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Associations of time spent on homework or studying with nocturnal sleep behavior and depression symptoms in adolescents from Singapore

• Sing Chen Yeo, MSc Sing Chen Yeo Affiliations Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore Search for articles by this author
• Jacinda Tan, BSc Jacinda Tan Affiliations Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore Search for articles by this author
• Joshua J. Gooley, PhD Joshua J. Gooley Correspondence Corresponding author: Joshua J. Gooley, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, Duke-NUS Medical School Singapore, 8 College Road, Singapore 117549, Singapore Contact Affiliations Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore Search for articles by this author

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The Effects Homework Can Have On Teens’ Sleeping Habits

Jess Amabile '24 and February 25, 2021

Ever wonder why you feel like you never get enough sleep? Here’s a pretty good reason: large amounts of homework can be detrimental to a teen’s sleeping habits, even more so with high schoolers.

There have been many studies recently about the damage homework has to students’ health, mainly concerning lack of sleep in teenagers.  According to an article published by US News called “The Importance of Sleep for Teen Mental Health” , it states that “ surveys show that less than 9 percent of teens get enough sleep”.  This fact is devastating, especially considering the fact that teenagers take up about thirteen percent of the country’s population.  

Also mentioned in “The Importance of Sleep for Teen Mental Health” , “ about forty-one million Americans get six or fewer hours of sleep per night”.  If teenagers see their parents not getting enough sleep, it can convince them that there are things more important than sleep, such as something almost every teenager in America has to deal with–homework.

Homework is pretty stressful for teens, especially if they have other things to do.  Many teens have long hours at school, which limits the time for them to do their insane amount of homework, attend extra-curricular activities, eat, do whatever they need to around the house, and sleep.  And usually, sleeping is the last thing on the list of things to do before school the next day. Another article, “What’s preventing adequate teen sleep” , states that, “Homework is possibly the biggest factor that keeps teens from getting enough sleep…The sheer quantity of homework absorbs hours that should be dedicated to sleep”.  Students generally have so much homework that they don’t have enough time to do everything else they need to do that day.  So, sleeping is often the first thing teens eliminate from their schedule.  

According to Oxford Learning , homework can have other negative effects on students. In their article, Oxford Learning remarks, “56 percent of students considered homework a primary source of stress. Too much homework can result in lack of sleep, headaches, exhaustion, and weight loss”. 

 Similarly, Stanford Medicine News Center reports that the founder of the Stanford Sleep Disorders Clinic stated, “‘I think high school is the real danger spot in terms of sleep deprivation,’ said William Dement, MD, Ph.D.”.  Sleep deprivation is a real problem for high school students, and Stanford Medicine News Center continues on this topic by commenting, “Sleep deprivation increases the likelihood teens will suffer myriad negative consequences, including an inability to concentrate, poor grades, drowsy-driving incidents, anxiety, depression, thoughts of suicide and even suicide attempts. It’s a problem that knows no economic boundaries”. If students are constantly battling sleep deprivation, how can they concentrate on schoolwork, or even be able to perform everyday tasks?  This shows that homework greatly affects students in both mental and physical ways. If something is supposed to continue a lesson that was learned in school, why is it negatively affecting students’ lives?

Ask yourself: is homework really worth the extremely negative effects?

“What’s preventing adequate teen sleep”

http://sleepeducation.org/news/2017/07/26/what-is-preventing-adequate-teen-sleep

“The Importance of Sleep for Teen Mental Health”

https://health.usnews.com/health-care/for-better/articles/2018-07-02/the-importance-of-sleep-for-teen-mental-health

Oxford Learning

https://www.oxfordlearning.com/how-does-homework-affect-students/#:~:text=How%20Does%20Homework%20Affect%20Students,headaches%2C%20exhaustion%20and%20weight%20loss.

Stanford Medicine News Center

https://med.stanford.edu/news.html

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How Does Homework Affect Students Sleep?

Published: June 21st, 2023

Exploring how homework affects students' sleep is an essential part of understanding the overall health and academic performance of our youth. The correlation between heavy workload from assignments and sleep deprivation has been a subject of multiple studies, with compelling findings.

Understanding the correlation between homework and teenage stress

Exploring the impact on quality sleep due to excessive homework, how late-night study impacts the circadian rhythm, the link between disturbed sleep patterns and academic performance, unpacking research findings linking heavy homework load with mental health issues, implications for future educational policies regarding home-based tasks, evaluating pros & cons related to assigning extensive workloads at elementary levels, suggesting alternatives for effective learning without compromising children's wellbeing, alfie kohn's perspective on education system practices, proposing changes toward balanced school schedules, assessing potential benefits shifting school start times based upon nsf recommendations, effective time management strategies, the impact of sleep deprivation on students, does homework affect sleep schedules, what percentage of students lose sleep due to homework, why does school cause sleep deprivation, why is sleep more important than homework.

This blog post delves into the impact that excessive homework can have on high school students' quality sleep, and how it might disrupt their natural circadian rhythm or sleep cycle. We will also explore its implications on mental health issues among younger kids who are often encouraged to go to bed earlier but struggle due to late-night study sessions.

The role of American education system practices in contributing to student's lack of adequate rest will be examined along with Alfie Kohn’s perspective about current education policies. Additionally, we'll discuss early school start times as another potential burden leading towards disturbed sleeping patterns.

Finally, we aim at proposing some changes for more balanced school schedules and providing tips for effectively managing time amidst academic responsibilities and extracurricular activities without being sleep deprived.

The Impact of Homework on Teenage Stress and Sleep

Homework is a major source of stress for teenagers, affecting their sleep patterns. According to studies, about 75% of high school students report grades and homework as significant stressors. This anxiety can lead to sleep deprivation, with over 50% of students reporting insufficient rest.

A heavy workload not only affects academic performance but also disrupts the normal sleep cycle. The pressure to excel academically leads many students into a vicious cycle where they stay up late completing tasks, wake up early for school, and end up being sleep deprived.

This lack of rest impairs cognitive functions like memory retention and problem-solving skills - both crucial for academic success. Furthermore, inadequate sleep may lead to ailments such as reduced immunity or persistent tiredness.

Sleep experts recommend that younger kids should go to bed earlier than teens because their biological clock naturally prompts them to feel sleepy around 8-9 PM. However, this becomes challenging when burdened with loads of assignments which extend their screen time significantly beyond recommended limits.

The blue light emitted by electronic devices used for studying suppresses melatonin production - a hormone that regulates our body's internal clock determining when we feel sleepy or awake (National Sleep Foundation). Consequently, these factors combined make falling asleep more difficult leading towards disrupted sleeping patterns ultimately affecting overall well-being including mental health status alongside academic performance negatively.

In conclusion, there needs to be an urgent reevaluation of how much work is assigned outside class hours considering potential adverse effects upon student's health, especially concerning adequate rest necessary for optimal functioning throughout day-to-day activities, whether within academia or other extracurricular responsibilities undertaken during leisure periods post-school schedules.

Analyzing Sleep Patterns Among Stressed Students

High schoolers are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of sleep deprivation due to the demands of juggling academics and extracurriculars. The pressure of balancing academics with extracurricular activities can lead to late nights and early mornings, leaving them feeling perpetually tired and impacting their academic performance.

The human body operates on a 24-hour internal clock known as the circadian rhythm. This biological process regulates our sleep-wake cycle, among other things. When students stay up late studying or completing homework, they disrupt this natural rhythm which can result in a range of health issues including chronic fatigue and weakened immunity.

Screen time is another factor that exacerbates this issue. Many students use electronic devices for research or writing assignments before bed, exposing themselves to blue light which further interferes with their circadian rhythms.

Regular slumber is a must for cognitive functions, such as memory consolidation and problem-solving aptitude - fundamental aspects of learning. Multiple studies have shown that when these patterns are disturbed due to excessive homework or late-night study sessions, it can negatively affect academic performance.

• Poor Concentration: Lack of adequate rest makes focusing on tasks more difficult, leading to decreased productivity during study hours.
• Inability To Retain Information: During deep stages of sleep, information from short-term memory gets transferred into long-term storage enabling better recall later; deprived individuals miss out on this critical process.
• Deteriorating Mental Health: Chronic lack of rest has been linked with increased levels of anxiety and depression amongst teenagers, impacting overall wellbeing and indirectly affecting grades too.

A report by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) suggests there's an urgent need for schools to address these concerns seriously, considering the potential repercussions over students' physical and mental health alongside scholastic achievements. Making sure they get enough quality rest each night is essential for optimal functioning throughout the day, both inside and outside the classroom environments.

Investigating Time Spent on Homework and Its Effects on Mental Health

The amount of time spent on homework and studying significantly affects students' mental health. Multiple studies have shown that an excessive workload can lead to depression, stress, and sleep deprivation .

A comprehensive study involving 2386 adolescents assessed various aspects, including self-rated health, overweight status, and depression symptoms, alongside time spent on homework/studying. The researchers used ten different multiple linear regression models to test the association with the global Kutcher Adolescent Depression Scale score. This approach allowed them to analyze how each aspect correlates with the others.

The results were revealing: there was a clear correlation between increased hours dedicated to home-based tasks and higher levels of depressive tendencies among high school students . These effects weren't limited only to academic performance but extended into their personal lives as well, affecting relationships, participation rates in extracurricular activities , and more.

This data suggests that we need a more balanced approach when it comes to assigning workloads at schools. Instead of piling up assignments indiscriminately, educators should aim for an optimal balance where learning is enhanced rather than hindered by excessive amounts of homework.

In light of this information, some countries are already taking steps towards reducing screen time requirements, especially during after-school hours. This allows younger kids to go to bed earlier, improving their sleep cycle quality significantly, which ultimately leads to better cognitive functioning the next day at school or other engagements they might have outside the academic context, like part-time jobs or family duties.

To sum up, a healthy balance between academic and other life obligations is essential to avoid potential repercussions in all aspects of a student's life. Neglecting to strike a balance between academic and other responsibilities can have severe repercussions, not only in terms of grades but also emotionally, socially, and mentally. Therefore, it is imperative to address this issue promptly and effectively with all stakeholders involved in the education sector worldwide today, tomorrow, and onwards too.

Excessive Workload Strain from Assignments in Younger Kids

The ongoing discussion about the implications of homework for younger students has drawn attention from educators, parents, and researchers. While assignments can reinforce what students learn during school hours, evidence supporting benefits from home-based tasks remains scarce before high-school levels. This is concerning considering the potential adverse effects an excessive workload can have on young minds.

On one hand, homework can instill discipline and help develop good study habits. On the other hand, too much of it could lead to sleep deprivation among younger kids who should ideally be going to bed earlier. The AAP suggests that 6-12 year olds should have 9-12 hours of rest, however this can be hard to attain when they are inundated with assignments.

Besides affecting their sleep cycle, overburdening them with academic responsibilities also leaves little room for extracurricular activities which play a crucial role in their overall development. It may even result in screen time replacing physical activity as children turn towards digital platforms to complete their assignments.

Rather than piling up work indiscriminately, schools could consider adopting strategies aimed at enhancing learning while ensuring the well-being of students. For instance, project-based learning could be an effective alternative where students actively explore real-world problems and challenges, thereby gaining deeper knowledge.

In addition to this approach would be limiting daily homework duration per grade level or introducing "homework-free" days during weekends or holidays providing ample rest periods essential for growth development amongst younger kids.

This shift not only ensures that our future generations aren't sleep deprived due to unnecessary academic pressure but also fosters a love for lifelong learning - something far more valuable than mere grades obtained through rote memorization.

American Education's Role In Student Sleep Deprivation

It's common for students in the US to be sleep deprived , not just because of academic pressures but also due to extracurricular activities . Late nights and early mornings disrupt a healthy sleep cycle , affecting student wellbeing.

Educational critic Alfie Kohn argues that the American education system emphasizes homework without considering its impact on student wellbeing. Many tasks assigned do not enhance learning but rather contribute towards stress and sleep deprivation among students. You can read more about his thoughts in his article titled " The Truth About Homework: Needless Assignments Persist Because of Widespread Misconceptions About Learning. "

Kohn suggests a shift towards assigning work aimed at enhancing learning rather than piling it up indiscriminately. Schools should recognize the importance of adequate rest for optimal functioning.

• Reduce homework loads: Lightening the load could help alleviate some of the pressure students feel, allowing them time to relax and get enough sleep each night.
• Consider late start times: Multiple studies suggest that starting school later in the morning could have numerous benefits including improved attendance rates and higher alertness, reducing instances of depressive tendencies significantly. (National Sleep Foundation (NSF))
• Promote good sleep hygiene: Schools can educate students about good sleep habits such as maintaining consistent bedtimes and wake-up times, limiting screen time before bedtime, and creating quiet, dark sleeping environments.

The key takeaway here is balance - between academics, extracurricular activities, family responsibilities, and personal downtime - which includes getting sufficient restful sleep every night.

Early School Start Times - An Additional Burden

Many adolescents in the US are finding that having to get up at sunrise is more of an encumbrance than a blessing. Parents and educators alike have reported that these early start times are inhibiting productivity throughout daytime schedules.

The National Sleep Foundation (NSF), an organization dedicated to improving health and well-being through sleep education and advocacy, suggests shifting school timings as one possible solution. This adjustment could result in improved attendance rates along with higher alertness among students during class hours.

The NSF study indicated that adjusting the school start time from 7:30 AM to 8:30 AM produced tangible improvements in student performance. The extra hour allowed teenagers' natural sleep cycle to align better with their academic schedule leading them to feel less sleep deprived.

• Better Attendance: Schools noted fewer tardies and absences after implementing later start times.
• Increase In Grades: Students showed improvement in core subjects like Math and English.
• Mental Health Benefits: A decrease was observed in instances of depressive tendencies significantly among students.

This shift not only helped improve academic outcomes but also had positive effects on mental health as teens were able to get adequate rest without having to sacrifice extracurricular activities or family duties.

The idea of starting schools later isn't new; however, its implementation has been slow due largely because changing such ingrained societal norms takes time. But if we want our younger kids performing optimally while avoiding unnecessary strain caused by excessive workload or screen time then we need to rethink how we structure our day-to-day lives. Research has demonstrated that inadequate rest can detrimentally affect our health and wellness, so it is essential to ensure we are getting enough sleep by retiring earlier and limiting screen time before bed.

Balancing Academic Responsibilities With Other Duties

As a student, you're expected to juggle academic responsibilities with other duties. Yet, it can be a challenge to effectively manage such a hectic schedule. Homework alone can take up to four hours a day, and that's not counting extracurricular activities or part-time jobs. So, how can you manage your time effectively amidst these multifarious responsibilities?

The key to managing your diverse obligations lies in effective time management strategies . Here are some tips that could help:

• Prioritize tasks: Not all assignments are created equal. Some require more effort and attention than others. Prioritizing your work can help you focus on what's most important first.
• Create a schedule: Having a set routine for studying can make it easier to stick to your commitments and avoid procrastination.
• Leverage technology: There are numerous apps available designed specifically for helping students manage their workload efficiently.
• Avoid multitasking: Multitasking often leads to mistakes and decreased productivity. Rather than attempting to juggle multiple tasks, give your full attention to one task until it is finished before progressing onto the next.

Sleep deprivation among high school students is a serious issue that needs urgent addressing. Multiple studies reveal that the majority of teenagers receive only six to eight hours of sleep per night despite needing more for optimal functioning. This lack of sleep not only affects academic performance but also overall health and wellbeing.

In addition, extracurricular activities and screen time can also affect younger kids' sleep cycle. The American education system has been criticized for promoting this unhealthy trend by assigning excessive amounts of homework without considering individual capacities or needs.

To combat this problem, parents need support from schools in ensuring children go to bed earlier while limiting their exposure to electronic devices during evening hours. This can significantly improve the quality of rest received each night, reducing instances of depressive tendencies associated with inadequate slumber patterns amongst adolescents today.

FAQs in Relation to How Does Homework Affect Students Sleep

Yes, excessive homework can lead to late-night studying, causing students to have inadequate sleep.

Around 56% of students reported losing sleep over schoolwork according to a Stanford study .

Schools may contribute to students' sleep deprivation through early start times and heavy academic loads.

Sleep is crucial for cognitive functions , including memory consolidation which aids in learning; overworking could hinder these processes.

Is Homework Ruining Your Sleep?

Excessive homework can negatively impact students' mental and physical health, leading to stress and lack of sleep.

Teachers can help by coordinating assignment deadlines and exploring alternatives like home-based tasks for younger children.

It's important for educators to recognize the effects of heavy academic loads on student productivity and well-being.

According to a study by the National Sleep Foundation, teenagers need 8-10 hours of sleep per night to function at their best.

Don't let homework rob you of your Z's - prioritize your health and well-being!

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Homework, Sleep, and the Student Brain

At some point, every parent wishes their high school aged student would go to bed earlier as well as find time to pursue their own passions -- or maybe even choose to relax. This thought reemerged as I reread Anna Quindlen's commencement speech, A Short Guide to a Happy Life. The central message of this address, never actually stated, was: "Get a life."

But what prevents students from "getting a life," especially between September and June? One answer is homework.

Favorable Working Conditions

As a history teacher at St. Andrew's Episcopal School and director of the Center for Transformative Teaching and Learning , I want to be clear that I both give and support the idea of homework. But homework, whether good or bad, takes time and often cuts into each student's sleep, family dinner, or freedom to follow passions outside of school. For too many students, homework is too often about compliance and "not losing points" rather than about learning.

Most schools have a philosophy about homework that is challenged by each parent's experience doing homework "back in the day." Parents' common misconception is that the teachers and schools giving more homework are more challenging and therefore better teachers and schools. This is a false assumption. The amount of homework your son or daughter does each night should not be a source of pride for the quality of a school. In fact, I would suggest a different metric when evaluating your child's homework. Are you able to stay up with your son or daughter until he or she finishes those assignments? If the answer is no, then too much homework is being assigned, and you both need more of the sleep that, according to Daniel T. Willingham , is crucial to memory consolidation.

I have often joked with my students, while teaching the Progressive Movement and rise of unions between the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, that they should consider striking because of how schools violate child labor laws. If school is each student's "job," then students are working hours usually assigned to Washington, DC lawyers (combing the hours of the school day, school-sponsored activities, and homework). This would certainly be a risky strategy for changing how schools and teachers think about homework, but it certainly would gain attention. (If any of my students are reading this, don't try it!)

So how can we change things?

The Scientific Approach

In the study "What Great Homework Looks Like" from the journal Think Differently and Deeply , which connects research in how the brain learns to the instructional practice of teachers, we see moderate advantages of no more than two hours of homework for high school students. For younger students, the correlation is even smaller. Homework does teach other important, non-cognitive skills such as time management, sustained attention, and rule following, but let us not mask that as learning the content and skills that most assignments are supposed to teach.

Homework can be a powerful learning tool -- if designed and assigned correctly. I say "learning," because good homework should be an independent moment for each student or groups of students through virtual collaboration. It should be challenging and engaging enough to allow for deliberate practice of essential content and skills, but not so hard that parents are asked to recall what they learned in high school. All that usually leads to is family stress.

But even when good homework is assigned, it is the student's approach that is critical. A scientific approach to tackling their homework can actually lead to deepened learning in less time. The biggest contributor to the length of a student's homework is task switching. Too often, students jump between their work on an assignment and the lure of social media. But I have found it hard to convince students of the cost associated with such task switching. Imagine a student writing an essay for AP English class or completing math proofs for their honors geometry class. In the middle of the work, their phone announces a new text message. This is a moment of truth for the student. Should they address that text before or after they finish their assignment?

Delayed Gratification

When a student chooses to check their text, respond and then possibly take an extended dive into social media, they lose a percentage of the learning that has already happened. As a result, when they return to the AP essay or honors geometry proof, they need to retrace their learning in order to catch up to where they were. This jump, between homework and social media, is actually extending the time a student spends on an assignment. My colleagues and I coach our students to see social media as a reward for finishing an assignment. Delaying gratification is an important non-cognitive skill and one that research has shown enhances life outcomes (see the Stanford Marshmallow Test ).

At my school, the goal is to reduce the barriers for each student to meet his or her peak potential without lowering the bar. Good, purposeful homework should be part of any student's learning journey. But it takes teachers to design better homework (which can include no homework at all on some nights), parents to not see hours of homework as a measure of school quality, and students to reflect on their current homework strategies while applying new, research-backed ones. Together, we can all get more sleep -- and that, research shows, is very good for all of our brains and for each student's learning.

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Mayo Clinic Q and A: Teens and healthy sleep habits

Cynthia Weiss

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DEAR MAYO CLINIC:  My 14-year-old daughter goes to bed each night around 10 p.m. Some nights she complains that she cannot fall asleep until hours later. Although she wakes up and says she isn't tired, she does sleep in on weekends. I'm concerned about insomnia, but I’m also worried it’s affecting her ability to concentrate in school. What advice do you have?

ANSWER:  Lots of children your daughter's age have trouble falling asleep easily at night. Though one might say your daughter has bouts of insomnia , in many cases, the reason for sleep challenges can be traced back to habits a child has developed that interfere with good sleep. Less often, it may be due to a sleep disorder .

Unfortunately, many teens don’t get the sleep they need. To be well-rested and to help them stay healthy, teenagers need about eight to 10 hours of sleep each night. Healthy sleep is important for many reasons. It can fight stress, improve mood and attitude, and provide energy. When teens are well-rested, they can concentrate, learn, listen and think better than when they’re tired. That can improve school participation and performance. Healthy sleep also contributes to a healthy body, helping it run the way it should.

Sleep challenges plague many teenagers, with about 70% of high school students reporting inadequate sleep on school nights. One of the big reasons is that their body’s internal clock shifts during the teen years. In the preteen years, the hormone melatonin, which signals to the body that it’s time to sleep, is released into the bloodstream earlier in the evening. In most teens, melatonin levels don’t rise until about 10:30 or 11 p.m., so they aren’t sleepy before then. But going to bed at that time means teens should ideally sleep until about 7:30 or 8 a.m. This isn’t an option for many because of school start times.

More than others, some teens tend to show a preference for the late evening hours. They are actually most energetic, intellectually productive and creative in the late evening. It is important to recognize that this is also a normal pattern. For those with these "night owl" tendencies, however, it is especially important to provide lots of light exposure and physical activity immediately upon awakening in the morning and to have dimmer lighting around the house during the evening hours.

One of the most important things teens can do to sleep well regularly is to set a consistent wake-up time and build a sleep schedule around it. It doesn’t have to be exactly the same, but the wake-up time should be within about a two-hour window every day of the week. This allows the body’s internal clock to run smoothly and avoid the difficulty of trying to readjust and get up on Monday morning at 6 a.m. after sleeping in until noon on the weekends.

Picking a reasonable bedtime and sticking to that most days can be very useful, too. When teens get up at the same time every day, they will get sleepy around the same time every night. Your daughter should listen to that and go to bed as soon as she feels tired.

There are also ways your daughter can make it easier for her body to sleep. For example, she should stay away from pop, sugar, caffeine and big meals two to three hours before going to bed. She should exercise, but do it at least two hours before bedtime. And she should not nap during the day.

Creating a sleep-friendly environment can make a difference, too. Electronic devices and screens, along with the lights on them, in a teen’s room at night often disrupt sleep. Avoid distractions by keeping TVs and computers out of bedrooms. Cellphones should be turned off at bedtime and stored outside the bedroom. For the best sleep, keep bedrooms cool, dark and quiet during the night.

Be mindful of how homework, extracurricular activities and after-school jobs can affect the goals you set. Often teens want to do as much as they can, but if the activities are too time-consuming, it may lead to a more significant amount of lost sleep. If your teen has a job, consider limiting it to no more than 15 hours a week with hours that do not interfere with sleep opportunity. Then it’s likely she'll still have enough time for homework and other activities without sacrificing sleep.

Work with your local school district to advocate for later school start times in accordance with the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommendations that school should not start before 8:30 a.m. for middle and high school.

If there are persistent problems falling asleep on a regular basis or if there are concerns for poor sleep quality, it is a good idea to work with a sleep specialist. Encourage your daughter to get more sleep each night. When she does, it’s quite likely that she’ll feel more alert, have more energy and be able to focus more effectively and for longer periods of time at school. — Robin Lloyd, M.D. , Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota

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Early Start Times, Homework Impact Sleep for Teens

Dec 11, 2018 | Age | 0 |

New survey data released from Sleep Cycle, an alarm clock app, reveals how school schedules affect the quality and quantity of sleep for kids and teens.

The survey of more than 1,000 US adults and teens conducted by Propeller Research on behalf of Sleep Cycle in September 2018 found that schoolwork keeps kids and teens up too late, early school start times have them falling asleep in class, and even teens are on board with nap time.

Americans Kids Aren’t Getting Enough Sleep

The majority of parents (70%) agree that their children need a minimum of 8-9 hours of sleep to be well-rested, but nearly half (46%) report that their children get 7 hours or less.

Additionally, while more than three-quarters (77%) of American parents got naps when they were children in kindergarten, 4 in 10 say their child did not.

When they don’t get enough sleep, parents report that their children:

• Are moody — 64%
• Are grumpy and disagreeable — 61%
• Get into more trouble at school — 28%
• Make worse life choices — 20%
• Homework doesn’t help: The vast majority (88%) of teens say they must stay up late to finish school projects — 59% on a weekly or daily basis.

Late to Bed and Early to Rise

School start times also have more than a little to do with it:

• More than half (52%) of American parents and 61% of American teens think school starts too early.
• 55% of teens feel their school work suffers because of the early start time
• 59% say that early school start times inhibit them from being productive later in the day
• 70% feel they would have more productive school days if school started later — 64% of parents agree
• About a quarter of teens (27%) say they begin to feel alert after 9 am, but the majority (39%) don’t start feeling alert until after 10 am.
• Another 10% say they don’t ever feel alert in class.

Are Naps the Answer?

Almost half (46%) of parents feel the school day is also too long. Teens agree:

• 87% have had difficulty staying awake during class because they are tired
• More than two-thirds (69%) have actually fallen asleep
• 56% report feeling worn out at the end of each school day
• All but 3% say they come home tired at least one day a week
• More than three-quarters (76%) of parents feel their child would benefit from a designated nap or rest time at school — teens included. The vast majority (78%) of teens agree that they would benefit from a nap or rest in the course of the school day.

“American students are burning the candle at both ends—staying up late to do homework and waking up early to be back in class. It’s a vicious cycle,” says Carl Johan Hederoth, CEO of Sleep Cycle, in a release. “Parents can help by trying to establish a regular bedtime and by using Sleep Cycle to wake kids in their lightest phase of sleep so they can start each day feeling refreshed, even for those early classes.”

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School and Sleep

Logan Foley

Editorial Director

Logan is a Certified Sleep Science Coach with a deep understanding of what it means to struggle with sleep. Her years of experience researching and testing sleep products – including mattresses, natural sleep aids, and bedding – are critical to her role helping lead the editorial team. As a chronic insomniac, she aims to bring her findings to anyone struggling with getting adequate rest. Her expertise is in creating informative, trustworthy, and useful health content. When she’s not testing mattresses or researching CBT-I, she enjoys spending time in the sunshine with her husband and her dogs Pepper and Winston.

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Getting enough rest is important for all students,  from kindergarteners to collegiates. Early wake-up times, daylong course schedules, homework requirements, and extracurricular activities can all interfere with a student’s sleep schedule and leave them feeling tired in class the next day. These demands can increase in high school and college.

The Link Between Sleep and School Performance

Insufficient sleep is particularly problematic for children ages 13 and younger because they require more daily rest than older individuals. Elementary and middle school students typically need to sleep for nine to 11 hours each night, and early start times for schools can leave them with less time to complete their homework and relax in the evening. In recent years, some education experts have suggested starting classes later in the morning to help students feel less tired and more alert, but at many campuses across the country, the school day kicks off at 7 a.m. or earlier.

Many students also struggle with sleep during the transition period between summer vacation and the new school year. Parents can help their children get enough rest by encouraging proper sleep hygiene, which refers to habits and behaviors that promote high-quality sleep. Going to bed and getting up at the same times each day – even on the weekends – can establish a healthy sleep routine, as can “quiet time” in the evenings after their homework is finished. Avoiding caffeine and electronic devices in the hours leading up to bedtime may also be helpful.

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Homework, sleep insufficiency and adolescent neurobehavioral problems: Shanghai Adolescent Cohort

Affiliations.

• 1 Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China.
• 2 Institute of Higher Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
• 3 Shanghai Changning Maternity & Infant Health Institute, Shanghai 200051, China.
• 4 Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China; MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China.
• 5 The Children's Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang 310005, China.
• 6 MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China.
• 7 Shanghai Municipal Education Commission Department, Shanghai 200070, China.
• 8 Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 37059191
• DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.04.008

Background: The prospective associations between homework burdens and adolescent neurobehavioral problems, and whether sleep-durations mediated and sex modified such associations remained unclear.

Methods: Using Shanghai-Adolescent-Cohort study, 609 middle-school students were recruited and investigations took place at Grade 6, 7 and 9. Information on homework burdens (defined by homework completion-time and self-perceived homework difficulty), bedtime/wake-up-time and neurobehavioral problems was collected. Two patterns of comprehensive homework burdens ('high' vs. 'low') were identified by latent-class-analysis and two distinct neurobehavioral trajectories ('increased-risk' vs. 'low-risk') were formed by latent-class-mixture-modeling.

Results: Among the 6th-9th graders, the prevalence-rates of sleep-insufficiency and late-bedtime ranged from 44.0 %-55.0 % and 40.3 %-91.6 %, respectively. High homework burdens were concurrently associated with increased-risks of neurobehavioral problems (IRRs: 1.345-1.688, P < 0.05) at each grade, and such associations were mediated by reduced sleep durations (IRRs for indirect-effects: 1.105-1.251, P < 0.05). High homework burden at the 6th-grade (ORs: 2.014-2.168, P < 0.05) or high long-term (grade 6-9) homework burden (ORs: 1.876-1.925, P < 0.05) significantly predicted increased-risk trajectories of anxiety/depression and total-problems, with stronger associations among girls than among boys. The longitudinal associations between long-term homework burdens and increased-risk trajectories of neurobehavioral problems were mediated by reduced sleep-durations (ORs for indirect-effects: 1.189-1.278, P < 0.05), with stronger mediation-effects among girls.

Limitations: This study was restricted to Shanghai adolescents.

Conclusions: High homework burden had both short-term and long-term associations with adolescent neurobehavioral problems, with stronger associations among girls, and sleep-insufficiency may mediate such associations in a sex-specific manner. Approaches targeting appropriate homework-load/difficulty and sleep restoration may help prevent adolescent neurobehavioral problems.

Keywords: Adolescent neurobehavioral problems; Homework burden; Mediation; Modification; Sleep.

Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Conflict of interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

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The CavChron

How does homework affect a high school student’s sleep schedule.

Elise Dinbergs

Here at HBHS, this is a typical homework assignment from an AP level class. The amount of homework a student has can have disastrous effects on their health and sleep schedule. “Kids shouldn’t be given more than two hours of homework a day, [preferably] one hour a day outside of school,” said Christina Ellis.

Elise Dinbergs , Co-A&E Editor November 26, 2019

The average high school student struggles to find time in the day to balance their homework and extracurricular activities, which can often have a negative impact on them. For those attempting to find time to fit in all their homework and activities, sleeping may seem like an option instead of a need, but it really is necessary.

 In our society today, students are pushed to succeed in various ways, whether it is through standardized testing, such as the PSAT, SAT, or ACT, or are exerted to their limit to get exceptional grades. Maintaining all these academic pressures can be disastrous to a teen’s physical and mental health, according to a study done by Stanford University’s Sleep Disorder Clinic. In fact, sleep deprivation among teens has many negative effects, such as drowsiness, bad grades, anxiety, and an inability to concentrate, just to name a few. 

These problems continue to fester in teen’s lives, and oftentimes, kids don’t even realize that they are really tired. They are acclimated to doing homework and other assignments late into the night. Students would benefit if they spent less time on this homework, so that they wouldn’t be staying up too late and would be able to go to sleep at a healthy hour.

“Kids are staying up too late doing homework, and I think it would be better for everyone’s health if they got more sleep,” said Christina Ellis, a history teacher at HBHS. Time management is another skill that kids could use to figure out what they have to do and can do in a day. Waiting until the last minute to do assignments keeps kids awake late each night, which can create an unhealthy cycle of sleep deprivation.

Sleep deprivation is a huge problem across the country. Many students feel pressured to take as many high-level AP classes as they can to ‘succeed’, when in reality, it leaves them bogged down with homework and stress. Going a long period of time without adequate sleep can have negative impacts on a student’s academics , as their brains aren’t working as well as they should be. 

The amount of homework students have nightly is based on the level of classes they are taking in school. Balancing sports and homework is not an easy feat, and teachers still assign the same homework, regardless of whether or not a student is extremely occupied that night with activities. 

“I believe that 90 minutes of homework would be appropriate,” said Susan Joyce, a guidance counselor at HBHS. “Overloading a student with homework, after they have already sat through a 7 hour school day and extracurriculars, sports or jobs, and can exhaust them by the time they get home, so the student is too tired to complete any of their assignments.”

Sometimes, sleep deprivation due to homework is not at the fault of the student. Many teachers believe that they should assign a large amount of homework so that their students can succeed in class. When students are taking 6 or 7 classes with that kind of mentality, they can be overwhelmed.

“There’s certain classes that assign way too much homework and it’s overdoing it. I think most teachers’ mentality is more is more,” said Vero Leblanc ‘20. The pressure for a student to succeed is so elevated that it comes at the cost of that student’s health and wellbeing. Teachers at HBHS should work to plan their homework schedules accordingly, so that the students aren’t overwhelmed and can maintain a healthy sleep schedule.That way, they can be healthy and are able to perform better in class.

Elise Dinbergs ‘20 is joining the CavChron staff as a first-year A&E editor. She is really enthusiastic to fulfill this role, as she is heavily involved...

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Managing Homework and Bedtime Routine: Striking a Balance for School-Aged Children

Managing homework and bedtime routines: striking a balance for school-aged children.

As the school year gets underway, balancing children’s homework and bedtime routine  can feel like a tightrope walk for parents. And the struggle is real—on one hand, it’s important for children to get enough sleep to support their cognitive development, memory consolidation, and learning. On the other hand, there’s a lot of homework to be done!

We’re here to guide you through the challenges of balancing homework and bedtime, so your young scholars can thrive in the classroom and under the covers.

The Importance of Sleep for School-Aged Children

Remember when naptime felt like a punishment? Turns out, sleep is the superhero of cognitive development . While our kids snooze, their brains are busy building memory bridges and sharpening their problem-solving skills. Adequate, quality sleep is the secret ingredient to their attention span, emotional resilience, and yes, even those pop quizzes.

Understanding the Challenges of Homework and Sleep

There are several challenges that can make it difficult for children to get enough sleep . First, there’s the nightly battle of sitting down to tackle homework. And then, the dreaded dilemma of: stay up to finish this assignment or prioritize sleep and go to bed? It’s a conundrum every parent faces.

Too Much Homework

Many school-aged children come home with a stack of homework that feels like more than they can complete in one night, which commonly leads to late nights and possibly sleep deprivation.

Screen Time

From TVs to smartphones, computers to tablets, many children spend hours each day using electronic devices. This screen time can stimulate the brain, interfering with their sleep and making it difficult for them to fall asleep.

Kids can experience stressors from a number of sources, including academic pressure, social demands, and even family problems at home. This stress can make it difficult not only to focus on homework but also to fall asleep and stay asleep.

Crafting a Homework Schedule that Respects Sleep Needs

Picture this: a homework schedule that respects both learning and essential snooze time. Dreamy, right? Here are a few things that parents can do to help your children create a homework management schedule that respects their sleep needs:

• Set limits on homework hours. The National Sleep Foundation recommends that children ages 9-13 should ideally get 9-11 hours of sleep per night, but sometimes it can feel like their homework workload can eat into those precious sleep hours. That’s why healthy time management habits are essential. Teaching your child how to prioritize tasks and set achievable goals can significantly impact the number of hours they spend on homework each night. Ultimately, helping them manage their workload effectively not only supports their learning journey but also ensures they have ample time for the quality sleep they need.
• Prioritize tasks. Help your child to prioritize their homework tasks so that they can focus on the most important assignments first and prevent feeling overwhelmed or stressed.
• Take breaks. Encourage your child to take breaks every 20-30 minutes while they’re working on homework. Regular breaks will help them stay focused and avoid getting burned out.
• Set a bedtime schedule and stick to it. Even on weekends, it’s important to stick to a regular bedtime schedule to regulate your child’s body clock and make it easier for them to fall asleep and stay asleep at night.
• Set a “no screen” rule for one hour before bed. The blue light emitted from screens can interfere with the production of melatonin, a hormone that helps to regulate sleep. Limiting screen time before bed will give your child’s eyes a break from the blue light emitted from screens and help them to wind down after a long day. If your child needs to use a screen before bed, finishing up homework or reading on a tablet, make sure their devices are scheduled to regularly shift into “night mode” a couple hours before bedtime.

Establishing a Consistent Bedtime Routine

A consistent bedtime routine isn’t just a calming ritual; it’s a sleep-inducing magic spell. Winding down with calming activities helps encourage sleep. Here are some healthy sleep habits to add to a nightly routine for a seamless transition to dreamland:

• Reading. Not only can reading help improve your child’s literacy skills, but it is also a great way for them to relax and unwind before bed. 
• Taking a bath. A warm bath can help to soothe the body and mind, making it easier to fall asleep.
• Listening to calming music. Create a relaxing atmosphere and promote sleep with some quiet, calming music.
• Stretching. Gentle stretching can help relax the body and mind, making it easier to fall asleep.
• Meditation. Similar to stretching, meditation can help calm the mind and body and promote relaxation before bed.

Collaborative Communication Between Parents and Children

Striking a balance between homework and bedtime can feel like a science experiment—tinkering to figure out the right ratio between enforcing the rules and going with the flow or prioritizing wellness and completing tasks. But the truth is, there is no magical equation or one-size-fits-all solution to strike the right balance between homework management and bedtime. 

In fact, a 2018 Better Sleep Council study found that homework-related stress is a significant concern for high school students, with more than three-fourths (75%) citing it as a source of stress. The study also found that students spending excessive time on homework (39% spending 3+ hours) may experience increased stress without proportional academic benefits, further underscoring the need for a more thoughtful approach to homework and its impact on sleep.

One way to help find the right balance for your kids? Keeping a line of open communication. Talk to your kids about their schoolwork and sleep needs . Our advice?

• Get their insight. Ask them about how much homework they have each night and how long they think it might take them to finish.
• Organize their workload. Get a homework planner to help them to prioritize their tasks and set achievable goals.
• Encourage participation. Involve them in crafting their routines, empowering them to take charge of their education and sleep.
• Work together. If they’re feeling overwhelmed or stressed, work together to find solutions.

This isn’t just about bedtime routine; it’s about fostering responsibility and finding balance.

Explore more sleep-related resources, tips, and research at bettersleep.org .

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Mindfulness and Relaxation Techniques for Reducing Insomnia and Enhancing Sleep Quality

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Proven advice for better sleep in kids and parents

Homework vs. Sleep: A Cause of Stress in Teens (And Younger Kids)

Posted on August 31, 2015 by Craig Canapari M.D.

Homework stresses kids out; there is no way around this fact. The combination of heavy homework loads and early school start times is a major cause of sleep deprivation and consequent stress in teens, but this can be a problem even in younger kids.

When we moved to Connecticut, I was struck by the perception of some parents that my son’s classmates that he and his peers were not getting enough homework. I was shocked; these kids were in first grade at the time.  Fortunately, my son’s teacher have resisted this pressure.

When I started looking into the evidence,  I was surprised to find that there is not much evidence that homework before high school benefits children.  I really love this article by Justin Coulson, a parenting expert and psychologist, detailing why he bans his school age children from doing homework , concluding from the evidence that homework does more harm than good. A recent study showed that some elementary school children had three times the recommended homework load . In spite of this, homework has started appearing even in kindergarten and the first great in spite of recommendations to the contrary. This has become a source of great stress to families.

Sleep deprivation in teenagers is an epidemic here in the US, with up to 90% of teenagers not getting enough sleep on school nights . The most important factor causing this is school start times that are too early for teenagers, who are hardwired to go to bed later and get up later compared with younger children (or grown-ups, for that matter). I’ve discussed this at length on my blog .

Another factor which can cause sleep deprivation is homework. Some studies suggest that the amount of homework which teenagers receive has stayed constant over time. I don’t pretend to be an educational expert, but I frequently see children and teenagers who have hours and hours of homework every night. This seems most common in teenagers who are striving to get into competitive colleges. This is piled on top of multiple extracurricular activities– sports, clubs, music lessons, and public service. Of course, the patients and families I see in clinic tend to be the people with the greatest difficulties with sleep. So I decided to look into this issue a bit more.

How common is excessive homework, anyway?

The recommendation of the National Education Association is that children received no more than ten minutes of homework per grade level. So a high school senior would max out at two hours of homework per night. An analysis published by the Brookings Institute concluded that there has been little change in the amount of homework assigned between 1984 and 2012 . About 15% of juniors and seniors did have greater than two hours of homework per night. Interestingly, the author also referenced a study which showed that about 15% of parents were concerned about excessive homework as well. This would suggest that the problem of excessive homework is occurring only in about one in six teenagers.

There is a perception that homework loads are excessive. This certainly may be the case in some communities or in high pressure schools. Teenagers certainly think that they have too much homework; here is a well researched piece written by a teenager  who questions the utility of large amounts of homework.

Some generalities emerge from the educational research :

• Older students get more homework than younger students
• Race may play a role, with Asian students doing more homework
• Less experienced teachers assign more homework
• Math classes are the classes most likely to assign homework

How beneficial is homework?

The US is a relatively homework intense country, but does not score as well as countries where homework is less common. In high school age kids, homework does have benefits. However, 70 minutes total seems to be the sweet spot in terms of benefits ; homework in excess of this amount is associated with decreasing test scores.

Homework clearly can have benefits– development of good organizational habits, review of materials, and improving skills such as reading and critical thinking. Homework should be assigned, however, with the goal of helping children learning, not because the teacher or school has decided that a certain amount should be assigned nightly, or because some parents want their children to get more  homework. Alfie Kohn, an educational leader and a big critic of homework. published a great article on rethinking homework . Here’s another thoughtful perspective on homework by a history teacher named Glen Whitman.

When To Worry About Excessive Homework

Obviously, I am not an educational expert. My review of this topic suggests that most children do not have an undue burden of homework. Thus, the best way to help teenagers get more sleep is to start school later . However, there are a subset of teenagers who may have an excessive amount of homework. I would define that is over two hours of homework a night, or an amount of homework that keeps children up late at night with regularity, especially given that getting enough sleep is critical for learning. No child should have to regularly decide between homework and sleep.  These factors can contribute to excessive homework:

• Unreasonable amounts of assigned homework (10 minutes/grade level)
• Excessive extracurricular activities leading to a late homework start time
• Learning problems such as ADHD or dyslexia, especially if they have not yet been diagnosed.

Some final advice:

• Teenagers:  If you cannot get your homework done at night without staying up past ten or eleven on school nights, please talk to your parents about this. They can help you. Also, recognize that there are diminishing returns; I got the worst grade I ever got in college on a biochemistry exam after pulling my one and only all-nighter. Going to sleep earlier on the night before a test might be more beneficial than sacrificing sleep to study.
• Parents: Be conscious of how late your teens are staying up and how much time they are spending on their homework. If it seems excessive, please review your child’s schedule with him or her, and have a frank conversation with your child’s teachers.
• Educators:  Ask your students how long they are spending on homework. If they seem sleepy in class, talk about this issue with them and  their parents. Try to make sure that the culture of your school is such that homework is assigned for clear educational benefits, and not simply for the sake of doing so.

I would love to hear your perspectives on these issues. Of course, to paraphrase “Bones” McCoy , “I’m a sleep doctor, not a teacher.” However, if I was asking my patients to do a nightly treatment that required an hour or more of their time, I would have to be absolutely sure that it was helpful. I’m not convinced that homework meets that standard.  Do I have this issue all wrong? Let me know in the comments.  Is the homework load excessive in your town? I would love to hear.

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Associations Between Mental Workload and Sleep Quality in a Sample of Young Adults Recruited from a US College Town

Erica c. jansen.

1 Michael S. Aldrich Sleep Disorders Center, Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

2 Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Karen E. Peterson

Louise o’brien.

3 Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

4 Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Shelley Hershner

Ali boolani.

5 Department of Physical Therapy, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA

To evaluate associations between perceived mental workload (number of hours spent studying and perceived mental intensity) and sleep quality among young adults.

Participants:

656 participants [62% male, median age (IQR)=20 (19, 21) years] recruited from a US college town

As part of an online screener, participants answered questions about perceived workload and sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI)). Number of hours/day of mentally-engaging work/study, and mental intensity score were the exposures, categorized into quartiles. Linear regression models were used for continuous sleep quality score, and modified Poisson models were used for poor quality sleep (>5 PSQI score) and individual sleep components, adjusting for sex, age, race, physical activity, and caffeine intake.

Higher mental work-hours was associated with lower-quality sleep; those in the highest quartile of mental work-hours had a 28% higher likelihood of poor sleep quality (95% CI 2% to 62%). Higher mental intensity scores were also related to lower quality sleep; comparing the highest to the lowest quartiles, there was a 45% higher probability of being a poor sleeper (95% CI 15% to 83%). Associations with PSQI components were partly sex-specific: while both sexes had associations between mental intensity and short sleep, males had positive associations with poor sleep quality and sleep medication use. Conversely, females with higher mental intensity reported higher-quality sleep overall, lower sleep medication use but lower sleep efficiency.

Conclusions:

Higher mental workload is associated with lower overall sleep quality in young adults. Associations with individual sleep quality components differed by sex.

INTRODUCTION

Poor sleep among university students is a substantial public health concern, with an alarming 70% of college students reporting sleeping <7 hours per day and 60% meeting the threshold for poor quality sleep ( Lund, Reider, Whiting, & Prichard, 2010 ). A recent survey of colleges across the US found that only 7% of college students reported feeling rested upon awakening in each of the 7 days prior to the survey( American College Health Association, 2017 ). Short sleep duration as well as poor quality sleep are associated with numerous health and academic outcomes among university student populations, including obesity and cardiometabolic morbidity ( Quick et al., 2014 ), depression and anxiety ( Concepcion et al., 2014 ), motor vehicle crashes ( Taylor & Bramoweth, 2010 ), alcohol consumption and substance use ( Hasler et al., 2017 ; Van Reen et al., 2016 ), and difficulties with learning, concentration, and lower grade point averages ( Owens, Christian, & Polivka, 2017 ).

Increased independence, shared living quarters, and intake of substances such as alcohol and caffeine are all hallmarks of university life that may contribute to insufficient and poor sleep quality ( Hershner, 2016 ; Owens et al., 2017 ). Additionally, young adults have a delayed circadian rhythm which encourages later bed and rise times compared to children and adults ( Carskadon, Vieira, & Acebo, 1993 ; Crowley, Acebo, & Carskadon, 2007 ). University student populations also have high rates of mental health disorders ( Pedrelli, Nyer, Yeung, Zulauf, & Wilens, 2015 ), which may be a cause ( Wallace, Boynton, & Lytle, 2017 ) as well as a consequence of poor sleep. Yet, one substantial component of university life that has received relatively little attention in the epidemiological literature is how mental workload- the time allocated to and intensity of studying, homework, and reading- could contribute to poor sleep quality. Of the studies that have been conducted, findings are mixed. While students may cite heavy academic workloads as a reason for lack of sleep ( Hershner, 2015 ), at least one epidemiological study found no association between the number of hours spent studying and sleep duration ( Tsui & Wing, 2009 ). Similar to the sparse data on how amount of studying could impact sleep duration, only a few studies have examined academic workload in relation to the quality of sleep. One study among Nigerian undergraduates showed that a heavy workload before bed was associated with non-restorative sleep ( Oluwole, 2010 ), and a study of Lithuanian university students found that greater amount of time spent studying, as well as studying before bed, were associated with worse quality sleep ( Preišegolavičiūtė, Leskauskas, & Adomaitienė, 2010 ). In contrast, a study of Estonian medical students found that neither workload during the day nor at night were associated with sleep quality ( Veldi, Aluoja, & Vasar, 2005 ). A remaining gap in the literature is whether the perceived intensity of studying may affect these associations. It is plausible that intense studying, which requires deep concentration and focus, might be particularly related to poor quality sleep, including difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep. Finally, previous studies did not consider the possibility of sex differences. Different rates of sleep disturbances have been documented in males compared to females ( Mong & Cusmano, 2016 ); for example, women are known to have poorer sleep quality along with an earlier bedtime, rise time, and longer sleep latency than men( Tsai & Li, 2004 ). The experience of academic pressure and coping mechanisms employed may also vary by sex, as illustrated by a positive correlation between academic stress and the use of avoidance and self-punishment coping responses in college men but not in women in one study ( Brougham, Zail, Mendoza, & Miller, 2009 ). How these different coping strategies relate to sleep quality remains unclear.

Many factors may affect poor sleep quality among college students, however, the influence of mental workload on sleep has received minimal investigation. The present study thus sought to evaluate whether mental workload- including number of hours spent studying as well as perceived mental intensity- may be another factor contributing to the high prevalence of poor quality sleep in college-age adults. We further evaluated sex-specific associations between perceived mental intensity and individual components of sleep quality, including subjective sleep quality, sleep duration, sleep latency, sleep disturbances, sleep efficiency, use of sleep medication, and daytime dysfunction. Findings may aid in the design of interventions to encourage healthy sleep habits in college-age adults as well as in the creation of healthy sleep policies at the classroom and university levels.

The sample comprised young adults presumably attending a private engineering university in upstate New York who took part in a comprehensive screening questionnaire for an experimental study (designed to test the effects of liquid energy shot consumption on acute changes in mood and cognition). Subjects were recruited from the university and surrounding town (approximate total population 16,000) using the following strategies: 1) classroom announcements (in classes>50 students); 2) mass emails sent in the beginning of the fall, spring and summer semesters to students, faculty and staff; 3) flyers posted on campus and small businesses in the surrounding towns; and 4) word of mouth. The screening questionnaire was administered online using www.surveymonkey.com . All study protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Board at [redacted] (Approval # 16–34.1).

Exposures: Mental Workload

Questions concerning mental workload were taken from the Mental and Physical State and Trait Energy and Fatigue scales ( O’Connor, 2006 ). Participants were asked about the number of days per week engaged in school/work, the number of hours per day spent on mentally-engaging tasks (“How many hours per day do you do mental work such as reading, learning, organizing or analyzing information or solving problems”), and the intensity of mental work performed on school/work days (“Rate the average intensity of mental work you do on a typical work day on a scale of 1–5”; higher scores indicated greater intensity). The number of credit hours was not included. The number of hours/day of mental work was categorized into quartiles, with the highest quartile corresponding to the highest number of hours/day. Perceived mental intensity was calculated as the reported number of school/work days times the number of hours of mental work performed on school/work days times the self-rated intensity of mental work performed on school/work days ( O’Connor, 2006 ). Perceived mental intensity was similarly categorized into quartiles, with the highest quartile representing the highest mental intensity.

Outcome: Sleep Quality

The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was administered to assess sleep quality ( Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, 3rd, Monk TH, 1989 ). This 19-question survey assesses seven underlying components including sleep quality, latency, duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, use of sleep medications, and daytime dysfunction over the past month. The individual component scores (which each have a range of 0 to 3) are summed to create an overall sleep quality score, with higher scores indicating worse quality sleep (highest possible score=21). Poor sleep quality was defined as PSQI score>5( Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, 3rd, Monk TH, 1989 ). Sleep quality was analyzed as a continuous score, as well as a dichotomous variable for poor sleep quality. Individual component scores were also evaluated as dichotomous variables, with cutoffs based on the distribution of scores in the population (e.g. poor subjective sleep quality defined as component score>1).

The following covariates were selected a priori based on their plausible role as confounders: sex, age, race, physical activity, caffeinated beverage consumption, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Demographic information including age, sex, and race were categorized as shown in Table 1 .

Sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics of a sample of 656 participants recruited from a US university

Physical activity was also calculated using the Mental and Physical State and Trait Energy and Fatigue Scale. Subjects were asked to report the number of hours per day and the number of days per week that they performed high and moderate intensity activities. To convert to metabolic equivalents (METS), the hours per week of high intensity were multiplied by 9 and the number of hours of moderate intensity were multiplied by 5. These weight values correspond to the approximate oxygen consumption requirement for each exercise intensity level ( Ainsworth et al., 2011 ).

To estimate caffeinated beverage consumption, participants were asked to report their usual weekly intake of coffee, tea, soft drinks, energy drinks, frozen desserts containing caffeine, chocolate containing caffeine, and other items that may contain caffeine. Participants were also asked for the serving sizes of the products they consumed ( Motl, O’Connor, & Dishman, 2003 ); this information was used to convert into the number of 8 oz servings of caffeine consumed per week.

The 30-item POMS-SF was used to assess mood over the previous 30 days ( Curran, Andrykowski, & Studts, 1995 ). Reponses ranged from “Not at all” (scored as 0) to “Extremely” (scored as 4) over the past 30 days. For the present analysis, 2 continuous components were used, which were scored based on 5 items: tension/anxiety (α=.81) and depression (α=.94) ( Curran et al., 1995 ; Terry, Lane, & Fogarty, 2003 ). These two components were selected based on the known relationships between anxiety, depression, and sleep quality ( Nyer et al., 2013 ).

Data Analysis

First, bivariate associations were examined between the mental workload exposures (mental work hours and perceived mental intensity) and potential confounders. To do so, the mean ± SD mental work hours and perceived mental intensity were computed according to categories (quartiles unless otherwise mentioned) of the potential confounders. Tests for trends were assessed using linear regression models, with each mental workload exposure as a continuous outcome and a continuous exposure variable representing ordinal categories for each potential confounder (each confounder/outcome model run separately). Linear regression models with interaction terms for sex were used to evaluate potential interaction between sex and the confounders in relation to mental workload.

To evaluate the primary study question, linear regression models were used with PSQI score as a continuous outcome and indicator variables for quartiles of mental workload indices (separately) as predictors. The quartile approach was used in order to assess the dose-response relations, and to diminish the potential effects of mental workload outliers. A modified Poisson regression approach ( Zou, 2004 ) was used to examine sleep quality as a dichotomous outcome (poor sleep quality). Both crude models (crude Poisson models not shown but available on request) as well as models adjusted for sex, age, race, caffeinated beverage intake, and weekly METS of moderate physical activity were run. Further adjustment for METS/week of vigorous physical activity, tension/anxiety scores, and depression scores did not substantially alter estimates and thus were not included in final models. To evaluate potential interaction with sex in each model, interaction terms for sex*mental workload indices were included, and the P for interaction was examined.

Finally, further analysis of the association between mental workload and sleep quality was conducted by examining each sleep quality component as a separate outcome. The modified Poisson regression approach was used to model each sleep quality component dichotomously, based on the distribution of the component scores in the study sample (e.g. short sleep duration was defined as reporting <6 hours of sleep on a typical night). As in prior analyses, interactions with sex were evaluated. All analyses were conducted in Stata 14.0 (College Station, Texas).

Of 718 respondents aged 18 to 45 years who finished the initial screening survey, there were 662 participants with information on both mental workload and sleep quality. Of these, 6 were excluded due to implausible values; thus the final sample size for the present analysis was 656. The majority of the sample was male, with a median (IQR) age of 20 years (19, 21; Table 1 ). Associations between sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics and mental intensity are shown in Table 2 .

Associations between potential confounders and mental intensity on work/school days among 656 participants recruited from a US university

The number of mental work hours/day was associated with poorer sleep quality, although the association was only statistically significant when sleep quality was considered dichotomously (PSQI score>5). As can be seen in Table 3 , students in the 4 th quartile of mental work hours/day had a 28% higher adjusted probability of poor quality sleep compared to those in the 1 st quartile (95% CI 2% to 62%; P for trend=0.03). This association may be mostly attributed to the sleep duration component; e.g. those in the 4 th quartile of mental work hours/day were 1.74 times more likely to obtain <6 hours of sleep (95% CI 1.10 to 2.75; P for trend=0.09).

Associations between mental intensity and sleep quality among 656 participants recruited from a US university

In contrast to mental work hours/day, mental intensity score was robustly associated with worse quality sleep ( Table 3 ). Students in the 4 th quartile of mental intensity had 0.72 higher PSQI scores than students in the 1 st quartile (95% CI 0.11 to 1.34; P for trend= 0.04), and a 45% higher probability of being classified as a poor quality sleeper (95% 15% to 83%; P for trend=0.002). Further, there was evidence of interaction by sex (P, interaction=0.05), such that the mental intensity-sleep quality association was stronger among females. For example, females in the 4 th quartile of mental intensity had a 70% higher adjusted probability of poor quality sleep than females in the 1 st quartile (95% CI 9% to 163%).

The association between mental intensity and sleep quality were further investigated by examining the individual sleep quality component scores ( Figure 1 ). Of the 7 components, only the association between mental intensity and short sleep duration was statistically significantly related (112% higher probability of short sleep in the 4 th compared to the 1 st quartile; P for trend= 0.01). Consequently, there was evidence of interaction by sex with 2 of the components-sleep quality (P, interaction=0.006) and use of sleeping medication (P, interaction=0.04). Among males, higher mental intensity was associated with poor sleep quality and greater likelihood of using a sleeping medication. In direct contrast, females with higher mental intensity were less likely to use a sleeping medication and trended towards reporting higher quality sleep. However, females with higher mental intensity had shorter sleep duration ( Figure 1 ) and lower sleep efficiency (PR of <85% sleep efficiency=1.99 with 95% CI 0.92 to 4.30 comparing the 4 th quartile to the 1 st ).

Mental intensity in relation to selected components of the PSQI, sex-stratified

1 Q1 represents the lowest mental intensity in each. Sample sizes in each of the quartiles are as follows for Males: Q1=131, Q2= 105, Q3= 102, Q4= 74; and Females: Q1= 43; Q2= 62; Q3= 81; Q4= 58

In this sample of participants recruited from a small US college campus and surrounding town, we found that higher mental intensity was associated with poor sleep quality, an association that appeared to be only partially driven by actual quantity of work (number of study hours). Interestingly, whereas higher mental intensity was associated with short sleep duration in both males and females, associations with other sleep quality components differed by sex. While males with higher mental intensity reported lower quality sleep and higher usage of sleep medication, females with higher mental intensity had better sleep quality and were less likely to use sleep medication.

These findings add to the sparse data concerning mental workload and sleep quality in university students, and are in line with a few others from Nigeria and Lithuania ( Oluwole, 2010 ; Preišegolavičiūtė et al., 2010 ) that have found associations between higher academic workloads and lower quality sleep. One obvious explanation for an association between mental workload and poor sleep quality is that students who spend more time studying devote less time to sleep. This assertion is consistent with our finding that a higher number of reported study hours was associated with lower quality sleep, most notably with the sleep duration component of overall sleep quality. Another explanation for an association between higher number of hours spent studying and lower sleep quality is that a longer amount of time spent studying is typically concomitant with sedentary behavior and high amounts of screen time, which have each been associated with lower quality sleep ( Exelmans & Van Den Bulck, 2017 ; Pilcher, Morris, Bryant, Merritt, & Feigl, 2017 ; Wu, Tao, Zhang, Zhang, & Tao, 2015 ). In particular, studying performed at night on light emitting devices can increase nighttime alertness ( Chang, Aeschbach, Duffy, & Czeisler, 2015 ).

Although there was an association between number of typical study hours and poor sleep quality, there was a stronger association between poor sleep quality and perceived mental intensity, a measure that incorporates both the number of study hours and perceived cognitive stimulation of the study time. While we could identify no studies within university populations that have examined this construct, our findings are in line with studies of adults in the workplace which have found that cognitively and emotionally demanding work is associated with sleep disturbances( T. Åkerstedt et al., 2002 ; Torbjörn Åkerstedt et al., 2015 ; Marquié, Foret, & Quéinnec, 1999 ). To highlight, a study of Swiss workers found that high work demand on one day, which was measured by “working very intensively”, “demanding too much effort”, and “not enough time to do everything”, was associated with more sleep disturbances that night( Torbjörn Åkerstedt et al., 2015 ).

There may be a few plausible explanations for association between mental intensity and poor sleep quality in our sample. First, after intense studying, particularly if done mostly at night, student may find it hard to transition into a relaxed state for sleep ( Wuyts et al., 2012 ). Second, higher perceived mental intensity could be positively associated with academic-related stress, and stress is known to affect sleep quality in college students ( Almojali, Almalki, Alothman, Masuadi, & Alaqeel, 2017 ). However, although no measures of stress were obtained in this study, it is of note that the POMS anxiety score was associated with sleep quality but not with perceived mental intensity.

We also found evidence that males and females respond differently to perceived mental intensity with respect to sleep quality characteristics. In particular, females with high mental intensity may have difficulties with falling and staying asleep (insomnia symptoms), as evidenced by the tendency towards lower sleep efficiency in our study. This is not necessarily surprising, as females are more likely to suffer from insomnia than men ( Petrov, Lichstein, & Baldwin, 2014 ). Interestingly, women with higher mental intensity were also less likely to use sleep medications and to report high-quality sleep, which are paradoxically markers of better sleep health but not necessarily contradictory (e.g. it is possible to take a long time to fall asleep yet still experience high sleep quality once asleep). In contrast, males with high mental intensity had higher consumption of caffeinated beverages and were more likely to use sleep medication. In turn, these substances may be responsible for the lower ratings of subjective sleep quality ( Ogeil & Phillips, 2015 ). A sleep medication may be a simple over the counter medication, however, it may also include other substances such as alcohol and marijuana ( Hasler et al., 2017 ; Taylor & Bramoweth, 2010 ). For example, in a study among undergraduates from the US, 11% of non-abstainers reported using alcohol as a sleep aid in the past week ( Taylor & Bramoweth, 2010 ).

There are both strengths and limitations in the present study. A strength was the relatively large sample size, as well as the inclusion of the mental intensity score, a construct that has not been previously considered in relation to sleep. The cross-sectional study design was a limitation, as it results in temporal ambiguity. Further, the questions pertaining to mental workload did not include a time reference, while the PSQI asked about sleep in the previous month. In addition, although the target population was university students, it is possible that adults residing in the surrounding town who were not university attendees took part in the study. Nonetheless, only 7.7% of our study sample were older than 25 years, indicating that the majority of the sample were in a typical age range for undergraduate college students. While this does not guarantee these participants were enrolled in a university, the likelihood is high given that [name redacted] is a small town of approximately 16,000 people that houses two universities. Further, it is possible that the >25 year old participants could be graduate students, as both universities also offer graduate programs. A related issue was that it was not possible to differentiate students by field of study (e.g. engineering versus other), which precludes examination of effect modification by academic major. Sleep quality was self-reported and thus may be subject to measurement error; nonetheless, this error may be non-differential with respect to the exposure and may only affect the precision of the estimates. There is also the possibility of unmeasured confounding. For example, participants were not asked about alcohol consumption, average daily screen time, or number of credit hours. Finally, they were not asked about the timing of study habits, so it was not possible to examine whether night-time studying had an impact on sleep quality or whether results differed if the study hours were typically continuous or intermittent. Future studies among college students that investigate the role of night-time studying habits versus those during the day are thus warranted.

In summary, we found that perceived mental intensity, a summary marker that includes both mental work hours as well as self-rated intensity, was associated with poor sleep quality among university students. This association was attributed to different sleep characteristics in males compared to females. Overall this study provides another perspective on why university students may benefit from information on sleep hygiene and health. Based on our findings, these messages might need to be tailored differently for university males and females.

Acknowledgments

Funding Details : Dr. Jansen was supported by the National Institutes of Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grant 5T32HL110952–05.

Disclosure statement: None of the authors have any conflicts of interest.

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More than two hours of homework may be counterproductive, research suggests.

A Stanford education researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.   "Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good," wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .   The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students' views on homework.   Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.   Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.   "The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students' advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being," Pope wrote.   Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.   Their study found that too much homework is associated with:   • Greater stress : 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.   • Reductions in health : In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.   • Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits : Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were "not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills," according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.   A balancing act   The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.   Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as "pointless" or "mindless" in order to keep their grades up.   "This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points," said Pope, who is also a co-founder of Challenge Success , a nonprofit organization affiliated with the GSE that conducts research and works with schools and parents to improve students' educational experiences..   Pope said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.   "Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development," wrote Pope.   High-performing paradox   In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. "Young people are spending more time alone," they wrote, "which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities."   Student perspectives   The researchers say that while their open-ended or "self-reporting" methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for "typical adolescent complaining" – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.   The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Clifton B. Parker is a writer at the Stanford News Service .

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How homework is affecting students’ sleep

In most of the world school has been in session for a few months now, with many students starting to eye-up the upcoming holiday breaks. One reason for this is tiredness. The extent of how tired many students are comes via a survey from Sleep Cycle , who produce an app to help people to monitor the quality of the sleep they are receiving. Multiple studies have shown that present day high school students do not receive an optimal amount of sleep.

The new survey has found that children are seldom getting the recommended 8-10 hours of sleep each night. Nearly half (46 percent) of parents have reported that their children get 7 hours or less of sleep each night. One factor influencing this is homework. The survey found that the vast majority (88 percent) of teens have reported how they regularly need to stay up late to finish school projects. Here some 59 percent state they need to have these late night cramming sessions on a weekly or daily basis.

The survey was conducted of over 1,000 U.S. adults and teens, with interviewed conducted by Propeller Research on behalf of Sleep Cycle, and provided to Digital Journal. The questionnaires took place in September 2018, and the results have not been published elsewhere. The headline finding is that homework keeps students up too late. Coupled with early school start times leads to many students falling asleep in class.

Without sufficient sleep, parents report that their children:

Are moody — 64 percent, Are grumpy and disagreeable — 61 percent, Get into more trouble at school — 28 percent, Make worse life choices — 20 percent.

A factor that both parents and teens report as not helping the situation is the school start time. Here 52 percent of parents and 61 percent of teens are of the view that school starts too early. The students report that their school work suffers because of the early start time and that early school start times inhibit them from being productive later in the day. Conversely a alter start time as seen as something that would lead to more productive class work.

According to the National Sleep Foundation : “When schools shift their schedules, teens benefit. For example, seven high schools in Minneapolis moved their start times from 7:25 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. and tested the outcomes for their students. As a result of the change, the teens got five or more extra hours of sleep per week, and attendance and enrollment rates went up, as did alertness. Meanwhile, student-reported depression went down.”

Sleep Cycle, along with many parents and teens, is pushing for a change to schooling policy.

Dr. Tim Sandle is Digital Journal's Editor-at-Large for science news. Tim specializes in science, technology, environmental, business, and health journalism. He is additionally a practising microbiologist; and an author. He is also interested in history, politics and current affairs.

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