, poverty is widespread and acute by all standards in sub-Saharan Africa, where gross domestic product (GDP) is below $1,500 per capita purchasing power parity, where more than 40 per cent of their people live on less than $1 a day, and poor health and schooling hold back productivity. According to the 2009 Human Development Report, sub-Saharan Africa's Human Development Index, which measures development by combining indicators of life expectancy, educational attainment, and income lies in the range of 0.45-0.55, compared to 0.7 and above in other regions of the world. Poverty in sub-Saharan Africa will continue to rise unless the benefits of economic development reach the people. Some sub-Saharan countries have therefore formulated development visions and strategies, identifying respective sources of growth.

Tanzania case study

The Tanzania Development Vision 2025, for example, aims at transforming a low productivity agricultural economy into a semi-industrialized one through medium-term frameworks, the latest being the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP). A review of NSGRP implementation, documented in Tanzania's Poverty and Human Development Report 2009, attributed the falling GDP -- from 7.8 per cent in 2004 to 6.7 per cent in 2006 -- to the prolonged drought during 2005/06. A further fall to 5 per cent was projected by 2009 due to the global financial crisis. While the proportion of households living below the poverty line reduced slightly from 35.7 per cent in 2000 to 33.6 per cent in 2007, the actual number of poor Tanzanians is increasing because the population is growing at a faster rate. The 2009 HDR showed a similar trend whereby the Human Development Index in Tanzania shot up from 0.436 to 0.53 between 1990 and 2007, and in the same year the GDP reached $1,208 per capita purchasing power parity. Again, the improvements, though commendable, are still modest when compared with the goal of NSGRP and Millennium Development Goal 1 to reduce by 50 per cent the number of people whose income is less than $1 a day by 2010 and 2015.

More deliberate efforts are therefore required to redress the situation, with more emphasis placed particularly on education, as most poverty-reduction interventions depend on the availability of human capital for spearheading them. The envisaged economic growth depends on the quantity and quality of inputs, including land, natural resources, labour, and technology. Quality of inputs to a great extent relies on embodied knowledge and skills, which are the basis for innovation, technology development and transfer, and increased productivity and competitiveness.

A quick assessment in June 2010 of education statistics in Tanzania indicated that primary school enrolment increased by 5.8 per cent, from 7,959,884 pupils in 2006 to 8,419,305 in 2010. The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) was 106.4 per cent. The transition rate from primary to secondary schools, however, decreased by 6.6 per cent from 49.3 per cent in 2005 to 43.9 per cent in 2009. On an annual average, out of 789,739 pupils who completed primary education, only 418,864 continued on to secondary education, notwithstanding the expansion of secondary school enrolment, from 675,672 students in 2006 to 1,638,699 in 2010, a GER increase from 14.8 to 34.0 percent. Moreover, the observed expansion in secondary school education mainly took place from grades one through four, where the number increased from 630,245 in 2006 to 1,566,685 students in 2010. As such, out of 141,527 students who on an annual average completed ordinary secondary education, only 36,014 proceeded to advanced secondary education. Some improvements have also been recorded at the tertiary level. While enrolment in universities was 37,667 students in 2004/05, there were 118,951 in 2009/10.

Adding to this number the students in non-university tertiary institutions totalled 50,173 in 2009/10 and the overall tertiary enrolment reached 169,124 students, providing a GER of 5.3 percent, which is very low.

The observed transition rates imply that, on average, 370,875 primary school children terminate their education journey every year at 13 to 14 years of age in Tanzania. The
17- to 19-year-old secondary school graduates, unable to obtain opportunities for further education, worsen the situation and the overall negative impact on economic growth is very apparent, unless there are other opportunities to develop and empower the secondary school graduates. Vocational education and training could be one such opportunity, but the total current enrolment in vocational education in Tanzania is about 117,000 trainees, which is still far from actual needs. A long-term strategy is therefore critical to expand the capacity for vocational education and training so as to increase the employability of the rising numbers of out-of-school youths. This fact was also apparent in the 2006 Tanzania Integrated Labour Force Survey, which indicated that youth between 15 and 24 years were more likely to be unemployed compared to other age groups because they were entering the labour market for the first time without any skills or work experience. The NSGRP target was to reduce unemployment from 12.9 per cent in 2000/01 to 6.9 per cent by 2010; hence the unemployment rate of 11 per cent in 2006 was disheartening.

One can easily notice that while enrolment in basic education is promising, the situation at other levels remains bleak in meeting poverty reduction targets. Moreover, apart from the noticeably low university enrolment in Tanzania, only 29 per cent of students are taking science and technology courses, probably due to the small catchment pool at lower levels. While this is so, sustainable and broad-based growth requires strengthening of the link between agriculture and industry. Agriculture needs to be modernized for increased productivity and profitability; small and medium enterprises, promoted, with particular emphasis on agro-processing, technology innovation, and upgrading the use of technologies for value addition; and all, with no or minimum negative impact on the environment. Increased investments in human and physical capital are also highly advocated, focusing on efficient and cost-effective provision of infrastructure for energy, information and communication technologies, and transport with special attention to opening up rural and other areas with economic potential. All these point to the promotion of education in science and technology. Special incentives for attracting investments towards accelerating growth are also emphasized. Experience from elsewhere indicates that foreign direct investment contributes effectively to economic growth when the country has a highly-educated workforce. Domestic firms also need to be supported and encouraged to pay attention to product development and innovation for ensuring quality and appropriate marketing strategies that make them competitive and capable of responding to global market conditions.

It is therefore very apparent from the Tanzania example that most of the required interventions for growth and the reduction of poverty require a critical mass of high-quality educated people at different levels to effectively respond to the sustainable development challenges of nations.  

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Promoting Evidence-Based Prevention Strategies to Mitigate the Harms of Drug Use: The Role of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

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Essay: Poverty in education

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Poverty in Education

Poverty remains to be the source of hardships financially, academically, and socially. The way that poverty levels affect the children of the world is a troubling concern. 43 percent of children are currently living in low-income homes while 21% of them are living below the financial poverty threshold set by the federal government (“NCCP | Child Poverty”, 2016). Families with no financial resources do not have access to educational supplies. Without educational resources, these families are constrained to their lives in poverty.

Concept of Poverty

Poverty is the result of not having proper resources to sustain effectively in the community (Sen,2009). This concept of poverty expands the notion that poverty is merely the lack of financial freedom. Although poverty does have direct correlations to finances, it is important to recognize the different facets of poverty and their effects. An aspect of financial income is educational output. Absolute poverty is the lack of financial necessities. This is more common in developing countries, however, it can be found often here in the United States. Absolute poverty will affect children and families as they are not able to provide themselves with materials to further their learning. These materials include a lack of books, pens/pencils or often times children will have no place to do their homework. Poor nutrition has also been found to prevent students from learning effectively. Relative poverty is pre-determined by where a family resides. Where you live typically determines the school your child will attend. Parents often choose their living arrangements based upon cost of living. Schools located in areas meant for these families typically receive little to no funding in comparison. These children will also lack the motivation to do well in school since the perception around them is that school is not important. Poverty lowers educational enrollment and restricts learning environments. To move poverty-stricken school districts in the right direction, they must develop personalized intervention strategies opposed to generalized conclusions.

Poverty in School Readiness

A child’s educational journey starts not from the first day they enter primary school, but from the moment they learn to observe their surroundings, form sentences, and make conclusions from the world around them. Their readiness for school is a clear demonstration of their likelihood to succeed emotionally, socially and academically in school. As determined by the National Education Goals Panel, a child deemed “school ready” is expected to be able to demonstrate five different dimensions of development/knowledge:

physical well-being/motor development

social/emotional development

language development

cognition knowledge

approaches to learning

Children living in poverty are less likely to have these school readiness skills at the same level as a child living in a middle or upper-class family. Research shows that children living in poverty-stricken environments are more likely to suffer from psychiatric disorders, physical health problems and less than average functioning both academically and socially. (Ferguson, 2007). Reversing the effects of children not being classified “school ready” as suggested by Ferguson, is to focus on early childhood intervention as this can help single out health problems, parenting issues, behavioral and social responsiveness.

Academic Achievement

Holistically, poverty is all about a lack of resources. As stated by Misty Lacour & Laura Tissington, these resources are financial, emotional, mental, spiritual, and physical. All of these resources combined lead to the issues faced by children in poverty inside of the classroom. Their studies have also shown that the factors that are a direct result of poverty can cause children to not perform at a high completion rate, academically. Higher incomes have been contributed to better student performance. These findings determined that children from low-income families suffered cognitively, reading/math scores, socially, and emotionally. Children from these households almost always scored below average in comparison to their wealthy peers.

Lacour & Tissington place emphasis on the lack of family systems/subsystems, emotional/mental support and role models as a contribution to low academic achievement. Race and gender were not found to be determining factors– only to show trends/data separated by race. These students in these communities are not receiving funding/experienced teachers to help bridge the gap.

To help boost academic achievement rates from an average of 19% (standardized test percentiles), there should be changes implemented in instructional techniques and strategies provided in the classroom. The three major areas of reform are school environment, home/community environment and policies of the district/state (Lacour & Tissington, 2011).

Change in Schools

Education at any level is a need in society today. The woes of poverty can place a large amount of burden on the shoulders of the educators that teach those students. Standardized testing has been put in place so that school administration can see the overall learning success and failure of their students. Due to this, it can be easy for teachers to place more emphasis on scores and remediation for better numbers. According to Theresa Capra (2009), the constant cycle of new teachers in minority areas negatively impacts the education that is being received. The lack of income obtained by students’ parents is highly associated with their lack of education. “History and evolution have shown that inequality is a reality. As the human race advances, however, it is plausible to think that civilization can prevent the decay of its social constructs through quality, accessible education. Embracing this perspective may help us to completely rethink education, leading to a more progressive system for our future” (Capra, 2009).

Through the research of the great scholars before me, I have realized that poverty is not a two nor three-dimensional issue. I was ignorant to this and now have a better understanding of what it means to be in poverty. Poverty is much more than the lack of financial means. Amartya Sen did a wonderful job of explaining the different aspects of poverty and how it affects the life of the families suffering. Poverty affects the families from functioning properly in their community — they have trouble paying their bills, yet can’t find a decent paying job without a good education. A good education costs money that they don’t have, therefore, the cycle continues. The absolute and relative view is extremely relevant to this detrimental cycle because they categorize the deficiencies caused by poverty.

Children that are from poverty-stricken areas are forced to go into schools that receive very little or no support from their communities. This is saddening — most times when parents request for students to go to a better school (provided they have reliable transportation of their own), they are denied due to the importance of scores. Districts place so much emphasis on scoring on standardized tests rather than the foundation of knowledge needed to succeed. This foundation starts with school readiness skills, which Ferguson & Mueller illustrated wonderfully. When students are not able to establish these skills effectively it sets them up for long-term failures not only academically but mentally and socially as well.

Scarce resources due to poverty such as family systems/subsystems, emotional/mental support, role models and monetary support directly correlate to the low academic achievement levels in students. I n The effects of poverty on academic achieve ment, the authors offered various solutions to close the academic gap such as assessing students through holistic assessments and using voluntary data. While this article provided a lot of important insight on the issues for students living in poverty, it did not give real solutions. In low-income households, children are often disassociated from the resources that middle or high-income students have. Changing the way these students are evaluated through assessments, does not change the education these students are receiving. It only helps them look better statistically.

In contrast, Captra touches on the importance of higher education and the difficulties students face in economically challenged schools.

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Education as Pathway Out of Poverty

• by María “Cuca” Robledo Montecel, Ph.D.  • IDRA Newsletter • January 2013 •

Education has been and is a way out of poverty, especially for minority students. Students with a college degree have fared far better (even during the last recession) than those who either left school before graduation or earned only a high school diploma.

Yet we continue to miss the mark of preparing all students well – and this disproportionately impacts low-income and minority students. The Economist summarizes: “America is one of only three advanced countries which spends less on the education of poorer children than richer ones” (Minton-Bedoes, 2012). Even as a child’s zip code continues to play such a big role in that child’s future, education has become more essential.

By providing high quality education for all students, we can leverage opportunity, if we know how to focus our efforts. The good news is that we do know how.

In a recent issue of Time, former President Bill Clinton lays out a case for optimism in tumultuous times based on learnings from the Global Initiative (2012). I believe that a case for optimism can also be made at the intersection of education and poverty for at least five reasons: education is a stated priority; educators are showing what works; technology connects us, and courage can be catching; many views of poverty aren’t true; and contributions of young people are inspiring.

Education is a Stated Priority

Many people around the country and around the world care deeply about education. Even at the height of the last recession in the United States, while jobs and the recovery of our economy were top priorities for Americans, nearly seven in 10 Americans say that education should be a top priority for Congress and the President (Pew Research Center, 2012).

Youth are making education a priority and putting their futures on the line for a quality education. From Langley Park, Maryland, to Maricopa County, Arizona, thousands of young people – brought to this country as children but whose families are undocumented – have risked detention and deportation to speak out about their dream to stay in school and become citizens. Youth are risking arrest and deportation for that dream.

And young people across the world are risking their lives. At 14, Malala Yousafzai has faced death for speaking out for the most fundamental access to education for girls in Pakistan.

So while not all ideas for promoting equity are effective, more and more people recognize why we must keep at it, understanding that quality and equitable education is the civil rights issue of our time.

Educators are Showing

When it comes to transforming education, there is no need for wild guesses: educators are already showing what works. If you look at all of the best, high-impact innovations, none involve stop-gap, slap-dash or silver bullet solutions. Rather, they all have demonstrated a set of key features:

• they value youth of all backgrounds, without exception,
• they are built around sound information and metrics,
• they engage families and community members as key partners in academic success, and
• they assure that students have access to quality teaching and a high quality curriculum.

Based on empirical evidence – and our 40 years’ of experience in the field – IDRA developed a change model that we call the Quality Schools Action Framework™ (Robledo Montecel & Goodman, 2010). The model is featured in the book, Courage to Connect: A Quality Schools Action Framework™ . The framework shapes an online data tool called OurSchool 2.0. This data portal helps schools and communities assess whether or not they are on track and what they must do to improve conditions for all students at in their own  schools.

Here is just one example of the power of this kind of comprehensive approach from a school district serving a high poverty community in South Texas. Looking at dropout data, the Pharr-San Juan-Alamo school district found out that 40 percent of students dropping out of PSJA were doing so in their senior year. Under Superintendent Dr. Daniel King’s leadership, the district undertook a plan to bring students back to school by knocking on doors and talking to parents. Before doing so, though, the district created the College, Career and Technology Academy in partnership with South Texas College. The students were then encouraged to come back – not to the same schools and conditions that had them drop out in the first place, but rather to come back and finish high school and at the same time begin college coursework. Many did.

The district has reduced its dropout rate by 75 percent in two years, and PSJA has become a leader in connecting high school students to college with more than 1,500 students participating in dual college credit courses during the last school year.

PSJA is on the U.S.-Mexico border. It is 99 percent Latino. And it is extremely poor, serving colonias in Texas. But you notice that there is no deficit thinking and no excuses in their approach. No “students cannot learn” or “parents don’t care” or “they don’t speak English” or “we can’t do it, we have too many minorities,” or “they’re not college material.”

Instead, at PSJA you find thoughtful, data-based, coherent plans that connect K-12 with higher education and community to improve educational opportunities for all children.

Technology Connects Us, and Courage Can Be Catching

Social media and new information technologies are no panacea. People around the world still wake up hungry, in poverty, at war. But there can be no doubt that new technologies – and new uses of existing technologies – are dramatically changing our sense of connection with one another and our sense of the possible.

The emergence of social networking and crowdsourcing initiatives in philanthropy, for example, are demonstrating some ways people are developing muscle around these new capabilities to benefit society. Examples include Kiva, Kickstarter and the Knight Foundation’s Knight News Challenge.

There also is reason for optimism in education because many are taking up these same technologies to promote equal educational opportunity. IDRA’s Transitions to Teaching projects are funded by the U.S. Department of Education. Through these we partner with universities across Texas to train and place highly qualified, bilingual teachers in mathematics, science and bilingual education in high need classrooms. We have launched an online statewide network for teachers to share curricula and best practices.

Through our educator network for example, we have been able to share widely the story of how Roland Toscano, a principal at East Central High School in San Antonio, worked to assure that under-served students at his school were given access to great teaching, excellent curriculum and strong support systems, strengthened by effective communication with parents. Those students have excelled beyond anyone’s expectations. With these learnings, this high school has developed a college-going culture for all of its students rather than for a select few.

Technologies connect us, and courage can be catching.

Many Views of Poverty Aren’t True

The Salvation Army found that, while an overwhelming majority of Americans believe people living in poverty deserve a helping hand, another 27 percent believe that laziness is a root cause of poverty (2008).

If such destructive beliefs about poverty like the laziness claim were true, there would be reason for pessimism. But the truth is, stereotypes are just that – stereotypes.

Let’s look, for example, at the recently much-maligned “47 percent” for being our nation’s “takers.” According to The Economist, of these: “Over half have jobs and pay payroll taxes but earn too little to be subject to income tax as well. Another 20 percent are retired. Only 8 percent of households pay no federal tax at all, usually because their members are students, disabled or unemployed…” (Minton-Bedoes, 2012)

Then there’s the myth that children growing up in poverty lack the native intelligence to succeed. It’s a myth shattered by children themselves. One recent example: 11-year-old Paloma Noyola Martínez, a student at José Urbina López elementary school, lives in the community surrounding the Matamoros garbage dump and earned a 921 on Mexico’s national academic achievement test – the highest score in the country. Martínez is among many children in the poorest parts of Matamoros who achieved the top test scores in the state (Brundage, 2012).

Contributions of Young People are Inspiring

The leadership and contributions of young people themselves give us reason for optimism. In the United States and in many countries around the world, the poorest students and racial-ethnic minority students are lost from schools before graduation at alarming rates.

The dropout problem is severe and longstanding, but we know that students dropping out is not a fact of nature. Failing students is not a reality carved in stone. IDRA knew this in 1984 when we first began the Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program . Over the last 28 years, the program has demonstrated that school transformation is possible in various social and economic contexts. The program works by putting the principle of valuing youth into practice.

Young people (pre-teens and adolescents) who are at risk of dropping out are selected to serve as tutors for younger children. As tutors, youth are provided academic support and the chance to create a strong connection with an adult who cares about them and their future at school. In countless interviews, Coca-Cola Valued Youth tell us that being chosen as a tutor was one of the first times they were seen as having something to contribute to their school. The Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program demonstrates the power of valuing students.

The Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program has benefited more than 128,000 children in the United States, Puerto Rico, England and Brazil since its founding by IDRA in San Antonio in 1984. It has positively impacted the lives of more than half a million children, families and educators. Through service, youth are valued. In being valued and supported, they begin to fashion a new vision of themselves and their future. Most importantly, the program works: 98 percent of youth who serve as tutors have stayed in school.

Optimism, knowledge and committed action can and do work for both economic prosperity and opportunity. When you add optimism to leadership to the right kind of investments, even the small changes that begin in a child’s life, a family, school, a city, and a region, can take on very big problems and make a major difference for all our children.

High quality education and economic prosperity depend on the right priorities, proven practices, courageous connections, debunked myths and valuing young people.

Brundage, J. “Mexico’s Highest Math Score Achieved by 11-year old Girl Living in The Dump,” Mexico Voices (September 21, 2012).

Clinton, B. “ The Case for Optimism ,” Time (October 1, 2012).

Minton-Bedoes, Z. “ Special Report: The World Economy – For richer, for poorer ,” The Economist (October 13, 2012).

Pew Research Center. Public Priorities: Deficit Rising, Terrorism Slipping: Tough Stance on Iran Endorsed , online (January 23, 2012).

Robledo Montecel, M., & C. Goodman (eds). Courage to Connect: A Quality Schools Action Framework™ (Intercultural Development Research Association, 2010).

Salvation Army. Perceptions of Poverty: The Salvation Army’s Report to America (May 2012).

Suitts, S. Crisis of the New Majority: Low-Income Students in the South’s Public Schools (Southern Education Foundation, April 16, 2008).

María “Cuca” Robledo Montecel, Ph.D., is IDRA’s president and CEO. Comments and questions may be directed to her via email at [email protected] .

[©2013, IDRA. This article originally appeared in the January 2013 IDRA Newsletter by the Intercultural Development Research Association. Permission to reproduce this article is granted provided the article is reprinted in its entirety and proper credit is given to IDRA and the author.]

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The Impact of Education and Culture on Poverty Reduction: Evidence from Panel Data of European Countries

1 Department of Economics, University of Foggia, 71121 Foggia, Italy

2 Department of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences, University of Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy

The 2030 Agenda has among its key objectives the poverty eradication through increasing the level of education. A good level of education and investment in culture of a country is in fact necessary to guarantee a sustainable economy, in which coexists satisfactory levels of quality of life and an equitable distribution of income. There is a lack of studies in particular on the relations between some significant dimensions, such as education, culture and poverty, considering time lags for the measurement of impacts. Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap by focusing on the relationship between education, culture and poverty based on a panel of data from 34 European countries, over a 5-year period, 2015–2019. For this purpose, after applying principal component analysis to avoid multicollinearity problems, the authors applied three different approaches: pooled-ordinary least squares model, fixed effect model and random effect model. Fixed-effects estimator was selected as the optimal and most appropriate model. The results highlight that increasing education and culture levels in these countries reduce poverty. This opens space to new research paths and policy strategies that can start from this connection to implement concrete actions aimed at widening and improving educational and cultural offer.

Introduction

Poverty eradication has been the key objective for spans in many countries since that has been recognized as the greatest hostile issues ‘jeopardising balanced society socio-economic development’ (Balvociute, 2020 ). Poverty can be considered one of the core features of unsustainable socio-economic development and as a persistent phenomenon that can have upsetting effect on peoples’ lives (Bossert et al., 2022 ). For this reason, the extreme poverty removal, as well as the fight against inequalities and injustices, have been placed at the center, with climate change, of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. The nature of poverty is multidimensional and inequalities within and among countries is an obstinate origin for concern (Fund, 2015 ; Alvaredo et al., 2017 ; Alkire & Seth, 2015 ; Kwadzo, 2015 ). For its interpretation and measurement, the literature has added to the monetary approach of material deprivation, the social and subjective dimension of the human being (Bellani & D’Ambrosio, 2014 ; Maggino, 2015 ). As stated by Kwadzo ( 2015 ), it is possible to define three poverty measurements: monetary poverty, social exclusion, and capability poverty. Similarly, there are a lot of indicators measuring well-being and quality of life: Index of Happiness, Human Poverty Index and Human Development Index (Senasu et al., 2019 ; Spada et al., 2020 ; UNDP, 1990 ; Veenhoven, 2012 ; Watkins, 2007 ). All these indicators focus and start from education. For example, the Human Poverty Index (HPI) was introduced by the United Nations to complement the Human Development Index (HDI) and used, for the first time, in the 1997 Human Development Report. In 2010, it was replaced by the Multidimensional Poverty Index. The HPI focuses on the deprivation of three essential parameters of human life, already taken into account by the Human Development Index: life expectancy, education and standard of living (Alkire et al., 2015 ; UNDP, 1990 ).

Previous studies shown that education indicators have a large impact on a country’s poverty (Bakhtiari & Meisami, 2010 ; UNDP, 1990 ; Watkins, 2007 ) and that investing in health and education is a way to reduce income inequality and poverty. In addition, studies highlight that increasing equality and the quality of education is essential to combat economic and gender inequality within society (Walker et al., 2019 ). However, few studies provide empirical evidence on how education impacts on income inequality (Liu et al., 2021 ; Santos, 2011 ; Walker et al., 2019 ) and most of these studies analyses the poverty phenomenon neglecting the combined effect of various variables. Different dimensions of poverty have also empirically demonstrated a high degree of correlation (Kwadzo, 2015 ). In addition, the literature review analysis highlighted a gap in quantitative studies, especially on the paths between some relevant dimensions, such as education, culture and poverty, considering time lags for the measurement of impacts. In light of this, the main objectives of this study are: (i) To identify over the five-year period considered (2015–2019), with what delay and with what magnitude and sign, the poverty is influenced by some indicators representative of the educational and cultural dimension; and (ii) Consequently, better calibrate education policies in European countries, in order to achieve a reduction in the poverty rate in the short term, in compliance with the objectives of the 2030 Agenda.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. A literature review regarding the relation between poverty, education and inequalities is presented in Sect.  2 . The Sect.  3 enlightens research gaps linked to the aims of this study and hypothesis to corroborate. Section  4 defines data and summarizes the methodological approach used to reach the work’s aims. Results are presented and discussed in Sect.  5 . Finally, the last section sets out our main conclusions by highlighting limitations of the study and future directions.

Theoretical Framework

The core role of education.

Over the last decades it is possible to individuate in the EU-28 a quickly growing portion of the population having income below 60% of the median disposable income. In addition, there is a share of the population has been becoming more impoverished (Balvociute, 2020 ; EUROSTAT Statistic Explained, 2019 ). In same way, it is possible to speak about “poverty trap”, a mechanisms whereby countries are poor and persist poor: existing poverty appears a straight cause of poverty in the future (Knight et al., 2009 ; Kraay & McKenzie, 2014 ). Aspects such as accommodation, education, medical and material services are considered essential. In particular, an increasing number of empirical studies have supported the positive effects of education on the creation of wealth by individuals and on promoting economic effective and fair development (UNESCO & Global Education Monitoring Report, 2017 ; Walker et al., 2019 ; Xu, 2016 ; Zhang, 2020 ). A research note by European Commission ( 2015 ) shows that individuals with primary education remain the most vulnerable in all EU countries (with a risk of poverty ranging from 13%—Netherlands—to 56% Romania). Even the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) endorsed by the World Bank and ‘Education for All’ program (UNESCO, 2007 ) emphases the significant role of education (Awan et al., 2011 ). A diverse balance can be possible and policy efforts to interrupt the poverty trap might have long-term effects. In this framework, the model proposed by Santos ( 2011 ) shows that a policy oriented towards aligning the quality of education would reduce initial inequalities. In light of this, Shi & Qamruzzaman, ( 2022 ) in a recent work, study, by means of numerous econometrical methods, the tie between investments in education, financial inclusion, and poverty decrease for the period 1995–2018 in 68 nations, underlining the role of education-backed poverty mitigation public policies that need to be more targeted. Several studies demonstrate that level of poverty and education are strictly related. For instance, Bossert et al. ( 2022 ) by focusing on Atkinson-Kolm-Sen index, that measures the percentage income gap of the poor that can be attributed to inequality among the poor (Sen, 1973 , 1976 ), emphasized the close relation between poverty and inequality. Consistent with previous studies, Lenzi and Perruca ( 2022 ) demonstrate that tertiary educated people report higher ranks of life satisfaction. This link is even more marked in rural territories where education is recognised as an important tool for reducing poverty as it allows the acquisition of skills and productive knowledges which increase people’s productivity and their earnings (Tilak, 2002 ). A recent report of the United Nations ( 2021 ) underlines how the reduced access to educational and health services in rural areas becomes a barrier, determining the difficulty of people living in these areas to found employment in well-paid professions contributing to economic growth (Chmelewska and Zegar, 2018 ). However, as Liu and colleagues ( 2021 ) find, different levels of education have distinct effects on poverty in rural areas of China and that the latter is driven not only by factors within the region but also by the level of poverty in the surrounding regions. In addition, numerous empirical evidences reveal a link between educational level and income inequalities in several geopolitical contexts. Bakhtiari and Meisami ( 2010 ), in a work of over 10 years ago, makes use of a panel data set of 37 Islamic countries (eight time periods) to study income inequality along with a model of poverty, with the main variables as income level, health status, education and savings. Findings show that enhancing the health and education can reduce income inequality and poverty. Likewise, as Arafat and Khan ( 2022 ) underline the high level of education not only contributes to reducing the degree of poverty but improves the conditions of mental, social and emotional well-being compared to poorly educated families. After about 10 years, similar works by Wani and Dhami ( 2021 ) and Sabir and Aziz ( 2018 ) reach the same results investigating the SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) countries and 31 developing countries (by employing the System Generalized Method of Moments). In several cases, and especially in rural areas, poverty is linked to the lower level of household income compared to urban areas, resulting in differences in access to basic goods and services to meet personal needs (Chmelewska and Zegar, 2018 ). In this territories household income level is directly associated with food security, in fact, an increase in the level of income reduces food insecurity (Chegini et al., 2021 ). However, as evidenced by other authors (Kirkpatrick et al., 2020 ; Kusio & Fiore, 2022 ), access to education can help to overcome the migration of young people and geographical isolation and inaccessibility that characterize the poor areas (Kvedaraite et al., 2011 ). In turn, young, educated people affect entrepreneurial attitudes. Walker et al. ( 2019 ) in the recent report ‘ The Power of Education to Fight Inequality. How increasing educational equality and quality is crucial to fighting economic and gender inequality ’ show how education can be emancipating for individuals, and it can play the role of a ‘leveler and equalizer within society’. Education interrupts obstinate and rising inequality by promoting the development of more decent work, rising incomes for the poorest people: it can aid to endorse long-lasting, wide-ranging economic growth and social cohesion.

Gradstein and Justman ( 2002 ) underlined the role of education in shaping the social cohesion that can assure equality between individuals. Universal free education enhances people’s earning power, and can bring them out of poverty. Low levels of education hamper economic growth, which in turn slows down poverty reduction (UNESCO, 2017 ; Global Education Monitoring Report, 2019 ) estimates that each year of schooling raises earnings by around 10%;53 this figure is even higher for women. In Tanzania, having a secondary education reduces the chances of being poor as a working adult by almost 60%. According to a study by UNESCO and the Global Education Monitoring Report ( 2019 ), if all adults finished secondary school, 420 million individuals would be lifted out of poverty. The convergence of crises deriving first from COVID-19 then from climate change, and conflicts, are generating extra impacts above all on poverty, nutrition, health and education affecting all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Equilience, a synchratic neologism composed of Equity + Resilience, that is resilient systems in respect of equity as a balancing of the different interests of the parties. Recent research (Berbés-Blázquez et al., 2021 ; Williams et al., 2020 ; Contò and Fiore, 2020 ) highlight the crucial importance to promote the ‘marriage’ between equity and resilience.

Aims of Study and Hypothesis

This research is potentially the first study to investigate the relationship between educational, cultural factors and poverty in European countries.

The main research directions are as follows: (i) To assess the impact of education and culture (expressed by the following indicators: Cultural employment, Total educational expenditure, Graduates in tertiary education, Number of enterprises in the cultural sectors, Tertiary educational attainment ) upon poverty (indicated by Persons at risk of poverty or social ); (ii) To compare the strength and direction of the relationships between the variables considered in two temporal situations, i.e. with zero lag, and with lag equal to one year. The data cover the period 2015–2019 and were extracted from the Eurostat database.

In the light of the above discussion, of the literature review analysis, and of the theoretical frameworks examined this study explores the following research hypotheses with regard to the European context:

Education and culture have an inverse impact on the levels of poverty.

Our second hypothesis states:

The association between cultural, educational variables and poverty, in the short term is more intense if we consider a delay of one-year.

The dataset is a balanced panel of annual observations for 34 European countries and covers the period from 2015 to 2019. On the basis of literature findings, our analysis focused on the following dimensions: education, income inequality and poverty.

Thereby, the variables considered for our investigation are as follows:

• Poverty indicator: Persons at risk of poverty or social exclusion (% of population, thousand persons; hereinafter labelled with PRP);
• Education and cultural indicators: Cultural employment (thousand persons); Total educational expenditure (million euros); Graduates in tertiary education (‰ of population;); Number of enterprises in the cultural sectors (number) Tertiary educational attainment (‰ of population). Respectively, hereinafter they will be labelled with CE, TEE, GTE, NEC and TEA.

The indicators have been extracted from the Eurostat database. The summary statistics are reported in Table ​ Table1. 1 . In the selected time period, Iceland is the country that shows the lowest values with respect PRP (12.08%). Instead, the country showing the worst performance is Romania (PRP = 41.60%). With regard to the education indicators, Germany holds the highest values for both CE (81,661.48 thousand persons) and TEE (30.588.86 million euros), highlighting great attention to education issues. Instead, in Eastern Europe (Montenegro, Romania, and Hungary) the indicators pertaining to the education area take on more penalized values. Italy is the country that boasts the largest number of enterprises in the cultural sector (NEC = 179,136.8), thanks also to the artistic beauties of which this country is rich. As far as the tertiary education level is concerned, the highest value of is held by Cyprus while the lowest by Romania (respectively TEA = 57.34 and TEA = 25.26). For subsequent processing, since the variables considered are both in the form of ratios and counts, all data were converted to natural logarithms.

Summary statistics for the Eurostat datasets, 2015–2019

Methodology

The methodological approach used is based on linear panel data models including the simple Pooled Ordinary Least Square (pooled OLS) model, the Fixed Effects (FE) model and the Random Effects (RE) model. Before proceeding with the application of the linear models, the correlation matrix between the variables taken into consideration was performed and subsequently, to avoid multicollinearity problems and distorted estimates, the study, based on the principal component analysis (PCA), used two indicators related to education and culture. According to Jolliffe and Cadima ( 2016 ), through PCA starting from a set of correlated variables, a set of uncorrelated variables is obtained, known as Principal Components (PC). In PCA, only common factors that have an eigenvalue greater than one or greater than the mean should be kept (Jolliffe, 2002 ; Kaiser, 1974 ). In this study PCA allowed to obtain the following indicators: EDU1, which includes CE, NEC, TEE, and EDU2, composed of TEA and GTE. These indicators have been incorporated into the panel data models, replacing the original variables.

The first linear panel data model adopted is the pooled OLS, which assumes no heterogeneity between countries, whose equation is as follows:

where ln PRP is the natural logarithm of the poverty indicator, α is the intercept, EDU is composed of the principal components extracted, ε is the error term, i denotes statistical units, in this case countries, and t denotes the time index.

The second model adopted is FE which controls for cross-country heterogeneity and is expressed as:

where α i is the regional specific parameter denoting the fixed effect. The basic intuition of the FE model is that α i does not change over time.

Finally, the third model is RE denoted as;

In the RE model, variations between units are assumed to be random and uncorrelated with the independent variables in the model.

To verify the two research hypotheses, for each of the three models (pooled OLS, FE and RE) two versions were calculated, with lag 0 and lag 1 year. In the model at lag 0 the variables are synchronous, while in the model at lag 1 principal components enter the equation with a one-year lag compared to PRP. The choice of the reference model between pooled OLS, FE and RE is based on several tests. In choosing between FE and pooled OLS, the study applies the F-test. A p-value of less than 5% indicates that there are important country effects that OLS fails to detect, and that thus neglecting unobserved heterogeneity in the model can lead to estimation errors and inconsistencies. The study also tests which is better between the OLS and RE model using the Breusch-Pagan (BP)-Langragian Multiplier (LM) test. The null hypothesis of the BP-LM test is that there is no substantial variance between regions. A probability value of less than 5% for the BP-LM test indicates that the RE model is appropriate and the OLS pool is not. Finally, the Hausman test χ 2 is also performed to compare the FE model and the RE model. According to Algieri and Mannarino ( 2013 ), the Hausman test χ 2 aims to identify a violation of the RE modelling hypothesis. In this test, the alternative hypothesis is that the FE model is preferable to the RE model, while the null hypothesis is that both models produce similar coefficients. A p-value greater than 5% denotes that both FE and RE are reliable, but the RE model is more efficient because it uses a lower degree of freedom. We also test for heteroskedasticity in the FE model using the modified Wald test developed by Lasker and King ( 1997 ). The null hypothesis of this test is that the variance of the error is similar for all countries (Amaz et al., 2012 ). All statistical analyses were conducted in Stata 17.0 (Stata Corp LP, College Station, Texas, USA). A critical value of p  < 0.05 was specified a priori as the threshold of statistical significance for all analyses.

The relationships between the variables, measured by Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient, is shown in Table ​ Table2. 2 . It is noted that the PRP variable is negatively correlated with all the other panel variables, albeit with modest correlations. Instead, TEE shows a high positive correlation with NEC ( r  = 0.963 and r  = 0.903, respectively). There is also a high correlation between NEC and TEE ( r  = 0.857). Therefore, in the light of the results, to exclude the problem of multicollinearity between the covariates, we proceeded to analyse the principal components.

Pearson correlation coefficient

* p  < 0.05, ** p  < 0.01, *** p  < 0.001

Table ​ Table3 3 shows the results of principal component analysis. On the basis of these results, the need to maintain the first two principal components is highlighted, since their eigenvalues are greater or very close to 1 and cumulatively represent the 84% of the information. They will be labelled as EDU1 and EDU2 respectively. EDU1 refers to TEE, CE and NEC, i.e. it refers to a cultural dimension of the country and therefore, even if not strictly connected to the school environment, with an important educational role, while the EDU2 component referring to GTE and TEA, is more closely related to the school.

Principal component analysis: factor loading, eigen value and variance explained

Table ​ Table4 4 shows the results of the three econometric models (pooled OLS, FE, RE) on the link between education, culture and poverty. It is observed that all models converge in showing that poverty decreases with increasing education and culture. In particular, the EDU1 indicator always shows a negative coefficient, and this relationship is statistically significant in the model fixed at lag 0 and lag 1 (respectively b  = − 0.3804, p  < 0.001; b  = − 0.3925, p  < 0.001). Furthermore, for EDU1, in all three econometric models it can be noted that the coefficients are higher in absolute value passing from lag 0 to lag 1, highlighting that the impact between cultural and educational tools and poverty reduction occurs with a delay, perhaps necessary to have positive results. Also, the EDU2 indicator always shows a negative coefficient and this relationship is statistically significant in all three models, both at lag 0 and at lag 1 (for all p  < 0.001). To discern the econometric model that best fits the data, as a first step the F-test allows you to choose between the OLS and FE models. The value F = 80.09 for lag 0 and F = 109.61for lag = 1, (for all p -value < 0.001), indicates in both cases that the FE model is more suitable than the pooled OLS. This demonstrates that in the relationships examined time plays an important role, which a simple OLS model may fail to capture, i.e. EDU1 and EDU2 have an effect on poverty decrease that changes over time. The choice between the RE model and the pooled OLS was instead based on the BP LM test, which suggests that the RE model is more suitable than the pooled OLS. Finally, the Hausman test χ 2 allows to identify which between FE and RE is more suitable: The value χ 2  = 15.95 at lag 0 and χ 2  = 13.40 at lag = 1, (for all p -value < 0.001) suggests that the FE model is more suitable than the RE model, indicating the presence of non-random differences between countries or over time. The model that best fits the examined panel of data is therefore the FE model.

Pooled OLS, Fixed Model, Random Model, at lag 0 and at lag 1

** p  < 0.01, *** p  < 0.001

In light of these results, as supposed in hypothesis H 1 , it is evident that education and culture play a significant role in poverty reduction. Furthermore, as supposed by hypothesis H 2  and based on the FE model which was found to be the most suitable, this impact is more intense if one considers a year of delay, above all for cultural and educational variables relating to a dimension that is not strictly scholastic.

Discussions and Conclusions

The present study analysed the relationship between education, culture and poverty for 34 countries, over the period 2015–2019. The findings indicate that rising education and culture levels in these nations reduce poverty. The model also highlighted that this relationship is weaker if we consider a contemporaneity of the values of the variables (at lag 0), while it is strengthened if we consider a time interval of one year.

As policy-makers regularly disclose the consequences of unfair development by identifying problems requiring solutions built on evidence-based guidelines, these results can have interesting and fruitful implications. By concluding, education appears, in line with other studies (Sabir & Aziz, 2018 ; Xu, 2016 ), one of the best effective methods to eradicate poverty. In line with the work by Walker et al., ( 2019 ), investing in universal-free-public education for all the persons can close different circles: the gap between rich and poor people, between women and men, between poor and rich areas within a country and among countries. In addition, education appears crucial to fight inequalities across the world. The results appear also consistent with the UN report ( 2021 ) that emphasizes the importance of the access to educational and health services in marginal poor areas to improve and contribute equal economic growth and reduce poverty (Chmelewska and Zegar, 2018 ; Bakhtiari & Meisami, 2010 ; Wani & Dhami, 2021 ). The same findings come from the work by Peng ( 2019 ) based on data from poor Chinese provinces showing that education has steady and positive impacts on farmers’ income, and the outcome of growing income in poor zones is higher than in other areas.

All in all, as evidenced by the European Commission ( 2015 ), the means to diminish the risk of poverty appears ‘straight-forward: go to school, get a job’. Clearly, these implications have to consider conditions and country environment. In line with previous research (Noper Ardi & Isnayanti, 2020 ; Walker et al., 2019 ), these results highlight that education can have an immediate impact on income inequalities and poverty; on the other hand, education (and public spending on it) has a longer-term impact on inequality through its effects in enhancing future salaries and chances. Indeed, as stated by some notable researchers (Kraay & McKenzie, 2014 ), the ‘more-likely poverty traps’ need action in less-traditional policy areas. The scholars have to further perfect the theoretical concepts and policy standards of poverty alleviation through education (Shi & Qamruzzaman, 2022 ).

This paper reinforces the conclusions deriving from other research (Mou and Xu, 2020 ; Assari et al., 2018 ; Batool and Batool, 2018 ) that are to give evidence of how education can forecast coming ‘Emotional Well-Being’ thus decreasing the inequalities by means of more generous policies and strategies. The latter can support international experience-based education (Xu, 2016 ).

In the following research phases, other variables can be inserted to improve the specifications of the model and also verify the existence of homogeneous groups of countries. In addition, a distinction between urban and rural areas to highlight the link between income, education and poverty and differences could enrich the literature and provide useful information to guide national policies in a targeted way. Regarding possible limitations of the paper, it is possible to notice a time period limited for missing data and health variables are missing.

The ‘dark’ side of this conclusions is considering the effects of the COVID19 pandemic that has increased on one hand the online teaching and training: on the other hand, education has become more difficult in remote, rural and/or marginal areas due to connections and hardware limitations.

Therefore, nowadays strategies, models and polices focusing on equi-lience (equity and resilience) processes can promote the creation of a different balance between the needs of sustainable growth and those of social, fair and environmental development (Fiore, 2022 ). Therefore, developing a strategy to convey a trained, skilled and well-supported workforce, investing in relevant and fair teaching resources, ensuring funds and building better liability mechanisms from national to local levels can be significant and fair paths to reduce poverty and inequalities. These strategies have to be aimed at developing national education plans that try to identify pre-education existing inequalities in order to arrange actions in poorer rural and marginalized districts or regions.

Open access funding provided by Università di Foggia within the CRUI-CARE Agreement.

Declarations

Authors disclose financial or non-financial interests directly or indirectly related to the work submitted for publication.

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What is Poverty?

What is education, how does poverty impact education, how can we reduce the ill effects, role of government, the solutions for reducing the impact of poverty.

Lack of resources to meet necessities like food, clothing, and housing is what is meant by poverty. Not having enough money is only one aspect of poverty; there are many more. Along with financial problems, poverty also refers to being unable to engage in leisure activities, send kids on field trips with their classmates or to birthday parties, or afford to buy medicine for illnesses. Being impoverished comes with a lot of expenses. People who are struggling to make ends meet simply can’t think about these other costs. They can’t even think about buying food and housing. There are negative effects on society when people are marginalized from society, when they are undereducated, and when they are more prone to illness. Our economy is impacted by the rising costs placed on the health care, justice, and other systems that serve those who live in poverty. The World Bank is working harder to find indicators for the other aspects of poverty, even though there has been significant progress in measuring and studying poverty. This job entails identifying social indicators to monitor social exclusion, vulnerability, access to resources, and health and education. Poverty has numerous causes, and each one has a unique set of effects. The degree of poverty varies greatly depending on the circumstances. Within a nation’s borders, there can also be significant disparities between the rich and the poor. There are various ways to define poverty, but one thing is clear: it is a complicated social problem. Regardless of how poverty is defined, it is clear that it is a problem that needs to be addressed by everyone. To ensure that every person in our society has the chance to realize their full potential, it is crucial that everyone works together. We can all benefit from one another’s assistance.   Top  

Everybody can benefit from education, which is a crucial instrument. We are unique among earth’s inhabitants because of our education. As a result, man is the most intelligent being on the planet. Humans are empowered by it and are more equipped to handle life’s obstacles. Despite this, education is still viewed in our nation as a luxury rather than a necessity. Spreading educational awareness across the nation is necessary to make education more widely available. Without initially considering the value of education, however, this stays unfinished. People can only view something as necessary for a good existence after they understand the significance it has. People frequently conflate education and schooling while discussing the two topics. While hearing or seeing the word, many people envision locations like schools or colleges. They may also consider specific positions like tutor or teacher. The issue with this is that, despite efforts to aid in learning, the way many schools and teachers conduct themselves is not often what we would rightly refer to as education. The idea of embracing truth and possibility, encouraging and allowing time for exploration, is what we mean by education in this country.   Top  

Education along with food, shelter, and clothes has become a fundamental human need. However, the majority of poor families’ children do not receive an education because they are poverty stricken. As a result, the impact of poverty on education is a crucial essay topic for both academic and competitive exams. One of the main areas where family money has a big impact is educational outcomes. Compared to their counterparts who come from more privileged families, students from poor families enter school late. The majority of low-income households don’t understand the value of education and put their kids to daily chores instead of sending them to schools. Some of them make an effort to enroll their kids in school, but they are unable to pay for a good education. Because most of them seem to be illiterate, they are also unable to assist their kids with their education. Even though it is a basic human right, many children from underprivileged and deprived backgrounds nevertheless dream of going to school. Historically, many people and communities have been denied access to education. The government now offers free education to all children between the ages of 6 and 14 and promotes school attendance. This endeavor also results in a rise in enrollment, but everyone is aware of the government school’s high standard of instruction. Most students from low-income families who have taken advantage of these free educational opportunities have since stopped their studies since they are no longer able to pay their tuition and other related costs. Some people stop studying after finishing their 10th or 12th-grade exams because the costs of higher education are so high that low-income families cannot afford it. Admission to IIT and MBBS is already out of range also for middle-class people in India because of the expensive tuition and other costs. After food, shelter, and clothing, education is one of the most important requirements, however most pupils from low-income families are unable to attend school as a result of the family’s low income. It is also the most effective strategy for lowering unemployment and poverty. The government should prioritize education for the poor because it serves as a catalyst for societal growth on all fronts, that are, economic, social, cultural, and technological.   Top  

Poverty can be lessened by providing cash transfers to low-income families whose eligibility is based on their children’s attendance at school. Such a scheme has been used successfully in Mexico, where it increased enrollment and the typical number of years spent in school.  Early nutrition education programmes help guarantee that kids are physically ready for school. Malnourished children are more likely to enter school later, learn less, and drop out of school. For instance, a relatively inexpensive deworming programme in Kenya increased students’ attendance in school by 7%. It is crucial to make sure that classrooms have the staff, materials, and facilities they require. An initiative in Colombia that aimed to raise the standard and importance of education drastically decreased dropout rates. Flexible class schedules can also cut down on the indirect expenditures associated with sending kids to school. Education has proven to be a potent weapon for reducing poverty in nations that have been capable of improving educational access and quality.    Top  

The efforts adopted by the government to fight poverty in India are as follows:

• By fostering faster economic growth:

The government attempted to spread several strategies for fostering faster economic growth. They genuinely believed that the different growth strategies would enable the poor to rise beyond the poverty level. Although initiatives to speed up economic growth have been made, they have been unsuccessful because they have used capital-intensive technologies from Western nations. More than any other country, we are moving toward a labor-intensive path of economic development. As a result, financial and fiscal policies that offer incentives for utilizing labor-intensive procedures were adopted.

• By reducing poverty and promoting agriculture:

According to reports from the Montek Ahluwalia Commission (a former member of the Planning Commission), it was made very apparent that the growth of agriculture and poverty are mutually dependent and inversely related. As agricultural growth increases, the poverty rate decreases.

• By accelerating infrastructure development:

Construction of buildings, highways, roads, docks, telecommunications, power, and irrigation systems are all part of infrastructure development. It primarily includes construction work, which is another labor-intensive activity.

• By increasing the development of human resources:

In addition to infrastructural development, human resource development can also help to eliminate poverty. Better investments are needed for HRD in areas of educational infrastructures, such as schools to increase literacy and technical training centers and vocational colleges to provide skills to the populace.

• By hastening the expansion of non-farm employment:

Rural areas are particularly crucial for the eradication of poverty and the expansion of non-farm job prospects. In sales, advertising, logistics, handicrafts, dairy production, forestry, food manufacturing and other agricultural goods, repair shops, etc., this form of employment can be developed.

• By granting access to assets:

After independence, the population grew at a faster rate, which caused agricultural holdings to be more subdivided and fragmented. The working circumstances for agricultural laborers and small-scale independent farmers have gotten worse due to a lack of employment options in factories, industries, and non-agricultural sectors.

• By providing credit:

Providing easy access to credit for the underprivileged and poor helps improve living conditions. Small farmers have access to cutting-edge resources like superior seeds, high-quality fertilizers, etc. It is possible to speed up the construction of small irrigation channels like wells and tube wells.

• By an efficient PDS (public distribution system):

According to the surveys, households spend close to 80% of their income on food. As a result, the government should work on an assured supply of an acceptable quantity of food grains in order to raise rural earnings and ensure food security for poor households.

• By taking direct aim at poverty:

The government acknowledged in the early 1970s that it would take quite some time for economic expansion to create enough job possibilities for the unemployed in our nation.   Top  

• The authorities must take prompt, appropriate action to address the issue of poverty.
• Providing adequate amenities to the underprivileged is one method to address these issues, so that they can earn a living from their job and avoid moving to cities in search of work. 
• Additionally, illiterate persons need to receive the necessary training in order to improve their quality of life. 
• Family planning should be practiced to stop the population from growing. 
• Additionally, steps should be taken to eradicate corruption so that we can address the wealth disparity.

In summary, poverty is a national issue rather than a personal one. Additionally, it should be addressed immediately by putting in place appropriate countermeasures. Furthermore, the elimination of poverty is now essential for the inclusive and sustainable development of the population, society, nation, and economy.   Top  

Poverty and educational success have a subtle and complex relationship. Despite numerous initiatives to lessen the negative effects of low levels of education, it is now recognised that the treatments have not been as successful as had been anticipated. The body of research presently suggests that a number of activities must be designed and carried out as coherent, temporally complete interventions. It is a difficult task for policymakers to simultaneously recognise and address factors which function at the mini level of the individual, the mid level of peer groups, families, and neighborhoods, and the macro level of social structures, such as housing, health care, and educational opportunities. Since all students should be provided the same independence and opportunity to find a fulfilling career that will allow them to support themselves, the standard of education is crucial. The quality of education is just as essential as how many students are receiving it, despite the widespread belief that everyone should have access to it.   Top   Recommended Read

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Relationship Between Education and Poverty

Studies have constantly revealed the strong link between education and poverty. In many nations, income in a family is one of the most powerful indicators of academic and later-life success. Poverty has denied many people the opportunity to access quality education, at the same time, education has been long seen as the equalizer between the rich and the poor, whereby with good education, it is easy to break the poverty cycle. So, what effects does poverty has on education, and how can good education help end poverty.

Numerous individuals take education for granted, but it is something that many impoverished families must forego. It is well proven that kids from middle- and upper-class peers have a better chance of succeeding than children from low-income homes. With less resources and less attention on education at home, kids growing up in poverty are behind from the very start. The child’s stress levels are high because of his or her family’s poverty, making it very tough for him or her to concentrate on schoolwork. Kids from low-income backgrounds mostly fail to get an suitable education due to the stress of hardship, even if they are going to school regularly. The following are some of the problems that children from poor backgrounds face.

First, lack of funding for education, these families have to prioritize between providing for their basic needs or taking their children to school. They cannot manage to study materials, pay for tuition and uniforms, and provide basic needs. Also, sometimes the children drop out of school to help their parents out of the situation, and because they don’t have enough funds to keep them in school, which leaves them without literacy and numeracy skills, they require to further their professions (Rodriguez, 2020). Secondly, lack of training materials and trained teachers. Most of these children attend less funded schools, so they cannot afford to pay enough teachers leave alone the well-trained.

Also, they struggle to afford the tuition fees, so the chances are that they afford training material, which affects the quality of education they get. Compared to the other children from affluent families who go to top schools with enough infrastructure, well-trained teachers, and training materials. Poor children also come from poor neighborhoods, which most of the time do not generate enough revenue to fund the schools, resulting in overcrowding, poor infrastructure, and lack of enough personnel, leading to poor education (Rodriguez, 2020). Children from poor background are more likely to score low grades in their tests than students from wealthier backgrounds placing them at a higher risk of dropping out of school.

Education also is seen as the great equalizer and critical to escaping poverty and preventing the transmission of poverty between generations. Good quality education can combat the underlying structures of poverty. Education can offer access to employment, money, and skills that one needs to not only survive, but to flourish (Filenius, 2019). A commonly known resolution to the poverty cycle is providing access to better education and supporting child welfare. The following are some ways in which education can be a solution to poverty. First, Income and economic growth which is considered big factor in poverty. Someone who is educated has a positive effect on their Income and can also raise the rate of economic return on the economy.

People with higher education have an opportunity of getting good jobs with bigger salaries. When one gets a job after his education, they start consuming more goods and products which benefit the companies (“Child Poverty and Its Impact on Education in the U.S. – NCEE”, 2019). This increases the demand for production, thus offering work to more individuals, which helps the nation’s economy grow. Secondly, health and education will help end poverty because with basic education, we are able to learn about how to take care of ourselves and our loved ones, which in turn leads to healthier lifestyles. Health is very expensive, and it is one key to poverty, so knowing how to maintain good health can help us save a lot of money, reducing poverty.

Health education improves a family’s probabilities of survival and even decreases HIV and AIDS rates. Thirdly, reducing fiscal inequalities that continue to increase every day. The gap between the rich and the poor can only be filled by education. When children from low-income families get an education, they are able to get jobs which helps reduce income inequality. Lastly, education can lead to personal growth, which can help reduce poverty. Education gives people new ideas to improve their incomes and assist the national economy gather pace. Education helps individuals make the best out of themselves and explore every opportunity they get, which gives them Income hence reducing poverty.

In conclusion, it is evident that education and poverty are strongly connected. Poverty can lead to poor education, and education can help end the cycle of poverty between generations. Many people from poor backgrounds cannot access good education, which is why the government should ensure that every child gets a quality education by equipping all schools with the same resources and finances. It is also clear that countries doing better economically invest so much in education to maintain low rates of poverty.

Filenius, j. (2019).  The Relationship Between Education and Poverty – The Borgen Project . The Borgen Project., from https://borgenproject.org/the-relationship-between-education-and-poverty/.

Rodriguez, L. (2020).  Understanding How Poverty is the Main Barrier to Education . Global Citizen., from https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/poverty-education-satistics-facts/.

Child Poverty and Its Impact on Education in the U.S. – NCEE . NCEE. (2019)., from https://ncee.org/tucker-writing/child-poverty-and-its-impact-on-education-in-the-u-s/.

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Poverty Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on poverty essay.

“Poverty is the worst form of violence”. – Mahatma Gandhi.

How Poverty is Measured?

For measuring poverty United nations have devised two measures of poverty – Absolute & relative poverty.  Absolute poverty is used to measure poverty in developing countries like India. Relative poverty is used to measure poverty in developed countries like the USA. In absolute poverty, a line based on the minimum level of income has been created & is called a poverty line.  If per day income of a family is below this level, then it is poor or below the poverty line. If per day income of a family is above this level, then it is non-poor or above the poverty line. In India, the new poverty line is  Rs 32 in rural areas and Rs 47 in urban areas.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Causes of Poverty

According to the Noble prize winner South African leader, Nelson Mandela – “Poverty is not natural, it is manmade”. The above statement is true as the causes of poverty are generally man-made. There are various causes of poverty but the most important is population. Rising population is putting the burden on the resources & budget of countries. Governments are finding difficult to provide food, shelter & employment to the rising population.

The other causes are- lack of education, war, natural disaster, lack of employment, lack of infrastructure, political instability, etc. For instance- lack of employment opportunities makes a person jobless & he is not able to earn enough to fulfill the basic necessities of his family & becomes poor. Lack of education compels a person for less paying jobs & it makes him poorer. Lack of infrastructure means there are no industries, banks, etc. in a country resulting in lack of employment opportunities. Natural disasters like flood, earthquake also contribute to poverty.

In some countries, especially African countries like Somalia, a long period of civil war has made poverty widespread. This is because all the resources & money is being spent in war instead of public welfare. Countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc. are prone to natural disasters like cyclone, etc. These disasters occur every year causing poverty to rise.

Ill Effects of Poverty

Poverty affects the life of a poor family. A poor person is not able to take proper food & nutrition &his capacity to work reduces. Reduced capacity to work further reduces his income, making him poorer. Children from poor family never get proper schooling & proper nutrition. They have to work to support their family & this destroys their childhood. Some of them may also involve in crimes like theft, murder, robbery, etc. A poor person remains uneducated & is forced to live under unhygienic conditions in slums. There are no proper sanitation & drinking water facility in slums & he falls ill often &  his health deteriorates. A poor person generally dies an early death. So, all social evils are related to poverty.

Government Schemes to Remove Poverty

The government of India also took several measures to eradicate poverty from India. Some of them are – creating employment opportunities , controlling population, etc. In India, about 60% of the population is still dependent on agriculture for its livelihood. Government has taken certain measures to promote agriculture in India. The government constructed certain dams & canals in our country to provide easy availability of water for irrigation. Government has also taken steps for the cheap availability of seeds & farming equipment to promote agriculture. Government is also promoting farming of cash crops like cotton, instead of food crops. In cities, the government is promoting industrialization to create more jobs. Government has also opened  ‘Ration shops’. Other measures include providing free & compulsory education for children up to 14 years of age, scholarship to deserving students from a poor background, providing subsidized houses to poor people, etc.

Poverty is a social evil, we can also contribute to control it. For example- we can simply donate old clothes to poor people, we can also sponsor the education of a poor child or we can utilize our free time by teaching poor students. Remember before wasting food, somebody is still sleeping hungry.

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Home — Essay Samples — Social Issues — Poverty in America — Causes And Effects Of Poverty

Causes and Effects of Poverty

• Categories: Child Poverty Poverty in America

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Published: Jun 13, 2024

Words: 736 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

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Underlying causes of poverty, effects on individuals and communities, breaking the cycle.

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At the turn of the 19th century, a Danish immigrant by the name of Jacob Riis set out to change New York City’s slums. Jacob, born in Denmark in the year 1849, emigrated to America when he was 21, carrying little money in his [...]

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Investigating factors influencing poverty with financial literacy and inclusion as mediating variable

• Liswanda, S.
• Oktavia, R.

This study looked at how financial inclusion and literacy, as a mediation variable, affected the relationship between education, employment, and e-commerce and poverty in Indonesia. Reflective indicators and factor schemes were used in the analysis, which employed the Partial Least Square (PLS) method of structural equation modeling (SEM). Four significant indicators relate to education, two to employment, two to e-commerce, six to poverty, and two to financial inclusion and literacy. The findings indicated that employment and education had a significant negative impact on poverty. On the other hand, e-commerce, financial literacy, and inclusion factors have a positive and significant effects on poverty. Financial literacy and inclusion are not considerably influenced by education, but employment has a significant negative impact on these factors. E-commerce also has a negative impact on these factors.

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ANTI-SEMITIC ATTITUDES OF THE MASS PUBLIC: ESTIMATES AND EXPLANATIONS BASED ON A SURVEY OF THE MOSCOW OBLAST

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JAMES L. GIBSON, RAYMOND M. DUCH, ANTI-SEMITIC ATTITUDES OF THE MASS PUBLIC: ESTIMATES AND EXPLANATIONS BASED ON A SURVEY OF THE MOSCOW OBLAST, Public Opinion Quarterly , Volume 56, Issue 1, SPRING 1992, Pages 1–28, https://doi.org/10.1086/269293

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In this article we examine anti-Semitism as expressed by a sample of residents of the Moscow Oblast (Soviet Union). Based on a survey conducted in 1920, we begin by describing anti-Jewish prejudice and support for official discrimination against Jews. We discover a surprisingly low level of expressed anti-Semitism among these Soviet respondents and virtually no support for state policies that discriminate against Jews. At the same time, many of the conventional hypotheses predicting anti-Semitism are supported in the Soviet case. Anti-Semitism is concentrated among those with lower levels of education, those whose personal financial condition is deteriorating, and those who oppose further democratization of the Soviet Union. We do not take these findings as evidence that anti-Semitism is a trivial problem in the Soviet Union but, rather, suggest that efforts to combat anti-Jewish movements would likely receive considerable support from ordinary Soviet people.

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34 Facts About Balashikha

Written by Rea Cartwright

Modified & Updated: 01 Jun 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Balashikha, a vibrant city situated in the Moscow Oblast of Russia, is a captivating blend of rich history, cultural heritage, and modern developments. As you delve into the heart of Balashikha, you'll discover a myriad of fascinating facts that unveil the essence and allure of this dynamic locale. From its intriguing historical landmarks to its flourishing arts and cultural scene, Balashikha beckons visitors to explore its multifaceted identity.

In this article, we'll embark on a journey to unravel 34 captivating facts about Balashikha, offering a comprehensive glimpse into its past, present, and future. Whether you're a history enthusiast, an avid traveler , or simply curious about this enchanting city, these facts will provide an enriching insight into the unique tapestry of Balashikha. Let's venture into the realm of Balashikha and uncover the wonders that await within its embrace .

Key Takeaways:

• Balashikha, a city in Russia, has over 215,000 residents and offers a vibrant cultural scene with museums, theaters, and traditional festivals. It’s a blend of tradition and modernity, making it a captivating destination for exploration and discovery.
• Nestled on the banks of the picturesque Pekhorka River, Balashikha embraces its natural surroundings, providing tranquil retreats like the Balashikha Forest Park and the Botanical Garden. The city’s diverse cultural tapestry invites visitors to savor unique flavors and traditions.

Balashikha is a city in Russia.

Located in the Moscow Oblast, Balashikha is a prominent city in the Moscow metropolitan area, known for its rich history and cultural significance.

The city has a population of over 215,000 people.

Balashikha is home to a diverse community, with a population of over 215,000 residents contributing to the city's vibrant atmosphere.

Balashikha is situated on the Pekhorka River.

The picturesque Pekhorka River flows through the city, adding to the natural beauty and charm of Balashikha.

The city experiences a humid continental climate.

Balashikha's climate is characterized by distinct seasonal changes, with warm summers and cold winters shaping the local environment.

Balashikha is known for its cultural landmarks.

The city boasts a rich cultural heritage, with numerous landmarks and attractions that reflect its historical and artistic significance.

The Balashikha Museum of History and Art is a popular cultural institution.

This renowned museum showcases the city's history and artistic achievements, offering visitors a captivating journey through Balashikha's past and present.

The city has a strong industrial presence.

Balashikha is home to various industries, contributing to the economic vitality and development of the region.

Balashikha is in close proximity to Moscow.

The city's strategic location near the Russian capital provides residents with convenient access to the cultural and economic opportunities offered by Moscow.

The Balashikha Arena is a prominent sports and entertainment venue.

This modern arena hosts a wide range of events, including sports competitions, concerts, and cultural performances, enriching the city's entertainment scene.

Balashikha has a rich tradition of folk music and dance.

The city's cultural heritage is celebrated through vibrant folk music and traditional dance performances , showcasing the local artistic talent.

The Balashikha Forest Park offers a tranquil natural retreat.

Residents and visitors can enjoy the serene beauty of the Balashikha Forest Park, a peaceful escape from the urban bustle.

The city's economy is diverse and dynamic.

Balashikha's economic landscape encompasses various sectors, fostering growth and innovation within the local business community.

Balashikha has a network of educational institutions.

The city is committed to providing quality education, with a network of schools and colleges catering to the academic needs of its residents.

The Balashikha Central Market is a bustling hub of commerce.

This vibrant market showcases local produce, crafts, and goods, serving as a focal point for economic activity and community interaction.

Balashikha is known for its traditional cuisine.

The city's culinary traditions reflect a blend of flavors and recipes unique to Balashikha, offering a delightful culinary experience for food enthusiasts.

The Balashikha Drama Theater is a cultural gem.

The theater enriches the city's cultural scene with captivating performances, showcasing the talent and creativity of local and international artists.

Balashikha has a strong sense of community spirit.

The city's residents are known for their warm hospitality and strong community bonds, creating a welcoming and inclusive environment.

The Balashikha Music School nurtures young talent.

Aspiring musicians receive quality training at the music school, contributing to the city's vibrant music culture and artistic legacy .

Balashikha celebrates traditional festivals and events.

The city's calendar is filled with colorful festivals and events that highlight its cultural diversity and heritage, attracting visitors from near and far.

The Balashikha History and Architecture Museum preserves the city's legacy.

This esteemed museum showcases the architectural heritage and historical legacy of Balashikha, offering valuable insights into the city's evolution over time.

Balashikha is a hub for creative arts and crafts.

Artisans and crafters contribute to the city's creative tapestry, producing unique works of art that reflect Balashikha's artistic identity.

The city has a strong tradition of winter sports.

Balashikha's winter sports enthusiasts enjoy a range of activities, from ice skating to skiing, embracing the winter season with enthusiasm and energy.

Balashikha's architectural landmarks are a testament to its history.

The city's architectural marvels stand as a testament to its rich history, with iconic buildings and structures shaping its urban landscape.

The Balashikha Youth Theater fosters young talent.

Aspiring actors and performers find a platform for artistic expression at the youth theater, contributing to the city's vibrant cultural scene.

Balashikha's public parks offer recreational spaces for residents.

The city's well-maintained parks provide residents with inviting spaces for leisure, relaxation, and outdoor activities.

The Balashikha Philharmonic Society promotes musical excellence.

Musical enthusiasts can indulge in captivating performances at the philharmonic society, where talented musicians showcase their artistry.

Balashikha's local businesses contribute to its economic vitality.

The entrepreneurial spirit thrives in Balashikha, with local businesses playing a significant role in driving the city's economic growth and prosperity.

The Balashikha City History Museum chronicles the city's past.

Visitors can explore the city's historical narrative at the history museum, delving into the events and milestones that have shaped Balashikha's identity.

Balashikha's cultural diversity is reflected in its cuisine.

The city's culinary landscape mirrors its cultural diversity, offering a delightful array of flavors and culinary traditions for residents and visitors to savor.

The Balashikha Puppet Theater captivates audiences of all ages.

Young and old alike are enchanted by the puppet theater's enchanting performances, adding a touch of magic to the city's cultural offerings.

Balashikha's natural surroundings inspire artistic expression.

Artists and creatives draw inspiration from the city's natural beauty, infusing their works with the essence of Balashikha's scenic landscapes.

The Balashikha City Library is a treasure trove of knowledge.

Enthusiastic readers and scholars find a wealth of literary resources at the city library, fostering a love for learning and intellectual exploration .

Balashikha's vibrant street markets showcase local craftsmanship.

The city's street markets buzz with activity, offering an eclectic mix of handmade crafts and artisanal products that reflect Balashikha's creative spirit.

The Balashikha Botanical Garden is a haven of tranquility.

Nature enthusiasts can immerse themselves in the beauty of the botanical garden, where diverse plant species create a serene and enchanting environment.

Balashikha, a city brimming with cultural vibrancy and historical significance, offers a tapestry of experiences for residents and visitors alike. From its rich artistic heritage to its thriving economic landscape, Balashikha embodies a harmonious blend of tradition and modernity. With a population of over 215,000 people, the city exudes a strong sense of community spirit, fostering warm hospitality and inclusive camaraderie. Nestled on the banks of the picturesque Pekhorka River, Balashikha embraces its natural surroundings, providing tranquil retreats such as the Balashikha Forest Park and the Botanical Garden. The city's cultural scene thrives with institutions like the Balashikha Museum of History and Art, the Drama Theater, and the Philharmonic Society, showcasing the talent and creativity of local artists. Balashikha's culinary delights, traditional festivals, and vibrant street markets reflect its diverse cultural tapestry, inviting visitors to savor the flavors and traditions unique to the city. As a hub for education, creativity, and economic dynamism, Balashikha continues to evolve while preserving its architectural landmarks and historical legacy, making it a captivating destination for exploration and discovery.

In conclusion, Balashikha is a city of rich history, vibrant culture, and breathtaking natural beauty. From its fascinating historical landmarks to its modern amenities, Balashikha offers a diverse range of experiences for visitors and residents alike. Whether you're exploring the city's architectural marvels, indulging in its culinary delights, or immersing yourself in its artistic heritage, Balashikha has something to captivate every soul. With its strategic location near Moscow and an array of recreational opportunities, Balashikha stands as a testament to the harmonious blend of tradition and progress. This city is a hidden gem waiting to be discovered, and its allure is bound to leave an indelible mark on anyone who has the pleasure of experiencing it.

What are some must-visit attractions in Balashikha? Balashikha boasts several must-visit attractions, including the iconic Balashikha Arena, the serene Pechorka Park, and the historic Church of the Resurrection.

What are the best times of the year to visit Balashikha? The best times to visit Balashikha are during the spring and summer months when the weather is pleasant, and outdoor activities and festivals are in full swing.

Balashikha's fascinating history, vibrant culture, and modern developments make it a city worth exploring. Uncover more intriguing facts about other cities in the Moscow Oblast, such as the captivating Kolomna . Dive into the unique stories of Russian cities like Orenburg, each offering its own distinctive charm and character.

The Unique Burial of a Child of Early Scythian Time at the Cemetery of Saryg-Bulun (Tuva)

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Pages:  379-406

In 1988, the Tuvan Archaeological Expedition (led by M. E. Kilunovskaya and V. A. Semenov) discovered a unique burial of the early Iron Age at Saryg-Bulun in Central Tuva. There are two burial mounds of the Aldy-Bel culture dated by 7th century BC. Within the barrows, which adjoined one another, forming a figure-of-eight, there were discovered 7 burials, from which a representative collection of artifacts was recovered. Burial 5 was the most unique, it was found in a coffin made of a larch trunk, with a tightly closed lid. Due to the preservative properties of larch and lack of air access, the coffin contained a well-preserved mummy of a child with an accompanying set of grave goods. The interred individual retained the skin on his face and had a leather headdress painted with red pigment and a coat, sewn from jerboa fur. The coat was belted with a leather belt with bronze ornaments and buckles. Besides that, a leather quiver with arrows with the shafts decorated with painted ornaments, fully preserved battle pick and a bow were buried in the coffin. Unexpectedly, the full-genomic analysis, showed that the individual was female. This fact opens a new aspect in the study of the social history of the Scythian society and perhaps brings us back to the myth of the Amazons, discussed by Herodotus. Of course, this discovery is unique in its preservation for the Scythian culture of Tuva and requires careful study and conservation.

Keywords: Tuva, Early Iron Age, early Scythian period, Aldy-Bel culture, barrow, burial in the coffin, mummy, full genome sequencing, aDNA

Information about authors: Marina Kilunovskaya (Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation). Candidate of Historical Sciences. Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Dvortsovaya Emb., 18, Saint Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Vladimir Semenov (Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation). Candidate of Historical Sciences. Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Dvortsovaya Emb., 18, Saint Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Varvara Busova  (Moscow, Russian Federation).  (Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation). Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences.  Dvortsovaya Emb., 18, Saint Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected] Kharis Mustafin  (Moscow, Russian Federation). Candidate of Technical Sciences. Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  Institutsky Lane, 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701, Moscow Oblast, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected] Irina Alborova  (Moscow, Russian Federation). Candidate of Biological Sciences. Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  Institutsky Lane, 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701, Moscow Oblast, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected] Alina Matzvai  (Moscow, Russian Federation). Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  Institutsky Lane, 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701, Moscow Oblast, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected]

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