case study format engineering

• U of T Home
• Faculty Home

Engineering Communication Program

Case Studies

Case studies occur frequently in engineering because, by nature, engineering analyzes (studies) situations that already exist (cases). This document explains how to use a basic engineering problem-solving method to structure case studies, but the structure may also apply to other engineering reports (including undergraduate theses). This document focuses on a particular logical structure that is important to engineering. (For format, see Type of Documents / Short Reports ) Michael Jordan (not the basketball player) describes the basics of the problem-solving method this way:

• Understanding the situation being faced;
• Analyzing the specific problem to be tackled;
• Creating, analyzing, and refining a solution;
• And further evaluating, improving, and implementing. [1]

The method is known as: Situation — Problem — Solution(s) — Evaluation

Each of the logical components here consists more of questions than “how-to” because the goal of this web page is to help you think through the logic structure of this pattern.

1. Situation: Even when a client (or professor) defines a situation, engineers need to understand it in their own terms:

• What are the needs of the client?
• What are the constraints of the situation (time, resources, laws, technology)?
• What are the background facts?
• What are the key questions that need asking?

Example: What happens when the Client doesn’t tell you everything?

If an engineer responding to the Request for Proposal (RFP) below did not think through the whole situation, she might end up in big trouble. An RFP asks contractors to bid on a particular project. Getting the job without understanding the situation can be disastrous. This RFP describes the government’s responsibilities in a research project to test ABS brakes using an “instrumented car” (a car outfitted with sophisticated measuring equipment):

An instrumented vehicle, Pontiac 6000 STE, has been developed and will be provided to the contractor without charge by Transport Canada . A separate contractor has been engaged to perform hardware modifications to the various systems in the vehicle if they are required and approved by the scientific authority. Costs associated with any approved modifications, and the maintenance of the data collection system will be the responsibility of Transport Canada , unless the contractor has been negligent in the use of the system. [2]

All of this sounds good at first–someone else is worrying about maintaining the systems inside a rather expensive vehicle–BUT what about systems outside the vehicle? Such things as pop-up stop signs and means of altering the slipperiness of the track will be needed. Since these are outside the car, who pays? If those bidding on this contract do not state their understanding of the situation clearly, they could win a bid but lose a bundle. Showing a clear understanding of the situation is the first step to a clear report.

Where it fits: Typically this will fit into the introduction or background sections of a report.

2. Problem: Before you can solve a problem you need to know what it is. Defining a Problem clearly is crucial to finding a solution. In defining the problem, you need to explain the factors that affect the problem. Consider not only what the client says the problem is, but what the client might not recognize. Here is a statement of a problem, taken from an assignment in MIE 561S, Health Care Systems:

Sunnybrook’s Chronic Pain Clinic experiences two problems:

• In its present mode of operation, it loses money on initial consultations.
• Patients’ waiting times for initial consultations are perceived as being too long and should be shortened without significant expenditure.

Unless the number of consultations can be increased by 15% using the same resources, the pain clinic is in danger of being shut down.

This problem statement is not complete. In fact, it is the problem as defined by the client, which is really just the situation. The writer needs to analyze the problem: the problem here might in part be defined as inefficiency in initial consultations.

Sunnybrook’s Chronic Pain Clinic loses money on initial consultations and suffers from long patient waiting times for initial consultations. Unless the number of consultations can be increased by 15% using the same resources, the pain clinic is in danger of being shut down. The loss of money and the waiting times are related because two of the four doctors do not manage to see their patients within the allotted one hour consultation. This means not only that these doctors are unable to see as many patients as the other two doctors, but that those they do see have to wait well past their scheduled appointment. The problem, then, is to eliminate inefficiency in initial consultations without compromising the level offer.

Part of defining the problem is seeing it in terms of what has been done before. These questions might help you explain the full background to the problem:

• What are the parameters that have been set for your analysis?
• What is happening in the situation now?
• What are the shortcomings of the current or previous ways of handling the situation?
• What changes have been made in the situation? or are expected?

These questions might lead to an additional paragraph in our example to clarify and refine the definition of the problem. Here the writer goes on to consider how one parameter physicians’ financial benefit might affect the current situation.

(cont’d from above example)

If inefficiency is a factor, understanding the physicians’ relationship to the clinic becomes important. First, financially, the four doctors who provide service in the pain clinic do so out of interest in the field. They derive little financial benefit from their involvement; in fact, they incur a significant opportunity cost for not performing other, more lucrative procedures. Their pay is not proportionally dependent on the number of patients they examine; instead, it is a percentage of the total revenue generated by a pool of twenty-six physicians performing a variety of roles at the hospital. For this reason, personal income cannot influence physician behavior.

This example is only part of what goes into a problem definition, but it shows how the writer can refine his problem definition by limiting the possible parameters for solutions.

Where it fits: Typically, the Problem definition is also the purpose of the report; therefore, it will follow the situation, or sometimes, precede it. Notice that the problem and the situation overlap. This is predictable because the problem arises out of the situation.

3. Solution: University assignments often expect you to come up with alternatives; hence, you may need to examine more than one solution. Ultimately, to be effective, any solution must:

• Solve the problem. Obvious, but explain: How does the solution work?
• Explain how the solution can be derived from the available data. How does it fit with what we know?
• Fit clearly into the available research on a topic. What research supports it?

As you might guess, this section could be a huge part of the body of a report.

4. Evaluation: Before engineers can implement a solution, it needs to be refined. The first step in refining any solution is an evaluation. You need to think your way around the solution just as if it were an object you were walking around. Ask as many questions as possible. Here are a few:

• Is the solution you suggest likely to be successful?
• What limitations might prevent total success? (eg. does it depend on people being trained?)
• What must a company do to make your solution work? (funding? training? design? safety measures?)
• If you are proposing more than one solution, which one(s) do you recommend be implemented? In which order? (short term vs. long term; most important vs. less important; necessary vs. optional)

Where it fits: Typically, the evaluation comes just before the recommendations. Once you have evaluated several options, then you can make a recommendation. It may also be incorporated into the recommendations.

References:

[1] Jordan, Michael P. 1988. “How can problem-solution structures help writers plan and write technical documents?” Solving Problems in Technical Writing. Ed. Lynne Beene and Peter White. Toronto: Oxford. [2] Supply and Services Canada . 1989. RFP 045SZ.T8080-9-4780/B.

© 2024 Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering

• Accessibility
• Student Data Practices
• Website Feedback

Engineering Case Studies

• Getting Started
• Finding Case Studies in the U-M Library
• Case Studies That Are Freely Available
• Selected Case Studies Books

General Contact

Librarians are happy to help with any research questions, or to have a consultation in-person or virtually. Contact us below.

[email protected]

Schedule an Appointment 

What Is a Case Study?

Case studies  (also called "case histories") are accounts of real engineering situations and projects that provide a context for engineers and others to explore problems. Case studies typically involve complex issues where there is often no single correct answer--you may be asked to select the "best" answer given the situation. Case Studies are found in many places, including book collections, scholarly articles, educational videos and the websites of professional organizations, and more.

Case studies allow you to:

Explore  the nature of a problem and circumstances that affect a solution

Observe  theories applied in a real-life situation

Learn  about others' viewpoints and how they may be taken into account

Define  your priorities and make your own decisions to solve the problem

Predict  outcomes and consequences

Source: University of Washington Library

• Next: Finding Case Studies in the U-M Library >>
• Last Updated: Sep 19, 2023 11:21 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.umich.edu/engrcasestudies

• Jump to menu
• Student Home
• Accept your offer
• How to enrol
• Student ID card
• Set up your IT
• Orientation Week
• Fees & payment
• Academic calendar
• Special consideration
• Transcripts
• The Nucleus: Student Hub
• Referencing
• Essay writing
• Learning abroad & exchange
• Professional development & UNSW Advantage
• Employability
• Financial assistance
• International students
• Equitable learning
• Postgraduate research
• Health Service
• Events & activities
• Emergencies
• Volunteering
• Clubs and societies
• Accommodation
• Health services
• Sport and gym
• Arc student organisation
• Security on campus
• Maps of campus
• Careers portal
• Change password

Writing the Case Study

How should i approach it.

Investigating and writing up a report will require the completion of specific stages. You will need to timetable sufficient time to complete each stage, but also be aware that some stages are revisited while you are analysing the case and writing the report. Thinking and writing becomes a cyclical process.

Stages essential for analysing and writing a case study report may include:

1. Define the task

Your first step is to read the case and all the instructions for the assignment.

Use the checklist as a guide. You can print out this checklist to record your definition of the task. You may find it helpful to compare and discuss your understanding of the task with other students or colleagues. Try to visualise all the elements of the problem by using mind-maps to chart the main issues on a large piece of paper.

Checklist for defining the task

2. Consider which theories and analysis tools may apply to the situation

Your course notes, text books and readings should indicate the appropriate methodology for your case study analysis

Identify the problems

In your initial analysis you should identify the problems (issues/risks etc.) inherent in the case. Read to uncover the organisation's history of success and failure in relation to the case, the communication processes that are occurring, and relevant current strengths and weaknesses of the organisation or its activities that relate to the case.

A useful technique here is to create a mind-map of the situation, the processes and problems or issues. Use the mind-map to separate the problem elements and to note the most important and their relationships.

In your notes, document the causes and consequences of the problems highlighted in the case and also your preliminary ideas for solutions. Be prepared to discover more problems and solutions as you continue your analysis of the case!

Apply analysis tools

There are many tools available for analysis in the management and engineering fields but you need to evaluate which tools would best apply to your assessment of the issues/problems / risks etc. If you are unsure about which tool to use, read the rationale and purpose of each tool and discuss the options with your colleagues and course facilitator.

Document your results and ideas

It is important to create a complete set of notes that will be useful to refer to when writing up the case study report. For this reason record your findings and your own thoughts on the case. Also clearly document any testing, calculations or specifications that relate to your investigation of solutions as well.

3. Make recommendations and form conclusions

Make recommendations.

Recommendations are a clear statement (in text and/or table format) of what action should be taken to minimise, solve or remove the problems being investigated. Recommendations usually require a detailed action plan for implementation of a solution or a range of solutions depending on future events/scenarios.

According to Jarvis (2002), "for each part of your solution ask: 

• Will it work - why - what could possibly go wrong?
• Who will do it, are they capable, who else might be, who might be block?
• When- timing-sequence?
• How and how much –cost it out- where are the pay offs/savings?"

Form conclusions

Conclusions are drawn from your analysis and assessment of the situation. You usually consider must and desirable objectives. Also consider the limitations of your recommendations based on your testing of solutions and original assumptions that had to be made in the case.

4. Write the report

This section provides some advice on the process of writing up your report.

Plan the report 

Before you begin to write the report, it is essential to have a plan of its structure. You can begin to plan the report while you are investigating the case.

Fist, prepare an outline (in list or mind-map format) of the main headings and subheadings you will have in the report. Then add notes and ideas to the outline which remind you of what you want to achieve in each section and subsection. Use the outline to help you consider what information to include, where it should go and in what sequence. Be prepared to change your outline as your ideas develop. Finally, the outline headings and subheadings can be converted into the contents page of your report. 

Schedule your writing time

Prepare a schedule for writing and editing the sections of the report. Allow some extra time just in case you find some sections difficult to write. Begin by writing the sections you feel most confident about. Preliminary sections (executive summary, introduction) and supplementary sections (conclusions, reference list and appendices) are usually prepared last. Some writers like to begin with their conclusions (where the writer's thoughts are at that moment) or the methodology (it's easier to write about your own work). 

Analyse your audience 

In writing a case study report in your course, the report is often intended for an imaginary person so you need to make sure that your language and style suites that person. For example, a report for senior management will be different in content and style and language to a technical report. A report to a community group would also be different again in content, style and language. Audience definition helps you decide what to include in the report based on what readers need to know to perform their jobs better or what the readers need to know to increase their knowledge about your subject. These notes on audience analysis are adapted from Huckin and Olsen (p1991)

*After: Huckin & Olsen ,1991.1.

• Who will read the report? Think about all the uses of the report and where and when it would be read. Reports written within an organisation may be read by different people and different departments; for example, technical and design specialists, supervisors, senior managers, lawyers, marketing and finance specialists.
• What are the readers' needs and goals? Each department or unit in an organisation has its own needs and goals. Understanding the different perspectives can help you decide how to communicate persuasively to these groups. For example while design engineers may prefer to develop new or alternative design to show progress in their field, the marketing specialist may prefer that the organisation imitate a known successful design to save time.
• How do I make communication clear for managers? Communication must be accessible and useful to busy managers as they will primarily seek important generalisations. This has implications for the report's structure, the amount of orientation or background information provided and the level of technical language used. An executive summary, introductions to new sections and concluding summaries for major sections should be included in the report.
• What might be the readers' preferences or objections to the report? You may need to address the significance and benefits/limitations of your recommendations from a number of readers' perspectives in the report. You may also need to consider compromises as a way to acknowledge potential conflicts or criticisms of your recommendations or solutions.

Prepare a draft report 

Writers rarely produce a perfect piece of text in their first attempt so a number of drafts are usually produced. Careful planning and editing will ensure a consistent professional standard in the report. You will need to do the following:

• Revise the task often 

Do this by keeping both the reader's needs and the report's objectives in mind as you gather information, take notes and write sections of the report.

• Be selective 

Do this by taking clear notes, which include the information gathered and your thoughts about the usefulness and the implications of this information. Review your notes to decide what is essential information to include in the report.

• Create a logical structure 

Use your contents page outline to decide where information will go. Within each section, plan the subheadings and then decide on the sequence of information within these.

Check that your writing flows and that your ideas are supported and plausible. If you are not sure what to look for, here are links to advice and activities on report organisation, cohesion and evidence.

Ensure that all your figures and tables communicate a clear message. Show a colleague your visuals to check how they will be interpreted or 'read'.

• Edit, edit, edit

For first drafts, a word processor's spell checker and grammar checker can be useful however, do not rely solely on these tools in your final edit as they are not perfect. Errors will be overlooked or even created by these programs! The best ways to edit are to read a printed copy and where possible get a colleague to read and give feedback.

Here is a report checklist that you can print out: CHECKLIST

5. Prepare the reference list

The reference list is a list of all the sources you refer to in the report. If you do not reference sources of information, your assignment could be failed. As you read and take notes remember to collect the following information so that you can easily and quickly assemble your reference list.

 Further advice on the conventions for formatting reference lists and 'in text' references can be found in the Academic Skills toolkit .

6. Prepare cover/title page

Check your course requirements on the content and layout of the title page. As a general rule include the following:

• Institution the authors are affiliated with: eg UNSW School of Safety Science
• Title of the report

Eg "BHP Billiton Risk Assessment: Strategic Political Risks to BHP's Operations In Angola". 

• Author/s names (+ student numbers)
• Course name and code
• Date document was submitted

7. Final edit

At this stage it is best if you can leave the report for a day or so before conducting a final proof-read. This assists you to approach your report as a 'reader' rather than as the 'writer' so you will more easily see errors. You should expect to spend a couple of hours on this task.

• Reread the assignment guidelines so the task is fresh in your mind. Read the whole report to check that there is a logical structure to the whole report.
• Check each section of the report (including your executive summary, introduction and conclusion) for content and structure. Note changes to make in the sequence of sections.
• Note (highlight) changes you wish to make within sections (delete, simplify, expand, reorganise). In particular look closely at transition sections, figures and tables, sentences, referencing conventions and document formatting.
• Read through the report and make changes as required.

Here are some editing activities for you to try!

How is a case study organised?

Engineering & science

• Report writing
• Technical writing
• Writing lab reports
• Honours thesis writing
• Editing Activities
• Report Writing Checklist
• How a case study is organised
• What is the marker looking for?
• How can I improve my writing?
• ^ More support

Term 2, 2024 - Provisional Exam timetable released (T2) 10 Jul 2024

Term 2, 2024 - Final Exam timetable released (T2) 15 Jul 2024

Study Hacks Workshops | All the hacks you need! 28 May – 25 Jul 2024

• Directories
• Finding Case Studies in the UW Libraries
• Open Access & Freely Available
• Case Studies in Ethics in Science & Technology
• Library Books containing Case Studies
• Start Your Research
• Research Guides
• University of Washington Libraries
• Library Guides
• UW Libraries
• Engineering Case Studies

Engineering Case Studies: Home

What are case studies.

Case studies (also called "case histories") are accounts of real engineering situations and projects that provide a context for engineers and others to explore problems. Case studies typically involve complex issues where there is often no single correct answer--you may be asked to select the "best" answer given the situation. Case Studies are found in many places, including book collections, scholarly articles, educational videos and the websites of professional organizations, and more.

Case studies allow you to:

Explore the nature of a problem and circumstances that affect a solution

Observe theories applied in a real-life situation

Learn about others' viewpoints and how they may be taken into account

Define your priorities and make your own decisions to solve the problem

Predict outcomes and consequences

• Next: Finding Case Studies in the UW Libraries >>
• Last Updated: Sep 1, 2022 3:33 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uw.edu/engcasestudies

How To Write A Great Technical Case Study In Three Hours

August 31, 2022

Good technical writing can often seem like magic. It’s not.

Over the last seven years, tons of “best practices” have bubbled up from the Gatsby community to user-facing engineers, product managers, customer success and support teams. We’ve built a culture of documentation so that tribal knowledge isn’t gated by the content team’s bandwidth.

One type of content can be a bit trickier: case studies. Case studies showcase the success of Gatsby users, and let community members see how a “best practice” might work in a real-world scenario. But sometimes non-marketers aren’t sure how to do this, or where to start.

Over the last five years, we’ve written about fifty case studies, and developed a technique to write and publish a case study in three to four hours. I wrote this blog post to share that technique. If you’re interested in telling user or customer stories, you’ll be interested to read this.

Let’s dive in.

Setting Up The Interview

Once someone’s agreed to let you write a case study, there are three guidelines that make for a successful interview. Engineers and product managers may recognize these, because they’re similar to what makes for good open-ended user interviews.

Make sure your interviewees are familiar with both the business and technical site of things. Sometimes a tech lead will be able to do both. Other times, you will need to make sure both an engineering manager and a marketing director, say, are in the room.

Schedule 45-60 minutes, and record the call, and use an auto-transcribing service. If you have less time, you are unlikely to capture the full story. After the initial chit-chat, I ask if I can record the conversation, and then turn it on. For auto-transcription, we use Rewatch internally which offers this functionality.

Establish yourself as an interested listener. In this conversation, you are a curious listener — not a subject matter authority. Pair your status to their status — and go lower if possible! (This can be very difficult for some people.) If you present as an authority figure, your interviewees may focus on whether they did something “right”, they are unlikely to open up, and you’ll struggle to piece the story together.

Conducting The Interview

The interview is the place where you are going to be able to get the highest-bandwidth information. You need to see the story you’re writing as an onion to unpeel. A great interview is a conversation staged as a sequence of “angles” to explain a complex event. 

Angles of attack

Highlight & Lowlights. This a great lead-in to the interview and a natural place to start. You’ll ask questions that trigger people’s emotional memory — the types of things that they might relay to coworkers.

• Goal : Build rapport while starting to get the story.
• Types of questions : “Freeform” questions that you might ask in a user interview.  
• Question examples : “What went well?” “What didn’t go well?” “What was surprising?” “Were there any big bumps in the road?”

Project Chronology. Once you’ve gotten the emotional overview of the project, it’s to plumb people’s factual memory. At its core, a case study is a story. 

• Goal : get a project timeline skeleton that you can relay to your readers — hopefully with some meat on the bones. 
• Types of questions : Focus on what happened, when, and why — and what events caused other events. If your subjects have to pause a couple of times to recall some detail that’s floating around in long-term memory, it’s not a bad thing. 
• Question examples : “So how did you hear about Gatsby?” “So what happened then?” “How did the project start?” “How did you decide to use Gatsby for this project?” “What was the client’s feedback?” “How long did the project take?” “What were the different stages?” “How did the launch go?” “How did the client react?” “What were the business metrics?”

Detail Spotlight. Interspersed with project chronology and highlights / lowlights you can point out parts of their website that they liked, as an invitation for them to tell you more. 

• Before the call: Take a look at what they’ve built, and note 2-3 things they did a great job on, especially if it clearly took a lot of time and effort.
• Goal: Get the backstory behind particularly interesting parts of the website, so you can relay them to the reader. 
• Question example: “I thought the way you did [X thing] was really interesting.” (followed by a pause)

Big Picture. As the interview starts drawing to a close, you’ll want to return to the most important pieces of information you collected earlier and get the “so what”. You’ll use these details to write the first couple sentences of your case study (the lede) and the headline.

• Goal: understand why this project was significant — to the agency, to the client, to the team, perhaps to the world. 
• Types of questions: Return to the most “important” pieces of information you collected earlier and get the “so what.” 
• Question examples: For Little Caesars the “story” was a Super Bowl ad traffic without team stress, so we asked about how the team felt. For Jaxxon it was an e-commerce site launch that doubled conversions, so we asked about the business impact.  

Important Interview Techniques

Stay present, stay curious. You can’t ask these questions perfunctionarily. People notice. You have to be listening very closely. You have to care.

Capture a multi-disciplinary perspective. At the very least, you should be getting both the developer experience and the business results — for each angle of attack! Websites are incredibly cross-functional projects, so there may be another perspective you want to capture as well (design, content architecture, e-commerce, illustration, animation, performance optimization, copywriting…)

Ask good questions, then shut up and listen. You can see this in podcasts recorded by great narrative interviewers like Guy Raz (How I Built This) or Jeff Meyerson (RIP) at Software Engineering Daily.

Dive into interesting details (but remember where you were). When people mention things that are surprising or interesting, don’t wait for them to stop talking — express interest or curiosity, right then, in a way that feels authentic to you. Then, you need to balance two things:

• figure out how to dive deeper right there and then (otherwise the moment will pass)
• remember where you were, so you can bring the conversation back there afterwards (otherwise the conversation will feel fragmented)

Writing Up The Case Study

Block 2 hours of writing time after the interview.

One evening in college doing a journalism internship, I went to a community event remembering a local high school senior who tragically passed away. I got back to the office around 7:30pm, and needed to have a story on my editor’s desk by 9, so I furiously pounded out 500 print-ready words in an hour and a half — in the process apparently oblivious to a colleague who wandered over to ask me something. Like coding, writing rewards blocks of uninterrupted time.

This process works the same way for case studies. Immediately after conducting an interview, you will have an emotional memory of the conversation, along with a sense of the 2-3 most important parts. If you wait, that memory will fade.

Block time immediately after the interview (mornings are best) — so if you had a 9-10am interview, block 10am to noon.

(credit to Sarah Perry )

Step 1: Braindump

The first thing you need to do is brain dump.

Throw your video into whatever tool you’re using to auto-transcribe. Flesh out the notes you were taking during the interview with all the details that come to mind as important but you didn’t capture. Copy and paste all of the notes from your note taking software into a Google Doc.

When your video finishes auto-transcribing (hopefully within 10-15 minutes), search through the transcribed interview to copy paste a bunch of passages in from the interview, to supplement the notes

Step 2: Organize

The technique you need to write quickly is middle-out composition (thanks, Silicon Valley).

Don’t start by writing your lede, or your conclusion. Just group your text together by similarity and then write some headers on top of the information groups that seem important or interesting. These might be important business results, parts of the DX that the developers loved, or the project timeline skeleton. Find the 3 or 4 important takeaways, and write draft subheads (H2).

The skill you’re using here is the ability to create an information hierarchy. 

Step 3: Move to notes, re-add, copy, paste, condense 

At this point you’ll have some very roughly organized information with subheads, along with a lot of clutter that is out of place. Put a “Notes” section, perhaps topped by a horizontal line, at the bottom of your document, and start moving all the information that feels less-important or out of place into the Notes section. Your document will now feel right but incomplete. Start supplementing the important points — with quotes from your interview, screenshots from a website, photos of people, and so on.

Try to avoid writing . Instead, copy and paste from notes and transcript. Then condense three or four sentences a subject said into a one-sentence summary. Rinse and repeat.

Step 4: Add the lede and conclusion

Once you’ve got the skeleton mostly done, you can add a draft lede and conclusion. That’s where you pull in the information you have about the big-picture so-what. Hopefully, that information is in your notes. 

Step 5: Edit until it shines

Now, you’ve got the whole case study. You also probably have run-on sentences, jumbled together, poorly organized sections, a mediocre lede, and so on. That’s okay.

There’s a simple algorithm here: run through the whole story, section by section. Polish whatever’s obvious. Then, return to the start, and do it again.

This avoids the most frequent time sucks of the editing process — perfectionism and overthinking. If you know something’s wrong but don’t know how to fix it, don’t worry. You’ll get it on the next run-through.

Focus on condensing complex ideas. Break long sentences up. Get rid of extraneous details. “Omit needless words.”

If you’re a newer writer, this is a great time to pair with a more experienced writer. Tell them they are the editor and ask them to rewrite confusing sentences or sections. Make it clear that they are driving.

Step 6: Spend a few minutes on the lede and title

People will read the title and first sentence more than anything else, so spend some extra effort. Consider a couple different approaches. Figure out what’s most catchy. 

Step 7: Publish, then seek comments

In an ideal world, this is where you throw it into WordPress and hit publish. You should do this unless you have a very good reason not to! Doing otherwise risks getting stuck in endless review traps waiting for third-party approvals.

Instead, publish it first — and then send it to third-parties to ask if there are any details that need fixing before you publicize it.

Step 8: Go get some lunch

If you’ve done all the previous steps in three to four hours, your brain is probably pretty tired. Be kind to yourself. Go somewhere you really like and think about non-work related stuff for a while. 

Writing great case studies isn’t magic. It’s a skill just like any other. And if you’re in a user- or customer-facing role, you’d do well to learn it. Sharing success stories internally is great, but sharing them externally will multiply your impact.

• Deutsch (DE)

Design for Manufacturing Examples: Real-Life Engineering Case Studies

Key Takeaways:

• More than 70% of a part’s cost can be locked in during the early design phase
• Adopt a robust DFM process using digital manufacturing simulation tools to address cost, sustainability, and innovative design iterations simultaneously

The Full Article:

Typically, more than 70% of a part’s cost is locked in once its design is finalized. And at that point, manufacturing and sourcing teams have limited options to optimize part costs. That’s why cost modeling is exponentially more effective during the design phase. Product engineers need the ability to identify viable, cost-effective design alternatives while a project is still on the drawing board. This approach empowers design teams to innovate without sacrificing time to market or profit margins.

We explore this topic in greater detail by examining real-life examples to illustrate a key DFM principle in action. This includes why spreadsheets and other tools that rely on historical estimates provide a static, incomplete view of costing data – and how you can overcome this challenge with solutions that link design decisions to cost outcomes. Areas addressed include:

• The Design for Manufacturing (DFM) Imperative
• Overview of Important Cost Categories
• DFM Success Stories: Identifying Cost Inefficiencies
• Hidden Material Cost Drivers
• DFM Material Conversion Cost Example
• Other Methods for Cost-Effective Design for Manufacturability
• Learn More About the Power of Digital Manufacturing Insights

1) The Design for Manufacturing (DFM) Imperative

What if engineers had precise, design-level guidance on key cost drivers for their new product designs? And what if they had the insight to see how the cost is being affected by raw materials, conversion (i.e., the cost of turning raw material into a part), routing, and other manufacturability issues?

Having access to this capability would provide design and cost engineers with guidance to revise parts for added cost efficiency during the design phase. aPriori’s Manufacturing Insights Platform offers a solution that enables organizations to achieve this objective.

Unlike traditional spreadsheets, aPriori automatically evaluates the geometry of 3D CAD models whenever they are checked into a product lifecycle management (PLM) system. Through this software functionality, engineers gain real-time cost insights for parts and sub-assemblies, improving design and sourcing decisions.

Moreover, aPriori provides teams with a deeper understanding of the complex factors influencing part costs. The software is also equipped with cost and process modeling capabilities , enabling engineers to configure and run various scenarios. As a result, teams can seamlessly compare a part’s material, supplier, regional expenses, and more to make informed decisions.

To understand the impact of advanced manufacturing cost modeling, it’s helpful to consider the factors that contribute to a part’s final cost. Below, we break down a few key categories of part cost. The specifics may vary greatly, but these basic cost categories apply whether the part in question is sheet metal or plastic, cast or machined.

Watch this webinar to learn the best practices and digital tools to build a successful costing team.

2) Overview of Important Cost Categories

Direct + variable costs:.

The powerful interaction between each choice in the direct/variable cost category is significantly important. While engineering decisions may have an impact on period costs in the long run, we will focus on direct costs, as they often have the most substantial impact. The following categories describe the expenses associated with the marginal cost of producing each additional part.

Key Drivers of Material Costs

• Material type
• Material stock size (standard or non-standard)
• Material selection and utilization
• Special grain orientations (e.g., tight bends on a part may only allow manufacturing to orient the part in one direction when cutting it on the sheet)

Key Drivers of Overhead and Labor Costs

• Cycle time to make the part. Note: more than one machine may be used to make a part.
• Number of times that the part must be set up – whether in one machine or multiple machines
• Type and size of machine(s) that will be used to make the part
• Any secondary production processes such as paint, heat treatment, etc.

Indirect/Period Costs:

These costs matter for overall profitability but aren’t necessarily immediately impacted by marginal production changes. For instance, a factory will have some base level of maintenance costs regardless of the number of parts being made within a given period. These costs must be associated with specific supporting functions and spread across all parts produced.

Key Factory-Related Cost Drivers

• Energy costs
• Heating and cooling the plant
• Cleaning and maintenance
• Purchasing, manufacturing, engineering, shipping and receiving, and other supporting business functions

Key Administrative Cost Drivers

• General management costs
• Sales, marketing, and business development expenditures
• Technology support (e.g., IT staff or services)

Capital Expenditures (CapEx) and Non-Recurring Costs:

• Examples include initial investments in productive capital such as molds, stamping dies, machining fixtures, weld fixtures, and more.
• The cost impact of capital expenditures will vary depending on the complexity of the part, number of cavities, number of parts over the life of the tool, etc.

3) DFM Success Stories: Identifying Cost Inefficiencies

We developed both case studies using aPriori’s digital factory capabilities, which involve simulated production based on modeling a part’s digital twin .

During the design stage, you don’t need the absolute value estimate to be exact; a good, reliable approximation will suffice. For instance, you may determine that 20% of the part cost is material and 65% is conversion cost. While these amounts may vary during final production, they can provide a useful guidepost for prioritizing cost optimization projects. This practice can help you save time by avoiding product design changes that will have minimal impact on cost.

Manufacturing insights can help engineers minimize time-consuming activities and work faster. This automation-driven platform can determine the most efficient manufacturing methodology through near-instant cost estimates for new design alternatives.

Learn more about how design for manufacturing (DFM) has a real impact on new product pipelines.

Material Cost Example One: Truck Sheet Metal Fan Cover Redesign

The following screenshot shows that 88% of the fan cover cost is material. To reduce material costs, you can:

• Select an alternative material that is cheaper (but still reflects functional load requirements and tolerances).
• Use less material by making the part thinner, adding ribbed forms to strengthen it, or improving material utilization to reduce waste.

The product developer recognized that the material choice was the primary cost driver and reduced the part size without altering the size of the opening or component mating points. The following screenshot displays his final solution.

Note that while labor and overhead costs increased from $0.49 to $0.53, the material cost dropped from $7.51 to $5.63, saving $1.88 – which is a 25% savings. This improvement has paid for itself exponentially because the part is still used in tens of thousands of trucks.

This is a great example of how a reliable cost estimate is useful for prioritizing redesign work. A good cost vector (whether the cost is going up or down, by a little or a lot) is sufficient. For example, if the material cost dropped by only $1.50 instead of $1.88, the price reduction would still warrant a redesign.

Material Cost Example Two: Plastic Seat

A manufacturer produces approximately 200,000 seats annually. The digital manufacturing cost model revealed that material is 67% of the total cost.

The engineer redesigning the seat has two options:

• Use lower-cost materials. Note: had the conversion cost been the most expensive, you may have wanted a material that cools faster, thereby decreasing the cycle time and production cost.
• Reduce the amount of material without compromising seat integrity.

The engineer tried several alternative designs, including:

She began by reducing the thickness of the plastic from the top edge of the back of the seat down to 2/3 of the way and from the edge of the bottom of the seat to approximately ½ of the way to the middle of the seat. This change decreased the average thickness from 0.18” to 0.15”. It is critical to note that the cost of materials, labor, and overhead was also reduced. That’s because the thinner part cools faster, leading to a double benefit: a reduction in material and manufacturing costs, totaling $0.95 on a $5 component – a nearly 20% reduction.

The second design change made the back hole slightly larger from its original 5”–6” in height. However, because this change only shaved a few cents off the original cost, it was not worth the risk of potential quality issues or increased customer discomfort. The value of having real-time cost feedback “at the speed of design” enables you to catch these false starts far earlier in the process and maintain quality control by adhering to the principles of DFM.

4) Hidden Material Cost Drivers

• This approach worked until their factory became overwhelmed and started buying parts or sending them to another internal factory across the country. The parts became much more expensive because they needed to orient the components perpendicular to the bend, which limits the nesting flexibility of the part and requires more material. Simulated production software like aPriori can automatically identify if a bend is too tight and recommend a minimum bend angle.
• The organization suspected an unscrupulous bid from a supplier. Still, upon review, it found that the supplier had to buy a special forging or start with the next size-up standard bar to meet the customer’s requirements. Either way, the cost would be disproportionately impacted. A diameter reduction of just a few millimeters fixed the issue, and the final design still had plenty of inertia margin.

5) DFM Material Conversion Cost Example

Let’s now move into conversion costs. Design engineers make choices that affect a large range of conversion costs, such as:

• Labor cost is proportional to cycle time. And the skill necessary to run the machine affects the wages of the operator. A 5-axis CNC machinist makes more than a 3-axis mill operator, for example.
• Set-up cost includes the number of machines to be set up and the number of times the part needs to be set up. Volume plays a large role in determining the per-product impact of set-up costs.
• Direct overhead cost is proportional to cycle time and the type and size of the machine.

An engineer was assigned to reduce the cost for a part like the one below. A quick design review revealed a 40/60 split between material cost and conversion cost. This implies that there may be opportunities to contain costs on both sides of this split without impacting lead times.

The engineer also noted that because this is a relatively low-volume part (300 units per year), it was being purchased as a machined part. While not very complex, the multiple slants on the surfaces were forcing this part to a 5-axis mill (rather than a comparatively cheap 3-axis mill).

The engineer had three choices to reduce costs:

• Redesign the part to reduce complexity for production on a cheaper machine
• Investigate machining costs further and address those issues in the design
• Identify alternative manufacturing processes for the part if they show promise

Using simulated manufacturing to analyze costs, the engineer discovered that the material utilization was only 11%, meaning that nearly 9 lbs. out of every 10 lbs. of material would be wasted. As expected, most of the cost of making the part was in machining, but from roughing operations, not finishing the part. This demonstrated that getting the part to near net shape was costing a lot in both material and manufacturing costs (see the figures below).

This part had been designated as a machined component because of the relatively low volume production of 300 units per year. However, based on this evidence, the engineer decided to investigate sand casting for the part. To see if it would be worth redoing the design and fatigue analysis to turn this into a casting, he created a cost estimate for sand casting the part.

After analyzing the cost difference of approximately $190 per part on 300 parts, which amounted to a potential annual savings of $57,000, the component was redesigned and purchased as a casting, resulting in significant cost savings.

Alternatively, imagine that this part was not a candidate for a casting process due to load and fatigue requirements, as is the part below. The process for reducing costs for the part is similar, except that you need to explore machining costs (some parts may be extruded as well).

Consider how manufacturability issues may be costing you dearly. By evaluating the actual production methods intended for a part, manufacturing insights can identify design features that pose significant challenges. This could involve pinpointing a lack of draft angles, areas with excessive or insufficient thickness, or features that need a side action in plastic injection molding or die casting. For machined parts, issues like sharp corners, obstructed surfaces, or curved surfaces that require ball milling could be highlighted. Addressing these problems early can streamline production and reduce critical costs.

Looking at this part below, we notice a similar ratio of material to conversion cost. And we dig into the features that make it difficult to produce, as casting or extruding it is not an option.

In the interest of time, we will limit ourselves to resolving as many of these L/D ratios as possible. The engineer realizes that the corner radius of those pockets is small, requiring a small tool diameter selection that violates customary L/D ratios and causes slower finishing times. He has the liberty to make those bigger, which won’t change the material consumed. See the figure below for the redesigned part.

Larger corner radii allow for larger diameter selection, which increases the tool’s ability to reach further down without shaking. Cycle time drops, and cost goes down. A 17% cost reduction is certainly worth the effort of the redesign.

6) Other Methods for Cost-Effective Design for Manufacturability

It is possible to affect the size of a machine in manufacturing by considering the design of the part. For example, suppose a part is being produced in China, where labor costs are low, but overhead costs are high due to the use of large, expensive machines. In that case, it may be worth considering features that can influence machine selection.

The die-cast part below has a web in the middle that is not functionally necessary. This web is causing the part to require two-side cores, one on each side. If the web were removed, only one core would be needed, the mold base size would decrease, and the machine size (tonnage) would go down, causing a reduction in tooling and piece part cost with a smaller machine/lower overhead rate. Additionally, you may be able to have more cavities now, which is a big plus if this is a high-volume part.

The number of set-ups can dramatically affect the cost of a low-volume part. A hole that can’t be accessed from an already available set-up direction (aPriori can show you those) can cause an extra set-up.

Too many of these will require a more expensive machine, for example, forcing a move from a 3-axis to a 4-axis or 5-axis. Did you know that if your sheet metal part has an acute angle bend and an obtuse angle bend on the same part, then two bend breaks will have to be set up to make it? This may have minimal cost impact if the part is produced in large volumes, but if this is a low-volume part, it could create serious cost inefficiencies.

7) Learn More About the Power of Digital Manufacturing Insights

DFM is pivotal to identifying cost savings from the initial product design through material selection and manufacturing. By integrating aPriori’s advanced manufacturing insights, product engineers gain a deeper understanding of how seemingly small variables can significantly impact cost and other factors.

This approach provides product design and cost engineers with clear visibility and automated guidance to make informed decisions that enhance both product quality and profitability. The adoption of DFM best practices, supported by aPriori’s insights, can ensure that products are designed for performance, profitability, sustainability, and market success.

This post was originally published on Aug. 12, 2020, and updated on April 18, 2024.

Ready to Unleash the Power of DFM?

Like what you see? Share on:

Subscribe to the aPriori Blog!

5 Sustainability Challenges and How to Overcome Them

What Is Design to Cost? An Overview With Examples

Elevating Sustainable and Cost-Effective Design Initiatives With Additive Manufacturing

6 Metrics That Will Help Improve Your Engineering Productivity

How to Conduct a Spend Analysis: Methodology in Detail

• Case Studies
• Customer Reviews
• Profitability
• Manufacturability
• Sustainability
• Design to Cost
• Design for Manufacturability
• Design for Sustainability
• Should Cost Analysis
• Quoting Professionals
• Manufacturing Engineering
• Design Engineering
• Cost Engineering
• By Industry
• Aerospace & Defense
• Auto & Transportation
• High Tech Electronics
• Industrial Equipment
• Manufacturing Insights
• Digital Factories
• Regional Data Libraries
• Manufacturing Process Models
• Unique Platform Features
• aP Workspace
• aP Generate
• aP Analytics
• News & Events
• Request a Demo

About the Author

• How to Order

Writing A Case Study

Case Study Examples

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

15 min read

People also read

A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

It’s no surprise that writing a case study is one of the most challenging academic tasks for students. You’re definitely not alone here!

Most people don't realize that there are specific guidelines to follow when writing a case study. If you don't know where to start, it's easy to get overwhelmed and give up before you even begin.

Don't worry! Let us help you out!

We've collected over 25 free case study examples with solutions just for you. These samples with solutions will help you win over your panel and score high marks on your case studies.

So, what are you waiting for? Let's dive in and learn the secrets to writing a successful case study.

• 1. An Overview of Case Studies
• 2. Case Study Examples for Students
• 3. Business Case Study Examples
• 4. Medical Case Study Examples
• 5. Psychology Case Study Examples 
• 6. Sales Case Study Examples
• 7. Interview Case Study Examples
• 8. Marketing Case Study Examples
• 9. Tips to Write a Good Case Study

An Overview of Case Studies

A case study is a research method used to study a particular individual, group, or situation in depth. It involves analyzing and interpreting data from a variety of sources to gain insight into the subject being studied. 

Case studies are often used in psychology, business, and education to explore complicated problems and find solutions. They usually have detailed descriptions of the subject, background info, and an analysis of the main issues.

The goal of a case study is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Typically, case studies can be divided into three parts, challenges, solutions, and results. 

Here is a case study sample PDF so you can have a clearer understanding of what a case study actually is:

Case Study Sample PDF

How to Write a Case Study Examples

Learn how to write a case study with the help of our comprehensive case study guide.

Case Study Examples for Students

Quite often, students are asked to present case studies in their academic journeys. The reason instructors assign case studies is for students to sharpen their critical analysis skills, understand how companies make profits, etc.

Below are some case study examples in research, suitable for students:

Case Study Example in Software Engineering

Qualitative Research Case Study Sample

Software Quality Assurance Case Study

Social Work Case Study Example

Ethical Case Study

Case Study Example PDF

These examples can guide you on how to structure and format your own case studies.

Struggling with formatting your case study? Check this case study format guide and perfect your document’s structure today.

Business Case Study Examples

A business case study examines a business’s specific challenge or goal and how it should be solved. Business case studies usually focus on several details related to the initial challenge and proposed solution. 

To help you out, here are some samples so you can create case studies that are related to businesses: 

Here are some more business case study examples:

Business Case Studies PDF

Business Case Studies Example

Typically, a business case study discovers one of your customer's stories and how you solved a problem for them. It allows your prospects to see how your solutions address their needs. 

Medical Case Study Examples

Medical case studies are an essential part of medical education. They help students to understand how to diagnose and treat patients. 

Here are some medical case study examples to help you.

Medical Case Study Example

Nursing Case Study Example

Want to understand the various types of case studies? Check out our types of case study blog to select the perfect type.

Psychology Case Study Examples 

Case studies are a great way of investigating individuals with psychological abnormalities. This is why it is a very common assignment in psychology courses. 

By examining all the aspects of your subject’s life, you discover the possible causes of exhibiting such behavior. 

For your help, here are some interesting psychology case study examples:

Psychology Case Study Example

Mental Health Case Study Example

Sales Case Study Examples

Case studies are important tools for sales teams’ performance improvement. By examining sales successes, teams can gain insights into effective strategies and create action plans to employ similar tactics.

By researching case studies of successful sales campaigns, sales teams can more accurately identify challenges and develop solutions.

Sales Case Study Example

Interview Case Study Examples

Interview case studies provide businesses with invaluable information. This data allows them to make informed decisions related to certain markets or subjects.

Interview Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Examples

Marketing case studies are real-life stories that showcase how a business solves a problem. They typically discuss how a business achieves a goal using a specific marketing strategy or tactic.

They typically describe a challenge faced by a business, the solution implemented, and the results achieved.

This is a short sample marketing case study for you to get an idea of what an actual marketing case study looks like.

 Here are some more popular marketing studies that show how companies use case studies as a means of marketing and promotion:

“Chevrolet Discover the Unexpected” by Carol H. Williams

This case study explores Chevrolet's “ DTU Journalism Fellows ” program. The case study uses the initials “DTU” to generate interest and encourage readers to learn more. 

Multiple types of media, such as images and videos, are used to explain the challenges faced. The case study concludes with an overview of the achievements that were met.

Key points from the case study include:

• Using a well-known brand name in the title can create interest.
• Combining different media types, such as headings, images, and videos, can help engage readers and make the content more memorable.
• Providing a summary of the key achievements at the end of the case study can help readers better understand the project's impact.

“The Met” by Fantasy

“ The Met ” by Fantasy is a fictional redesign of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, created by the design studio Fantasy. The case study clearly and simply showcases the museum's website redesign.

The Met emphasizes the website’s features and interface by showcasing each section of the interface individually, allowing the readers to concentrate on the significant elements.

For those who prefer text, each feature includes an objective description. The case study also includes a “Contact Us” call-to-action at the bottom of the page, inviting visitors to contact the company.

Key points from this “The Met” include:

• Keeping the case study simple and clean can help readers focus on the most important aspects.
• Presenting the features and solutions with a visual showcase can be more effective than writing a lot of text.
• Including a clear call-to-action at the end of the case study can encourage visitors to contact the company for more information.

“Better Experiences for All” by Herman Miller

Herman Miller's minimalist approach to furniture design translates to their case study, “ Better Experiences for All ”, for a Dubai hospital. The page features a captivating video with closed-captioning and expandable text for accessibility.

The case study presents a wealth of information in a concise format, enabling users to grasp the complexities of the strategy with ease. It concludes with a client testimonial and a list of furniture items purchased from the brand.

Key points from the “Better Experiences” include:

• Make sure your case study is user-friendly by including accessibility features like closed captioning and expandable text.
• Include a list of products that were used in the project to guide potential customers.

“NetApp” by Evisort 

Evisort's case study on “ NetApp ” stands out for its informative and compelling approach. The study begins with a client-centric overview of NetApp, strategically directing attention to the client rather than the company or team involved.

The case study incorporates client quotes and explores NetApp’s challenges during COVID-19. Evisort showcases its value as a client partner by showing how its services supported NetApp through difficult times. 

• Provide an overview of the company in the client’s words, and put focus on the customer. 
• Highlight how your services can help clients during challenging times.
• Make your case study accessible by providing it in various formats.

“Red Sox Season Campaign,” by CTP Boston

The “ Red Sox Season Campaign ” showcases a perfect blend of different media, such as video, text, and images. Upon visiting the page, the video plays automatically, there are videos of Red Sox players, their images, and print ads that can be enlarged with a click.

The page features an intuitive design and invites viewers to appreciate CTP's well-rounded campaign for Boston's beloved baseball team. There’s also a CTA that prompts viewers to learn how CTP can create a similar campaign for their brand.

Some key points to take away from the “Red Sox Season Campaign”: 

• Including a variety of media such as video, images, and text can make your case study more engaging and compelling.
• Include a call-to-action at the end of your study that encourages viewers to take the next step towards becoming a customer or prospect.

“Airbnb + Zendesk” by Zendesk

The case study by Zendesk, titled “ Airbnb + Zendesk : Building a powerful solution together,” showcases a true partnership between Airbnb and Zendesk. 

The article begins with an intriguing opening statement, “Halfway around the globe is a place to stay with your name on it. At least for a weekend,” and uses stunning images of beautiful Airbnb locations to captivate readers.

Instead of solely highlighting Zendesk's product, the case study is crafted to tell a good story and highlight Airbnb's service in detail. This strategy makes the case study more authentic and relatable.

Some key points to take away from this case study are:

• Use client's offerings' images rather than just screenshots of your own product or service.
• To begin the case study, it is recommended to include a distinct CTA. For instance, Zendesk presents two alternatives, namely to initiate a trial or seek a solution.

“Influencer Marketing” by Trend and WarbyParker

The case study "Influencer Marketing" by Trend and Warby Parker highlights the potential of influencer content marketing, even when working with a limited budget. 

The “Wearing Warby” campaign involved influencers wearing Warby Parker glasses during their daily activities, providing a glimpse of the brand's products in use. 

This strategy enhanced the brand's relatability with influencers' followers. While not detailing specific tactics, the case study effectively illustrates the impact of third-person case studies in showcasing campaign results.

Key points to take away from this case study are:

• Influencer marketing can be effective even with a limited budget.
• Showcasing products being used in everyday life can make a brand more approachable and relatable.
• Third-person case studies can be useful in highlighting the success of a campaign.

Marketing Case Study Template

Marketing Case Study Example

Now that you have read multiple case study examples, hop on to our tips.

Tips to Write a Good Case Study

Here are some note-worthy tips to craft a winning case study 

• Define the purpose of the case study This will help you to focus on the most important aspects of the case. The case study objective helps to ensure that your finished product is concise and to the point.
• Choose a real-life example. One of the best ways to write a successful case study is to choose a real-life example. This will give your readers a chance to see how the concepts apply in a real-world setting.
• Keep it brief. This means that you should only include information that is directly relevant to your topic and avoid adding unnecessary details.
• Use strong evidence. To make your case study convincing, you will need to use strong evidence. This can include statistics, data from research studies, or quotes from experts in the field.
• Edit and proofread your work. Before you submit your case study, be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. This will help to ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.

There you go!

We’re sure that now you have secrets to writing a great case study at your fingertips! This blog teaches the key guidelines of various case studies with samples. So grab your pen and start crafting a winning case study right away!

Having said that, we do understand that some of you might be having a hard time writing compelling case studies.

But worry not! Our expert case study writing service is here to take all your case-writing blues away! 

With 100% thorough research guaranteed, our online essay service can craft an amazing case study within 24 hours! 

So why delay? Let us help you shine in the eyes of your instructor!

Write Essay Within 60 Seconds!

Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

Paper Due? Why Suffer? That’s our Job!

Keep reading

• All Headlines

Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies of 2021

Two cases about Hertz claimed top spots in 2021's Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies

Two cases on the uses of debt and equity at Hertz claimed top spots in the CRDT’s (Case Research and Development Team) 2021 top 40 review of cases.

Hertz (A) took the top spot. The case details the financial structure of the rental car company through the end of 2019. Hertz (B), which ranked third in CRDT’s list, describes the company’s struggles during the early part of the COVID pandemic and its eventual need to enter Chapter 11 bankruptcy. 

The success of the Hertz cases was unprecedented for the top 40 list. Usually, cases take a number of years to gain popularity, but the Hertz cases claimed top spots in their first year of release. Hertz (A) also became the first ‘cooked’ case to top the annual review, as all of the other winners had been web-based ‘raw’ cases.

Besides introducing students to the complicated financing required to maintain an enormous fleet of cars, the Hertz cases also expanded the diversity of case protagonists. Kathyrn Marinello was the CEO of Hertz during this period and the CFO, Jamere Jackson is black.

Sandwiched between the two Hertz cases, Coffee 2016, a perennial best seller, finished second. “Glory, Glory, Man United!” a case about an English football team’s IPO made a surprise move to number four.  Cases on search fund boards, the future of malls,  Norway’s Sovereign Wealth fund, Prodigy Finance, the Mayo Clinic, and Cadbury rounded out the top ten.

Other year-end data for 2021 showed:

• Online “raw” case usage remained steady as compared to 2020 with over 35K users from 170 countries and all 50 U.S. states interacting with 196 cases.
• Fifty four percent of raw case users came from outside the U.S..
• The Yale School of Management (SOM) case study directory pages received over 160K page views from 177 countries with approximately a third originating in India followed by the U.S. and the Philippines.
• Twenty-six of the cases in the list are raw cases.
• A third of the cases feature a woman protagonist.
• Orders for Yale SOM case studies increased by almost 50% compared to 2020.
• The top 40 cases were supervised by 19 different Yale SOM faculty members, several supervising multiple cases.

CRDT compiled the Top 40 list by combining data from its case store, Google Analytics, and other measures of interest and adoption.

All of this year’s Top 40 cases are available for purchase from the Yale Management Media store .

And the Top 40 cases studies of 2021 are:

1.   Hertz Global Holdings (A): Uses of Debt and Equity

2.   Coffee 2016

3.   Hertz Global Holdings (B): Uses of Debt and Equity 2020

4.   Glory, Glory Man United!

5.   Search Fund Company Boards: How CEOs Can Build Boards to Help Them Thrive

6.   The Future of Malls: Was Decline Inevitable?

7.   Strategy for Norway's Pension Fund Global

8.   Prodigy Finance

9.   Design at Mayo

10. Cadbury

11. City Hospital Emergency Room

13. Volkswagen

14. Marina Bay Sands

15. Shake Shack IPO

16. Mastercard

17. Netflix

18. Ant Financial

19. AXA: Creating the New CR Metrics

20. IBM Corporate Service Corps

21. Business Leadership in South Africa's 1994 Reforms

22. Alternative Meat Industry

23. Children's Premier

24. Khalil Tawil and Umi (A)

25. Palm Oil 2016

26. Teach For All: Designing a Global Network

27. What's Next? Search Fund Entrepreneurs Reflect on Life After Exit

28. Searching for a Search Fund Structure: A Student Takes a Tour of Various Options

30. Project Sammaan

31. Commonfund ESG

32. Polaroid

33. Connecticut Green Bank 2018: After the Raid

34. FieldFresh Foods

35. The Alibaba Group

36. 360 State Street: Real Options

37. Herman Miller

38. AgBiome

39. Nathan Cummings Foundation

40. Toyota 2010

Engineering Case Studies

Jesmond Engineering has a wealth of experience in a wide range of engineering projects. Links to examples of case studies are provided below.

Yacht Hull Flow Optimisation Case Study

Jesmond was requested to simulate and optimise the wake of a marine vessel.

Pollution Reduction in Sugar Cane Processing Case Study

Between 2018 and 2022 Jesmond Engineering participated in a joint UK-India project to reduce industrial…

Chocolate Needle Jet Depositor Case Study

Jesmond was asked to design a part of a robotic machine for manufacturing chocolate confectionery.

Bluegen Hydrogen From Biomass Case Study

Circular textiles bacterial cellulose production case study.

Jesmond Engineering has helped design bioreactors for a circular textiles system. This generates cellulose from…

Bespoke Engineering Software Development – An Overview

This leaflet provides an insight into some of the bespoke engineering software that has been…

• Advanced Search

Finite time preventive maintenance optimization by using a Semi-Markov process with a degraded state. A case study for diesel engines in mining

New citation alert added.

This alert has been successfully added and will be sent to:

You will be notified whenever a record that you have chosen has been cited.

To manage your alert preferences, click on the button below.

New Citation Alert!

Please log in to your account

Information & Contributors

Bibliometrics & citations, view options, graphical abstract, recommendations, periodic and sequential preventive maintenance policies over a finite planning horizon with a dynamic failure law.

The purpose of this study is to propose and model periodic and sequential preventive maintenance policies for a system that performs various missions over a finite planning horizon. Each mission can have different characteristics that depend on ...

Analysis of Periodic Preventive Maintenance with General System Failure Distribution

Abstract| Preventive maintenance is applied to improvethe system availability or decrease the operational cost.Inthis paper the preventive maintenance with generally distributed parameters are discussed, and the steady-state solution is obtained by ...

Analysis of maintenance policies for finite life-cycle multi-state systems

Maintenance policies for multi-state systems (MSS) are often analyzed under infinite horizon assumptions. In practice, it is important to consider maintenance policies under a finite horizon because the life cycles of most systems are finite. In this ...

Information

Published in.

Pergamon Press, Inc.

United States

Publication History

Author tags.

• Preventive interval
• Costs and income
• Maintenance model
• Semi-Markov process
• Finite horizon
• Degraded state
• Research-article

Contributors

Other metrics, bibliometrics, article metrics.

• 0 Total Citations
• 0 Total Downloads
• Downloads (Last 12 months) 0
• Downloads (Last 6 weeks) 0

View options

Login options.

Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.

Full Access

Share this publication link.

Copying failed.

Share on social media

Affiliations, export citations.

• Please download or close your previous search result export first before starting a new bulk export. Preview is not available. By clicking download, a status dialog will open to start the export process. The process may take a few minutes but once it finishes a file will be downloadable from your browser. You may continue to browse the DL while the export process is in progress. Download
• Download citation
• Copy citation

We are preparing your search results for download ...

We will inform you here when the file is ready.

Your file of search results citations is now ready.

Your search export query has expired. Please try again.

• Search Menu
• Sign in through your institution
• Advance articles
• Editor's Choice
• Supplements
• Open Access Articles
• Author Guidelines
• Submission Site
• Open Access
• For Reviewers
• About International Health
• About the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
• Editorial Board
• Advertising and Corporate Services
• Journals Career Network
• Self-Archiving Policy
• Dispatch Dates
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

Article Contents

Introduction, methods and materials, author contributions, acknowledgments, conflict of interest, ethical approval, data availability.

• < Previous

Predictor of anemia among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics at Hiwot Fana Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Eastern Ethiopia: a case-control study

• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data

Tadesse Dufera, Merga Dheresa, Tariku Dingeta, Mezgebu Legesse, Sinetibeb Mesfin, Bikila Balis, Tegenu Balcha, Predictor of anemia among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics at Hiwot Fana Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Eastern Ethiopia: a case-control study, International Health , Volume 16, Issue 4, July 2024, Pages 438–445, https://doi.org/10.1093/inthealth/ihad118

• Permissions Icon Permissions

Anemia during pregnancy is a public health problem and is related to negative birth outcomes, especially in developing countries. The main aim of this study was to assess predictors of anemia among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics at Hiwot Fana Comprehensive Specialized University Hospital, Eastern Ethiopia.

Unmatched case-control study design was employed among 352 individuals. A face-to-face interview was used to gather data, and each pregnant woman's antenatal care follow-up record cards were reviewed in addition to the interview. EpiData version 3.1 and IBM SPSS version 26 was used for data entry and analysis, respectively. Bivariable and multivariable analyses were conducted to identify predictors of anemia, a p-value of <0.05 was considered a statistically significant association.

The common determinants for anemia in pregnant mothers were: rural residency (AOR = 2.25, 95% CI: 1.14–4.8), no formal education (AOR = 4.4, 95% CI: 1.94–9.9), inter-pregnancy interval (AOR = 2.7, 95% CI: 1.24–5.8), and mid-upper arm circumference (AOR = 5.0, 95% CI: 2.0–12.7).

In this study, the identified determinant factors for anemia were: rural residency, maternal educational status, inter-pregnancy-interval, and mid-upper arm circumference. Therefore, providing health education and promotion for pregnant women regarding anemia by focusing on rural residents and counseling to lengthen their birth spacing is an important task. Moreover, counseling on taking iron supplementation as suggested and consuming a diet rich in iron during antenatal care will be recommended.

Anemia during pregnancy is defined by the WHO as hemoglobin (Hgb) concentrations of less than 11 g/dl for the first and third trimesters and 10.5 g/dl for the second trimester. 1 Anemia during pregnancy is a public health problem and is related to negative birth outcomes, especially in developing countries. 2 Anemia can be caused by a variety of factors during pregnancy; it is caused by deficiencies in iron, folate, vitamin B12, and vitamin A, as well as intestinal parasite infections, malaria, and chronic sickness. 3 , 4 Fetal anemia, low birth weight, preterm delivery, intrauterine growth restriction, and perinatal mortality were all effects of anemia on both pregnant mothers and their newborns. 5 , 6 Anemia during pregnancy is a significant factor in the morbidity and death of pregnant women and newborns in underdeveloped nations. 5 , 7

According to the WHO, 32.4 million (38.2%) of women worldwide developed anemia during their pregnancy, with 48% in Southeast Asia and 46.3% in Africa. 8 Nearly 510 000 maternal deaths are reported each year around the world as a result of childbirth or early postpartum complications. Anemia is responsible for around 20% of maternal deaths, the majority of which occur in underdeveloped nations. 9 , 10 The overall prevalence of anemia was 43.3% in sub-Saharan African countries. 11 In Ethiopia, a pooled prevalence of the systematic review showed that 31.7% of women developed anemia during their pregnancy period; according to this systematic review report the lowest prevalence was observed in the Amahara region (15.9%) and the highest was in the Somali region (56.8%). 12 Looking at regional variances, the Somali region had the greatest frequency of anemia (60%) followed by the Afar region (45%), and Addis Ababa had the lowest (16.3%). 13 According to the Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey 2016, the problem affected 29% of people, and 37.9% of pregnant women in the study area. 13 , 14

According to previous findings, undernutrition, low meal frequency, multivitamin deficiency, and a lack of iron folate supplementation during pregnancy are all variables that significantly contribute to maternal anemia. 3 , 10 , 15 , 16 Mothers with increased gestational age, high parity, and gravidity also have a greater risk of anemia in pregnancy. 7 , 17 , 18 The socioeconomic factors of anemia include rural residency, illiteracy, a large family size, and poor economic status. 19–22

To address pregnant women's micronutrient insufficiency, the Federal Ministry of Health developed a national nutrition policy. It also set up a system for providing integrated and regular nutritional examinations and interventions such as deworming, folic acid, and iron supplementation. 23 , 24 Despite governments’ and stakeholders’ involvement, the anemia problem remains unsolved in Ethiopia, specifically in the study area, and still requires attention. Several studies on the prevalence of anemia in Ethiopia have been carried out, but there is still a gap in identifying the determinant factors and updating the information. In addition to this, there is no documented data on determinants of anemia during pregnancy in the study area. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the determinants of anemia during pregnancy among women attending antenatal clinics at Hiwot Fana Comprehensive Specialized Hospital (HFCSH).

Study setting and period

HFCSH is located in Harar town, 526 km to the east of Addis Ababa. HFCSH functions as the only referral hospital for the entire eastern part of Ethiopia, Dire Dawa City, the Somali region, and the Harari regional state. It is affiliated with the College of Health and Medical Sciences, Haramaya University, Ethiopia. Currently, the hospital has about 201 beds and 12 case teams to provide referral inpatient and outpatient services to residents of the Harari region and nearby regions. The study was carried out from 23 May 2020 to 23 August 2020.

Study design and population

An unmatched case-control study was undertaken at the hospital. The study participants were all pregnant mothers receiving antenatal care follow-up at HFCSH. Cases were all pregnant mothers who were attending antenatal care at HFCSH whose Hgb level was <11 g/dl for first and third trimester pregnancy while the Hgb level was <10.5 g/dl for second trimester pregnancy. Controls were all pregnant women who were attending antenatal care at HFCSH whose Hgb level was ≥11 g/dl for first and third trimester pregnancy, as well as ≥10.5 g/dl for second trimester pregnancy. All pregnant women who came for antenatal contact at HFCSH were included in the study. Seriously ill pregnant mothers, who had been on anti-helminthic drugs within the past two weeks, and those who had acute and/or chronic disease-causing anemia were excluded from the study.

Sample size determination and sampling procedure

To estimate the sample size, a double population proportion formula was employed using Epi Info version 7.2.0.1, with a 95% CI, 80% power, and control-to-case ratio of 2:1. Based on this, the husband's educational status was taken as the main exposure variable with a proportion of 27.3% among cases and 13.5% among controls with OR = 2.4. 25 Considering a 10% non-response rate, the final sample size was 352 (118 cases and 234 controls). The selection of study participants was made consequently until the required sample size was achieved.

Data collection instruments and procedures

Information was collected by using a structured questionnaire and reviewing each pregnant woman's antenatal care follow-up records. The questionnaire was modified to fit the local context after being adapted from prior research conducted in Ethiopia and abroad. 25–28 It consisted of sociodemographic characteristics, knowledge-related, health-related, and maternal dietary status, which were developed in an English-language version and translated into the local language (Afan Oromo and Amharic) before information gathering. It was then translated back into English to maintain consistency.

Measurements

The WHO definition of anemia in pregnancy was utilized to estimate the hemoglobin cutoff value, pregnant women with hemoglobin levels equal to or above 11 g/dl during their antenatal care services were chosen as controls (non-anemic), while those with Hgb levels less than 11 g/dl were chosen as cases (anemic). 1 Hemoglobin measurement, malaria attack, and stool examination were taken from maternal antenatal care follow-up record charts. The dietary diversity score was determined using a single 24-h memory, and all liquids and meals taken the day before the research were divided into 10 food groups. Consuming 5 or more out of 10 food groups within 24 h was considered as high food diversity while consuming less than 5 food groups within 24 h was taken as low food diversity. 29 Besides this, the mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) was examined using a WHO measuring tape to evaluate malnutrition in pregnant women; a woman was classified as undernourished if her MUAC was less than 23 cm and well nourished if it was greater than or equal to 23 cm. 30 In this study, cases were assigned ‘1’ and controls were ‘0’.

Data quality control

Before the actual data gathering, the surveys were pre-tested using 5% of the calculated sample size at Jugal Hospital, and any necessary adjustments were implemented accordingly. During the information-gathering period, two BSc midwives were hired as data collectors and one MSc nurse as supervisor. Training was provided for the data collectors and supervisors on the goal of the study, the clarity of the tools, how to maintain the privacy of the information, and the quality of the data. Intensive supervision was undertaken by the principal investigator, as well as supervisors. Again information taken from medical record cards was cross-checked with participants’ clinical results registered in the laboratory registration book to check their consistency and quality. The supervisors checked the collected data for completeness, accuracy, and consistency.

Data analysis

Collected information was cleaned, coded, and entered into EpiData version 4.6. SPSS statistical software version 26 was used for analysis. To determine the frequencies, a measure of central tendency, and the variability of the variables used in this study, descriptive statistics were used. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify the association between each independent and dependent variable. Utilizing the variance inflation factor and standard error, multicollinearity was examined to see whether the associated independent variables were correlated. Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit and the omnibus test were used to assess the fattiness of the models. To adjust for all potential confounders, a variable with a p-value of 0.25 at 95% CI in the bivariable analysis was added to the multivariable logistic regression analysis. The strength and direction of the association between the independent and dependent variables were then assessed using AOR with a 95% CI and p-values in the multivariable logistic regression analysis. A p-value of 0.05 was then used as the cutoff value to identify the association as statistically significant.

Sociodemographic characteristics of study participants

In total, 352 participants (118 cases and 234 controls) took part in the study with a 100% return rate. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 40 years with most aged between 24 and 29 (40.1%) years. Around 230 (98.3%) controls and 110 (93.2%) cases were married with 73.3% controls and 40 (33.3%) cases residing in urban areas. Regarding religion, around 116 (49.6%) controls and 92 (78%) cases were Muslim and 39 (16.7%) controls and 57 (48.3%) cases had no formal education (Table  1 ).

Sociodemographic characteristics of pregnant women who visited ANCs at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital Eastern Ethiopia, 2020

Note : Others: (waaqeffata and catholic), others*: (merchant, students, farmer, and daily worker), others**; (merchant, student, and daily worker).

Obstetric-related characteristics

Among the pregnant women who were receiving antenatal care at the hospital, 24.4% of controls and 45% of cases were gravida four and above. The majority of the participants, 65.4% of controls and 51.7% of cases had a birth gap of more than 2 years. Furthermore, 7 (3%) controls and 17 (14.4%) cases had a history of abortion (Table  2 ).

Obstetric characteristics of pregnant women who visited ANCs atn Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Eastern Ethiopia in 2022

Parasitic infection-related characteristics

The majority of the cases (89%), and almost all of the controls (96.7%), had not had fever in the previous three months. Among antenatal care attendants, 5 (2.1%) controls and 8 (6.8%) cases had had a fever in the last 48 h. Almost three-quarters (72.6%) of cases and 78.8% of controls did not use insecticidal bed net (ITN). Moreover, 5 individuals from controls and 7 from cases had parasitic infections. Among the participants, 21 cases and 10 controls used antimalarial drugs. About 3% of controls and 11% of cases had a history of past medical illness (Table  3 ).

Health-related characteristics of pregnant women who visited ANCs at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Eastern Ethiopia in 2020

Dietary-related characteristics of the respondent

Nearly two-thirds of controls, 167 (71.4%), and 83 (70.4%) cases consumed foods three or more times a day. About 94 (40.2%) controls and 26 (22%) cases consumed iron-rich foods. The majority of participants, 227 (97.1%) controls and 104 (88.2%) cases, took tea or coffee daily. The majority of pregnant women who received antenatal care, 97 (41.5%) controls and 51 (43.2%) cases, were taking iron supplements. About 28 (23.7%) cases and 46 (19.7%) controls were consuming vitamin A-rich foods (Table  4 ).

Dietary-related characteristics of pregnant women who visited ANCs at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Eastern Ethiopia in 2020

Clinical extract

Regarding the MUAC, out of 352 study participants, 10.3% of controls and 26.3% of cases had a MUAC of less than 23 cm, while 89.7% of controls and 73.7% of cases had a MUAC equal to or greater than 23 cm, respectively. Nearly three-quarters (74.6%) of cases and 214 (91.5%) controls had no intestinal parasite but 3.0% of controls and 14.4% of cases had intestinal parasites. About 5.5% of controls and 11% of cases had signs of bacterial infection.

Determinants of anemia during pregnancy

To identify independent predictors of anemia, multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was carried out for variables that were candidates at a p-value of less than 0.25 in bivariable analysis. Variables such as husband’s educational status, residency, maternal educational status, use of iron-rich foods, gravidity, birth interval, use of leafy vegetables, iron supplementation, and MUAC were transferred to multivariable binary logistic analysis from the bivariable analysis. Finally, variables such as residency, maternal educational status, inter-pregnancy interval, and MUAC were found to be independent predictors of anemia during pregnancy at a p-value of <0.05 in multivariable analysis.

This study indicated that anemia was nearly three times higher among rural pregnant women than their urban counterparts (AOR = 2.94, 95% CI: 1.22, 7.1). The probability of getting anemia in pregnant mothers who had no formal education was 4.4 times higher compared with those who had received formal education (AOR = 4.4, 95% CI: 1.94–9.9). The odds of developing anemia among pregnant women whose birth interval was less than two years were nearly three times higher than women whose birth interval was greater than two years (AOR = 2.7, 95% CI: 1.24–5.8). According to this study, pregnant women whose MUAC measurement was <23 cm were five times more likely to be anemic compared with their counterparts (AOR = 5.0, 95% CI: 2.14–12.7) (Table  5 ).

The factors that contribute to the occurrence of anemia must be recognized in order to successfully prevent anemia during pregnancy. Thus, residency, maternal educational status, inter-pregnancy interval, awareness among pregnant women, and MUAC were the variables that were significant predictors of anemia.

In this study, residency was one of the predicting factors of anemia. Women who were living in rural areas were twice as likely to develop anemia compared with those who lived in urban areas. This finding was supported by a study conducted at Adigrat Hospital, northern Ethiopia, 31 Dera district, northwest Ethiopia, 32 Bisidimo Hospital, eastern Ethiopia, 10 Gilgel Gibe dam area, southwest Ethiopia, 33 and a study conducted in Uganda. 34 This might be due to pregnant women living in rural areas lacking information about increased nutritional consumption during pregnancy and having limited access to healthcare facilities, making them more exposed to anemia. 35

Bivariable and multivariable analysis predictor of anemia among pregnant women visiting ANCs at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Eastern Ethiopia in 2020

AOR: adjusted odds ratio; COR: crude odds ratio; MUAC: mid-upper arm circumference.*p<0.05, **p<0.01, 1 = reference.

One of the key determinants of anemia in pregnant women was the mother's education level. Pregnant women without formal education had four times higher odds of getting anemia than pregnant women with formal education. This finding was supported by studies carried out in different parts of Ethiopia, West Gojjam Zone , 36 Benchi Maji Zone, 37 Woldia Town, 38 Yrga cheffe health facilities, 39 and Tanzania. 40 This might be because women with no formal education did not have sufficient access to information regarding the danger of anemia. Even if they have been advised to take iron tablets and other preventive measures such as consuming iron-rich meals, they may not do so. Furthermore, because education is linked to wealth, illiterate women may not be able to earn enough money to feed themselves during their pregnancy.

This study showed that pregnant women whose pregnancy interval was less than two years were nearly three times more likely to acquire anemia compared with their counterparts. This finding was consistent with studies carried out in North Ethiopia Shire town, 41 Arba Minch town, 42 Wollega University Hospital, 43 Bangladesh, 44 and India. 20 The possible explanation for this might be a short inert birth interval that has resulted in a decreased iron store, which may exacerbate the occurrence of anemia in pregnant women.

The likelihood of anemia was five times higher among pregnant women whose MUAC measurement was <23 cm compared with those whose MUAC measurement was >23 cm. The result of this study was strengthened by the study being conducted in the Oromia region, 45 Dera district, northwest Ethiopia, 32 Horo Guduru Welega, 46 West Ethiopia, and Gode town, eastern Ethiopia. 47 This might be because a MUAC measurement below 23 cm could be an indicator of malnutrition, which is the most common cause of anemia. Moreover, this could be connected to the deleterious impact that protein and other macronutrient deficiencies have on the bioavailability and storage of iron and other hematopoietic nutrients. As a result, the majority of micronutrient deficits are associated with protein-energy malnutrition; to prevent this, micronutrient supplementation is recommended as a routine intervention by the WHO and various local nutritional management guidelines. 48

Strengths and limitations of the study

This study utilized a combination of face-to-face interviews and chart review to avoid missing any important variables; the nature of the design helped to establish cause and effect relationships. However, recall and social desirability bias were a common limitation of this study.

In this study, the identified determinant factors of anemia were: rural residencies, maternal educational status, inter-pregnancy interval, and MUAC. Pregnant women’s awareness of anemia should be increased through strengthened health education and community mobilization on identified determinants of anemia by prioritizing rural women. Enhancing women's education, and increasing family planning accessibility to improve inter-pregnancy interval is mandatory to overcome the problem. Nutritional guidance should be given on consuming foods high in iron and taking iron supplements to prevent anemia in pregnant women. Finally, to reduce sequels of anemia during pregnancy we recommend further community-based studies to explore other risk factors of anemia in pregnancy.

TD, MD, TB, and TD were all involved in the research concept, design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. TB, SM, ML, and BB drafted the manuscript, and all authors reviewed and contributed intellectual content. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

We would like to thank Haramaya University, College of Health and Medical Sciences, School of Graduate Studies for allowing us to do this research. Moreover, we would like to thank the participants of this study, data collectors, and supervisors.

The authors did not receive any funding for the authorship or the publication of this paper.

The authors declare that they have no competing or potential conflicts of interest.

Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Health Research Ethics Review Committee (IHRERC) of the College of Health and Medical Sciences, Haramaya University (Ref. No:128/2020). A permission letter was received from the management of the hospital. Informed written and signed consent was obtained from those who could read and write while fingerprint sign was obtained from those who could not read and write. The study was conducted according to the recommendations of the Declaration of Helsinki. Confidentiality was maintained by using anonymous codes, de-identified study participants’ identifiers, and keeping the data in a secure place.

All supplemental materials for this article are available from the corresponding authors based on reasonable request.

World Health Organization . Iron deficiency anaemia: Assessment, prevention and control. A guide for programme managers . Geneva : World Health Organization ; 2001 . https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/iron-children-6to23–archived-iron-deficiency-anaemia-assessment-prevention-and-control [accessed 29 December 2019] .

Google Scholar

Google Preview

Black   RE , Victora   CG , Walker   SP . Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries . View at Google Scholar   2013 ; 382   [accessed 31 December 2019 ] .

Uneke   C , Duhlinska   D , Igbinedion   E . Prevalence and public-health significance of HIV infection and anaemia among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in south-eastern Nigeria . J Health Popul Nutr . 2007 ; 25 ( 3 ): 328 .

World Health Organization . Worldwide prevalence of anaemia 1993–2005. WHO Global Database on Anaemia . Geneva : World Health Organization ; 2008 . https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241596657

Akhtar   M , Hassan   I . Severe anaemia during late pregnancy. Case Reports in Obstetrics and Gynecology . 2012 ; 2012 .

Elhassan   EM , Abbaker   AO , Haggaz   AD  et al.    Anaemia and low birth weight in Medani, Hospital Sudan . BMC Res Notes . 2010 ; 3 ( 1 ): 1 – 5 .

Al-Farsi   YM , Brooks   DR , Werler   MM  et al.    Effect of high parity on occurrence of anemia in pregnancy: A cohort study . BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth . 2011 ; 11 ( 1 ): 1 – 7 .

World Health Organization . The global prevalence of anaemia in 2011 . Geneva : World Health Organization ; 2015 . http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream [accessed 9 March 2022].

Getahun   W , Belachew   T , Wolide   AD . Burden and associated factors of anemia among pregnant women attending antenatal care in southern Ethiopia: Cross sectional study . BMC Res Notes . 2017 ; 10 ( 1 ): 1 – 7 .

Kefiyalew   F , Zemene   E , Asres   Y  et al.    Anemia among pregnant women in southeast Ethiopia: Prevalence, severity and associated risk factors . BMC Res Notes . 2014 ; 7 ( 1 ): 1 – 8 .

Correa-Agudelo   E , Kim   HY , Musuka   GN  et al.    The epidemiological landscape of anemia in women of reproductive age in sub-Saharan Africa . Sci Rep . 2021 ; 11 ( 1 ): 11955 .

Kassa   GM , Muche   AA , Berhe   AK  et al.    Prevalence and determinants of anemia among pregnant women in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis . BMC Hematol . 2017 ; 17 ( 1 ): 1 – 9 .

CSA . Central Statistical Agency (CSA)[Ethiopia] and ICF. Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey , Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Calverton, Maryland, USA . 2016 .

Abdu   S , Ali   T , Debella   A  et al.    Magnitude and factors associated with anemia among pregnant women admitted to labor ward of Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Eastern Ethiopia . SAGE Open Med . 2021 ; 9 : 20503121211047389 .

Abriha   A , Yesuf   ME , Wassie   MM . Prevalence and associated factors of anemia among pregnant women of Mekelle town: A cross sectional study . BMC Res Notes . 2014 ; 7 ( 1 ): 1 – 6 .

Aikawa   R , Khan   NC , Sasaki   S  et al.    Risk factors for iron-deficiency anaemia among pregnant women living in rural Vietnam . Public Health Nutr . 2006 ; 9 ( 4 ): 443 – 8 .

Makhoul   Z , Taren   D , Duncan   B  et al.    Risk factors associated with anemia, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia in rural Nepali pregnant women . Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health . 2012 ; 43 ( 3 ): 735 .

Viveki   R , Halappanavar   A , Viveki   P  et al.    Prevalence of anaemia and its epidemiological determinants in pregnant women . Al Ameen J Med Sci . 2012 ; 5 ( 3 ): 216 – 23 .

Alem   M , Enawgaw   B , Gelaw   A  et al.    Prevalence of anemia and associated risk factors among pregnant women attending antenatal care in Azezo Health Center Gondar town, Northwest Ethiopia . Journal of Interdisciplinary Histopathology . 2013 ; 1 ( 3 ): 137 – 44 .

Mangla   M , Singla   D . Prevalence of anaemia among pregnant women in rural India: A longitudinal observational study . Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol . 2016 ; 5 ( 10 ): 3500 – 5 .

Haidar   JA , Pobocik   RS . Iron deficiency anemia is not a rare problem among women of reproductive ages in Ethiopia: A community based cross sectional study . BMC Hematol . 2009 ; 9 ( 1 ): 1 – 8 .

Salhan   S , Tripathi   V , Singh   R  et al.    Evaluation of hematological parameters in partial exchange and packed cell transfusion in treatment of severe anemia in pregnancy . Anemia . 2012 ; 2012 .

FMOH . A national guideline for control and prevention of micronutrient deficiencies. Addis Ababa: Federal Ministry of Health Ethiopia ; 2004 .

Jennings   J , Hirbaye   M . Review of incorporation of essential nutrition actions into public health programs in Ethiopia . Washington DC : The Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project (FANTA) Equinet Newsletter ; 2008 : 1 – 25 .

Argaw   B , Argaw-Denboba   A , Taye   B  et al.    Major risk factors predicting anemia development during pregnancy: Unmatched-case control study . J Community Med Health Educ . 2015 ; 5 ( 353 ): 2161-0711.1000353 .

Obse   N , Mossie   A , Gobena   T . Magnitude of anemia and associated risk factors among pregnant women attending antenatal care in Shalla Woreda, West Arsi Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia . Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences . 2013 ; 23 ( 2 ): 165 – 73 .

Serbesa   ML , Iffa   MT (eds.). Pregnant women's knowledge, attitude, and practice regarding the prevention of iron deficiency anemia among Ethiopian pregnant women . 2018 .

Abdu   O , Hussein   A . Knowledge, attitude and practice of pregnant mothers towards preventions of iron deficiency anemia in Ethiopia: Institutional based cross sectional study . Health Care Curr Rev . 2019 ; 07 .

Food and Agriculutre Organization . Minimum dietary diversity for women: A guide for measurement . Rome : FAO ; 2016:   82 .

Ververs   M-T , Antierens   A , Sackl   A  et al.    Which anthropometric indicators identify a pregnant woman as acutely malnourished and predict adverse birth outcomes in the humanitarian context?   PLoS Currents . 2013 ; 5 .

Berhe   B , Mardu   F , Legese   H  et al.    Prevalence of anemia and associated factors among pregnant women in Adigrat General Hospital, Tigrai, northern Ethiopia, 2018 . BMC Res Notes . 2019 ; 12 ( 1 ): 1 – 6 .

Derso   T , Abera   Z , Tariku   A . Magnitude and associated factors of anemia among pregnant women in Dera District: A cross-sectional study in Northwest Ethiopia . BMCRes Notes . 2017 ; 10 ( 1 ): 1 – 8 .

Getachew   M , Yewhalaw   D , Tafess   K  et al.    Anaemia and associated risk factors among pregnant women in Gilgel Gibe dam area, Southwest Ethiopia . Parasites & Vectors . 2012 ; 5 ( 1 ): 1 – 8 .

Obai   G , Odongo   P , Wanyama   R . Prevalence of anaemia and associated risk factors among pregnant women attending antenatal care in Gulu and Hoima Regional Hospitals in Uganda: A cross sectional study . BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth . 2016 ; 16 ( 1 ): 1 – 7 .

Tsegaye   S , Yibeltal   K , Zelealem   H  et al.    The unfinished agenda and inequality gaps in antenatal care coverage in Ethiopia . BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth . 2022 ; 22 ( 1 ): 1 – 10 .

Hailu   T , Kassa   S , Abera   B  et al.    Determinant factors of anaemia among pregnant women attending antenatal care clinic in Northwest Ethiopia . Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines . 2019 ; 5 ( 1 ): 1 – 7 .

Gudeta   TA , Regassa   TM , Belay   AS . Magnitude and factors associated with anemia among pregnant women attending antenatal care in Bench Maji, Keffa and Sheka zones of public hospitals, Southwest Ethiopia, 2018: A cross-sectional study . PLoS One . 2019 ; 14 ( 11 ): e0225148 .

Demis   A , Gedefaw   G . Knowledge on anemia and benefit of iron-folic acid supplementation among pregnant women attending antenatal care in public health facilities of Woldia town, northeastern Ethiopia: Institution based cross-sectional study . 2019 .

Duko   B , Tadesse   B , Gebre   M  et al.    Awareness of anemia and associated factors among pregnant women attending antenatal care, South Ethiopia . J Women's Health Care . 2017 ; 6 : 409 .

Stephen   G , Mgongo   M , Hussein Hashim   T  et al.    Anaemia in pregnancy: Prevalence, risk factors, and adverse perinatal outcomes in northern Tanzania . Anemia . 2018 ; 2018 .

Kebede   A , Gerensea   H , Amare   F  et al.    The magnitude of anemia and associated factors among pregnant women attending public institutions of Shire Town, Shire, Tigray, northern Ethiopia, 2018 . BMC Res Notes . 2018 ; 11 ( 1 ): 1 – 6 .

Bekele   A , Tilahun   M , Mekuria   A . Prevalence of anemia and its associated factors among pregnant women attending antenatal care in health institutions of Arba Minch Town, Gamo Gofa Zone, Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study . Anemia . 2016 ; 2016 .

Kejela   G , Wakgari   A , Tesfaye   T  et al.    Prevalence of anemia and its associated factors among pregnant women attending antenatal care follow up at Wollega University referral hospital, Western Ethiopia . Contraception and Reproductive Medicine . 2020 ; 5 ( 1 ): 1 – 8 .

Ahmed   S , Al Mamun   MA , Mahmud   N  et al.    Prevalence and associated factors of anemia among pregnant women receiving antenatal care (ANC) at Fatima Hospital in Jashore, Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study . Food and Nutrition Sciences . 2019 ; 10 ( 9 ): 1056 – 71 .

Zillmer   K , Pokharel   A , Spielman   K  et al.    Predictors of anemia in pregnant women residing in rural areas of the Oromiya region of Ethiopia . BMC Nutrition . 2017 ; 3 ( 1 ): 1 – 8 .

Tulu   BD , Atomssa   EM , Mengist   HM . Determinants of anemia among pregnant women attending antenatal care in Horo Guduru Wollega Zone, West Ethiopia: Unmatched case-control study . PLoS One . 2019 ; 14 ( 10 ): e0224514 .

Addis Alene   K , Mohamed Dohe   A . Prevalence of anemia and associated factors among pregnant women in an urban area of Eastern Ethiopia . Anemia . 2014 ; 2014 .

Chamois   S , Golden   M , Grellety   Y . Ethiopia protocol for the management of severe acute malnutrition (2007) . 2007 .

Supplementary data

Email alerts

Citing articles via.

• Contact RSTMH
• Recommend to your Library

Affiliations

• Online ISSN 1876-3405
• Copyright © 2024 Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Environmental Science: Nano

Overlooked impact of surface hydroxylation on the solubility of less-soluble compounds: a case study of ceo 2 †.

* Corresponding authors

a Lomonosov Moscow State University, Department of Chemistry, Leninskie Gory 1/3, 119991 Moscow, Russia E-mail: [email protected]

b Kurnakov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskii prosp. 31, 117901 Moscow, Russia

c National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, Akademika Kurchatova pl. 1, 123182 Moscow, Russia

d Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstraße 1, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany

e National Research University Higher School of Economics, Myasnitskaya st. 20, 101000 Moscow, Russia

Unexpectedly, the solubility of CeO 2 nanoparticles (NPs) at 25 °C does not depend on particle size, but is significantly affected by the sample's thermal pre-treatment. The classical interpretation of NPs' solubility proposed by the Gibbs–Thompson or Kelvin equations fails to describe the experimental data on CeO 2 solubility obtained in this study. Thermal treatment did not change the samples' morphological characteristics, while slightly affecting NP hydroxylation and local crystallinity. The differences in the solubility of dried and non-treated CeO 2 particles were most noticeable at pH < 4, and dissolved cerium concentration was much lower in the case of the dried sample. After prolonged storage (up to 4.5 years) of CeO 2 NPs in aqueous media, the solubility of dried samples gradually increased, while for non-treated samples it remained unchanged. Based on the example of CeO 2 , the dissolution laws of other less soluble nanomaterials should be reconsidered.

Supplementary files

• Supplementary information PDF (1514K)

Article information

Download citation, permissions.

Overlooked impact of surface hydroxylation on the solubility of less-soluble compounds: a case study of CeO 2

T. V. Plakhova, A. Yu. Romanchuk, A. D. Konyukhova, I. F. Seregina, A. E. Baranchikov, R. D. Svetogorov, M. W. Terban, V. K. Ivanov and S. N. Kalmykov, Environ. Sci.: Nano , 2024, Advance Article , DOI: 10.1039/D4EN00014E

To request permission to reproduce material from this article, please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

If you are an author contributing to an RSC publication, you do not need to request permission provided correct acknowledgement is given.

If you are the author of this article, you do not need to request permission to reproduce figures and diagrams provided correct acknowledgement is given. If you want to reproduce the whole article in a third-party publication (excluding your thesis/dissertation for which permission is not required) please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

Read more about how to correctly acknowledge RSC content .

Social activity

Search articles by author.

This article has not yet been cited.

Advertisements

• Help & FAQ

Enablers and barriers of empathy in software developer and user interactions: A mixed methods case study

• Department of Software Systems & Cybersecurity
• Health Systems Services & Policy

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › Research › peer-review

Software engineering (SE) requires developers to collaborate with stakeholders, and understanding their emotions and perspectives is often vital. Empathy is a concept characterising a person’s ability to understand and share the feelings of another. However, empathy continues to be an under-researched human aspect in SE. We studied how empathy is practised between developers and end users using a mixed methods case study. We used an empathy test, observations, and interviews to collect data and socio-technical grounded theory and descriptive statistics to analyse data. We identified the nature of awareness required to trigger empathy and enablers of empathy. We discovered barriers to empathy and a set of potential strategies to overcome these barriers. We report insights on emerging relationships and present a set of recommendations and potential future works on empathy and SE for software practitioners and SE researchers.

• human aspects
• software developers
• software engineering

Access to Document

• 10.1145/3641849 Licence: CC BY
• 589920667-oa Final published version, 1.99 MB Licence: CC BY

Other files and links

• Link to publication in Scopus

Projects per year

HCMDSE: Human-centric Model-driven Software Engineering

Australian Research Council (ARC)

3/02/20 → 2/02/25

Project : Research

T1 - Enablers and barriers of empathy in software developer and user interactions

T2 - A mixed methods case study

AU - Gunatilake, Hashini

AU - Grundy, John

AU - Hoda, Rashina

AU - Mueller, Ingo

N1 - Publisher Copyright: © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s).

PY - 2024/4/20

Y1 - 2024/4/20

N2 - Software engineering (SE) requires developers to collaborate with stakeholders, and understanding their emotions and perspectives is often vital. Empathy is a concept characterising a person’s ability to understand and share the feelings of another. However, empathy continues to be an under-researched human aspect in SE. We studied how empathy is practised between developers and end users using a mixed methods case study. We used an empathy test, observations, and interviews to collect data and socio-technical grounded theory and descriptive statistics to analyse data. We identified the nature of awareness required to trigger empathy and enablers of empathy. We discovered barriers to empathy and a set of potential strategies to overcome these barriers. We report insights on emerging relationships and present a set of recommendations and potential future works on empathy and SE for software practitioners and SE researchers.

AB - Software engineering (SE) requires developers to collaborate with stakeholders, and understanding their emotions and perspectives is often vital. Empathy is a concept characterising a person’s ability to understand and share the feelings of another. However, empathy continues to be an under-researched human aspect in SE. We studied how empathy is practised between developers and end users using a mixed methods case study. We used an empathy test, observations, and interviews to collect data and socio-technical grounded theory and descriptive statistics to analyse data. We identified the nature of awareness required to trigger empathy and enablers of empathy. We discovered barriers to empathy and a set of potential strategies to overcome these barriers. We report insights on emerging relationships and present a set of recommendations and potential future works on empathy and SE for software practitioners and SE researchers.

KW - awareness

KW - barriers

KW - Empathy

KW - enablers

KW - end users

KW - human aspects

KW - software developers

KW - software engineering

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=85191592324&partnerID=8YFLogxK

U2 - 10.1145/3641849

DO - 10.1145/3641849

M3 - Article

AN - SCOPUS:85191592324

SN - 1049-331X

JO - ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology

JF - ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology