body essay about covid 19 pandemic

COVID-19’s Lasting Impact on the Body

Share this article

While performing autopsies on patients who had had COVID-19, NIH researchers found evidence of lasting SARS-CoV-2 infection in almost every part of the human body.

What you need to know

Researchers at the NIH Clinical Center, the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) performed autopsies on the bodies of patients with COVID-19. The researchers found that even in patients who had mild or asymptomatic cases of COVID-19, evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection was present throughout the entire body and stayed there until the patients’ deaths, which in some cases occurred more than seven months after the start of symptoms.

What did the researchers do?

The researchers examined tissue from many different sites in the body from 44 patients who had died of COVID-19 or who had tested positive for the disease before they died. The autopsies were performed at the NIH Clinical Center between April 2020 and March 2021.

There was a lot of variation in the patients’ cases. Some of these patients had asymptomatic or mild COVID-19 and died of other causes, while others had severe COVID-19 and died because of it. Some of the patients had been diagnosed with COVID-19 just days before they died; others had developed their first symptoms many months before. The patients ranged in age from 6 to 91 years old. Most of the patients died in 2020, before vaccines were available.

What did they learn?

Analysis of the patients’ samples revealed SARS-CoV-2 in almost every organ and organ system of their bodies, including their skin, eyes, stomachs, muscle, fat, glands, and six different parts of their brains. SARS-CoV-2 was present even in asymptomatic patients, patients who had had mild cases of COVID-19, and patients who had first been diagnosed with the disease months before their death. This suggests that even mild cases of COVID-19 spread quickly and the virus can remain in our tissue for a long time.

Why is this research important?

COVID-19 is often thought of as a respiratory disease that we either recover or die from, but researchers continue to learn that the disease is more complicated. COVID-19 affects many different parts of the body, from our stomachs to our hearts to our brains. While none of the patients in this study had been diagnosed with Long COVID , these findings could help explain why COVID-19 makes some people sick for a long time. The more we understand about how this virus affects our bodies, the better we can treat it.

Where can I go to learn more?

Study Looks for Long COVID Risk Factors

A study supported by NIAID found a number of risk factors that were associated with having COVID-19 symptoms 2 to 3 months after diagnosis.

Studying Long COVID Might Help Others With Post-Viral Fatigue Ailments

For people with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), research into Long COVID may help shed light on their own struggles.

Stein, S. R., Ramelli, S. C., Grazioli, A., Chung, J.-Y., Singh, M., Yinda, C. K., Winkler, C. W., Dickey, J. M., Ylaya, K., Ko, S. H., Platt, A., Burbelo, P. D., Quezado, M., Pittaluga, S., Purcell, M., Munster, V. J., Belinky, F., Ramos-Benitez, M. J., Boritz, E. A., ... Chertow, D. S. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 infection and persistence throughout the human body and brain. Preprint. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1139035/v1

News and Stories

Read stories about the efforts underway to prevent, detect, and treat COVID-19 and its effects on our health.

NIH COVID-19 Resources by Topic

COVID-19 research information and resources by topic from NIH institutes and centers

I Thought We’d Learned Nothing From the Pandemic. I Wasn’t Seeing the Full Picture

M y first home had a back door that opened to a concrete patio with a giant crack down the middle. When my sister and I played, I made sure to stay on the same side of the divide as her, just in case. The 1988 film The Land Before Time was one of the first movies I ever saw, and the image of the earth splintering into pieces planted its roots in my brain. I believed that, even in my own backyard, I could easily become the tiny Triceratops separated from her family, on the other side of the chasm, as everything crumbled into chaos.

Some 30 years later, I marvel at the eerie, unexpected ways that cartoonish nightmare came to life – not just for me and my family, but for all of us. The landscape was already covered in fissures well before COVID-19 made its way across the planet, but the pandemic applied pressure, and the cracks broke wide open, separating us from each other physically and ideologically. Under the weight of the crisis, we scattered and landed on such different patches of earth we could barely see each other’s faces, even when we squinted. We disagreed viciously with each other, about how to respond, but also about what was true.

Recently, someone asked me if we’ve learned anything from the pandemic, and my first thought was a flat no. Nothing. There was a time when I thought it would be the very thing to draw us together and catapult us – as a capital “S” Society – into a kinder future. It’s surreal to remember those early days when people rallied together, sewing masks for health care workers during critical shortages and gathering on balconies in cities from Dallas to New York City to clap and sing songs like “Yellow Submarine.” It felt like a giant lightning bolt shot across the sky, and for one breath, we all saw something that had been hidden in the dark – the inherent vulnerability in being human or maybe our inescapable connectedness .

More from TIME

Read More: The Family Time the Pandemic Stole

But it turns out, it was just a flash. The goodwill vanished as quickly as it appeared. A couple of years later, people feel lied to, abandoned, and all on their own. I’ve felt my own curiosity shrinking, my willingness to reach out waning , my ability to keep my hands open dwindling. I look out across the landscape and see selfishness and rage, burnt earth and so many dead bodies. Game over. We lost. And if we’ve already lost, why try?

Still, the question kept nagging me. I wondered, am I seeing the full picture? What happens when we focus not on the collective society but at one face, one story at a time? I’m not asking for a bow to minimize the suffering – a pretty flourish to put on top and make the whole thing “worth it.” Yuck. That’s not what we need. But I wondered about deep, quiet growth. The kind we feel in our bodies, relationships, homes, places of work, neighborhoods.

Like a walkie-talkie message sent to my allies on the ground, I posted a call on my Instagram. What do you see? What do you hear? What feels possible? Is there life out here? Sprouting up among the rubble? I heard human voices calling back – reports of life, personal and specific. I heard one story at a time – stories of grief and distrust, fury and disappointment. Also gratitude. Discovery. Determination.

Among the most prevalent were the stories of self-revelation. Almost as if machines were given the chance to live as humans, people described blossoming into fuller selves. They listened to their bodies’ cues, recognized their desires and comforts, tuned into their gut instincts, and honored the intuition they hadn’t realized belonged to them. Alex, a writer and fellow disabled parent, found the freedom to explore a fuller version of herself in the privacy the pandemic provided. “The way I dress, the way I love, and the way I carry myself have both shrunk and expanded,” she shared. “I don’t love myself very well with an audience.” Without the daily ritual of trying to pass as “normal” in public, Tamar, a queer mom in the Netherlands, realized she’s autistic. “I think the pandemic helped me to recognize the mask,” she wrote. “Not that unmasking is easy now. But at least I know it’s there.” In a time of widespread suffering that none of us could solve on our own, many tended to our internal wounds and misalignments, large and small, and found clarity.

Read More: A Tool for Staying Grounded in This Era of Constant Uncertainty

I wonder if this flourishing of self-awareness is at least partially responsible for the life alterations people pursued. The pandemic broke open our personal notions of work and pushed us to reevaluate things like time and money. Lucy, a disabled writer in the U.K., made the hard decision to leave her job as a journalist covering Westminster to write freelance about her beloved disability community. “This work feels important in a way nothing else has ever felt,” she wrote. “I don’t think I’d have realized this was what I should be doing without the pandemic.” And she wasn’t alone – many people changed jobs , moved, learned new skills and hobbies, became politically engaged.

Perhaps more than any other shifts, people described a significant reassessment of their relationships. They set boundaries, said no, had challenging conversations. They also reconnected, fell in love, and learned to trust. Jeanne, a quilter in Indiana, got to know relatives she wouldn’t have connected with if lockdowns hadn’t prompted weekly family Zooms. “We are all over the map as regards to our belief systems,” she emphasized, “but it is possible to love people you don’t see eye to eye with on every issue.” Anna, an anti-violence advocate in Maine, learned she could trust her new marriage: “Life was not a honeymoon. But we still chose to turn to each other with kindness and curiosity.” So many bonds forged and broken, strengthened and strained.

Instead of relying on default relationships or institutional structures, widespread recalibrations allowed for going off script and fortifying smaller communities. Mara from Idyllwild, Calif., described the tangible plan for care enacted in her town. “We started a mutual-aid group at the beginning of the pandemic,” she wrote, “and it grew so quickly before we knew it we were feeding 400 of the 4000 residents.” She didn’t pretend the conditions were ideal. In fact, she expressed immense frustration with our collective response to the pandemic. Even so, the local group rallied and continues to offer assistance to their community with help from donations and volunteers (many of whom were originally on the receiving end of support). “I’ve learned that people thrive when they feel their connection to others,” she wrote. Clare, a teacher from the U.K., voiced similar conviction as she described a giant scarf she’s woven out of ribbons, each representing a single person. The scarf is “a collection of stories, moments and wisdom we are sharing with each other,” she wrote. It now stretches well over 1,000 feet.

A few hours into reading the comments, I lay back on my bed, phone held against my chest. The room was quiet, but my internal world was lighting up with firefly flickers. What felt different? Surely part of it was receiving personal accounts of deep-rooted growth. And also, there was something to the mere act of asking and listening. Maybe it connected me to humans before battle cries. Maybe it was the chance to be in conversation with others who were also trying to understand – what is happening to us? Underneath it all, an undeniable thread remained; I saw people peering into the mess and narrating their findings onto the shared frequency. Every comment was like a flare into the sky. I’m here! And if the sky is full of flares, we aren’t alone.

I recognized my own pandemic discoveries – some minor, others massive. Like washing off thick eyeliner and mascara every night is more effort than it’s worth; I can transform the mundane into the magical with a bedsheet, a movie projector, and twinkle lights; my paralyzed body can mother an infant in ways I’d never seen modeled for me. I remembered disappointing, bewildering conversations within my own family of origin and our imperfect attempts to remain close while also seeing things so differently. I realized that every time I get the weekly invite to my virtual “Find the Mumsies” call, with a tiny group of moms living hundreds of miles apart, I’m being welcomed into a pocket of unexpected community. Even though we’ve never been in one room all together, I’ve felt an uncommon kind of solace in their now-familiar faces.

Hope is a slippery thing. I desperately want to hold onto it, but everywhere I look there are real, weighty reasons to despair. The pandemic marks a stretch on the timeline that tangles with a teetering democracy, a deteriorating planet , the loss of human rights that once felt unshakable . When the world is falling apart Land Before Time style, it can feel trite, sniffing out the beauty – useless, firing off flares to anyone looking for signs of life. But, while I’m under no delusions that if we just keep trudging forward we’ll find our own oasis of waterfalls and grassy meadows glistening in the sunshine beneath a heavenly chorus, I wonder if trivializing small acts of beauty, connection, and hope actually cuts us off from resources essential to our survival. The group of abandoned dinosaurs were keeping each other alive and making each other laugh well before they made it to their fantasy ending.

Read More: How Ice Cream Became My Own Personal Act of Resistance

After the monarch butterfly went on the endangered-species list, my friend and fellow writer Hannah Soyer sent me wildflower seeds to plant in my yard. A simple act of big hope – that I will actually plant them, that they will grow, that a monarch butterfly will receive nourishment from whatever blossoms are able to push their way through the dirt. There are so many ways that could fail. But maybe the outcome wasn’t exactly the point. Maybe hope is the dogged insistence – the stubborn defiance – to continue cultivating moments of beauty regardless. There is value in the planting apart from the harvest.

I can’t point out a single collective lesson from the pandemic. It’s hard to see any great “we.” Still, I see the faces in my moms’ group, making pancakes for their kids and popping on between strings of meetings while we try to figure out how to raise these small people in this chaotic world. I think of my friends on Instagram tending to the selves they discovered when no one was watching and the scarf of ribbons stretching the length of more than three football fields. I remember my family of three, holding hands on the way up the ramp to the library. These bits of growth and rings of support might not be loud or right on the surface, but that’s not the same thing as nothing. If we only cared about the bottom-line defeats or sweeping successes of the big picture, we’d never plant flowers at all.

More Must-Reads from TIME

Melinda French Gates Is Going It Alone
How to Buy Groceries Without Breaking the Bank
Lai Ching-te Is Standing His Ground
How to Cool Your Body Down Fast
Forget Having It All . Let’s Try Having Enough
4 Signs Your Body Needs a Break
The 15 Best Movies to Watch on a Plane
Want Weekly Recs on What to Watch, Read, and More? Sign Up for Worth Your Time

Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Covid 19 — My Experience during the COVID-19 Pandemic

My Experience During The Covid-19 Pandemic

Categories: Covid 19

About this sample

Words: 440 |

Published: Jan 30, 2024

Words: 440 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

Introduction, physical impact, mental and emotional impact, social impact.

World Health Organization. (2021). Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. https://covid19.who.int/
American Psychiatric Association. (2020). Mental health and COVID-19. https://www.psychiatry.org/news-room/apa-blogs/apa-blog/2020/03/mental-health-and-covid-19
The New York Times. (2020). Coping with Coronavirus Anxiety. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/11/well/family/coronavirus-anxiety-mental-health.html

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Prof. Kifaru

Verified writer

Expert in: Nursing & Health

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

3 pages / 1417 words

4 pages / 1852 words

2 pages / 850 words

2 pages / 819 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Covid 19

The Black Death, a devastating pandemic that swept through Europe in the 14th century, and COVID-19, the ongoing global pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus, have left indelible marks on history. This essay seeks to analyze [...]

The COVID-19 pandemic has left an indelible mark on the world, altering our daily lives in unprecedented ways. In this essay, I reflect upon my experiences during this global crisis, the challenges I faced, the lessons learned, [...]

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought to light numerous ethical dilemmas that challenge societies worldwide. From vaccine mandates to technological surveillance, ethical considerations have become integral to navigating this crisis. [...]

COVID-19, caused by the novel coronavirus, has had a profound impact on the global education system. The pandemic has forced educational institutions to rapidly adapt to unprecedented challenges while also presenting new [...]

As a Computer Science student who never took Pre-Calculus and Basic Calculus in Senior High School, I never realized that there will be a relevance of Calculus in everyday life for a student. Before the beginning of it uses, [...]

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought about unprecedented challenges and shifts in various aspects of our lives, including the realm of selfless service. In this essay, we explore how the pandemic has impacted selfless service, [...]

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

Instructions Followed To The Letter
Deadlines Met At Every Stage
Unique And Plagiarism Free

The pandemic body: How we have changed physically and what to do about it

From heart to eyes, weight, skin, mental health and teeth, covid-19 has affected us.

From the so-called “Covid stone” to “mascne”, the past two years have had an impact on our general health in more ways than one. While we stayed at home to protect ourselves, and the wider community, what impacts have the necessary public health restrictions had on our bodies, and what steps can we take to reverse the damage?

More than half or 51 per cent of people surveyed for the Healthy Ireland Survey 2021 revealed that they drink more, smoke more, have gained weight or reported a worsening of their mental health in the past 12 months, showing the worrying impact the Covid-19 pandemic has had on the health of the nation.

The survey, which was published in December, represents a detailed insight of a time interval during which Covid-19 restrictions had a significant impact on the health and wellbeing of the people of Ireland.

According to the findings of the 2021 Healthy Ireland survey almost three out of 10 people (29 per cent) reported that their weight had increased during the pandemic, with weight increases reported most often by women aged over 30 and mothers.

Want to get a better night’s sleep? Declutter your bedroom

Plenty of ways to exercise our bodies and allow our minds some respite

Give a little back in 2022: volunteering options for the new year

The survey also revealed that 36 per cent of people reported consuming two or more unhealthy snack foods daily, with 24 per cent consuming one unhealthy snack on a daily basis.

Working from home meant that for most people the daily commute by foot from the train station or bus stop to the office was cut so our activity levels fell while at the same time we had 24/7 access to the fridge.

The pandemic also meant that some people were perhaps getting take-aways more often in a bid to support their local restaurants and, according to social media posts, a lot of banana bread and sour dough bread was baked.

Louise Reynolds is a registered dietitian and communications manager with the Irish Nutrition and Dietetic Institute. She says that while our eating habits have changed as a result of the pandemic, as a dietitian the most important thing for her is that people have a healthy relationship with food.

'Your best weight is the weight you can live your happiest, healthiest and best life at. Let's step away from the scales. Let's not be too hard on ourselves'

“The whole cycle of beating ourselves up if we put on a little bit of weight and then going on a really strict crash diet and maybe losing a few pounds but then going back to you know, overeating. That’s not sustainable and it doesn’t make you feel good,” she says.

Reynolds says the pandemic has been “a huge challenge” for everybody, and it is best not to add another challenge in the mix by pressurising ourselves to be a particular weight.

Instead, she suggests that for the new year to try to be “your best weight”.

“Your best weight is the weight you can live your happiest, healthiest and best life at. Let’s step away from the scales. Let’s not be too hard on ourselves... the conversations around weight, let’s not have those in front of our children. Ideally, let’s not have those conversations at all. You know, because we all know what we should do. But it’s putting pressure on people.”

For the new year, Reynolds suggests making some simple positive changes. For example, looking at things we could eat more of, such as fruit and vegetables. She also suggests cutting back on meat and having one or two plant-based meals a week, which as well as being good for your health is also good for the planet.

Mental health

The 2021 Healthy Ireland survey revealed that 81 per cent of people reported feeling less socially connected due to the Covid restrictions. This was common among all age groups, although those aged 45-54 and women were more likely to be affected. Furthermore, 30 per cent of those surveyed reported a worsening of their mental health since the start of the pandemic.

General practice has been at the coalface of the pandemic from day one, and the vast majority of people with mental health difficulties are treated successfully in primary care.

Dr Brian Osborne is a GP in Galway and assistant medical director with the Irish College of General Practitioners. He says the Covid-19 crisis has had "profound economic, social and educational impacts".

“General practice is seeing at first hand the effects of the pandemic on the mental health of the population. Grief, financial loss, being out of work for the first time and isolation are major events in the lives of people. Individuals are presenting with increased levels of stress, irritability and poor sleep. Patients are presenting more commonly with loneliness, anxiety and depression,” he explains.

Coupled with people presenting with new onset anxiety and depression, Osborne says GPs are also seeing people with enduring mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, experiencing more serious relapses.

'It is important to say that the social determinants of mental health are hugely significant and people from socially disadvantaged areas are more severely affected'

He adds that while the pandemic has affected the mental health of all age groups, in his experience, young people in their late teens and early 20s have been particularly negatively impacted, with increased presentations of anxiety, depression and eating disorders seen in this cohort.

According to Osborne, “a whole host of other groups also face particular psychological challenges brought on by the crisis; children being kept out of school faced uncertainty and anxiety and it is vital that the schools remain open not just for education but for the social and psychological wellbeing of our children and young people. The elderly and those with pre-existing conditions face increased stress over the threat of infection.

“It is important to say that the social determinants of mental health are hugely significant and people from socially disadvantaged areas are more severely affected,” he adds.

Commenting on ways people can look after their mental health, Osborne says that developing a regular structure to your day, keeping active and staying connected with friends and family can all help to improve feelings of security.

He also says there are some practical things people can do to mind their mental health, which include maintaining regular exercise and sleep routines, avoiding excess alcohol, and having a healthy balanced diet.

Finally Osborne advises that anyone who is concerned about their mental health should contact their GP. “General practice is open and GPs are available to address concerns that patients may have,” he says.

Being stuck at home or restricted to within a few kilometres of your house for daily exercise led to a number of people walking more or taking up running for the first time during lockdown. While any increased activity is great for your health, if you don't wear the proper running shoes while attempting your first "couch to 5K" your feet will suffer – something Joe Egan, a podiatrist in Blackrock, Co Dublin, has seen a lot of over the past two years.

He has seen an increase in blisters, heel pain, fallen arches and foot and ankle injuries as a result of ill-fitting running shoes.

However, for Egan, a council member of Podiatry Ireland, the Society of Chiropodists and Podiatrists of Ireland, the biggest concern has been the impact of lockdowns on his patients with diabetes.

People with diabetes need to have regular check-ups of their feet to prevent a condition called diabetic neuropathy which, if left untreated, can, in extreme cases, lead to amputation.

Egan says that during lockdown his diabetic patients were not attending for their regular check-ups and, as a result, he saw an increase in preventable diabetic foot ulcers and, sadly, digital (toe) amputations.

Optometrist John Weldon says a result of the pandemic has been the emergence of a new condition called mask associated dry eye

He says that in 2015-2020 there were a total of five digital amputations in his diabetic patients or about one a year. However, between 2020 to the end of this year there were four such amputations; two a year.

There were some positives for our feet thanks to the pandemic, however, particularly for women who, rather than having to wear uncomfortable high heels to the office could opt instead for comfortable trainers while working from home, which Egan says are better for your feet.

He advises that one of the best things you can do for your feet is to wear comfortable shoes.

“Make sure that your shoes are comfortable, that you are not in discomfort... if it’s sore, it’s sore for a reason,” he says.

He also advises that people get their feet checked once a year by a registered podiatrist and if they have any issues with their feet to get them checked out.

As we return to hybrid working in the near future, Egan also advises that for those days that we are working from home to wear a good pair of runners, which he says should be treated as equally as important as the shoes you would wear in the office.

The pandemic has meant that many of us are working from home and, as a result, are sitting down for longer periods of time, which is not good news for your heart.

Last September, the European Society of Cardiology published new guidelines on the prevention of cardiovascular disease.

For the first time ever the guidelines recommended that people aim to reduce their sitting time and engage in at least light activity throughout the day.

A significant percentage of the worldwide population, in particular the European population, shows high levels of sitting time and physical inactivity.

The Irish Heart Foundation has long highlighted the risks associated with increased sitting time and heart disease and stroke, and has worked to increase awareness of this risk factor through a number of public health awareness campaigns such as Escape Your Chair, which aims to inform and advise about the dangers of sitting down for too long.

A survey by the Irish Heart Foundation revealed that more than half of people working from home in Ireland as a result of the Covid-19 restrictions were sitting down for an average of two hours and 40 minutes longer per day.

Youghal dentist Dr Kieran O’Connor has seen an increase in the prevalence of teeth clenching and grinding as a result of stress, and this has been widely reported since the onset of the pandemic. Photograph: SON Photographic Ltd

Conducted by Ipsos MRBI in August 2020, the survey found that more than half of all workers in Ireland were working from home since restrictions began, with 53 per cent of them sitting down for longer than when in the office or their usual place of work.

It is recommended that we get 30 minutes of moderate-intensity activity at least five days a week. However, this does not counteract the damage caused to our health by sitting for long periods of time.

The bottom line is that sitting down for too long can increase your risk of heart disease and stroke so make it a new year’s resolution to sit less and move more in 2022.

The Irish Heart Foundation has also highlighted concerns that people suffering from heart attack or stroke have delayed presenting to hospital due to a number of factors such as a fear of contracting Covid, or not wanting to burden the health service.

Its important to remember that a heart attack or stroke is a medical emergency so do not delay in calling 999 immediately if you have any symptoms.

If you have been wearing your face mask correctly for the past two years, your eyes should be the only thing that is visible on your face. While mask wearing is one of the cornerstones of Covid-19 prevention, they have had a previously unknown impact on our eye health.

John Weldon, president of Optometry Ireland (formerly the Association of Optometrists Ireland), says the biggest issue seen by optometrists as a result of the pandemic has been the emergence of a new condition called mask associated dry eye.

Weldon explains that when you wear a face mask, your hot breath is circulated behind the mask and some of it goes into your eyes. The many bacteria that live in our mouths and the hotness of the breath can cause ocular irritation and dryness of the eyes. He adds that optometrists are also seeing a higher number of eye infections in contact lens wearers since the beginning of the pandemic, which he suggests is also as a result of mask wearing.

Spending more time at home during the pandemic has also meant spending increasing time looking at screens both for work and for leisure, and while not unique to Covid, there has been a massive worldwide increase in the prevalence of short-sightedness or myopia, which studies have shown is linked to increasing screen use.

For Dr Aoife Lally, a specialist in skin cancer, one of the biggest concerns she has seen are delayed skin cancer presentations as a result of the pandemic. Photograph: Patrick Bolger Photography

“If we hadn’t been dealing with the worldwide pandemic of Covid, we would certainly be talking about the worldwide increase of myopia or short-sightedness,” Weldon says.

In relation to looking after your eye health Weldon advises that everyone should get their eyes checked with their local optometrist.

He says the ergonomics of the home office are important, how the screen is set up, the lighting, and so on, as well as remembering to regularly interrupt our screen time.

He advises that a handy mnemonic to remember is 20/20/20/20 whereby every 20 minutes while you are working, you should take 20 seconds, blink 20 times and try to refocus on something 20m away. This interrupts the task and allows the eyes to refocus.

Any parent stuck at home during lockdown will remember the unrelenting demands for food and snacks from small children, they literally never stopped. Unfortunately, too many sugary snacks are bad news for kids’ teeth.

Dr Kieran O'Connor is a dentist in Youghal, Co Cork, and vice-chairman of the General Practitioner Committee of the Irish Dental Association.

O’Connor says that earlier in the pandemic, when the restrictions kept us all at home and schools were closed, dentists advised on the importance of “keeping social distance from the treat cupboard”, in an effort to reduce the amount of sugar children were eating, to protect their teeth and gums.

He also says children were not brushing their teeth as much when schools were closed.

“Children love to brush their teeth before they go to school so when they weren’t going to school, children weren’t brushing their teeth in the morning.”

'Change your toothbrush for the new year. Make sure your toothbrush is changed regularly'

Like other healthcare professionals, dentists have also seen the impact of lockdown on their patients’ oral health, particularly in relation to delayed diagnoses leading to poorer outcomes. These include things like preventable extractions and oral cancers that would have been spotted earlier if it wasn’t for some people’s real fears of leaving home.

According to O’Connor, dentists have also seen an increase in the prevalence of teeth clenching and grinding as a result of stress, and this has been widely reported since the onset of the pandemic.

“People can get headaches, they can get discomfort in the jawline and then some people start cracking teeth,” he says.

He advises people try to build in some structured relaxation time into their day for things like mindfulness or yoga, for example.

“All the things that are good for general wellbeing will help all that as well.”

A rather unexpected side effect of working from home seen by dentists in the past two years has been an increase in demand for orthodontic and cosmetic treatments.

“Lots of people are spending their working day on Zoom or other platforms. They’re looking at their smiles on the screen. They didn’t do it before so certainly there has been an increase in demand for orthodontic treatment and cosmetic treatment,” O’Connor says.

For Dr Aoife Lally, a specialist in skin cancer, one of the biggest concerns she has seen are delayed skin cancer presentations as a result of the pandemic

Asked for advice on ways to keep your smile healthy in the new year, O’Connor says we should try to minimise sugary snacks and if you are having them, then eat them with your main meal and not in between. This is because when you have a big meal you have a lot of saliva in your mouth, which clears the sugar more effectively. If you have a sweet in between meals, that sugar potentially stays in your mouth longer and increases your risk of decay, he explains.

He also advises that we treat ourselves to a new toothbrush in the new year.

“Change your toothbrush for the new year. Make sure your toothbrush is changed regularly, make sure that you spend time doing your tooth brushing, make it part of your routine,” O’Connor says.

It is recommended that we spend two minutes brushing our teeth while others may need to take longer.

“In general terms if you spend two minutes, you will do a good job, “ he says.

Apart from mask wearing, which some have suggested has resulted in a new skin condition called “mascne” (mask acne), the other big preventative measure in the fight against Covid-19 has been hand washing, which has also affected our skin.

According to Dr Aoife Lally, consultant dermatologist at St Vincent's University Hospital in Dublin, and associate professor at the School of Medicine at University College Dublin, increased hand washing has led to an increase in hand dermatitis or eczema, particularly among healthcare workers, and this was a much bigger issue than mascne.

“Masks will make a lot of skin conditions worse, potentially. But very few people have to wear their masks all day, every day. It is a thing, but not something that I am seeing a tremendous amount of... But... anything where you have prolonged occlusion of the skin with a moist, warm environment, that can make certain conditions worse, such as eczema, such as acne, but I have only seen mild flares.”

However, for Lally, a specialist in skin cancer, one of the biggest concerns she has seen are delayed skin cancer presentations as a result of the pandemic.

She says that as a result of people not seeking help for skin changes or being reluctant to contact their GP during the pandemic, they have been presenting with later more advanced disease.

'Sunscreen, sunscreen, sunscreen, that's it... really we should all be wearing sunscreen all year round. Sun protection would be my big tip'

“These tend to be older people who are a bit frail, and they generally take the guidelines very seriously. They have a fear of coming in to hospitals, given their fear about Covid. And so I definitely think people are presenting with later stage tumours due to fear of Covid and because the referrals dropped off in the initial stages in 2020 we’re still paying catch-up with that... Certainly I am seeing people 18 months down the line who have had something very obvious on their skin that they have delayed getting attention with.”

Most patients are seen in the rapid access skin cancer clinic in St Vincent’s within six weeks. Therefore, Lally explains, patients are not waiting to be seen in the clinic, however they are delaying seeking attention.

“It means that their treatment is then a little more complex if they present a bit later: they have bigger surgery and they may need other treatments whereas if they present earlier, the surgery is usually more straightforward.”

Lally says it is important for anyone who has any concerns about a changing skin lesion or any new lesion on their skin that looks different, also known as “the ugly duckling” sign (most normal moles on your body resemble one another, while melanomas stand out like ugly ducklings in comparison), to attend their GP who would then refer them on if appropriate.

According to Lally, the best thing you can do to improve the health of your skin is to wear sunscreen.

“Sunscreen, sunscreen, sunscreen, that’s it... really we should all be wearing sunscreen all year round. Sun protection would be my big tip,” she says.

A seasonal look at James Bond’s health lifestyle

Family volunteering is a new ‘win win’ frontier in the charity sector, paddy murray: i’m hoping i might survive the year despite the long odds, ‘once you start asking yourself if your drinking is normal, it’s not’, why so many mismatches between antigen and pcr tests they may both be right, micheál martin: ‘what i love about christmas is: it’s a suspension of time’, ‘our daughter is living with a man with addiction issues. we are really worried’, in this section, i think i’m in love with my ‘situationship’ but he doesn’t feel the same, my first time camping with my toddler in ireland - this is what i learned, child with ‘profound’ disability in hospital over 100 days more than medically necessary due to lack of services, muireann o’connell: if bodies came with a facebook relationship status, mine would be ‘it’s complicated’, have your say on body image: has your relationship with your body changed over the years, at home in youghal with jockey – and dancer with the stars – davy russell, eight years after seeking asylum in garda station ‘i walked out in uniform’, two notices pinned up in a country pub offer an insight into the paradox of eamon ryan, ‘i thought i was going to die’: dublin man describes surviving plane crash in remote part of alaska, ‘i am absolutely overwhelmed’: natasha o’brien attends solidarity protest in limerick, latest stories, how the rise and fall of blackberry serves as a warning to ireland.

How the rise and fall of Blackberry serves as a warning to Ireland

Attempted murder investigation in Co Down after shotgun pellets fired into house

Judge in Donald Trump’s documents case rejected suggestions to step aside

Detention of Palestinian writers opens new cultural front in Israel’s war with Hamas

Novo Nordisk drops Dublin factory plan

Iran’s reformist candidate jolts presidential race with nuclear pitch

State remembrance ceremony for Stardust victims to take place in Dublin

Russia missile attack on Kyiv region injures two and damages houses, Ukraine says

Terms & Conditions
Privacy Policy
Cookie Information
Cookie Settings
Community Standards

Research article
Open access
Published: 04 June 2021

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic: an overview of systematic reviews

Israel Júnior Borges do Nascimento 1 , 2 ,
Dónal P. O’Mathúna 3 , 4 ,
Thilo Caspar von Groote 5 ,
Hebatullah Mohamed Abdulazeem 6 ,
Ishanka Weerasekara 7 , 8 ,
Ana Marusic 9 ,
Livia Puljak ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8467-6061 10 ,
Vinicius Tassoni Civile 11 ,
Irena Zakarija-Grkovic 9 ,
Tina Poklepovic Pericic 9 ,
Alvaro Nagib Atallah 11 ,
Santino Filoso 12 ,
Nicola Luigi Bragazzi 13 &
Milena Soriano Marcolino 1

On behalf of the International Network of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (InterNetCOVID-19)

BMC Infectious Diseases volume 21 , Article number: 525 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

17k Accesses

29 Citations

13 Altmetric

Metrics details

Navigating the rapidly growing body of scientific literature on the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is challenging, and ongoing critical appraisal of this output is essential. We aimed to summarize and critically appraise systematic reviews of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in humans that were available at the beginning of the pandemic.

Nine databases (Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, Web of Sciences, PDQ-Evidence, WHO’s Global Research, LILACS, and Epistemonikos) were searched from December 1, 2019, to March 24, 2020. Systematic reviews analyzing primary studies of COVID-19 were included. Two authors independently undertook screening, selection, extraction (data on clinical symptoms, prevalence, pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions, diagnostic test assessment, laboratory, and radiological findings), and quality assessment (AMSTAR 2). A meta-analysis was performed of the prevalence of clinical outcomes.

Eighteen systematic reviews were included; one was empty (did not identify any relevant study). Using AMSTAR 2, confidence in the results of all 18 reviews was rated as “critically low”. Identified symptoms of COVID-19 were (range values of point estimates): fever (82–95%), cough with or without sputum (58–72%), dyspnea (26–59%), myalgia or muscle fatigue (29–51%), sore throat (10–13%), headache (8–12%) and gastrointestinal complaints (5–9%). Severe symptoms were more common in men. Elevated C-reactive protein and lactate dehydrogenase, and slightly elevated aspartate and alanine aminotransferase, were commonly described. Thrombocytopenia and elevated levels of procalcitonin and cardiac troponin I were associated with severe disease. A frequent finding on chest imaging was uni- or bilateral multilobar ground-glass opacity. A single review investigated the impact of medication (chloroquine) but found no verifiable clinical data. All-cause mortality ranged from 0.3 to 13.9%.

Conclusions

In this overview of systematic reviews, we analyzed evidence from the first 18 systematic reviews that were published after the emergence of COVID-19. However, confidence in the results of all reviews was “critically low”. Thus, systematic reviews that were published early on in the pandemic were of questionable usefulness. Even during public health emergencies, studies and systematic reviews should adhere to established methodological standards.

Peer Review reports

The spread of the “Severe Acute Respiratory Coronavirus 2” (SARS-CoV-2), the causal agent of COVID-19, was characterized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) in March 2020 and has triggered an international public health emergency [ 1 ]. The numbers of confirmed cases and deaths due to COVID-19 are rapidly escalating, counting in millions [ 2 ], causing massive economic strain, and escalating healthcare and public health expenses [ 3 , 4 ].

The research community has responded by publishing an impressive number of scientific reports related to COVID-19. The world was alerted to the new disease at the beginning of 2020 [ 1 ], and by mid-March 2020, more than 2000 articles had been published on COVID-19 in scholarly journals, with 25% of them containing original data [ 5 ]. The living map of COVID-19 evidence, curated by the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre), contained more than 40,000 records by February 2021 [ 6 ]. More than 100,000 records on PubMed were labeled as “SARS-CoV-2 literature, sequence, and clinical content” by February 2021 [ 7 ].

Due to publication speed, the research community has voiced concerns regarding the quality and reproducibility of evidence produced during the COVID-19 pandemic, warning of the potential damaging approach of “publish first, retract later” [ 8 ]. It appears that these concerns are not unfounded, as it has been reported that COVID-19 articles were overrepresented in the pool of retracted articles in 2020 [ 9 ]. These concerns about inadequate evidence are of major importance because they can lead to poor clinical practice and inappropriate policies [ 10 ].

Systematic reviews are a cornerstone of today’s evidence-informed decision-making. By synthesizing all relevant evidence regarding a particular topic, systematic reviews reflect the current scientific knowledge. Systematic reviews are considered to be at the highest level in the hierarchy of evidence and should be used to make informed decisions. However, with high numbers of systematic reviews of different scope and methodological quality being published, overviews of multiple systematic reviews that assess their methodological quality are essential [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. An overview of systematic reviews helps identify and organize the literature and highlights areas of priority in decision-making.

In this overview of systematic reviews, we aimed to summarize and critically appraise systematic reviews of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in humans that were available at the beginning of the pandemic.

Methodology

Research question.

This overview’s primary objective was to summarize and critically appraise systematic reviews that assessed any type of primary clinical data from patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Our research question was purposefully broad because we wanted to analyze as many systematic reviews as possible that were available early following the COVID-19 outbreak.

Study design

We conducted an overview of systematic reviews. The idea for this overview originated in a protocol for a systematic review submitted to PROSPERO (CRD42020170623), which indicated a plan to conduct an overview.

Overviews of systematic reviews use explicit and systematic methods for searching and identifying multiple systematic reviews addressing related research questions in the same field to extract and analyze evidence across important outcomes. Overviews of systematic reviews are in principle similar to systematic reviews of interventions, but the unit of analysis is a systematic review [ 14 , 15 , 16 ].

We used the overview methodology instead of other evidence synthesis methods to allow us to collate and appraise multiple systematic reviews on this topic, and to extract and analyze their results across relevant topics [ 17 ]. The overview and meta-analysis of systematic reviews allowed us to investigate the methodological quality of included studies, summarize results, and identify specific areas of available or limited evidence, thereby strengthening the current understanding of this novel disease and guiding future research [ 13 ].

A reporting guideline for overviews of reviews is currently under development, i.e., Preferred Reporting Items for Overviews of Reviews (PRIOR) [ 18 ]. As the PRIOR checklist is still not published, this study was reported following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2009 statement [ 19 ]. The methodology used in this review was adapted from the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions and also followed established methodological considerations for analyzing existing systematic reviews [ 14 ].

Approval of a research ethics committee was not necessary as the study analyzed only publicly available articles.

Eligibility criteria

Systematic reviews were included if they analyzed primary data from patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 as confirmed by RT-PCR or another pre-specified diagnostic technique. Eligible reviews covered all topics related to COVID-19 including, but not limited to, those that reported clinical symptoms, diagnostic methods, therapeutic interventions, laboratory findings, or radiological results. Both full manuscripts and abbreviated versions, such as letters, were eligible.

No restrictions were imposed on the design of the primary studies included within the systematic reviews, the last search date, whether the review included meta-analyses or language. Reviews related to SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses were eligible, but from those reviews, we analyzed only data related to SARS-CoV-2.

No consensus definition exists for a systematic review [ 20 ], and debates continue about the defining characteristics of a systematic review [ 21 ]. Cochrane’s guidance for overviews of reviews recommends setting pre-established criteria for making decisions around inclusion [ 14 ]. That is supported by a recent scoping review about guidance for overviews of systematic reviews [ 22 ].

Thus, for this study, we defined a systematic review as a research report which searched for primary research studies on a specific topic using an explicit search strategy, had a detailed description of the methods with explicit inclusion criteria provided, and provided a summary of the included studies either in narrative or quantitative format (such as a meta-analysis). Cochrane and non-Cochrane systematic reviews were considered eligible for inclusion, with or without meta-analysis, and regardless of the study design, language restriction and methodology of the included primary studies. To be eligible for inclusion, reviews had to be clearly analyzing data related to SARS-CoV-2 (associated or not with other viruses). We excluded narrative reviews without those characteristics as these are less likely to be replicable and are more prone to bias.

Scoping reviews and rapid reviews were eligible for inclusion in this overview if they met our pre-defined inclusion criteria noted above. We included reviews that addressed SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses if they reported separate data regarding SARS-CoV-2.

Information sources

Nine databases were searched for eligible records published between December 1, 2019, and March 24, 2020: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews via Cochrane Library, PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature), Web of Sciences, LILACS (Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature), PDQ-Evidence, WHO’s Global Research on Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19), and Epistemonikos.

The comprehensive search strategy for each database is provided in Additional file 1 and was designed and conducted in collaboration with an information specialist. All retrieved records were primarily processed in EndNote, where duplicates were removed, and records were then imported into the Covidence platform [ 23 ]. In addition to database searches, we screened reference lists of reviews included after screening records retrieved via databases.

Study selection

All searches, screening of titles and abstracts, and record selection, were performed independently by two investigators using the Covidence platform [ 23 ]. Articles deemed potentially eligible were retrieved for full-text screening carried out independently by two investigators. Discrepancies at all stages were resolved by consensus. During the screening, records published in languages other than English were translated by a native/fluent speaker.

Data collection process

We custom designed a data extraction table for this study, which was piloted by two authors independently. Data extraction was performed independently by two authors. Conflicts were resolved by consensus or by consulting a third researcher.

We extracted the following data: article identification data (authors’ name and journal of publication), search period, number of databases searched, population or settings considered, main results and outcomes observed, and number of participants. From Web of Science (Clarivate Analytics, Philadelphia, PA, USA), we extracted journal rank (quartile) and Journal Impact Factor (JIF).

We categorized the following as primary outcomes: all-cause mortality, need for and length of mechanical ventilation, length of hospitalization (in days), admission to intensive care unit (yes/no), and length of stay in the intensive care unit.

The following outcomes were categorized as exploratory: diagnostic methods used for detection of the virus, male to female ratio, clinical symptoms, pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions, laboratory findings (full blood count, liver enzymes, C-reactive protein, d-dimer, albumin, lipid profile, serum electrolytes, blood vitamin levels, glucose levels, and any other important biomarkers), and radiological findings (using radiography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging or ultrasound).

We also collected data on reporting guidelines and requirements for the publication of systematic reviews and meta-analyses from journal websites where included reviews were published.

Quality assessment in individual reviews

Two researchers independently assessed the reviews’ quality using the “A MeaSurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR 2)”. We acknowledge that the AMSTAR 2 was created as “a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomized or non-randomized studies of healthcare interventions, or both” [ 24 ]. However, since AMSTAR 2 was designed for systematic reviews of intervention trials, and we included additional types of systematic reviews, we adjusted some AMSTAR 2 ratings and reported these in Additional file 2 .

Adherence to each item was rated as follows: yes, partial yes, no, or not applicable (such as when a meta-analysis was not conducted). The overall confidence in the results of the review is rated as “critically low”, “low”, “moderate” or “high”, according to the AMSTAR 2 guidance based on seven critical domains, which are items 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 as defined by AMSTAR 2 authors [ 24 ]. We reported our adherence ratings for transparency of our decision with accompanying explanations, for each item, in each included review.

One of the included systematic reviews was conducted by some members of this author team [ 25 ]. This review was initially assessed independently by two authors who were not co-authors of that review to prevent the risk of bias in assessing this study.

Synthesis of results

For data synthesis, we prepared a table summarizing each systematic review. Graphs illustrating the mortality rate and clinical symptoms were created. We then prepared a narrative summary of the methods, findings, study strengths, and limitations.

For analysis of the prevalence of clinical outcomes, we extracted data on the number of events and the total number of patients to perform proportional meta-analysis using RStudio© software, with the “meta” package (version 4.9–6), using the “metaprop” function for reviews that did not perform a meta-analysis, excluding case studies because of the absence of variance. For reviews that did not perform a meta-analysis, we presented pooled results of proportions with their respective confidence intervals (95%) by the inverse variance method with a random-effects model, using the DerSimonian-Laird estimator for τ 2 . We adjusted data using Freeman-Tukey double arcosen transformation. Confidence intervals were calculated using the Clopper-Pearson method for individual studies. We created forest plots using the RStudio© software, with the “metafor” package (version 2.1–0) and “forest” function.

Managing overlapping systematic reviews

Some of the included systematic reviews that address the same or similar research questions may include the same primary studies in overviews. Including such overlapping reviews may introduce bias when outcome data from the same primary study are included in the analyses of an overview multiple times. Thus, in summaries of evidence, multiple-counting of the same outcome data will give data from some primary studies too much influence [ 14 ]. In this overview, we did not exclude overlapping systematic reviews because, according to Cochrane’s guidance, it may be appropriate to include all relevant reviews’ results if the purpose of the overview is to present and describe the current body of evidence on a topic [ 14 ]. To avoid any bias in summary estimates associated with overlapping reviews, we generated forest plots showing data from individual systematic reviews, but the results were not pooled because some primary studies were included in multiple reviews.

Our search retrieved 1063 publications, of which 175 were duplicates. Most publications were excluded after the title and abstract analysis ( n = 860). Among the 28 studies selected for full-text screening, 10 were excluded for the reasons described in Additional file 3 , and 18 were included in the final analysis (Fig. 1 ) [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Reference list screening did not retrieve any additional systematic reviews.

PRISMA flow diagram

Characteristics of included reviews

Summary features of 18 systematic reviews are presented in Table 1 . They were published in 14 different journals. Only four of these journals had specific requirements for systematic reviews (with or without meta-analysis): European Journal of Internal Medicine, Journal of Clinical Medicine, Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, and Clinical Research in Cardiology . Two journals reported that they published only invited reviews ( Journal of Medical Virology and Clinica Chimica Acta ). Three systematic reviews in our study were published as letters; one was labeled as a scoping review and another as a rapid review (Table 2 ).

All reviews were published in English, in first quartile (Q1) journals, with JIF ranging from 1.692 to 6.062. One review was empty, meaning that its search did not identify any relevant studies; i.e., no primary studies were included [ 36 ]. The remaining 17 reviews included 269 unique studies; the majority ( N = 211; 78%) were included in only a single review included in our study (range: 1 to 12). Primary studies included in the reviews were published between December 2019 and March 18, 2020, and comprised case reports, case series, cohorts, and other observational studies. We found only one review that included randomized clinical trials [ 38 ]. In the included reviews, systematic literature searches were performed from 2019 (entire year) up to March 9, 2020. Ten systematic reviews included meta-analyses. The list of primary studies found in the included systematic reviews is shown in Additional file 4 , as well as the number of reviews in which each primary study was included.

Population and study designs

Most of the reviews analyzed data from patients with COVID-19 who developed pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or any other correlated complication. One review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of using surgical masks on preventing transmission of the virus [ 36 ], one review was focused on pediatric patients [ 34 ], and one review investigated COVID-19 in pregnant women [ 37 ]. Most reviews assessed clinical symptoms, laboratory findings, or radiological results.

Systematic review findings

The summary of findings from individual reviews is shown in Table 2 . Overall, all-cause mortality ranged from 0.3 to 13.9% (Fig. 2 ).

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of mortality

Clinical symptoms

Seven reviews described the main clinical manifestations of COVID-19 [ 26 , 28 , 29 , 34 , 35 , 39 , 41 ]. Three of them provided only a narrative discussion of symptoms [ 26 , 34 , 35 ]. In the reviews that performed a statistical analysis of the incidence of different clinical symptoms, symptoms in patients with COVID-19 were (range values of point estimates): fever (82–95%), cough with or without sputum (58–72%), dyspnea (26–59%), myalgia or muscle fatigue (29–51%), sore throat (10–13%), headache (8–12%), gastrointestinal disorders, such as diarrhea, nausea or vomiting (5.0–9.0%), and others (including, in one study only: dizziness 12.1%) (Figs. 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 and 9 ). Three reviews assessed cough with and without sputum together; only one review assessed sputum production itself (28.5%).

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of fever

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of cough

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of dyspnea

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of fatigue or myalgia

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of headache

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of gastrointestinal disorders

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of sore throat

Diagnostic aspects

Three reviews described methodologies, protocols, and tools used for establishing the diagnosis of COVID-19 [ 26 , 34 , 38 ]. The use of respiratory swabs (nasal or pharyngeal) or blood specimens to assess the presence of SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid using RT-PCR assays was the most commonly used diagnostic method mentioned in the included studies. These diagnostic tests have been widely used, but their precise sensitivity and specificity remain unknown. One review included a Chinese study with clinical diagnosis with no confirmation of SARS-CoV-2 infection (patients were diagnosed with COVID-19 if they presented with at least two symptoms suggestive of COVID-19, together with laboratory and chest radiography abnormalities) [ 34 ].

Therapeutic possibilities

Pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions (supportive therapies) used in treating patients with COVID-19 were reported in five reviews [ 25 , 27 , 34 , 35 , 38 ]. Antivirals used empirically for COVID-19 treatment were reported in seven reviews [ 25 , 27 , 34 , 35 , 37 , 38 , 41 ]; most commonly used were protease inhibitors (lopinavir, ritonavir, darunavir), nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (tenofovir), nucleotide analogs (remdesivir, galidesivir, ganciclovir), and neuraminidase inhibitors (oseltamivir). Umifenovir, a membrane fusion inhibitor, was investigated in two studies [ 25 , 35 ]. Possible supportive interventions analyzed were different types of oxygen supplementation and breathing support (invasive or non-invasive ventilation) [ 25 ]. The use of antibiotics, both empirically and to treat secondary pneumonia, was reported in six studies [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 34 , 35 , 38 ]. One review specifically assessed evidence on the efficacy and safety of the anti-malaria drug chloroquine [ 27 ]. It identified 23 ongoing trials investigating the potential of chloroquine as a therapeutic option for COVID-19, but no verifiable clinical outcomes data. The use of mesenchymal stem cells, antifungals, and glucocorticoids were described in four reviews [ 25 , 34 , 35 , 38 ].

Laboratory and radiological findings

Of the 18 reviews included in this overview, eight analyzed laboratory parameters in patients with COVID-19 [ 25 , 29 , 30 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 39 ]; elevated C-reactive protein levels, associated with lymphocytopenia, elevated lactate dehydrogenase, as well as slightly elevated aspartate and alanine aminotransferase (AST, ALT) were commonly described in those eight reviews. Lippi et al. assessed cardiac troponin I (cTnI) [ 25 ], procalcitonin [ 32 ], and platelet count [ 33 ] in COVID-19 patients. Elevated levels of procalcitonin [ 32 ] and cTnI [ 30 ] were more likely to be associated with a severe disease course (requiring intensive care unit admission and intubation). Furthermore, thrombocytopenia was frequently observed in patients with complicated COVID-19 infections [ 33 ].

Chest imaging (chest radiography and/or computed tomography) features were assessed in six reviews, all of which described a frequent pattern of local or bilateral multilobar ground-glass opacity [ 25 , 34 , 35 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. Those six reviews showed that septal thickening, bronchiectasis, pleural and cardiac effusions, halo signs, and pneumothorax were observed in patients suffering from COVID-19.

Quality of evidence in individual systematic reviews

Table 3 shows the detailed results of the quality assessment of 18 systematic reviews, including the assessment of individual items and summary assessment. A detailed explanation for each decision in each review is available in Additional file 5 .

Using AMSTAR 2 criteria, confidence in the results of all 18 reviews was rated as “critically low” (Table 3 ). Common methodological drawbacks were: omission of prospective protocol submission or publication; use of inappropriate search strategy: lack of independent and dual literature screening and data-extraction (or methodology unclear); absence of an explanation for heterogeneity among the studies included; lack of reasons for study exclusion (or rationale unclear).

Risk of bias assessment, based on a reported methodological tool, and quality of evidence appraisal, in line with the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) method, were reported only in one review [ 25 ]. Five reviews presented a table summarizing bias, using various risk of bias tools [ 25 , 29 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. One review analyzed “study quality” [ 37 ]. One review mentioned the risk of bias assessment in the methodology but did not provide any related analysis [ 28 ].

This overview of systematic reviews analyzed the first 18 systematic reviews published after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, up to March 24, 2020, with primary studies involving more than 60,000 patients. Using AMSTAR-2, we judged that our confidence in all those reviews was “critically low”. Ten reviews included meta-analyses. The reviews presented data on clinical manifestations, laboratory and radiological findings, and interventions. We found no systematic reviews on the utility of diagnostic tests.

Symptoms were reported in seven reviews; most of the patients had a fever, cough, dyspnea, myalgia or muscle fatigue, and gastrointestinal disorders such as diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting. Olfactory dysfunction (anosmia or dysosmia) has been described in patients infected with COVID-19 [ 43 ]; however, this was not reported in any of the reviews included in this overview. During the SARS outbreak in 2002, there were reports of impairment of the sense of smell associated with the disease [ 44 , 45 ].

The reported mortality rates ranged from 0.3 to 14% in the included reviews. Mortality estimates are influenced by the transmissibility rate (basic reproduction number), availability of diagnostic tools, notification policies, asymptomatic presentations of the disease, resources for disease prevention and control, and treatment facilities; variability in the mortality rate fits the pattern of emerging infectious diseases [ 46 ]. Furthermore, the reported cases did not consider asymptomatic cases, mild cases where individuals have not sought medical treatment, and the fact that many countries had limited access to diagnostic tests or have implemented testing policies later than the others. Considering the lack of reviews assessing diagnostic testing (sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of RT-PCT or immunoglobulin tests), and the preponderance of studies that assessed only symptomatic individuals, considerable imprecision around the calculated mortality rates existed in the early stage of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Few reviews included treatment data. Those reviews described studies considered to be at a very low level of evidence: usually small, retrospective studies with very heterogeneous populations. Seven reviews analyzed laboratory parameters; those reviews could have been useful for clinicians who attend patients suspected of COVID-19 in emergency services worldwide, such as assessing which patients need to be reassessed more frequently.

All systematic reviews scored poorly on the AMSTAR 2 critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews. Most of the original studies included in the reviews were case series and case reports, impacting the quality of evidence. Such evidence has major implications for clinical practice and the use of these reviews in evidence-based practice and policy. Clinicians, patients, and policymakers can only have the highest confidence in systematic review findings if high-quality systematic review methodologies are employed. The urgent need for information during a pandemic does not justify poor quality reporting.

We acknowledge that there are numerous challenges associated with analyzing COVID-19 data during a pandemic [ 47 ]. High-quality evidence syntheses are needed for decision-making, but each type of evidence syntheses is associated with its inherent challenges.

The creation of classic systematic reviews requires considerable time and effort; with massive research output, they quickly become outdated, and preparing updated versions also requires considerable time. A recent study showed that updates of non-Cochrane systematic reviews are published a median of 5 years after the publication of the previous version [ 48 ].

Authors may register a review and then abandon it [ 49 ], but the existence of a public record that is not updated may lead other authors to believe that the review is still ongoing. A quarter of Cochrane review protocols remains unpublished as completed systematic reviews 8 years after protocol publication [ 50 ].

Rapid reviews can be used to summarize the evidence, but they involve methodological sacrifices and simplifications to produce information promptly, with inconsistent methodological approaches [ 51 ]. However, rapid reviews are justified in times of public health emergencies, and even Cochrane has resorted to publishing rapid reviews in response to the COVID-19 crisis [ 52 ]. Rapid reviews were eligible for inclusion in this overview, but only one of the 18 reviews included in this study was labeled as a rapid review.

Ideally, COVID-19 evidence would be continually summarized in a series of high-quality living systematic reviews, types of evidence synthesis defined as “ a systematic review which is continually updated, incorporating relevant new evidence as it becomes available ” [ 53 ]. However, conducting living systematic reviews requires considerable resources, calling into question the sustainability of such evidence synthesis over long periods [ 54 ].

Research reports about COVID-19 will contribute to research waste if they are poorly designed, poorly reported, or simply not necessary. In principle, systematic reviews should help reduce research waste as they usually provide recommendations for further research that is needed or may advise that sufficient evidence exists on a particular topic [ 55 ]. However, systematic reviews can also contribute to growing research waste when they are not needed, or poorly conducted and reported. Our present study clearly shows that most of the systematic reviews that were published early on in the COVID-19 pandemic could be categorized as research waste, as our confidence in their results is critically low.

Our study has some limitations. One is that for AMSTAR 2 assessment we relied on information available in publications; we did not attempt to contact study authors for clarifications or additional data. In three reviews, the methodological quality appraisal was challenging because they were published as letters, or labeled as rapid communications. As a result, various details about their review process were not included, leading to AMSTAR 2 questions being answered as “not reported”, resulting in low confidence scores. Full manuscripts might have provided additional information that could have led to higher confidence in the results. In other words, low scores could reflect incomplete reporting, not necessarily low-quality review methods. To make their review available more rapidly and more concisely, the authors may have omitted methodological details. A general issue during a crisis is that speed and completeness must be balanced. However, maintaining high standards requires proper resourcing and commitment to ensure that the users of systematic reviews can have high confidence in the results.

Furthermore, we used adjusted AMSTAR 2 scoring, as the tool was designed for critical appraisal of reviews of interventions. Some reviews may have received lower scores than actually warranted in spite of these adjustments.

Another limitation of our study may be the inclusion of multiple overlapping reviews, as some included reviews included the same primary studies. According to the Cochrane Handbook, including overlapping reviews may be appropriate when the review’s aim is “ to present and describe the current body of systematic review evidence on a topic ” [ 12 ], which was our aim. To avoid bias with summarizing evidence from overlapping reviews, we presented the forest plots without summary estimates. The forest plots serve to inform readers about the effect sizes for outcomes that were reported in each review.

Several authors from this study have contributed to one of the reviews identified [ 25 ]. To reduce the risk of any bias, two authors who did not co-author the review in question initially assessed its quality and limitations.

Finally, we note that the systematic reviews included in our overview may have had issues that our analysis did not identify because we did not analyze their primary studies to verify the accuracy of the data and information they presented. We give two examples to substantiate this possibility. Lovato et al. wrote a commentary on the review of Sun et al. [ 41 ], in which they criticized the authors’ conclusion that sore throat is rare in COVID-19 patients [ 56 ]. Lovato et al. highlighted that multiple studies included in Sun et al. did not accurately describe participants’ clinical presentations, warning that only three studies clearly reported data on sore throat [ 56 ].

In another example, Leung [ 57 ] warned about the review of Li, L.Q. et al. [ 29 ]: “ it is possible that this statistic was computed using overlapped samples, therefore some patients were double counted ”. Li et al. responded to Leung that it is uncertain whether the data overlapped, as they used data from published articles and did not have access to the original data; they also reported that they requested original data and that they plan to re-do their analyses once they receive them; they also urged readers to treat the data with caution [ 58 ]. This points to the evolving nature of evidence during a crisis.

Our study’s strength is that this overview adds to the current knowledge by providing a comprehensive summary of all the evidence synthesis about COVID-19 available early after the onset of the pandemic. This overview followed strict methodological criteria, including a comprehensive and sensitive search strategy and a standard tool for methodological appraisal of systematic reviews.

In conclusion, in this overview of systematic reviews, we analyzed evidence from the first 18 systematic reviews that were published after the emergence of COVID-19. However, confidence in the results of all the reviews was “critically low”. Thus, systematic reviews that were published early on in the pandemic could be categorized as research waste. Even during public health emergencies, studies and systematic reviews should adhere to established methodological standards to provide patients, clinicians, and decision-makers trustworthy evidence.

Availability of data and materials

All data collected and analyzed within this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

World Health Organization. Timeline - COVID-19: Available at: https://www.who.int/news/item/29-06-2020-covidtimeline . Accessed 1 June 2021.

COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University (JHU). Available at: https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html . Accessed 1 June 2021.

Anzai A, Kobayashi T, Linton NM, Kinoshita R, Hayashi K, Suzuki A, et al. Assessing the Impact of Reduced Travel on Exportation Dynamics of Novel Coronavirus Infection (COVID-19). J Clin Med. 2020;9(2):601.

Chinazzi M, Davis JT, Ajelli M, Gioannini C, Litvinova M, Merler S, et al. The effect of travel restrictions on the spread of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak. Science. 2020;368(6489):395–400. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba9757 .

Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Fidahic M, Nujic D, Runjic R, Civljak M, Markotic F, Lovric Makaric Z, et al. Research methodology and characteristics of journal articles with original data, preprint articles and registered clinical trial protocols about COVID-19. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2020;20(1):161. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-020-01047-2 .

EPPI Centre . COVID-19: a living systematic map of the evidence. Available at: http://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/Projects/DepartmentofHealthandSocialCare/Publishedreviews/COVID-19Livingsystematicmapoftheevidence/tabid/3765/Default.aspx . Accessed 1 June 2021.

NCBI SARS-CoV-2 Resources. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sars-cov-2/ . Accessed 1 June 2021.

Gustot T. Quality and reproducibility during the COVID-19 pandemic. JHEP Rep. 2020;2(4):100141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhepr.2020.100141 .

Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Kodvanj, I., et al., Publishing of COVID-19 Preprints in Peer-reviewed Journals, Preprinting Trends, Public Discussion and Quality Issues. Preprint article. bioRxiv 2020.11.23.394577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.11.23.394577 .

Dobler CC. Poor quality research and clinical practice during COVID-19. Breathe (Sheff). 2020;16(2):200112. https://doi.org/10.1183/20734735.0112-2020 .

Article Google Scholar

Bastian H, Glasziou P, Chalmers I. Seventy-five trials and eleven systematic reviews a day: how will we ever keep up? PLoS Med. 2010;7(9):e1000326. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000326 .

Lunny C, Brennan SE, McDonald S, McKenzie JE. Toward a comprehensive evidence map of overview of systematic review methods: paper 1-purpose, eligibility, search and data extraction. Syst Rev. 2017;6(1):231. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-017-0617-1 .

Pollock M, Fernandes RM, Becker LA, Pieper D, Hartling L. Chapter V: Overviews of Reviews. In: Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.1 (updated September 2020). Cochrane. 2020. Available from www.training.cochrane.org/handbook .

Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, et al. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions version 6.1 (updated September 2020). Cochrane. 2020; Available from www.training.cochrane.org/handbook .

Pollock M, Fernandes RM, Newton AS, Scott SD, Hartling L. The impact of different inclusion decisions on the comprehensiveness and complexity of overviews of reviews of healthcare interventions. Syst Rev. 2019;8(1):18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-018-0914-3 .

Pollock M, Fernandes RM, Newton AS, Scott SD, Hartling L. A decision tool to help researchers make decisions about including systematic reviews in overviews of reviews of healthcare interventions. Syst Rev. 2019;8(1):29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-018-0768-8 .

Hunt H, Pollock A, Campbell P, Estcourt L, Brunton G. An introduction to overviews of reviews: planning a relevant research question and objective for an overview. Syst Rev. 2018;7(1):39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-018-0695-8 .

Pollock M, Fernandes RM, Pieper D, Tricco AC, Gates M, Gates A, et al. Preferred reporting items for overviews of reviews (PRIOR): a protocol for development of a reporting guideline for overviews of reviews of healthcare interventions. Syst Rev. 2019;8(1):335. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-019-1252-9 .

Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Open Med. 2009;3(3):e123–30.

Krnic Martinic M, Pieper D, Glatt A, Puljak L. Definition of a systematic review used in overviews of systematic reviews, meta-epidemiological studies and textbooks. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2019;19(1):203. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-019-0855-0 .

Puljak L. If there is only one author or only one database was searched, a study should not be called a systematic review. J Clin Epidemiol. 2017;91:4–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.002 .

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Gates M, Gates A, Guitard S, Pollock M, Hartling L. Guidance for overviews of reviews continues to accumulate, but important challenges remain: a scoping review. Syst Rev. 2020;9(1):254. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01509-0 .

Covidence - systematic review software. Available at: https://www.covidence.org/ . Accessed 1 June 2021.

Shea BJ, Reeves BC, Wells G, Thuku M, Hamel C, Moran J, et al. AMSTAR 2: a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomised or non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions, or both. BMJ. 2017;358:j4008.

Borges do Nascimento IJ, et al. Novel Coronavirus Infection (COVID-19) in Humans: A Scoping Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Med. 2020;9(4):941.

Article PubMed Central Google Scholar

Adhikari SP, Meng S, Wu YJ, Mao YP, Ye RX, Wang QZ, et al. Epidemiology, causes, clinical manifestation and diagnosis, prevention and control of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) during the early outbreak period: a scoping review. Infect Dis Poverty. 2020;9(1):29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-020-00646-x .

Cortegiani A, Ingoglia G, Ippolito M, Giarratano A, Einav S. A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19. J Crit Care. 2020;57:279–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005 .

Li B, Yang J, Zhao F, Zhi L, Wang X, Liu L, et al. Prevalence and impact of cardiovascular metabolic diseases on COVID-19 in China. Clin Res Cardiol. 2020;109(5):531–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00392-020-01626-9 .

Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar

Li LQ, Huang T, Wang YQ, Wang ZP, Liang Y, Huang TB, et al. COVID-19 patients’ clinical characteristics, discharge rate, and fatality rate of meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2020;92(6):577–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25757 .

Lippi G, Lavie CJ, Sanchis-Gomar F. Cardiac troponin I in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): evidence from a meta-analysis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2020;63(3):390–1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2020.03.001 .

Lippi G, Henry BM. Active smoking is not associated with severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Eur J Intern Med. 2020;75:107–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejim.2020.03.014 .

Lippi G, Plebani M. Procalcitonin in patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a meta-analysis. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;505:190–1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2020.03.004 .

Lippi G, Plebani M, Henry BM. Thrombocytopenia is associated with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections: a meta-analysis. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;506:145–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2020.03.022 .

Ludvigsson JF. Systematic review of COVID-19 in children shows milder cases and a better prognosis than adults. Acta Paediatr. 2020;109(6):1088–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.15270 .

Lupia T, Scabini S, Mornese Pinna S, di Perri G, de Rosa FG, Corcione S. 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak: a new challenge. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 2020;21:22–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2020.02.021 .

Marasinghe, K.M., A systematic review investigating the effectiveness of face mask use in limiting the spread of COVID-19 among medically not diagnosed individuals: shedding light on current recommendations provided to individuals not medically diagnosed with COVID-19. Research Square. Preprint article. doi : https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-16701/v1 . 2020 .

Mullins E, Evans D, Viner RM, O’Brien P, Morris E. Coronavirus in pregnancy and delivery: rapid review. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2020;55(5):586–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/uog.22014 .

Pang J, Wang MX, Ang IYH, Tan SHX, Lewis RF, Chen JIP, et al. Potential Rapid Diagnostics, Vaccine and Therapeutics for 2019 Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV): a systematic review. J Clin Med. 2020;9(3):623.

Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Cardona-Ospina JA, Gutiérrez-Ocampo E, Villamizar-Peña R, Holguin-Rivera Y, Escalera-Antezana JP, et al. Clinical, laboratory and imaging features of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020;34:101623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101623 .

Salehi S, Abedi A, Balakrishnan S, Gholamrezanezhad A. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a systematic review of imaging findings in 919 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2020;215(1):87–93. https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.20.23034 .

Sun P, Qie S, Liu Z, Ren J, Li K, Xi J. Clinical characteristics of hospitalized patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: a single arm meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2020;92(6):612–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25735 .

Yang J, Zheng Y, Gou X, Pu K, Chen Z, Guo Q, et al. Prevalence of comorbidities and its effects in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;94:91–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.017 .

Bassetti M, Vena A, Giacobbe DR. The novel Chinese coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections: challenges for fighting the storm. Eur J Clin Investig. 2020;50(3):e13209. https://doi.org/10.1111/eci.13209 .

Article CAS Google Scholar

Hwang CS. Olfactory neuropathy in severe acute respiratory syndrome: report of a case. Acta Neurol Taiwanica. 2006;15(1):26–8.

Google Scholar

Suzuki M, Saito K, Min WP, Vladau C, Toida K, Itoh H, et al. Identification of viruses in patients with postviral olfactory dysfunction. Laryngoscope. 2007;117(2):272–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mlg.0000249922.37381.1e .

Rajgor DD, Lee MH, Archuleta S, Bagdasarian N, Quek SC. The many estimates of the COVID-19 case fatality rate. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(7):776–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30244-9 .

Wolkewitz M, Puljak L. Methodological challenges of analysing COVID-19 data during the pandemic. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2020;20(1):81. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-020-00972-6 .

Rombey T, Lochner V, Puljak L, Könsgen N, Mathes T, Pieper D. Epidemiology and reporting characteristics of non-Cochrane updates of systematic reviews: a cross-sectional study. Res Synth Methods. 2020;11(3):471–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1409 .

Runjic E, Rombey T, Pieper D, Puljak L. Half of systematic reviews about pain registered in PROSPERO were not published and the majority had inaccurate status. J Clin Epidemiol. 2019;116:114–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2019.08.010 .

Runjic E, Behmen D, Pieper D, Mathes T, Tricco AC, Moher D, et al. Following Cochrane review protocols to completion 10 years later: a retrospective cohort study and author survey. J Clin Epidemiol. 2019;111:41–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2019.03.006 .

Tricco AC, Antony J, Zarin W, Strifler L, Ghassemi M, Ivory J, et al. A scoping review of rapid review methods. BMC Med. 2015;13(1):224. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-015-0465-6 .

COVID-19 Rapid Reviews: Cochrane’s response so far. Available at: https://training.cochrane.org/resource/covid-19-rapid-reviews-cochrane-response-so-far . Accessed 1 June 2021.

Cochrane. Living systematic reviews. Available at: https://community.cochrane.org/review-production/production-resources/living-systematic-reviews . Accessed 1 June 2021.

Millard T, Synnot A, Elliott J, Green S, McDonald S, Turner T. Feasibility and acceptability of living systematic reviews: results from a mixed-methods evaluation. Syst Rev. 2019;8(1):325. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-019-1248-5 .

Babic A, Poklepovic Pericic T, Pieper D, Puljak L. How to decide whether a systematic review is stable and not in need of updating: analysis of Cochrane reviews. Res Synth Methods. 2020;11(6):884–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1451 .

Lovato A, Rossettini G, de Filippis C. Sore throat in COVID-19: comment on “clinical characteristics of hospitalized patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: a single arm meta-analysis”. J Med Virol. 2020;92(7):714–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25815 .

Leung C. Comment on Li et al: COVID-19 patients’ clinical characteristics, discharge rate, and fatality rate of meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2020;92(9):1431–2. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25912 .

Li LQ, Huang T, Wang YQ, Wang ZP, Liang Y, Huang TB, et al. Response to Char’s comment: comment on Li et al: COVID-19 patients’ clinical characteristics, discharge rate, and fatality rate of meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2020;92(9):1433. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25924 .

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank Catherine Henderson DPhil from Swanscoe Communications for pro bono medical writing and editing support. We acknowledge support from the Covidence Team, specifically Anneliese Arno. We thank the whole International Network of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (InterNetCOVID-19) for their commitment and involvement. Members of the InterNetCOVID-19 are listed in Additional file 6 . We thank Pavel Cerny and Roger Crosthwaite for guiding the team supervisor (IJBN) on human resources management.

This research received no external funding.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University Hospital and School of Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Israel Júnior Borges do Nascimento & Milena Soriano Marcolino

Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA

Israel Júnior Borges do Nascimento

Helene Fuld Health Trust National Institute for Evidence-based Practice in Nursing and Healthcare, College of Nursing, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Dónal P. O’Mathúna

School of Nursing, Psychotherapy and Community Health, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland

Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany

Thilo Caspar von Groote

Department of Sport and Health Science, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany

Hebatullah Mohamed Abdulazeem

School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia

Ishanka Weerasekara

Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Cochrane Croatia, University of Split, School of Medicine, Split, Croatia

Ana Marusic, Irena Zakarija-Grkovic & Tina Poklepovic Pericic

Center for Evidence-Based Medicine and Health Care, Catholic University of Croatia, Ilica 242, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia

Livia Puljak

Cochrane Brazil, Evidence-Based Health Program, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Vinicius Tassoni Civile & Alvaro Nagib Atallah

Yorkville University, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada

Santino Filoso

Laboratory for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (LIAM), Department of Mathematics and Statistics, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Nicola Luigi Bragazzi

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

IJBN conceived the research idea and worked as a project coordinator. DPOM, TCVG, HMA, IW, AM, LP, VTC, IZG, TPP, ANA, SF, NLB and MSM were involved in data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, and initial draft writing. All authors revised the manuscript critically for the content. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Livia Puljak .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Not required as data was based on published studies.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: appendix 1..

Search strategies used in the study.

Additional file 2: Appendix 2.

Adjusted scoring of AMSTAR 2 used in this study for systematic reviews of studies that did not analyze interventions.

Additional file 3: Appendix 3.

List of excluded studies, with reasons.

Additional file 4: Appendix 4.

Table of overlapping studies, containing the list of primary studies included, their visual overlap in individual systematic reviews, and the number in how many reviews each primary study was included.

Additional file 5: Appendix 5.

A detailed explanation of AMSTAR scoring for each item in each review.

Additional file 6: Appendix 6.

List of members and affiliates of International Network of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (InterNetCOVID-19).

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Borges do Nascimento, I.J., O’Mathúna, D.P., von Groote, T.C. et al. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic: an overview of systematic reviews. BMC Infect Dis 21 , 525 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-021-06214-4

Download citation

Received : 12 April 2020

Accepted : 19 May 2021

Published : 04 June 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-021-06214-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Coronavirus
Evidence-based medicine
Infectious diseases

BMC Infectious Diseases

ISSN: 1471-2334

General enquiries: [email protected]

Writing about COVID-19 in a college admission essay

by: Venkates Swaminathan | Updated: September 14, 2020

Print article

Writing about COVID-19 in your college admission essay

For students applying to college using the CommonApp, there are several different places where students and counselors can address the pandemic’s impact. The different sections have differing goals. You must understand how to use each section for its appropriate use.

The CommonApp COVID-19 question

First, the CommonApp this year has an additional question specifically about COVID-19 :

Community disruptions such as COVID-19 and natural disasters can have deep and long-lasting impacts. If you need it, this space is yours to describe those impacts. Colleges care about the effects on your health and well-being, safety, family circumstances, future plans, and education, including access to reliable technology and quiet study spaces. Please use this space to describe how these events have impacted you.

This question seeks to understand the adversity that students may have had to face due to the pandemic, the move to online education, or the shelter-in-place rules. You don’t have to answer this question if the impact on you wasn’t particularly severe. Some examples of things students should discuss include:

The student or a family member had COVID-19 or suffered other illnesses due to confinement during the pandemic.
The candidate had to deal with personal or family issues, such as abusive living situations or other safety concerns
The student suffered from a lack of internet access and other online learning challenges.
Students who dealt with problems registering for or taking standardized tests and AP exams.

Jeff Schiffman of the Tulane University admissions office has a blog about this section. He recommends students ask themselves several questions as they go about answering this section:

Are my experiences different from others’?
Are there noticeable changes on my transcript?
Am I aware of my privilege?
Am I specific? Am I explaining rather than complaining?
Is this information being included elsewhere on my application?

If you do answer this section, be brief and to-the-point.

Counselor recommendations and school profiles

Second, counselors will, in their counselor forms and school profiles on the CommonApp, address how the school handled the pandemic and how it might have affected students, specifically as it relates to:

Grading scales and policies
Graduation requirements
Instructional methods
Schedules and course offerings
Testing requirements
Your academic calendar
Other extenuating circumstances

Students don’t have to mention these matters in their application unless something unusual happened.

Writing about COVID-19 in your main essay

Write about your experiences during the pandemic in your main college essay if your experience is personal, relevant, and the most important thing to discuss in your college admission essay. That you had to stay home and study online isn’t sufficient, as millions of other students faced the same situation. But sometimes, it can be appropriate and helpful to write about something related to the pandemic in your essay. For example:

One student developed a website for a local comic book store. The store might not have survived without the ability for people to order comic books online. The student had a long-standing relationship with the store, and it was an institution that created a community for students who otherwise felt left out.
One student started a YouTube channel to help other students with academic subjects he was very familiar with and began tutoring others.
Some students used their extra time that was the result of the stay-at-home orders to take online courses pursuing topics they are genuinely interested in or developing new interests, like a foreign language or music.

Experiences like this can be good topics for the CommonApp essay as long as they reflect something genuinely important about the student. For many students whose lives have been shaped by this pandemic, it can be a critical part of their college application.

Want more? Read 6 ways to improve a college essay , What the &%$! should I write about in my college essay , and Just how important is a college admissions essay? .

Homes Nearby

Homes for rent and sale near schools

Why the worry about Critical Race Theory in schools?

How our schools are (and aren't) addressing race

The truth about homework in America

What should I write my college essay about?

What the #%@!& should I write about in my college essay?

Yes! Sign me up for updates relevant to my child's grade.

Please enter a valid email address

Thank you for signing up!

Server Issue: Please try again later. Sorry for the inconvenience

Read these 12 moving essays about life during coronavirus

Artists, novelists, critics, and essayists are writing the first draft of history.

by Alissa Wilkinson

The world is grappling with an invisible, deadly enemy, trying to understand how to live with the threat posed by a virus . For some writers, the only way forward is to put pen to paper, trying to conceptualize and document what it feels like to continue living as countries are under lockdown and regular life seems to have ground to a halt.

So as the coronavirus pandemic has stretched around the world, it’s sparked a crop of diary entries and essays that describe how life has changed. Novelists, critics, artists, and journalists have put words to the feelings many are experiencing. The result is a first draft of how we’ll someday remember this time, filled with uncertainty and pain and fear as well as small moments of hope and humanity.

The Vox guide to navigating the coronavirus crisis

At the New York Review of Books, Ali Bhutto writes that in Karachi, Pakistan, the government-imposed curfew due to the virus is “eerily reminiscent of past military clampdowns”:

Beneath the quiet calm lies a sense that society has been unhinged and that the usual rules no longer apply. Small groups of pedestrians look on from the shadows, like an audience watching a spectacle slowly unfolding. People pause on street corners and in the shade of trees, under the watchful gaze of the paramilitary forces and the police.

His essay concludes with the sobering note that “in the minds of many, Covid-19 is just another life-threatening hazard in a city that stumbles from one crisis to another.”

Writing from Chattanooga, novelist Jamie Quatro documents the mixed ways her neighbors have been responding to the threat, and the frustration of conflicting direction, or no direction at all, from local, state, and federal leaders:

Whiplash, trying to keep up with who’s ordering what. We’re already experiencing enough chaos without this back-and-forth. Why didn’t the federal government issue a nationwide shelter-in-place at the get-go, the way other countries did? What happens when one state’s shelter-in-place ends, while others continue? Do states still under quarantine close their borders? We are still one nation, not fifty individual countries. Right?

A syllabus for the end of the world

Award-winning photojournalist Alessio Mamo, quarantined with his partner Marta in Sicily after she tested positive for the virus, accompanies his photographs in the Guardian of their confinement with a reflection on being confined :

The doctors asked me to take a second test, but again I tested negative. Perhaps I’m immune? The days dragged on in my apartment, in black and white, like my photos. Sometimes we tried to smile, imagining that I was asymptomatic, because I was the virus. Our smiles seemed to bring good news. My mother left hospital, but I won’t be able to see her for weeks. Marta started breathing well again, and so did I. I would have liked to photograph my country in the midst of this emergency, the battles that the doctors wage on the frontline, the hospitals pushed to their limits, Italy on its knees fighting an invisible enemy. That enemy, a day in March, knocked on my door instead.

In the New York Times Magazine, deputy editor Jessica Lustig writes with devastating clarity about her family’s life in Brooklyn while her husband battled the virus, weeks before most people began taking the threat seriously:

At the door of the clinic, we stand looking out at two older women chatting outside the doorway, oblivious. Do I wave them away? Call out that they should get far away, go home, wash their hands, stay inside? Instead we just stand there, awkwardly, until they move on. Only then do we step outside to begin the long three-block walk home. I point out the early magnolia, the forsythia. T says he is cold. The untrimmed hairs on his neck, under his beard, are white. The few people walking past us on the sidewalk don’t know that we are visitors from the future. A vision, a premonition, a walking visitation. This will be them: Either T, in the mask, or — if they’re lucky — me, tending to him.

Essayist Leslie Jamison writes in the New York Review of Books about being shut away alone in her New York City apartment with her 2-year-old daughter since she became sick:

The virus. Its sinewy, intimate name. What does it feel like in my body today? Shivering under blankets. A hot itch behind the eyes. Three sweatshirts in the middle of the day. My daughter trying to pull another blanket over my body with her tiny arms. An ache in the muscles that somehow makes it hard to lie still. This loss of taste has become a kind of sensory quarantine. It’s as if the quarantine keeps inching closer and closer to my insides. First I lost the touch of other bodies; then I lost the air; now I’ve lost the taste of bananas. Nothing about any of these losses is particularly unique. I’ve made a schedule so I won’t go insane with the toddler. Five days ago, I wrote Walk/Adventure! on it, next to a cut-out illustration of a tiger—as if we’d see tigers on our walks. It was good to keep possibility alive.

At Literary Hub, novelist Heidi Pitlor writes about the elastic nature of time during her family’s quarantine in Massachusetts:

During a shutdown, the things that mark our days—commuting to work, sending our kids to school, having a drink with friends—vanish and time takes on a flat, seamless quality. Without some self-imposed structure, it’s easy to feel a little untethered. A friend recently posted on Facebook: “For those who have lost track, today is Blursday the fortyteenth of Maprilay.” ... Giving shape to time is especially important now, when the future is so shapeless. We do not know whether the virus will continue to rage for weeks or months or, lord help us, on and off for years. We do not know when we will feel safe again. And so many of us, minus those who are gifted at compartmentalization or denial, remain largely captive to fear. We may stay this way if we do not create at least the illusion of movement in our lives, our long days spent with ourselves or partners or families.

What day is it today?

Novelist Lauren Groff writes at the New York Review of Books about trying to escape the prison of her fears while sequestered at home in Gainesville, Florida:

Some people have imaginations sparked only by what they can see; I blame this blinkered empiricism for the parks overwhelmed with people, the bars, until a few nights ago, thickly thronged. My imagination is the opposite. I fear everything invisible to me. From the enclosure of my house, I am afraid of the suffering that isn’t present before me, the people running out of money and food or drowning in the fluid in their lungs, the deaths of health-care workers now growing ill while performing their duties. I fear the federal government, which the right wing has so—intentionally—weakened that not only is it insufficient to help its people, it is actively standing in help’s way. I fear we won’t sufficiently punish the right. I fear leaving the house and spreading the disease. I fear what this time of fear is doing to my children, their imaginations, and their souls.

At ArtForum , Berlin-based critic and writer Kristian Vistrup Madsen reflects on martinis, melancholia, and Finnish artist Jaakko Pallasvuo’s 2018 graphic novel Retreat , in which three young people exile themselves in the woods:

In melancholia, the shape of what is ending, and its temporality, is sprawling and incomprehensible. The ambivalence makes it hard to bear. The world of Retreat is rendered in lush pink and purple watercolors, which dissolve into wild and messy abstractions. In apocalypse, the divisions established in genesis bleed back out. My own Corona-retreat is similarly soft, color-field like, each day a blurred succession of quarantinis, YouTube–yoga, and televized press conferences. As restrictions mount, so does abstraction. For now, I’m still rooting for love to save the world.

At the Paris Review , Matt Levin writes about reading Virginia Woolf’s novel The Waves during quarantine:

A retreat, a quarantine, a sickness—they simultaneously distort and clarify, curtail and expand. It is an ideal state in which to read literature with a reputation for difficulty and inaccessibility, those hermetic books shorn of the handholds of conventional plot or characterization or description. A novel like Virginia Woolf’s The Waves is perfect for the state of interiority induced by quarantine—a story of three men and three women, meeting after the death of a mutual friend, told entirely in the overlapping internal monologues of the six, interspersed only with sections of pure, achingly beautiful descriptions of the natural world, a day’s procession and recession of light and waves. The novel is, in my mind’s eye, a perfectly spherical object. It is translucent and shimmering and infinitely fragile, prone to shatter at the slightest disturbance. It is not a book that can be read in snatches on the subway—it demands total absorption. Though it revels in a stark emotional nakedness, the book remains aloof, remote in its own deep self-absorption.

Vox is starting a book club. Come read with us!

In an essay for the Financial Times, novelist Arundhati Roy writes with anger about Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s anemic response to the threat, but also offers a glimmer of hope for the future:

Historically, pandemics have forced humans to break with the past and imagine their world anew. This one is no different. It is a portal, a gateway between one world and the next. We can choose to walk through it, dragging the carcasses of our prejudice and hatred, our avarice, our data banks and dead ideas, our dead rivers and smoky skies behind us. Or we can walk through lightly, with little luggage, ready to imagine another world. And ready to fight for it.

From Boston, Nora Caplan-Bricker writes in The Point about the strange contraction of space under quarantine, in which a friend in Beirut is as close as the one around the corner in the same city:

It’s a nice illusion—nice to feel like we’re in it together, even if my real world has shrunk to one person, my husband, who sits with his laptop in the other room. It’s nice in the same way as reading those essays that reframe social distancing as solidarity. “We must begin to see the negative space as clearly as the positive, to know what we don’t do is also brilliant and full of love,” the poet Anne Boyer wrote on March 10th, the day that Massachusetts declared a state of emergency. If you squint, you could almost make sense of this quarantine as an effort to flatten, along with the curve, the distinctions we make between our bonds with others. Right now, I care for my neighbor in the same way I demonstrate love for my mother: in all instances, I stay away. And in moments this month, I have loved strangers with an intensity that is new to me. On March 14th, the Saturday night after the end of life as we knew it, I went out with my dog and found the street silent: no lines for restaurants, no children on bicycles, no couples strolling with little cups of ice cream. It had taken the combined will of thousands of people to deliver such a sudden and complete emptiness. I felt so grateful, and so bereft.

And on his own website, musician and artist David Byrne writes about rediscovering the value of working for collective good , saying that “what is happening now is an opportunity to learn how to change our behavior”:

In emergencies, citizens can suddenly cooperate and collaborate. Change can happen. We’re going to need to work together as the effects of climate change ramp up. In order for capitalism to survive in any form, we will have to be a little more socialist. Here is an opportunity for us to see things differently — to see that we really are all connected — and adjust our behavior accordingly. Are we willing to do this? Is this moment an opportunity to see how truly interdependent we all are? To live in a world that is different and better than the one we live in now? We might be too far down the road to test every asymptomatic person, but a change in our mindsets, in how we view our neighbors, could lay the groundwork for the collective action we’ll need to deal with other global crises. The time to see how connected we all are is now.

The portrait these writers paint of a world under quarantine is multifaceted. Our worlds have contracted to the confines of our homes, and yet in some ways we’re more connected than ever to one another. We feel fear and boredom, anger and gratitude, frustration and strange peace. Uncertainty drives us to find metaphors and images that will let us wrap our minds around what is happening.

Yet there’s no single “what” that is happening. Everyone is contending with the pandemic and its effects from different places and in different ways. Reading others’ experiences — even the most frightening ones — can help alleviate the loneliness and dread, a little, and remind us that what we’re going through is both unique and shared by all.

Most Popular

Take a mental break with the newest vox crossword, mysterious monoliths are appearing across the world. here’s what we know., this targaryen family tree explains jon snow’s parentage — and sets up house of the dragon, why israel acts the way it does, “black girl tanning” is the summer’s most radical beauty trend, today, explained.

Understand the world with a daily explainer plus the most compelling stories of the day.

More in Culture

What this summer’s age-gap escapist fantasies are missing about romance and middle age

Deadpool and Wolverine’s marketing blitz is one long gay joke

How “Not Like Us” became an anti-Drake anthem

It shouldn’t be so hard to live near your friends

How Ouija boards work. (Hint: It’s not ghosts.)

Mysterious monoliths are appearing across the world. Here’s what we know.

What nuclear annihilation could look like Audio

If it’s 100 degrees out, does your boss have to give you a break? Probably not.

“Black girl tanning” is the summer’s most radical beauty trend

The Supreme Court refuses to accept blame for its worst guns decision

First presidential debate Q&A with the Vox politics and policy team

Introduction - Pandemic Preparedness | Lessons From COVID-19

Introduction.

Recommendations
Other Views
Defense & Security
Diplomacy & International Institutions
Energy & Environment
Human Rights
Politics & Government
Social Issues
All Regions
Europe & Eurasia
Global Commons
Middle East & North Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
More Explainers
Backgrounders
Special Projects

Research & Analysis

All Research & Analysis
Centers & Programs
Books & Reports
Independent Task Force Program
Fellowships

Communities

All Communities
State & Local Officials
Religion Leaders
Local Journalists
Lectureship Series
Webinars & Conference Calls
Member Login
ForeignAffairs.com
Co-chairs Sylvia Mathews Burwell and Frances Fragos Townsend
Authors Thomas J. Bollyky and Stewart M. Patrick
The work ahead—home

On December 31, 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) contacted China about media reports of a cluster of viral pneumonias in Wuhan, later attributed to a coronavirus, now named SARS-CoV-2 . By January 30, 2020, scarcely a month later, WHO declared the virus to be a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC)—the highest alarm the organization can sound. Thirty days more and the pandemic was well underway; the coronavirus had spread to more than seventy countries and territories on six continents, and there were roughly ninety thousand confirmed cases worldwide of COVID-19, the disease caused by the coronavirus.

The COVID-19 pandemic is far from over and could yet evolve in unanticipated ways, but one of its most important lessons is already clear: preparation and early execution are essential in detecting, containing, and rapidly responding to and mitigating the spread of potentially dangerous emerging infectious diseases. The ability to marshal early action depends on nations and global institutions being prepared for the worst-case scenario of a severe pandemic and ready to execute on that preparedness The COVID-19 pandemic is far from over and could yet evolve in unanticipated ways, but one of its most important lessons is already clear: preparation and early execution are essential in detecting, containing, and rapidly responding to and mitigating the spread of potentially dangerous emerging infectious diseases. The ability to marshal early action depends on nations and global institutions being prepared for the worst-case scenario of a severe pandemic and ready to execute on that preparedness before that worst-case outcome is certain.

The rapid spread of the coronavirus and its devastating death toll and economic harm have revealed a failure of global and U.S. domestic preparedness and implementation, a lack of cooperation and coordination across nations, a breakdown of compliance with established norms and international agreements, and a patchwork of partial and mishandled responses. This pandemic has demonstrated the difficulty of responding effectively to emerging outbreaks in a context of growing geopolitical rivalry abroad and intense political partisanship at home.

Pandemic preparedness is a global public good. Infectious disease threats know no borders, and dangerous pathogens that circulate unabated anywhere are a risk everywhere. As the pandemic continues to unfold across the United States and world, the consequences of inadequate preparation and implementation are abundantly clear. Despite decades of various commissions highlighting the threat of global pandemics and international planning for their inevitability, neither the United States nor the broader international system were ready to execute those plans and respond to a severe pandemic. The result is the worst global catastrophe since World War II.

The lessons of this pandemic could go unheeded once life returns to a semblance of normalcy and COVID-19 ceases to menace nations around the globe. The United States and the world risk repeating many of the same mistakes that exacerbated this crisis, most prominently the failure to prioritize global health security, to invest in the essential domestic and international institutions and infrastructure required to achieve it, and to act quickly in executing a coherent response at both the national and the global level.

The goal of this report is to curtail that possibility by identifying what went wrong in the early national and international responses to the coronavirus pandemic and by providing a road map for the United States and the multilateral system to better prepare and execute in future waves of the current pandemic and when the next pandemic threat inevitably emerges. This report endeavors to preempt the next global health challenge before it becomes a disaster.

A Rapid Spread, a Grim Toll, and an Economic Disaster

On January 23, 2020, China’s government began to undertake drastic measures against the coronavirus, imposing a lockdown on Wuhan, a city of ten million people, aggressively testing, and forcibly rounding up potential carriers in makeshift quarantine centers. 1 In the subsequent days and weeks, the Chinese government extended containment to most of the country, sealing off cities and villages and mobilizing tens of thousands of health workers to contain and treat the disease. By the time those interventions began, however, the disease had already spread well beyond the country’s borders.

SARS-CoV-2 is a highly transmissible emerging infectious disease for which no highly effective treatments or vaccines currently exist and against which people have no preexisting immunity. Some nations have been successful so far in containing its spread through public health measures such as testing, contact tracing, and isolation of confirmed and suspected cases. Those nations have managed to keep the number of cases and deaths within their territories low.

More than one hundred countries implemented either a full or a partial shutdown in an effort to contain the spread of the virus and reduce pressure on their health systems. Although these measures to enforce physical distancing slowed the pace of infection, the societal and economic consequences in many nations have been grim. The supply chain for personal protective equipment (PPE), testing kits, and medical equipment such as oxygen treatment equipment and ventilators remains under immense pressure to meet global demand.

If international cooperation in response to COVID-19 has been occurring at the top levels of government, evidence of it has been scant, though technical areas such as data sharing have witnessed some notable successes. Countries have mostly gone their own ways, closing borders and often hoarding medical equipment. More than a dozen nations are competing in a biotechnology arms race to find a vaccine. A proposed international arrangement to ensure timely equitable access to the products of that biomedical innovation has yet to attract the necessary support from many vaccine-manufacturing nations, and many governments are now racing to cut deals with pharmaceutical firms and secure their own supplies.

As of August 31, 2020, the pandemic had infected at least twenty-five million people worldwide and killed at least 850,000 (both likely gross undercounts), including at least six million reported cases and 183,000 deaths in the United States. Meanwhile, the world economy had collapsed into a slump rivaling or surpassing the Great Depression, with unemployment rates averaging 8.4 percent in high-income economies. In the second quarter of 2020, the U.S gross domestic product (GDP) fell 9.5 percent, the largest quarterly decline in the nation’s history. 2

Already in May 2020, the Asia Development Bank estimated that the pandemic would cost the world $5.8 to 8.8 trillion, reducing global GDP in 2020 by 6.4 to 9.7 percent. The ultimate financial cost could be far higher. 3

The United States is among the countries most affected by the coronavirus, with about 24 percent of global cases (as of August 31) but just 4 percent of the world’s population. While many countries in Europe and Asia succeeded in driving down the rate of transmission in spring 2020, the United States experienced new spikes in infections in the summer because the absence of a national strategy left it to individual U.S. states to go their own way on reopening their economies. In the hardest-hit areas, U.S. hospitals with limited spare beds and intensive care unit capacity have struggled to accommodate the surge in COVID-19 patients. Resource-starved local and state public health departments have been unable to keep up with the staggering demand for case identification, contract tracing, and isolation required to contain the coronavirus’s spread.

A Failure to Heed Warnings

Institute of Medicine, Microbial Threats to Health (1992)
National Intelligence Estimate, The Global Infectious Disease Threat and Its Implications ...

This failing was not for any lack of warning of the dangers of pandemics. Indeed, many had sounded the alarm over the years. For nearly three decades, countless epidemiologists, public health specialists, intelligence community professionals, national security officials, and think tank experts have underscored the inevitability of a global pandemic of an emerging infectious disease. Starting with the Bill Clinton administration, successive administrations, including the current one, have included pandemic preparedness and response in their national security strategies. The U.S. government, foreign counterparts, and international agencies commissioned multiple scenarios and tabletop exercises that anticipated with uncanny accuracy the trajectory that a major outbreak could take, the complex national and global challenges it would create, and the glaring gaps and limitations in national and international capacity it would reveal.

The global health security community was almost uniformly in agreement that the most significant natural threat to population health and global security would be a respiratory virus—either a novel strain of influenza or a coronavirus that jumped from animals to humans. 4 Yet, for all this foresight and planning, national and international institutions alike have failed to rise to the occasion.

National Intelligence Estimate, The Global Infectious Disease Threat and Its Implications for the United States (2000)
Launch of the U.S. Global Health Security Initiative (2001)
Institute of Medicine, Microbial Threats to Health: Emergence, Detection, and Response (2003)
Revision of the International Health Regulations (2005)
World Health Organization, Global Influenza Preparedness Plan (2005)
Homeland Security Council, National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza (2005)
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Health Security Strategy of the United States of America (2009)
U.S. Director of National Intelligence, Worldwide Threat Assessments (2009–2019)
World Health Organization, Report of Review Committee on the Functioning of the International Health Regulations (2005) in Relation to Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 (2011)
Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013
Launch of the Global Health Security Agenda (2014)
Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense (now Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense) (2015)
National Security Strategy (2017)
National Biodefense Strategy (2018)
Crimson Contagion Simulation (2019)
Global Preparedness Monitoring Board, A Work at Risk: Annual Report on Global Preparedness for Health Emergencies (2019)
CSIS Commission, Ending the Cycle of Crisis and Complacency in U.S. Global Health Security (2019)
U.S. National Health Security Strategy, 2019–2022 (2019)
Global Health Security Index (2019)

Products & Resources

JEE Main Knockout April
Free Sample Papers
Free Ebooks
NCERT Notes
NCERT Syllabus
NCERT Books
RD Sharma Solutions
Navodaya Vidyalaya Admission 2024-25
NCERT Solutions
NCERT Solutions for Class 12
NCERT Solutions for Class 11
NCERT solutions for Class 10
NCERT solutions for Class 9
NCERT solutions for Class 8
NCERT Solutions for Class 7
JEE Main 2024
MHT CET 2024
JEE Advanced 2024
BITSAT 2024
View All Engineering Exams
Colleges Accepting B.Tech Applications
Top Engineering Colleges in India
Engineering Colleges in India
Engineering Colleges in Tamil Nadu
Engineering Colleges Accepting JEE Main
Top IITs in India
Top NITs in India
Top IIITs in India
JEE Main College Predictor
JEE Main Rank Predictor
MHT CET College Predictor
AP EAMCET College Predictor
GATE College Predictor
KCET College Predictor
JEE Advanced College Predictor
View All College Predictors
JEE Advanced Cutoff
JEE Main Cutoff
MHT CET Result 2024
JEE Advanced Result
Download E-Books and Sample Papers
Compare Colleges
B.Tech College Applications
AP EAMCET Result 2024
MAH MBA CET Exam
View All Management Exams

Colleges & Courses

MBA College Admissions
MBA Colleges in India
Top IIMs Colleges in India
Top Online MBA Colleges in India
MBA Colleges Accepting XAT Score
BBA Colleges in India
XAT College Predictor 2024
SNAP College Predictor
NMAT College Predictor
MAT College Predictor 2024
CMAT College Predictor 2024
CAT Percentile Predictor 2024
CAT 2024 College Predictor
Top MBA Entrance Exams 2024
AP ICET Counselling 2024
GD Topics for MBA
CAT Exam Date 2024
Download Helpful Ebooks
List of Popular Branches
QnA - Get answers to your doubts
IIM Fees Structure
AIIMS Nursing
Top Medical Colleges in India
Top Medical Colleges in India accepting NEET Score
Medical Colleges accepting NEET
List of Medical Colleges in India
List of AIIMS Colleges In India
Medical Colleges in Maharashtra
Medical Colleges in India Accepting NEET PG
NEET College Predictor
NEET PG College Predictor
NEET MDS College Predictor
NEET Rank Predictor
DNB PDCET College Predictor
NEET Result 2024
NEET Asnwer Key 2024
NEET Cut off
NEET Online Preparation
Download Helpful E-books
Colleges Accepting Admissions
Top Law Colleges in India
Law College Accepting CLAT Score
List of Law Colleges in India
Top Law Colleges in Delhi
Top NLUs Colleges in India
Top Law Colleges in Chandigarh
Top Law Collages in Lucknow

Predictors & E-Books

CLAT College Predictor
MHCET Law ( 5 Year L.L.B) College Predictor
AILET College Predictor
Sample Papers
Compare Law Collages
Careers360 Youtube Channel
CLAT Syllabus 2025
CLAT Previous Year Question Paper
NID DAT Exam
Pearl Academy Exam

Predictors & Articles

NIFT College Predictor
UCEED College Predictor
NID DAT College Predictor
NID DAT Syllabus 2025
NID DAT 2025
Design Colleges in India
Top NIFT Colleges in India
Fashion Design Colleges in India
Top Interior Design Colleges in India
Top Graphic Designing Colleges in India
Fashion Design Colleges in Delhi
Fashion Design Colleges in Mumbai
Top Interior Design Colleges in Bangalore
NIFT Result 2024
NIFT Fees Structure
NIFT Syllabus 2025
Free Design E-books
List of Branches
Careers360 Youtube channel
IPU CET BJMC
JMI Mass Communication Entrance Exam
IIMC Entrance Exam
Media & Journalism colleges in Delhi
Media & Journalism colleges in Bangalore
Media & Journalism colleges in Mumbai
List of Media & Journalism Colleges in India
CA Intermediate
CA Foundation
CS Executive
CS Professional
Difference between CA and CS
Difference between CA and CMA
CA Full form
CMA Full form
CS Full form
CA Salary In India

Top Courses & Careers

Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com)
Master of Commerce (M.Com)
Company Secretary
Cost Accountant
Charted Accountant
Credit Manager
Financial Advisor
Top Commerce Colleges in India
Top Government Commerce Colleges in India
Top Private Commerce Colleges in India
Top M.Com Colleges in Mumbai
Top B.Com Colleges in India
IT Colleges in Tamil Nadu
IT Colleges in Uttar Pradesh
MCA Colleges in India
BCA Colleges in India

Diploma Colleges

Top Diploma Colleges in Maharashtra
UPSC IAS 2024
SSC CGL 2024
IBPS RRB 2024
Previous Year Sample Papers
Free Competition E-books
Sarkari Result
QnA- Get your doubts answered
UPSC Previous Year Sample Papers
CTET Previous Year Sample Papers
SBI Clerk Previous Year Sample Papers
NDA Previous Year Sample Papers

Upcoming Events

NDA Application Form 2024
UPSC IAS Application Form 2024
CDS Application Form 2024
CTET Admit card 2024
HP TET Result 2023
SSC GD Constable Admit Card 2024
UPTET Notification 2024
SBI Clerk Result 2024

Other Exams

SSC CHSL 2024
UP PCS 2024
UGC NET 2024
RRB NTPC 2024
IBPS PO 2024
IBPS Clerk 2024
IBPS SO 2024
Top University in USA
Top University in Canada
Top University in Ireland
Top Universities in UK
Top Universities in Australia
Best MBA Colleges in Abroad
Business Management Studies Colleges

Top Countries

Study in USA
Study in UK
Study in Canada
Study in Australia
Study in Ireland
Study in Germany
Study in China
Study in Europe

Student Visas

Student Visa Canada
Student Visa UK
Student Visa USA
Student Visa Australia
Student Visa Germany
Student Visa New Zealand
Student Visa Ireland
CUET PG 2024
IGNOU B.Ed Admission 2024
DU Admission 2024
UP B.Ed JEE 2024
LPU NEST 2024
IIT JAM 2024
IGNOU Online Admission 2024
Universities in India
Top Universities in India 2024
Top Colleges in India
Top Universities in Uttar Pradesh 2024
Top Universities in Bihar
Top Universities in Madhya Pradesh 2024
Top Universities in Tamil Nadu 2024
Central Universities in India
CUET DU Cut off 2024
IGNOU Date Sheet
CUET DU CSAS Portal 2024
CUET Response Sheet 2024
CUET Result 2024
CUET Participating Universities 2024
CUET Previous Year Question Paper
CUET Syllabus 2024 for Science Students
E-Books and Sample Papers
CUET Exam Pattern 2024
CUET Exam Date 2024
CUET Cut Off 2024
CUET Exam Analysis 2024
IGNOU Exam Form 2024
CUET PG Counselling 2024
CUET Answer Key 2024

Engineering Preparation

Knockout JEE Main 2024
Test Series JEE Main 2024
JEE Main 2024 Rank Booster

Medical Preparation

Knockout NEET 2024
Test Series NEET 2024
Rank Booster NEET 2024

Online Courses

JEE Main One Month Course
NEET One Month Course
IBSAT Free Mock Tests
IIT JEE Foundation Course
Knockout BITSAT 2024
Career Guidance Tool

Top Streams

IT & Software Certification Courses
Engineering and Architecture Certification Courses
Programming And Development Certification Courses
Business and Management Certification Courses
Marketing Certification Courses
Health and Fitness Certification Courses
Design Certification Courses

Specializations

Digital Marketing Certification Courses
Cyber Security Certification Courses
Artificial Intelligence Certification Courses
Business Analytics Certification Courses
Data Science Certification Courses
Cloud Computing Certification Courses
Machine Learning Certification Courses
View All Certification Courses
UG Degree Courses
PG Degree Courses
Short Term Courses
Free Courses
Online Degrees and Diplomas
Compare Courses

Top Providers

Coursera Courses
Udemy Courses
Edx Courses
Swayam Courses
upGrad Courses
Simplilearn Courses
Great Learning Courses

Covid 19 Essay in English

Essay on Covid -19: In a very short amount of time, coronavirus has spread globally. It has had an enormous impact on people's lives, economy, and societies all around the world, affecting every country. Governments have had to take severe measures to try and contain the pandemic. The virus has altered our way of life in many ways, including its effects on our health and our economy. Here are a few sample essays on ‘CoronaVirus’.

100 Words Essay on Covid 19

200 words essay on covid 19, 500 words essay on covid 19.

COVID-19 or Corona Virus is a novel coronavirus that was first identified in 2019. It is similar to other coronaviruses, such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, but it is more contagious and has caused more severe respiratory illness in people who have been infected. The novel coronavirus became a global pandemic in a very short period of time. It has affected lives, economies and societies across the world, leaving no country untouched. The virus has caused governments to take drastic measures to try and contain it. From health implications to economic and social ramifications, COVID-19 impacted every part of our lives. It has been more than 2 years since the pandemic hit and the world is still recovering from its effects.

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, the world has been impacted in a number of ways. For one, the global economy has taken a hit as businesses have been forced to close their doors. This has led to widespread job losses and an increase in poverty levels around the world. Additionally, countries have had to impose strict travel restrictions in an attempt to contain the virus, which has resulted in a decrease in tourism and international trade. Furthermore, the pandemic has put immense pressure on healthcare systems globally, as hospitals have been overwhelmed with patients suffering from the virus. Lastly, the outbreak has led to a general feeling of anxiety and uncertainty, as people are fearful of contracting the disease.

My Experience of COVID-19

I still remember how abruptly colleges and schools shut down in March 2020. I was a college student at that time and I was under the impression that everything would go back to normal in a few weeks. I could not have been more wrong. The situation only got worse every week and the government had to impose a lockdown. There were so many restrictions in place. For example, we had to wear face masks whenever we left the house, and we could only go out for essential errands. Restaurants and shops were only allowed to operate at take-out capacity, and many businesses were shut down.

In the current scenario, coronavirus is dominating all aspects of our lives. The coronavirus pandemic has wreaked havoc upon people’s lives, altering the way we live and work in a very short amount of time. It has revolutionised how we think about health care, education, and even social interaction. This virus has had long-term implications on our society, including its impact on mental health, economic stability, and global politics. But we as individuals can help to mitigate these effects by taking personal responsibility to protect themselves and those around them from infection.

Effects of CoronaVirus on Education

The outbreak of coronavirus has had a significant impact on education systems around the world. In China, where the virus originated, all schools and universities were closed for several weeks in an effort to contain the spread of the disease. Many other countries have followed suit, either closing schools altogether or suspending classes for a period of time.

This has resulted in a major disruption to the education of millions of students. Some have been able to continue their studies online, but many have not had access to the internet or have not been able to afford the costs associated with it. This has led to a widening of the digital divide between those who can afford to continue their education online and those who cannot.

The closure of schools has also had a negative impact on the mental health of many students. With no face-to-face contact with friends and teachers, some students have felt isolated and anxious. This has been compounded by the worry and uncertainty surrounding the virus itself.

The situation with coronavirus has improved and schools have been reopened but students are still catching up with the gap of 2 years that the pandemic created. In the meantime, governments and educational institutions are working together to find ways to support students and ensure that they are able to continue their education despite these difficult circumstances.

Effects of CoronaVirus on Economy

The outbreak of the coronavirus has had a significant impact on the global economy. The virus, which originated in China, has spread to over two hundred countries, resulting in widespread panic and a decrease in global trade. As a result of the outbreak, many businesses have been forced to close their doors, leading to a rise in unemployment. In addition, the stock market has taken a severe hit.

Effects of CoronaVirus on Health

The effects that coronavirus has on one's health are still being studied and researched as the virus continues to spread throughout the world. However, some of the potential effects on health that have been observed thus far include respiratory problems, fever, and coughing. In severe cases, pneumonia, kidney failure, and death can occur. It is important for people who think they may have been exposed to the virus to seek medical attention immediately so that they can be treated properly and avoid any serious complications. There is no specific cure or treatment for coronavirus at this time, but there are ways to help ease symptoms and prevent the virus from spreading.

Applications for Admissions are open.

Aakash iACST Scholarship Test 2024

Get up to 90% scholarship on NEET, JEE & Foundation courses

ALLEN Digital Scholarship Admission Test (ADSAT)

JEE Main Important Physics formulas

As per latest 2024 syllabus. Physics formulas, equations, & laws of class 11 & 12th chapters

PW JEE Coaching

Enrol in PW Vidyapeeth center for JEE coaching

JEE Main Important Chemistry formulas

As per latest 2024 syllabus. Chemistry formulas, equations, & laws of class 11 & 12th chapters

TOEFL ® Registrations 2024

Accepted by more than 11,000 universities in over 150 countries worldwide

Download Careers360 App's

Regular exam updates, QnA, Predictors, College Applications & E-books now on your Mobile

Certifications

We Appeared in

45,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. Take the first step today

Meet top uk universities from the comfort of your home, here’s your new year gift, one app for all your, study abroad needs, start your journey, track your progress, grow with the community and so much more.

Verification Code

An OTP has been sent to your registered mobile no. Please verify

Thanks for your comment !

Our team will review it before it's shown to our readers.

School Education /

Essay On Covid-19: 100, 200 and 300 Words

Updated on
Apr 30, 2024

COVID-19, also known as the Coronavirus, is a global pandemic that has affected people all around the world. It first emerged in a lab in Wuhan, China, in late 2019 and quickly spread to countries around the world. This virus was reportedly caused by SARS-CoV-2. Since then, it has spread rapidly to many countries, causing widespread illness and impacting our lives in numerous ways. This blog talks about the details of this virus and also drafts an essay on COVID-19 in 100, 200 and 300 words for students and professionals.

Table of Contents

1 Essay On COVID-19 in English 100 Words
2 Essay On COVID-19 in 200 Words
3 Essay On COVID-19 in 300 Words
4 Short Essay on Covid-19

Essay On COVID-19 in English 100 Words

COVID-19, also known as the coronavirus, is a global pandemic. It started in late 2019 and has affected people all around the world. The virus spreads very quickly through someone’s sneeze and respiratory issues.

COVID-19 has had a significant impact on our lives, with lockdowns, travel restrictions, and changes in daily routines. To prevent the spread of COVID-19, we should wear masks, practice social distancing, and wash our hands frequently.

People should follow social distancing and other safety guidelines and also learn the tricks to be safe stay healthy and work the whole challenging time.

Also Read: National Safe Motherhood Day 2023

Essay On COVID-19 in 200 Words

COVID-19 also known as coronavirus, became a global health crisis in early 2020 and impacted mankind around the world. This virus is said to have originated in Wuhan, China in late 2019. It belongs to the coronavirus family and causes flu-like symptoms. It impacted the healthcare systems, economies and the daily lives of people all over the world.

The most crucial aspect of COVID-19 is its highly spreadable nature. It is a communicable disease that spreads through various means such as coughs from infected persons, sneezes and communication. Due to its easy transmission leading to its outbreaks, there were many measures taken by the government from all over the world such as Lockdowns, Social Distancing, and wearing masks.

There are many changes throughout the economic systems, and also in daily routines. Other measures such as schools opting for Online schooling, Remote work options available and restrictions on travel throughout the country and internationally. Subsequently, to cure and top its outbreak, the government started its vaccine campaigns, and other preventive measures.

In conclusion, COVID-19 tested the patience and resilience of the mankind. This pandemic has taught people the importance of patience, effort and humbleness.

Essay On COVID-19 in 300 Words

COVID-19, also known as the coronavirus, is a serious and contagious disease that has affected people worldwide. It was first discovered in late 2019 in Cina and then got spread in the whole world. It had a major impact on people’s life, their school, work and daily lives.

COVID-19 is primarily transmitted from person to person through respiratory droplets produced and through sneezes, and coughs of an infected person. It can spread to thousands of people because of its highly contagious nature. To cure the widespread of this virus, there are thousands of steps taken by the people and the government.

Wearing masks is one of the essential precautions to prevent the virus from spreading. Social distancing is another vital practice, which involves maintaining a safe distance from others to minimize close contact.

Very frequent handwashing is also very important to stop the spread of this virus. Proper hand hygiene can help remove any potential virus particles from our hands, reducing the risk of infection.

In conclusion, the Coronavirus has changed people’s perspective on living. It has also changed people’s way of interacting and how to live. To deal with this virus, it is very important to follow the important guidelines such as masks, social distancing and techniques to wash your hands. Getting vaccinated is also very important to go back to normal life and cure this virus completely.

Also Read: Essay on Abortion in English in 650 Words

Short Essay on Covid-19

Please find below a sample of a short essay on Covid-19 for school students:

Also Read: Essay on Women’s Day in 200 and 500 words

to write an essay on COVID-19, understand your word limit and make sure to cover all the stages and symptoms of this disease. You need to highlight all the challenges and impacts of COVID-19. Do not forget to conclude your essay with positive precautionary measures.

Writing an essay on COVID-19 in 200 words requires you to cover all the challenges, impacts and precautions of this disease. You don’t need to describe all of these factors in brief, but make sure to add as many options as your word limit allows.

The full form for COVID-19 is Corona Virus Disease of 2019.

Simran Popli

An avid writer and a creative person. With an experience of 1.5 years content writing, Simran has worked with different areas. From medical to working in a marketing agency with different clients to Ed-tech company, the journey has been diverse. Creative, vivacious and patient are the words that describe her personality.

Connect With Us

45,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. take the first step today..

Resend OTP in

Need help with?

Study abroad.

UK, Canada, US & More

IELTS, GRE, GMAT & More

Scholarship, Loans & Forex

Country Preference

New Zealand

Which English test are you planning to take?

Which academic test are you planning to take.

Not Sure yet

When are you planning to take the exam?

Already booked my exam slot

Within 2 Months

Want to learn about the test

Which Degree do you wish to pursue?

When do you want to start studying abroad.

January 2024

September 2024

What is your budget to study abroad?

How would you describe this article ?

Please rate this article

We would like to hear more.

Have something on your mind?

Make your study abroad dream a reality in January 2022 with

India's Biggest Virtual University Fair

Essex Direct Admission Day

Why attend .

Don't Miss Out

Fact sheets
Facts in pictures
Publications
Questions and answers
Tools and toolkits
HIV and AIDS
Hypertension
Mental disorders
Top 10 causes of death
All countries
Eastern Mediterranean
South-East Asia
Western Pacific
Data by country
Country presence
Country strengthening
Country cooperation strategies
News releases
Feature stories
Press conferences
Commentaries
Photo library
Afghanistan
Cholera
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19)
Greater Horn of Africa
Israel and occupied Palestinian territory
Disease Outbreak News
Situation reports
Weekly Epidemiological Record
Surveillance
Health emergency appeal
International Health Regulations
Independent Oversight and Advisory Committee
Classifications
Data collections
Global Health Estimates
Mortality Database
Sustainable Development Goals
Health Inequality Monitor
Global Progress
Data collection tools
Global Health Observatory
Insights and visualizations
COVID excess deaths
World Health Statistics
Partnerships
Committees and advisory groups
Collaborating centres
Technical teams
Organizational structure
Initiatives
General Programme of Work
WHO Academy
Investment case
WHO Foundation
External audit
Financial statements
Internal audit and investigations
Programme Budget
Results reports
Governing bodies
World Health Assembly
Executive Board
Member States Portal

Impact of COVID-19 on people's livelihoods, their health and our food systems

Joint statement by ilo, fao, ifad and who.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a dramatic loss of human life worldwide and presents an unprecedented challenge to public health, food systems and the world of work. The economic and social disruption caused by the pandemic is devastating: tens of millions of people are at risk of falling into extreme poverty, while the number of undernourished people, currently estimated at nearly 690 million, could increase by up to 132 million by the end of the year.

Millions of enterprises face an existential threat. Nearly half of the world’s 3.3 billion global workforce are at risk of losing their livelihoods. Informal economy workers are particularly vulnerable because the majority lack social protection and access to quality health care and have lost access to productive assets. Without the means to earn an income during lockdowns, many are unable to feed themselves and their families. For most, no income means no food, or, at best, less food and less nutritious food.

The pandemic has been affecting the entire food system and has laid bare its fragility. Border closures, trade restrictions and confinement measures have been preventing farmers from accessing markets, including for buying inputs and selling their produce, and agricultural workers from harvesting crops, thus disrupting domestic and international food supply chains and reducing access to healthy, safe and diverse diets. The pandemic has decimated jobs and placed millions of livelihoods at risk. As breadwinners lose jobs, fall ill and die, the food security and nutrition of millions of women and men are under threat, with those in low-income countries, particularly the most marginalized populations, which include small-scale farmers and indigenous peoples, being hardest hit.

Millions of agricultural workers – waged and self-employed – while feeding the world, regularly face high levels of working poverty, malnutrition and poor health, and suffer from a lack of safety and labour protection as well as other types of abuse. With low and irregular incomes and a lack of social support, many of them are spurred to continue working, often in unsafe conditions, thus exposing themselves and their families to additional risks. Further, when experiencing income losses, they may resort to negative coping strategies, such as distress sale of assets, predatory loans or child labour. Migrant agricultural workers are particularly vulnerable, because they face risks in their transport, working and living conditions and struggle to access support measures put in place by governments. Guaranteeing the safety and health of all agri-food workers – from primary producers to those involved in food processing, transport and retail, including street food vendors – as well as better incomes and protection, will be critical to saving lives and protecting public health, people’s livelihoods and food security.

In the COVID-19 crisis food security, public health, and employment and labour issues, in particular workers’ health and safety, converge. Adhering to workplace safety and health practices and ensuring access to decent work and the protection of labour rights in all industries will be crucial in addressing the human dimension of the crisis. Immediate and purposeful action to save lives and livelihoods should include extending social protection towards universal health coverage and income support for those most affected. These include workers in the informal economy and in poorly protected and low-paid jobs, including youth, older workers, and migrants. Particular attention must be paid to the situation of women, who are over-represented in low-paid jobs and care roles. Different forms of support are key, including cash transfers, child allowances and healthy school meals, shelter and food relief initiatives, support for employment retention and recovery, and financial relief for businesses, including micro, small and medium-sized enterprises. In designing and implementing such measures it is essential that governments work closely with employers and workers.

Countries dealing with existing humanitarian crises or emergencies are particularly exposed to the effects of COVID-19. Responding swiftly to the pandemic, while ensuring that humanitarian and recovery assistance reaches those most in need, is critical.

Now is the time for global solidarity and support, especially with the most vulnerable in our societies, particularly in the emerging and developing world. Only together can we overcome the intertwined health and social and economic impacts of the pandemic and prevent its escalation into a protracted humanitarian and food security catastrophe, with the potential loss of already achieved development gains.

We must recognize this opportunity to build back better, as noted in the Policy Brief issued by the United Nations Secretary-General. We are committed to pooling our expertise and experience to support countries in their crisis response measures and efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. We need to develop long-term sustainable strategies to address the challenges facing the health and agri-food sectors. Priority should be given to addressing underlying food security and malnutrition challenges, tackling rural poverty, in particular through more and better jobs in the rural economy, extending social protection to all, facilitating safe migration pathways and promoting the formalization of the informal economy.

We must rethink the future of our environment and tackle climate change and environmental degradation with ambition and urgency. Only then can we protect the health, livelihoods, food security and nutrition of all people, and ensure that our ‘new normal’ is a better one.

Media Contacts

Kimberly Chriscaden

Communications Officer World Health Organization

Nutrition and Food Safety (NFS) and COVID-19

Essay on COVID-19 Pandemic

As a result of the COVID-19 (Coronavirus) outbreak, daily life has been negatively affected, impacting the worldwide economy. Thousands of individuals have been sickened or died as a result of the outbreak of this disease. When you have the flu or a viral infection, the most common symptoms include fever, cold, coughing up bone fragments, and difficulty breathing, which may progress to pneumonia. It’s important to take major steps like keeping a strict cleaning routine, keeping social distance, and wearing masks, among other things. This virus’s geographic spread is accelerating (Daniel Pg 93). Governments restricted public meetings during the start of the pandemic to prevent the disease from spreading and breaking the exponential distribution curve. In order to avoid the damage caused by this extremely contagious disease, several countries quarantined their citizens. However, this scenario had drastically altered with the discovery of the vaccinations. The research aims to investigate the effect of the Covid-19 epidemic and its impact on the population’s well-being.

There is growing interest in the relationship between social determinants of health and health outcomes. Still, many health care providers and academics have been hesitant to recognize racism as a contributing factor to racial health disparities. Only a few research have examined the health effects of institutional racism, with the majority focusing on interpersonal racial and ethnic prejudice Ciotti et al., Pg 370. The latter comprises historically and culturally connected institutions that are interconnected. Prejudice is being practiced in a variety of contexts as a result of the COVID-19 outbreak. In some ways, the outbreak has exposed pre-existing bias and inequity.

Thousands of businesses are in danger of failure. Around 2.3 billion of the world’s 3.3 billion employees are out of work. These workers are especially susceptible since they lack access to social security and adequate health care, and they’ve also given up ownership of productive assets, which makes them highly vulnerable. Many individuals lose their employment as a result of lockdowns, leaving them unable to support their families. People strapped for cash are often forced to reduce their caloric intake while also eating less nutritiously (Fraser et al, Pg 3). The epidemic has had an impact on the whole food chain, revealing vulnerabilities that were previously hidden. Border closures, trade restrictions, and confinement measures have limited farmer access to markets, while agricultural workers have not gathered crops. As a result, the local and global food supply chain has been disrupted, and people now have less access to healthy foods. As a consequence of the epidemic, many individuals have lost their employment, and millions more are now in danger. When breadwinners lose their jobs, become sick, or die, the food and nutrition of millions of people are endangered. Particularly severely hit are the world’s poorest small farmers and indigenous peoples.

Infectious illness outbreaks and epidemics have become worldwide threats due to globalization, urbanization, and environmental change. In developed countries like Europe and North America, surveillance and health systems monitor and manage the spread of infectious illnesses in real-time. Both low- and high-income countries need to improve their public health capacities (Omer et al., Pg 1767). These improvements should be financed using a mix of national and foreign donor money. In order to speed up research and reaction for new illnesses with pandemic potential, a global collaborative effort including governments and commercial companies has been proposed. When working on a vaccine-like COVID-19, cooperation is critical.

The epidemic has had an impact on the whole food chain, revealing vulnerabilities that were previously hidden. Border closures, trade restrictions, and confinement measures have limited farmer access to markets, while agricultural workers have been unable to gather crops. As a result, the local and global food supply chain has been disrupted, and people now have less access to healthy foods (Daniel et al.,Pg 95) . As a consequence of the epidemic, many individuals have lost their employment, and millions more are now in danger. When breadwinners lose their jobs, the food and nutrition of millions of people are endangered. Particularly severely hit are the world’s poorest small farmers and indigenous peoples.

While helping to feed the world’s population, millions of paid and unpaid agricultural laborers suffer from high levels of poverty, hunger, and bad health, as well as a lack of safety and labor safeguards, as well as other kinds of abuse at work. Poor people, who have no recourse to social assistance, must work longer and harder, sometimes in hazardous occupations, endangering their families in the process (Daniel Pg 96). When faced with a lack of income, people may turn to hazardous financial activities, including asset liquidation, predatory lending, or child labor, to make ends meet. Because of the dangers they encounter while traveling, working, and living abroad; migrant agricultural laborers are especially vulnerable. They also have a difficult time taking advantage of government assistance programs.

The pandemic also has a significant impact on education. Although many educational institutions across the globe have already made the switch to online learning, the extent to which technology is utilized to improve the quality of distance or online learning varies. This level is dependent on several variables, including the different parties engaged in the execution of this learning format and the incorporation of technology into educational institutions before the time of school closure caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. For many years, researchers from all around the globe have worked to determine what variables contribute to effective technology integration in the classroom Ciotti et al., Pg 371. The amount of technology usage and the quality of learning when moving from a classroom to a distant or online format are presumed to be influenced by the same set of variables. Findings from previous research, which sought to determine what affects educational systems ability to integrate technology into teaching, suggest understanding how teachers, students, and technology interact positively in order to achieve positive results in the integration of teaching technology (Honey et al., 2000). Teachers’ views on teaching may affect the chances of successfully incorporating technology into the classroom and making it a part of the learning process.

In conclusion, indeed, Covid 19 pandemic have affected the well being of the people in a significant manner. The economy operation across the globe have been destabilized as most of the people have been rendered jobless while the job operation has been stopped. As most of the people have been rendered jobless the living conditions of the people have also been significantly affected. Besides, the education sector has also been affected as most of the learning institutions prefer the use of online learning which is not effective as compared to the traditional method. With the invention of the vaccines, most of the developed countries have been noted to stabilize slowly, while the developing countries have not been able to vaccinate most of its citizens. However, despite the challenge caused by the pandemic, organizations have been able to adapt the new mode of online trading to be promoted.

Ciotti, Marco, et al. “The COVID-19 pandemic.” Critical reviews in clinical laboratory sciences 57.6 (2020): 365-388.

Daniel, John. “Education and the COVID-19 pandemic.” Prospects 49.1 (2020): 91-96.

Fraser, Nicholas, et al. “Preprinting the COVID-19 pandemic.” BioRxiv (2021): 2020-05.

Omer, Saad B., Preeti Malani, and Carlos Del Rio. “The COVID-19 pandemic in the US: a clinical update.” Jama 323.18 (2020): 1767-1768.

Cite this page

Similar essay samples.

Essay on Effects of Technology on Education
Literature Review – Analysis Of ‘needs Assessment’ As A Deve...
A Cognitive Dissonance perspective on social media echo chambers
Essay on the Wolf of the Wall Street
Analysis of “The Murderer”
Essay on Ebola Virus and Its Long-Term Effects

Paragraph Writing on Covid 19

Ai generator.

COVID-19, caused by the coronavirus, significantly impacted global health and daily life. Action plans focused on prevention, treatment, and vaccination. Some sought religious exemptions from mandates. A health thesis statement might explore the pandemic’s effects on mental health. The tone is informative and serious. This paragraph highlights the comprehensive response to COVID-19.

Checkout → Free Paragraph Writer Tool

Short Paragraph on Covid-19

Covid-19 is a global pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus. It has significantly impacted daily life, with governments worldwide implementing lockdowns, social distancing, and mask mandates to curb the virus’s spread. The pandemic has highlighted the importance of healthcare systems and the need for vaccines. It has also emphasized global cooperation and resilience in facing unprecedented challenges.

Medium Paragraph on Covid-19

Covid-19, caused by the novel coronavirus, has had a profound impact on the world since its outbreak. The pandemic led to widespread lockdowns, social distancing measures, and mandatory mask-wearing to prevent the virus’s spread. Healthcare systems were overwhelmed, emphasizing the need for robust medical infrastructure and preparedness. The development and distribution of vaccines became a global priority, showcasing the importance of scientific research and international cooperation. Economies faced significant challenges, with businesses closing and unemployment rates rising. Despite these hardships, the pandemic also brought communities together, highlighting resilience, adaptability, and the critical role of healthcare workers in combating the crisis.

Long Paragraph on Covid-19

Covid-19, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, emerged in late 2019 and rapidly spread across the globe, leading to an unprecedented pandemic. The virus’s high transmission rate prompted governments worldwide to implement stringent measures such as lockdowns, social distancing, and mask mandates to control its spread. These measures, while necessary, significantly disrupted daily life, impacting economies, education, and social interactions. Healthcare systems were strained, underscoring the need for better preparedness and robust medical infrastructure. The rapid development and global distribution of vaccines became a beacon of hope, demonstrating the power of scientific collaboration and innovation. The pandemic also highlighted the disparities in healthcare access and the importance of public health initiatives. Despite the immense challenges, communities showed resilience and adaptability, finding new ways to connect and support each other. The dedication of healthcare workers and the collective effort to combat the virus underscored the importance of global solidarity. Covid-19 has reshaped our world, teaching valuable lessons about preparedness, the significance of science, and the strength of human resilience in the face of adversity.

Tone-wise Paragraph Examples on Covid-19

Formal tone.

Covid-19, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, represents an unprecedented global health crisis. The pandemic has led to widespread implementation of public health measures such as lockdowns, social distancing, and mandatory mask usage to mitigate the virus’s transmission. Healthcare systems worldwide faced significant strain, highlighting the critical need for robust medical infrastructure and emergency preparedness. The rapid development and distribution of vaccines have been pivotal in controlling the spread of the virus, underscoring the importance of scientific research and international cooperation. The pandemic has also revealed existing disparities in healthcare access and emphasized the necessity of coordinated global public health strategies to effectively manage such crises.

Informal Tone

Covid-19 has really shaken things up since it started spreading in late 2019. Caused by a new coronavirus, it led to lockdowns, social distancing, and everyone wearing masks. Daily life changed a lot, with schools and businesses shutting down, and everyone trying to stay safe. The healthcare system was hit hard, showing us just how important it is to be prepared. Vaccines were developed super quickly, giving us hope to get back to normal. Even though it was tough, people came together, supported each other, and adapted to the new normal. Covid-19 taught us a lot about resilience and the importance of healthcare.

Persuasive Tone

Covid-19, caused by the novel coronavirus, has highlighted the urgent need for better healthcare systems and global cooperation. The pandemic led to widespread lockdowns, social distancing, and mask mandates, disrupting daily life and economies. Our healthcare systems were overwhelmed, underscoring the critical need for robust medical infrastructure. The rapid development of vaccines showcased the power of scientific research and international collaboration. Now, more than ever, it is crucial to support and strengthen our healthcare systems, invest in scientific research, and promote global cooperation to ensure we are better prepared for future health crises. Let’s learn from this pandemic and build a stronger, healthier world together.

Reflective Tone

Reflecting on the impact of Covid-19, it’s clear that the pandemic has reshaped our world in profound ways. The novel coronavirus led to unprecedented global lockdowns, social distancing, and mask mandates, dramatically altering daily life. Our healthcare systems were tested like never before, revealing both strengths and weaknesses. The rapid development and distribution of vaccines highlighted the importance of scientific innovation and international cooperation. Amid the challenges, communities showed remarkable resilience and adaptability, finding new ways to connect and support one another. Covid-19 has taught us valuable lessons about preparedness, the significance of healthcare, and the power of human resilience in the face of adversity.

Inspirational Tone

Covid-19 has been a challenging journey, but it has also shown the incredible strength and resilience of humanity. The novel coronavirus led to global lockdowns, social distancing, and mask mandates, changing our daily lives dramatically. Despite these hardships, the rapid development and distribution of vaccines brought hope and showcased the power of scientific innovation and global cooperation. Communities came together, supporting each other and adapting to new realities. Healthcare workers became heroes, showing unparalleled dedication and bravery. Covid-19 has taught us the importance of unity, resilience, and the ability to overcome even the toughest challenges. Together, we can build a brighter, healthier future.

Optimistic Tone

Covid-19, caused by the novel coronavirus, brought significant challenges, but it also highlighted the resilience and adaptability of people worldwide. The pandemic led to lockdowns, social distancing, and mask-wearing, changing our daily routines. Despite these difficulties, the rapid development of vaccines brought hope and demonstrated the power of scientific progress. Communities came together, supporting one another and finding new ways to connect. Healthcare workers showed incredible dedication, and the world witnessed the strength of human spirit. Covid-19 has been a tough journey, but it also reinforced our ability to overcome adversity and work towards a healthier, more connected future.

Urgent Tone

The Covid-19 pandemic, caused by the novel coronavirus, demands our immediate attention and action. Since its outbreak, the virus has led to widespread lockdowns, social distancing, and mandatory mask usage, significantly disrupting daily life. Healthcare systems have been overwhelmed, highlighting the urgent need for better preparedness and robust medical infrastructure. The rapid development of vaccines has been crucial, but we must continue to prioritize public health measures and global cooperation to combat this crisis. Now is the time to invest in healthcare, support scientific research, and work together to overcome this pandemic. Immediate action is essential to protect lives and prevent further devastation.

Word Count-wise Paragraph Examples on Covid-19

Text prompt

Instructive
Professional

10 Examples of Public speaking

20 Examples of Gas lighting

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
Methodist Debakey Cardiovasc J
v.17(5); 2021

The Way Ahead: Life After COVID-19

Mouaz h. al-mallah.

1 Houston Methodist DeBakey Heart & Vascular Center, Houston, TX, US

Much has changed in the 2 years since the start of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic. The need for social distancing catalyzed the digitization of healthcare delivery and medical education—from telemedicine and virtual conferences to online residency/fellowship interviews. Vaccine development, particularly in the field of mRNA technology, led to widespread availability of safe and effective vaccines. With improved survival from acute infection, the healthcare system is dealing with the ever-growing cohort of patients with lingering symptoms. In addition, social media platforms have fueled a plethora of misinformation campaigns that have adversely affected prevention and control measures. In this review, we examine how COVID-19 has reshaped the healthcare system, and gauge its potential effects on life after the pandemic.

Introduction

In December 2021, after many months of living with the COVID-19 pandemic, the world is still looking for a way out of this healthcare crisis. As of this writing, more than 250 million people globally have been infected with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), and nearly 5 million individuals lost their lives battling the complications of severe acute respiratory syndromes. 1 Many communities experienced multiple surges of the virus, with changes in normal life and restrictions to daily activities. The intensification of vaccination efforts brought about hope for a possible end to the pandemic. However, the continued emergence of variant strains and vaccine hesitancy have been persistent challenges in the US and globally. In this article, we review the long-term effect of COVID-19 on healthcare systems and envision the future of life after the pandemic ( Figure 1 ).

The long-term effects of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic on the healthcare system.

Since the beginning of the pandemic, there have been accelerated efforts to sequence the genetic material of the virus and build effective vaccines that decrease the risk of infection, hospitalization, and mortality. 2 At the time of this writing, more than 10 vaccines have been approved by local healthcare authorities in different parts of the world. 3 The pandemic has also driven innovation in the novel field of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) vaccines. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the use of the Pfizer-BioNTech mRNA vaccine and given emergency use authorization to Moderna. 4 The mRNA vaccines have shown excellent efficacy against many of the strains, including the beta and delta strains.

More recently, booster doses have been approved by the FDA for individuals aged 65 years and older as well as individuals with comorbidities, in long-term care facilities, or at increased risk for COVID-19 exposure and transmission due to occupational or institutional settings. 5 Furthermore, the FDA has also given emergency use authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine in individuals aged 12 to 17 years and, as of October 29, in children aged 5 to 11 years.

Although the fast-tracked vaccine production time led some skeptics to hypothesize safety concerns, the rate of adverse events has been very low. One complication that gained significant attention is myocarditis. 6 , 7 , 8 Emerging data have shown that young men are the most commonly affected demographic. Furthermore, the risk was elevated in the setting of a recent COVID-19 illness and after the second dose of the vaccine. 6 , 7 Although the rate of myocarditis is low and the majority of patients recover, the risk of recurrence in patients who developed myocarditis with the first dose or in patients with recent myocarditis is unclear. Similarly, the rate of recurrence after the second or booster doses also is unclear.

Vaccine Mandates

Multiple state and federal governments have issued vaccine mandates, and they have become a highly contested political issue in the United States. The Biden administration issued an executive order on September 9, 2021, requiring all federal employees to vaccinate. 9 Some state and local governments have also followed. 10

Multiple US healthcare systems have also issued COVID-19 vaccine mandates for employees. On March 31, 2021, Houston Methodist became the first healthcare system to mandate the vaccine for employees, and a wave of other healthcare systems followed suit. 11 As of this writing, more than 2,500 hospitals or health systems have followed Houston Methodist and mandated vaccines for their clinical and nonclinical staff. 12

Combating Misinformation

Since the beginning of the pandemic, misinformation has spread throughout the Internet and on social media platforms. 13 People have questioned the existence of the virus, the strain on healthcare systems, and the benefit of masks as well as emphasized the benefits of unproven therapies, many of which were useless and even harmful. 14 Political agendas have also played into the misinformation campaigns. Studies have shown that these misinformation campaigns have had measurable effects on the intent to vaccinate and created widespread fear and panic, ultimately contributing to the reduced number of people willing to vaccinate. 13 , 15 , 16 Tackling this will require concerted efforts by the government and private sector, particularly social media companies, to implement evidence-based communication strategies. 17 Individuals should also assume responsibility in seeking out accurate, evidence-based information for their own consumption.

Telemedicine

As many states and cities implemented measures to reduce transmission, telehealth emerged as the ideal tool to continue patient care while protecting the health of both patients and providers. Many patients preferred this option, especially when hospitals were dealing with record numbers of COVID-19 infections. In 2020, telemedicine was the main means by which ambulatory care was provided, accounting for 10% to 20% of visits when virus transmissibility was low and as high as 80% of visits during the surges. 18

Accordingly, the US Department of Health and Human Services relaxed enforcement of software-based Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act violations, the Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services provided waivers for telehealth reimbursements, and, in many instances, commercial insurances provided the same either directly or through mandates provided by local state governments. 19 , 20 The removal of regulatory and reimbursement barriers led to a dramatic increase in the use of telehealth, with some institutions reporting multifold increase in telehealth visits. 21

The pandemic also served as a catalyst for innovation in the software and hardware necessary for telemedicine. 22 For example, important tools were developed to enable secure connections with physicians and allow remote vital sign and weight monitoring. 23 , 24 Unfortunately, not all have equally benefitted from the expanded use of telehealth. Data indicate that minorities and disadvantaged groups often lack access to telehealth-based care. 25 Although the positive response and uptake by physicians and patients indicates the likelihood of telemedicine continuing past the pandemic, it remains to be seen whether the regulatory and reimbursement aspects will continue.

Post Covid-19 Condition

There is a growing body of evidence that some patients have prolonged recovery and/or residual symptoms after acute infection with COVID-19. The World Health Organization has defined this as “post COVID-19 condition.” Common presentation includes shortness of breath, palpitation, anxiety, and depression lingering for several months after acute infection. 26 , 27 Recent data also suggests that post COVID-19 condition might not be limited to somatic symptoms, with studies showing a 7-fold increased risk of developing depression and mental health issues. 28

Although the cause of these symptoms is not clear, one possible link that partly explains the prolonged shortness of breath experienced by some patients is COVID-19–associated myocarditis and the associated microvascular dysfunction. 26 As the pandemic continues and therapeutics improve survival from acute infection, the number of patients reporting post COVID-19 condition is predicted to grow. Several medical centers have already established clinics to better coordinate care and conduct research on the long-term impact and treatment of COVID-19. 29

Collateral Damage

Many patients delayed regular and preventive care during the pandemic due to fear of contracting COVID-19. 30 , 31 Such change in health-seeking behavior also extended to emergency conditions, with studies showing how some patients did not seek care for new onset chest pain. 32 Indirect indicators of this are the reduced rates of cardiovascular testing globally and within the United States 33 , 34 and the increased rate of myocardial infarctions and other emergencies seen on the trailing end of COVID-19–infection surges. 32 There has also been an increase in late complications of myocardial infarction such as ventricular septal rupture, a rare occurrence in the prepandemic reperfusion era and one partly explained by delayed care and ignored early warning signs. 35

Disparities in Healthcare

The pandemic exposed significant disparities in healthcare delivery, particularly among minorities. They were more likely to be affected by misinformation campaigns and less likely to accept research supporting clinical therapies and vaccines. Understanding the disparities and identifying measures to bridge the gap will be an important area of research for policy.

Globally, the pandemic also exposed significant inequities regarding vaccine access. While many developed countries were able to reach vaccination rates as high as 70%, rates in low-to-middle-income countries have remained low. 35 As the delta variant has clearly shown, no one is safe until everyone is safe. To this end, the World Health Organization and the COVAX (COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access) alliance have been a vital source of affordable vaccines. 36

Changes to Medical Education

The pandemic resulted in significant changes to both graduate and continued medical education. Much like patient-physician encounters, postgraduate training programs limited large face-to-face gatherings and transitioned all teaching to online platforms. 37 Residency and fellowship recruitment interviews also shifted to online settings. Lastly, there has been an exponential increase in the number of continued medical education offerings, with many societal meetings and conferences transitioning to online or hybrid formats. 38

The medical community has, for the most part, been very receptive to these changes, and it has afforded unforeseen advantages to trainees. Residency and fellowship applicants no longer need to bear the logistic and financial burden of in-person interviews. More importantly, virtual meetings and conferences have significantly increased audiences and, by extension, enabled the wider dissemination of medical knowledge.

The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically changed clinical practice, medical education, and research. Beyond the immediate increase in morbidity and mortality, the healthcare system is having to deal with a growing cohort of patients with lingering symptoms. Misinformation, vaccine hesitancy, and vaccine inequity will be continuing challenges to attaining herd immunity. Clinicians, educators, and healthcare administrators will also have to determine how best to leverage the transition to virtual platforms. Lastly, healthcare leaders and policy makers will have to help the country and world chart a course through the end of the pandemic.

The coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic has dramatically changed clinical practice, medical education, and research.
It has brought about new challenges for the healthcare system, such as how best to combat misinformation, address the disproportionate impact on minorities and marginalized groups, and treat the ever-growing population of patients with lingering “long COVID” symptoms.
The pandemic has also catalyzed much needed change in vaccine development, telemedicine, and medical education.
Addressing these challenges and charting a way forward will require the concerted effort of clinicians, healthcare leaders, and policy makers.

Competing Interests

Dr. Al-Mallah has completed and submitted the Methodist DeBakey Cardiovascular Journal Conflict of Interest Statement and none were reported.

Patient Care & Health Information
Diseases & Conditions
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

COVID-19, also called coronavirus disease 2019, is an illness caused by a virus. The virus is called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, or more commonly, SARS-CoV-2. It started spreading at the end of 2019 and became a pandemic disease in 2020.

Coronavirus

Coronaviruses are a family of viruses. These viruses cause illnesses such as the common cold, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

The virus that causes COVID-19 spreads most commonly through the air in tiny droplets of fluid between people in close contact. Many people with COVID-19 have no symptoms or mild illness. But for older adults and people with certain medical conditions, COVID-19 can lead to the need for care in the hospital or death.

Staying up to date on your COVID-19 vaccine helps prevent serious illness, the need for hospital care due to COVID-19 and death from COVID-19 . Other ways that may help prevent the spread of this coronavirus includes good indoor air flow, physical distancing, wearing a mask in the right setting and good hygiene.

Medicine can limit the seriousness of the viral infection. Most people recover without long-term effects, but some people have symptoms that continue for months.

Products & Services

A Book: Endemic - A Post-Pandemic Playbook
A Book: Future Care
Begin Exploring Women's Health Solutions at Mayo Clinic Store

Typical COVID-19 symptoms often show up 2 to 14 days after contact with the virus.

Symptoms can include:

Shortness of breath.
Loss of taste or smell.
Extreme tiredness, called fatigue.
Digestive symptoms such as upset stomach, vomiting or loose stools, called diarrhea.
Pain, such as headaches and body or muscle aches.
Fever or chills.
Cold-like symptoms such as congestion, runny nose or sore throat.

People may only have a few symptoms or none. People who have no symptoms but test positive for COVID-19 are called asymptomatic. For example, many children who test positive don't have symptoms of COVID-19 illness. People who go on to have symptoms are considered presymptomatic. Both groups can still spread COVID-19 to others.

Some people may have symptoms that get worse about 7 to 14 days after symptoms start.

Most people with COVID-19 have mild to moderate symptoms. But COVID-19 can cause serious medical complications and lead to death. Older adults or people who already have medical conditions are at greater risk of serious illness.

COVID-19 may be a mild, moderate, severe or critical illness.

In broad terms, mild COVID-19 doesn't affect the ability of the lungs to get oxygen to the body.
In moderate COVID-19 illness, the lungs also work properly but there are signs that the infection is deep in the lungs.
Severe COVID-19 means that the lungs don't work correctly, and the person needs oxygen and other medical help in the hospital.
Critical COVID-19 illness means the lung and breathing system, called the respiratory system, has failed and there is damage throughout the body.

Rarely, people who catch the coronavirus can develop a group of symptoms linked to inflamed organs or tissues. The illness is called multisystem inflammatory syndrome. When children have this illness, it is called multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children, shortened to MIS -C. In adults, the name is MIS -A.

When to see a doctor

Contact a healthcare professional if you test positive for COVID-19 . If you have symptoms and need to test for COVID-19 , or you've been exposed to someone with COVID-19 , a healthcare professional can help.

People who are at high risk of serious illness may get medicine to block the spread of the COVID-19 virus in the body. Or your healthcare team may plan regular checks to monitor your health.

Get emergency help right away for any of these symptoms:

Can't catch your breath or have problems breathing.
Skin, lips or nail beds that are pale, gray or blue.
New confusion.
Trouble staying awake or waking up.
Chest pain or pressure that is constant.

This list doesn't include every emergency symptom. If you or a person you're taking care of has symptoms that worry you, get help. Let the healthcare team know about a positive test for COVID-19 or symptoms of the illness.

More Information

COVID-19 vs. flu: Similarities and differences
COVID-19, cold, allergies and the flu
Unusual symptoms of coronavirus

There is a problem with information submitted for this request. Review/update the information highlighted below and resubmit the form.

From Mayo Clinic to your inbox

Sign up for free and stay up to date on research advancements, health tips, current health topics, and expertise on managing health. Click here for an email preview.

Error Email field is required

Error Include a valid email address

To provide you with the most relevant and helpful information, and understand which information is beneficial, we may combine your email and website usage information with other information we have about you. If you are a Mayo Clinic patient, this could include protected health information. If we combine this information with your protected health information, we will treat all of that information as protected health information and will only use or disclose that information as set forth in our notice of privacy practices. You may opt-out of email communications at any time by clicking on the unsubscribe link in the e-mail.

Thank you for subscribing!

You'll soon start receiving the latest Mayo Clinic health information you requested in your inbox.

Sorry something went wrong with your subscription

Please, try again in a couple of minutes

COVID-19 is caused by infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, also called SARS-CoV-2.

The coronavirus spreads mainly from person to person, even from someone who is infected but has no symptoms. When people with COVID-19 cough, sneeze, breathe, sing or talk, their breath may be infected with the COVID-19 virus.

The coronavirus carried by a person's breath can land directly on the face of a nearby person, after a sneeze or cough, for example. The droplets or particles the infected person breathes out could possibly be breathed in by other people if they are close together or in areas with low air flow. And a person may touch a surface that has respiratory droplets and then touch their face with hands that have the coronavirus on them.

It's possible to get COVID-19 more than once.

Over time, the body's defense against the COVID-19 virus can fade.
A person may be exposed to so much of the virus that it breaks through their immune defense.
As a virus infects a group of people, the virus copies itself. During this process, the genetic code can randomly change in each copy. The changes are called mutations. If the coronavirus that causes COVID-19 changes in ways that make previous infections or vaccination less effective at preventing infection, people can get sick again.

The virus that causes COVID-19 can infect some pets. Cats, dogs, hamsters and ferrets have caught this coronavirus and had symptoms. It's rare for a person to get COVID-19 from a pet.

Risk factors

The main risk factors for COVID-19 are:

If someone you live with has COVID-19 .
If you spend time in places with poor air flow and a higher number of people when the virus is spreading.
If you spend more than 30 minutes in close contact with someone who has COVID-19 .

Many factors affect your risk of catching the virus that causes COVID-19 . How long you are in contact, if the space has good air flow and your activities all affect the risk. Also, if you or others wear masks, if someone has COVID-19 symptoms and how close you are affects your risk. Close contact includes sitting and talking next to one another, for example, or sharing a car or bedroom.

It seems to be rare for people to catch the virus that causes COVID-19 from an infected surface. While the virus is shed in waste, called stool, COVID-19 infection from places such as a public bathroom is not common.

Serious COVID-19 illness risk factors

Some people are at a higher risk of serious COVID-19 illness than others. This includes people age 65 and older as well as babies younger than 6 months. Those age groups have the highest risk of needing hospital care for COVID-19 .

Not every risk factor for serious COVID-19 illness is known. People of all ages who have no other medical issues have needed hospital care for COVID-19 .

Known risk factors for serious illness include people who have not gotten a COVID-19 vaccine. Serious illness also is a higher risk for people who have:

Sickle cell disease or thalassemia.
Serious heart diseases and possibly high blood pressure.
Chronic kidney, liver or lung diseases.

People with dementia or Alzheimer's also are at higher risk, as are people with brain and nervous system conditions such as stroke. Smoking increases the risk of serious COVID-19 illness. And people with a body mass index in the overweight category or obese category may have a higher risk as well.

Other medical conditions that may raise the risk of serious illness from COVID-19 include:

Cancer or a history of cancer.
Type 1 or type 2 diabetes.
Weakened immune system from solid organ transplants or bone marrow transplants, some medicines, or HIV .

This list is not complete. Factors linked to a health issue may raise the risk of serious COVID-19 illness too. Examples are a medical condition where people live in a group home, or lack of access to medical care. Also, people with more than one health issue, or people of older age who also have health issues have a higher chance of severe illness.

Related information

COVID-19: Who's at higher risk of serious symptoms? - Related information COVID-19: Who's at higher risk of serious symptoms?

Complications

Complications of COVID-19 include long-term loss of taste and smell, skin rashes, and sores. The illness can cause trouble breathing or pneumonia. Medical issues a person already manages may get worse.

Complications of severe COVID-19 illness can include:

Acute respiratory distress syndrome, when the body's organs do not get enough oxygen.
Shock caused by the infection or heart problems.
Overreaction of the immune system, called the inflammatory response.
Blood clots.
Kidney injury.

Post-COVID-19 syndrome

After a COVID-19 infection, some people report that symptoms continue for months, or they develop new symptoms. This syndrome has often been called long COVID, or post- COVID-19 . You might hear it called long haul COVID-19 , post-COVID conditions or PASC. That's short for post-acute sequelae of SARS -CoV-2.

Other infections, such as the flu and polio, can lead to long-term illness. But the virus that causes COVID-19 has only been studied since it began to spread in 2019. So, research into the specific effects of long-term COVID-19 symptoms continues.

Researchers do think that post- COVID-19 syndrome can happen after an illness of any severity.

Getting a COVID-19 vaccine may help prevent post- COVID-19 syndrome.

Long-term effects of COVID-19

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends a COVID-19 vaccine for everyone age 6 months and older. The COVID-19 vaccine can lower the risk of death or serious illness caused by COVID-19.

The COVID-19 vaccines available in the United States are:

2023-2024 Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. This vaccine is available for people age 6 months and older.

Among people with a typical immune system:

Children age 6 months up to age 4 years are up to date after three doses of a Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine.
People age 5 and older are up to date after one Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine.
For people who have not had a 2023-2024 COVID-19 vaccination, the CDC recommends getting an additional shot of that updated vaccine.

2023-2024 Moderna COVID-19 vaccine. This vaccine is available for people age 6 months and older.

Children ages 6 months up to age 4 are up to date if they've had two doses of a Moderna COVID-19 vaccine.
People age 5 and older are up to date with one Moderna COVID-19 vaccine.

2023-2024 Novavax COVID-19 vaccine. This vaccine is available for people age 12 years and older.

People age 12 years and older are up to date if they've had two doses of a Novavax COVID-19 vaccine.

In general, people age 5 and older with typical immune systems can get any vaccine approved or authorized for their age. They usually don't need to get the same vaccine each time.

Some people should get all their vaccine doses from the same vaccine maker, including:

Children ages 6 months to 4 years.
People age 5 years and older with weakened immune systems.
People age 12 and older who have had one shot of the Novavax vaccine should get the second Novavax shot in the two-dose series.

Talk to your healthcare professional if you have any questions about the vaccines for you or your child. Your healthcare team can help you if:

The vaccine you or your child got earlier isn't available.
You don't know which vaccine you or your child received.
You or your child started a vaccine series but couldn't finish it due to side effects.

People with weakened immune systems

Your healthcare team may suggest added doses of COVID-19 vaccine if you have a moderately or seriously weakened immune system. The FDA has also authorized the monoclonal antibody pemivibart (Pemgarda) to prevent COVID-19 in some people with weakened immune systems.

Control the spread of infection

In addition to vaccination, there are other ways to stop the spread of the virus that causes COVID-19 .

If you are at a higher risk of serious illness, talk to your healthcare professional about how best to protect yourself. Know what to do if you get sick so you can quickly start treatment.

If you feel ill or have COVID-19 , stay home and away from others, including pets, if possible. Avoid sharing household items such as dishes or towels if you're sick.

In general, make it a habit to:

Test for COVID-19 . If you have symptoms of COVID-19 test for the infection. Or test five days after you came in contact with the virus.
Help from afar. Avoid close contact with anyone who is sick or has symptoms, if possible.
Wash your hands. Wash your hands well and often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds. Or use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol.
Cover your coughs and sneezes. Cough or sneeze into a tissue or your elbow. Then wash your hands.
Clean and disinfect high-touch surfaces. For example, clean doorknobs, light switches, electronics and counters regularly.

Try to spread out in crowded public areas, especially in places with poor airflow. This is important if you have a higher risk of serious illness.

The CDC recommends that people wear a mask in indoor public spaces if you're in an area with a high number of people with COVID-19 in the hospital. They suggest wearing the most protective mask possible that you'll wear regularly, that fits well and is comfortable.

COVID-19 vaccines: Get the facts - Related information COVID-19 vaccines: Get the facts
Comparing the differences between COVID-19 vaccines - Related information Comparing the differences between COVID-19 vaccines
Different types of COVID-19 vaccines: How they work - Related information Different types of COVID-19 vaccines: How they work
Debunking COVID-19 myths - Related information Debunking COVID-19 myths

Travel and COVID-19

Travel brings people together from areas where illnesses may be at higher levels. Masks can help slow the spread of respiratory diseases in general, including COVID-19 . Masks help the most in places with low air flow and where you are in close contact with other people. Also, masks can help if the places you travel to or through have a high level of illness.

Masking is especially important if you or a companion have a high risk of serious illness from COVID-19 .

COVID-19 travel advice
COVID-19 vaccines
COVID-19 vaccines for kids: What you need to know
Debunking coronavirus myths
Different COVID-19 vaccines
Fight coronavirus (COVID-19) transmission at home
Herd immunity and coronavirus
How well do face masks protect against COVID-19?
Safe outdoor activities during the COVID-19 pandemic
Safety tips for attending school during COVID-19
COVID-19 and vitamin D
COVID-19: How can I protect myself?
Mayo Clinic Minute: How dirty are common surfaces?
Mayo Clinic Minute: You're washing your hands all wrong
Goldman L, et al., eds. COVID-19: Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, community prevention, and prognosis. In: Goldman-Cecil Medicine. 27th ed. Elsevier; 2024. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Dec. 17, 2023.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment guidelines. National Institutes of Health. https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/. Accessed Dec. 18, 2023.
AskMayoExpert. COVID-19: Testing, symptoms. Mayo Clinic; Nov. 2, 2023.
Symptoms of COVID-19. Centers for Disease Control and Preventions. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html. Accessed Dec. 20, 2023.
AskMayoExpert. COVID-19: Outpatient management. Mayo Clinic; Oct. 10, 2023.
Morris SB, et al. Case series of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in adults associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection — United Kingdom and United States, March-August 2020. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2020;69:1450. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6940e1external icon.
COVID-19 testing: What you need to know. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/testing.html. Accessed Dec. 20, 2023.
SARS-CoV-2 in animals. American Veterinary Medical Association. https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/one-health/covid-19/sars-cov-2-animals-including-pets. Accessed Jan. 17, 2024.
Understanding exposure risk. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/risks-exposure.html. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
People with certain medical conditions. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-medical-conditions.html. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
Factors that affect your risk of getting very sick from COVID-19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/risks-getting-very-sick.html. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
Regan JJ, et al. Use of Updated COVID-19 Vaccines 2023-2024 Formula for Persons Aged ≥6 Months: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices—United States, September 2023. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2023; 72:1140–1146. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7242e1.
Long COVID or post-COVID conditions. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/long-term-effects/index.html. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
Stay up to date with your vaccines. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/stay-up-to-date.html. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
Interim clinical considerations for use of COVID-19 vaccines currently approved or authorized in the United States. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/clinical-considerations/covid-19-vaccines-us.html#CoV-19-vaccination. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
Use and care of masks. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/about-face-coverings.html. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
How to protect yourself and others. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
People who are immunocompromised. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-who-are-immunocompromised.html. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
Masking during travel. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/masks. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
AskMayoExpert. COVID-19: Testing. Mayo Clinic. 2023.
COVID-19 test basics. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/covid-19-test-basics. Accessed Jan. 11, 2024.
At-home COVID-19 antigen tests — Take steps to reduce your risk of false negative results: FDA safety communication. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/safety-communications/home-covid-19-antigen-tests-take-steps-reduce-your-risk-false-negative-results-fda-safety. Accessed Jan. 11, 2024.
Interim clinical considerations for COVID-19 treatment in outpatients. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-care/outpatient-treatment-overview.html. Accessed Jan. 11, 2024.
Know your treatment options for COVID-19. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/know-your-treatment-options-covid-19. Accessed Jan. 11, 2024.
AskMayoExpert. COVID:19 Drug regimens and other treatment options. Mayo Clinic. 2023.
Preventing spread of respiratory viruses when you're sick. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/respiratory-viruses/prevention/precautions-when-sick.html. Accessed March 5, 2024.
AskMayoExpert. COVID-19: Quarantine and isolation. Mayo Clinic. 2023.
COVID-19 resource and information guide. National Alliance on Mental Illness. https://www.nami.org/Support-Education/NAMI-HelpLine/COVID-19-Information-and-Resources/COVID-19-Resource-and-Information-Guide. Accessed Jan. 11, 2024.
COVID-19 overview and infection prevention and control priorities in non-U.S. healthcare settings. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/non-us-settings/overview/index.html. Accessed Jan. 16, 2024.
Kim AY, et al. COVID-19: Management in hospitalized adults. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Jan. 17, 2024.
O'Horo JC, et al. Outcomes of COVID-19 with the Mayo Clinic Model of Care and Research. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2021; doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.12.006.
At-home OTC COVID-19 diagnostic tests. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-covid-19-and-medical-devices/home-otc-covid-19-diagnostic-tests. Accessed Jan. 22, 2024.
Emergency use authorizations for drugs and non-vaccine biological products. U.S. Food and Drug Association. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/emergency-preparedness-drugs/emergency-use-authorizations-drugs-and-non-vaccine-biological-products. Accessed March 25, 2024.
Coronavirus infection by race
COVID-19 and pets
COVID-19 and your mental health
COVID-19 drugs: Are there any that work?
COVID-19 in babies and children
COVID-19 variant
COVID-19: Who's at higher risk of serious symptoms?
How do COVID-19 antibody tests differ from diagnostic tests?
Is hydroxychloroquine a treatment for COVID-19?
Pregnancy and COVID-19
Sex and COVID-19
Treating COVID-19 at home

Associated Procedures

Convalescent plasma therapy
COVID-19 antibody testing
COVID-19 tests
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO)

News from Mayo Clinic

A Mayo Clinic virologist explains FLiRT and why you may need a new COVID-19 vaccination May 30, 2024, 02:30 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic Q and A: Who should get the latest COVID-19 vaccine? Nov. 21, 2023, 01:30 p.m. CDT
Can you get COVID-19 and the flu at the same time? A Mayo Clinic expert weighs in Oct. 16, 2023, 04:30 p.m. CDT
At-home COVID-19 tests: A Mayo Clinic expert answers questions on expiration dates and the new variants Sept. 18, 2023, 04:00 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic expert answers questions about the new COVID-19 vaccine Sept. 13, 2023, 04:15 p.m. CDT
Study identifies risk factors for long-haul COVID disease in adults Sept. 13, 2023, 02:00 p.m. CDT
Mayo researchers find vaccine may reduce severity of long-haul COVID symptoms Aug. 23, 2023, 04:34 p.m. CDT
Corticosteroids lower the likelihood of in-hospital mortality from COVID-19 Aug. 04, 2023, 03:00 p.m. CDT
COVID-19 vaccine administration simplified April 21, 2023, 07:00 p.m. CDT
Science Saturday: COVID-19 -- the pandemic that's forever changed laboratory testing April 15, 2023, 11:00 a.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic expert talks about the new omicron variant April 13, 2023, 02:13 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic to ease universal face mask requirement April 04, 2023, 03:05 p.m. CDT
'Deaths of Despair' contribute to 17% rise in Minnesota's death rate during COVID-19 pandemic March 13, 2023, 12:00 p.m. CDT
Rising cases of COVID-19 variant, XBB.1.5 Jan. 09, 2023, 05:15 p.m. CDT
Bivalent COVID-19 booster approved for children 6 months and older Dec. 09, 2022, 09:33 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic Minute: How to self-care at home when you have COVID-19 Dec. 06, 2022, 05:00 p.m. CDT
Halloween safety tips from a Mayo Clinic infectious diseases expert Oct. 27, 2022, 02:00 p.m. CDT
COVID-19, RSV and flu--season of respiratory infections Oct. 26, 2022, 04:30 p.m. CDT
COVID-19 bivalent booster vaccines for kids 5-11 approved, Mayo Clinic awaits supply Oct. 13, 2022, 04:54 p.m. CDT
Questions answered about the COVID-19 bivalent booster vaccines Oct. 12, 2022, 03:30 p.m. CDT
Will the COVID-19 booster be like an annual flu shot? Sept. 12, 2022, 04:30 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic Q and A: Who needs back-to-school COVID-19 vaccinations and boosters? Sept. 04, 2022, 11:00 a.m. CDT
Q&A podcast: Updated COVID-19 boosters target omicron variants Sept. 02, 2022, 12:30 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic Minute: Back-to-school COVID-19 vaccinations for kids Aug. 15, 2022, 03:15 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic research shows bebtelovimab to be a reliable option for treating COVID-19 in era of BA.2, other subvariants Aug. 15, 2022, 02:09 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic Q and A: New variants of COVID-19 Aug. 04, 2022, 12:30 p.m. CDT
COVID-19 variant BA.5 is dominant strain; BA.2.75 is being monitored July 28, 2022, 02:30 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic researchers pinpoint genetic variations that might sway course of COVID-19 July 25, 2022, 02:00 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic Q&A podcast: BA.5 omicron variant fueling latest COVID-19 surge July 15, 2022, 12:00 p.m. CDT
What you need to know about the BA.5 omicron variant July 14, 2022, 06:41 p.m. CDT
Mayo Clinic Q&A podcast: The importance of COVID-19 vaccines for children under 5 July 06, 2022, 01:00 p.m. CDT
COVID-19 vaccination for kids age 5 and younger starting the week of July 4 at most Mayo sites July 01, 2022, 04:00 p.m. CDT
Patients treated with monoclonal antibodies during COVID-19 delta surge had low rates of severe disease, Mayo Clinic study finds June 27, 2022, 03:00 p.m. CDT
Symptoms & causes
Diagnosis & treatment
Doctors & departments
COVID-19 vaccines: Get the facts
How well do face masks protect against coronavirus?
Post-COVID Recovery

News on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Learn the latest medical news about COVID-19 on Mayo Clinic News Network.

Your gift holds great power – donate today!

Make your tax-deductible gift and be part of the cutting-edge research and care that's changing medicine.

Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Writing On Covid 19

Paragraph Writing on Covid 19 - Check Samples for Various Word Limits

The Covid-19 pandemic has been a deadly pandemic that has affected the whole world. It was a viral infection that affected almost everyone in some way or the other. However, the effects have been felt differently depending on various factors. As it is a virus, it will change with time, and different variants might keep coming. The virus has affected the lifestyle of human beings. The pandemic has affected the education system and the economy of the world as well. Many people have lost their lives, jobs, near and dear, etc.

Paragraph writing on covid-19 in 100 words, paragraph writing on covid-19 in 150 words, paragraph writing on covid-19 in 200 words, paragraph writing on covid-19 in 250 words, frequently asked questions on covid-19.

Check the samples provided below before you write a paragraph on Covid-19.

Coronavirus is an infectious disease and is commonly called Covid-19. It affects the human respiratory system causing difficulty in breathing. It is a contagious disease and has been spreading across the world like wildfire. The virus was first identified in 2019 in Wuhan, China. In March, WHO declared Covid-19 as a pandemic that has been affecting the world. The virus was spreading from an infected person through coughing, sneezing, etc. Therefore, the affected people were isolated from everyone. The affected people were even isolated from their own family members and their dear ones. Other symptoms noticed in Covid – 19 patients include weariness, sore throat, muscle soreness, and loss of taste and smell.

Coronavirus, often known as Covid-19, is an infectious disease. It affects the human respiratory system, making breathing difficult. It’s a contagious disease that has been spreading like wildfire over the world. The virus was initially discovered in Wuhan, China, in 2019. Covid-19 was declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization in March. The virus was transferred by coughing, sneezing, and other means from an infected person. As a result, the people who were affected were isolated from the rest of society. The folks who were afflicted were even separated from their own family members and loved ones. Weariness, sore throat, muscle stiffness, and loss of taste and smell are among the other complaints reported by Covid-19 individuals. Almost every individual has been affected by the virus. A lot of people have lost their lives due to the severity of the infections. The dropping of oxygen levels and the unavailability of oxygen cylinders were the primary concerns during the pandemic.

The Covid-19 pandemic was caused due to a man-made virus called coronavirus. It is an infectious disease that has affected millions of people’s lives. The pandemic has affected the entire world differently. It was initially diagnosed in 2019 in Wuhan, China but later, in March 2020, WHO declared that it was a pandemic that was affecting the whole world like wildfire. Covid-19 is a contagious disease. Since it is a viral disease, the virus spreads rapidly in various forms. The main symptoms of this disease were loss of smell and taste, loss of energy, pale skin, sneezing, coughing, reduction of oxygen level, etc. Therefore, all the affected people were asked to isolate themselves from the unaffected ones. The affected people were isolated from their family members in a separate room. The government has taken significant steps to ensure the safety of the people. The frontline workers were like superheroes who worked selflessly for the safety of the people. A lot of doctors had to stay away from their families and their babies for the safety of their patients and their close ones. The government has taken significant steps, and various protocols were imposed for the safety of the people. The government imposed a lockdown and shut down throughout the country.

The coronavirus was responsible for the Covid-19 pandemic. It is an infectious disease that has affected millions of people’s lives. The pandemic has impacted people all across the world in diverse ways. It was first discovered in Wuhan, China, in 2019. However, the World Health Organization (WHO) proclaimed it a pandemic in March 2020, claiming that it has spread throughout the globe like wildfire. The pandemic has claimed the lives of millions of people. The virus had negative consequences for those who were infected, including the development of a variety of chronic disorders. The main symptoms of this disease were loss of smell and taste, fatigue, pale skin, sneezing, coughing, oxygen deficiency, etc. Because Covid-19 was an infectious disease, all those who were infected were instructed to segregate themselves from those who were not. The folks who were affected were separated from their families and locked in a room. The government has prioritised people’s safety. The frontline personnel were like superheroes, working tirelessly to ensure the public’s safety. For the sake of their patients’ and close relatives’ safety, many doctors had to stay away from their families and babies. The government had also taken significant steps and implemented different protocols for the protection of people.

What is meant by the Covid-19 pandemic?

The Covid-19 pandemic was a deadly pandemic that affected the lives of millions of people. A lot of people lost their lives, and some people lost their jobs and lost their entire families due to the pandemic. Many covid warriors, like doctors, nurses, frontline workers, etc., lost their lives due to the pandemic.

From where did the Covid-19 pandemic start?

The Covid-19 pandemic was initially found in Wuhan, China and later in the whole world.

What are the symptoms of Covid-19?

The symptoms of Covid-19 have been identified as sore throat, loss of smell and taste, cough, sneezing, reduction of oxygen level, etc.

ENGLISH Related Links

Register with BYJU'S & Download Free PDFs

Essay - Sociological Imagination

Official websites use .gov

A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS

A lock ( ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

How COVID-19 Spreads

COVID-19 spreads when an infected person breathes out droplets and very small particles that contain the virus. These droplets and particles can be breathed in by other people or land on their eyes, noses, or mouth. In some circumstances, they may contaminate surfaces they touch.

Many viruses are constantly changing, including the virus that causes COVID-19. These changes occur over time and can lead to the emergence of variants that may have new characteristics, including different ways of spreading.

Anyone infected with COVID-19 can spread it, even if they do NOT have symptoms.

Learn more about what you can do to protect yourself and others .

COVID-19 and Animals

COVID-19 can spread from people to animals in some situations. Pet cats and dogs can sometimes become infected by people with COVID-19. Learn what you should do if you have pets .

Food and Water

There is no evidence to suggest that handling food or consuming food can spread COVID-19. Follow food safety guidelines when handling and cleaning fresh produce. Do not wash produce with soap, bleach, sanitizer, alcohol, disinfectant, or any other chemical.

Drinking Water

There is also no current evidence that people can get COVID-19 by drinking water. The virus that causes COVID-19 has not been detected in drinking water. Conventional water treatment methods that use filtration and disinfection, such as those in most municipal drinking water systems, should remove or kill the virus that causes COVID-19.

Natural Bodies of Water (Lakes, Oceans, Rivers)

There are no scientific reports of the virus that causes COVID-19 spreading to people through the water in lakes, oceans, rivers, or other natural bodies of water.

Genetic material from the virus that causes COVID-19 has been found in untreated wastewater (also referred to as “sewage”). There is no information to date that anyone has become sick with COVID-19 because of direct exposure to treated or untreated wastewater. Wastewater treatment plants use chemical and other disinfection processes to remove and degrade many viruses and bacteria. The virus that causes COVID-19 is inactivated by the disinfection methods used in wastewater treatment.

To receive email updates about COVID-19, enter your email address:

Exit Notification / Disclaimer Policy

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.
Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.
CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website.

Information

Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

Active Journals
Find a Journal
Proceedings Series
For Authors
For Reviewers
For Editors
For Librarians
For Publishers
For Societies
For Conference Organizers
Open Access Policy
Institutional Open Access Program
Special Issues Guidelines
Editorial Process
Research and Publication Ethics
Article Processing Charges
Testimonials
Preprints.org
SciProfiles
Encyclopedia

Article Menu

Subscribe SciFeed
Google Scholar
on Google Scholar
Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Gender, immunological response, and covid-19: an assessment of vaccine strategies in a pandemic region of oaxaca, méxico.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study population, inclusion criteria, and vaccines, 2.2. sample collection, 2.3. the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa), 2.4. statistical analysis, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

Harvey, W.T.; Carabelli, A.M.; Jackson, B.; Gupta, R.K.; Thomson, E.C.; Harrison, E.M.; Ludden, C.; Reeve, R.; Rambaut, A.; Peacock, S.J.; et al. SARS-CoV-2 variants, spike mutations and immune escape. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2021 , 19 , 409–424. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Noureddine, F.Y.; Chakkour, M.; El Roz, A.; Reda, J.; Al Sahily, R.; Assi, A.; Joma, M.; Salami, H.; Hashem, S.J.; Harb, B.; et al. The Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Variant(s) and Its Impact on the Prevalence of COVID-19 Cases in the Nabatieh Region, Lebanon. Med. Sci. 2021 , 9 , 40. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Chen, L.; Xu, F.; Han, Z.; Tang, K.; Hui, P.; Evans, J.; Li, Y. Strategic COVID-19 vaccine distribution can simultaneously elevate social utility and equity. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2022 , 6 , 1503–1514. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Paltiel, A.D.; Schwartz, J.L.; Zheng, A.; Walensky, R.P. Clinical Outcomes of a COVID-19 Vaccine: Implementation over Efficacy. Health Aff. 2021 , 40 , 42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Fajar, J.K.; Sallam, M.; Soegiarto, G.; Sugiri, Y.J.; Anshory, M.; Wulandari, L.; Kosasih, S.A.P.; Ilmawan, M.; Kusnaeni, K.; Fikri, M.; et al. Global Prevalence and Potential Influencing Factors of COVID-19 Vaccination Hesitancy: A Meta-Analysis. Vaccines 2022 , 10 , 1356. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Fergie, J.; Moran, M.M.; Cane, A.; Pather, S.; Türeci, O.; Srivastava, A. COVID-19 Epidemiology, Immunity, and Vaccine Development in Children: A Review. Vaccines 2022 , 10 , 2039. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Tian, W.; Ren, X.; Han, M.; Zhang, Y.; Gao, X.; Chen, Z.; Zhang, W. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of vaccinated COVID-19 patients: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 2022 , 36 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Makhoul, M.; Ayoub, H.H.; Chemaitelly, H.; Seedat, S.; Mumtaz, G.R.; Al-Omari, S.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. Epidemiological Impact of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination: Mathematical Modeling Analyses. Vaccines 2020 , 8 , 668. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Alhinai, Z.; Park, S.; Choe, Y.J.; Michelow, I.C. A global epidemiological analysis of COVID-19 vaccine types and clinical outcomes. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2022 , 124 , 206–211. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Saad-Roy, C.M.; Morris, S.E.; Metcalf, C.J.E.; Mina, M.J.; Baker, R.E.; Farrar, J.; Holmes, E.C.; Pybus, O.G.; Graham, A.L.; Levin, S.A.; et al. Epidemiological and evolutionary considerations of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine dosing regimes. Science 2021 , 372 , 363–370. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Corey, K.B.; Koo, G.; Phillips, E.J. Adverse Events and Safety of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: What’s New and What’s Next. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract. 2022 , 10 , 2254. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Firouzabadi, N.; Ghasemiyeh, P.; Moradishooli, F.; Mohammadi-Samani, S. Update on the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines on different variants of SARS-CoV-2. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2023 , 117 , 109968. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Apio, C.; Han, K.; Heo, G.; Park, T. A statistical look at the COVID-19 vaccine development and vaccine policies. Front. Public Health 2022 , 10 , 1048062. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Stefanelli, P.; Rezza, G. COVID-19 Vaccination Strategies and Their Adaptation to the Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Variants. Vaccines 2022 , 10 , 905. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Huespe, I.A.; Ferraris, A.; Lalueza, A.; Valdez, P.R.; Peroni, M.L.; Cayetti, L.A.; Mirofsky, M.A.; Boietti, B.; Gómez-Huelgas, R.; Casas-Rojo, J.M.; et al. COVID-19 vaccines reduce mortality in hospitalized patients with oxygen requirements: Differences between vaccine subtypes. A multicontinental cohort study. J. Med. Virol. 2023 , 95 , e28786. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Rahmani, K.; Shavaleh, R.; Forouhi, M.; Disfani, H.F.; Kamandi, M.; Oskooi, R.K.; Foogerdi, M.; Soltani, M.; Rahchamani, M.; Mohaddespour, M.; et al. The effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines in reducing the incidence, hospitalization, and mortality from COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Public Health 2022 , 10 , 873596. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Comisión Federal para la Protección contra Riesgos Sanitario. Vacunas COVID 19 Autorizadas|Comisión Federal para la Protección Contra Riesgos Sanitarios|Gobierno|gob.mx. Vacunas COVID 19 Autorizadas. 2022. Available online: https://www.gob.mx/cofepris/acciones-y-programas/vacunas-covid-19-autorizadas (accessed on 10th June 2024).
Camacho-Sandoval, R.; Nieto-Patlán, A.; Carballo-Uicab, G.; Montes-Luna, A.; Jiménez-Martínez, M.C.; Vallejo-Castillo, L.; González-González, E.; Arrieta-Oliva, H.I.; Gómez-Castellano, K.; Guzmán-Bringas, O.U.; et al. Development and evaluation of a set of spike and receptor binding domain-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for SARS-CoV-2 serological testing. Diagnostics 2021 , 11 , 1506. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Bonett, D.G.; Price, R.M. Adjusted Wald Confidence Interval for a Difference of Binomial Proportions Based on Paired Data. J. Educ. Behav. Stat. 2012 , 37 , 479–488. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Ingersoll, M.A. Sex differences shape the response to infectious diseases. PLoS Pathog. 2017 , 13 , e1006688. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Klein, S.L.; Flanagan, K.L. Sex differences in immune responses. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2016 , 16 , 626–638. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Klein, S.L. Immune Cells Have Sex and So Should Journal Articles. Endocrinology 2012 , 153 , 2544–2550. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Vassallo, A.; Shajahan, S.; Harris, K.; Hallam, L.; Hockham, C.; Womersley, K.; Woodward, M.; Sheel, M. Sex and Gender in COVID-19 Vaccine Research: Substantial Evidence Gaps Remain. Front. Glob. Women’s Health 2021 , 2 , 761511. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Alcorta-Nuñez, F.; Pérez-Ibave, D.C.; Burciaga-Flores, C.H.; Garza, M.Á.; González-Escamilla, M.; Rodríguez-Niño, P.; González-Guerrero, J.F.; Alcorta-Garza, A.; Vidal-Gutiérrez, O.; Ramírez-Correa, G.A.; et al. SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing Antibodies in Mexican Population: A Five Vaccine Comparison. Diagnostics 2023 , 13 , 1194. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Dagan, N.; Barda, N.; Kepten, E.; Miron, O.; Perchik, S.; Katz, M.A.; Hernán, M.A.; Lipsitch, M.; Reis, B.; Balicer, R.D. BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine in a Nationwide Mass Vaccination Setting. N. Engl. J. Med. 2021 , 384 , 1412–1423. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Fernandes-Matano, L.; Salas-Lais, A.G.; Grajales-Muñiz, C.; Hernández-Ávila, M.; Garfias-Becerra, Y.O.; Rodríguez-Sepúlveda, M.C.; Segura-Sánchez, C.; Montes-Herrera, D.; Mendoza-Sánchez, D.; Angeles-Martínez, J.; et al. Longevity and Neutralizing Capacity of IgG Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 Generated by the Application of BNT162b2, AZD1222, Convidecia, Sputnik V, and CoronaVac Vaccines: A Cohort Study in the Mexican Population. Microbiol. Spectr. 2023 , 11 , e02376-22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Abufares, H.I.; Oyoun Alsoud, L.; Alqudah, M.A.Y.; Shara, M.; Soares, N.C.; Alzoubi, K.H.; El-Huneidi, W.; Bustanji, Y.; Soliman, S.S.M.; Semreen, M.H. COVID-19 Vaccines, Effectiveness, and Immune Responses. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022 , 23 , 15415. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Sadarangani, M.; Abu Raya, B.; Conway, J.M.; Iyaniwura, S.A.; Falcao, R.C.; Colijn, C.; Coombs, D.; Gantt, S. Importance of COVID-19 vaccine efficacy in older age groups. Vaccine 2021 , 39 , 2020–2023. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Li, Z.; Liu, S.; Li, F.; Li, Y.; Li, Y.; Peng, P.; Li, S.; He, L.; Liu, T. Efficacy, immunogenicity and safety of COVID-19 vaccines in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Immunol. 2022 , 13 , 965971. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Mwimanzi, F.; Lapointe, H.R.; Cheung, P.K.; Sang, Y.; Yaseen, F.; Umviligihozo, G.; Kalikawe, R.; Datwani, S.; Omondi, F.H.; Burns, L.; et al. Older Adults Mount Less Durable Humoral Responses to Two Doses of COVID-19 mRNA Vaccine but Strong Initial Responses to a Third Dose. J. Infect. Dis. 2022 , 226 , 983–994. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Müller, L.; Andrée, M.; Moskorz, W.; Drexler, I.; Walotka, L.; Grothmann, R.; Ptok, J.; Hillebrandt, J.; Ritchie, A.; Rabl, D.; et al. Age-dependent Immune Response to the Biontech/Pfizer BNT162b2 Coronavirus Disease 2019 Vaccination. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2021 , 73 , 2065–2072. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Zimmermann, P.; Curtis, N. Factors That Influence the Immune Response to Vaccination. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2019 , 32 , e00084-18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Diallo, A.; Carlos-Bolumbu, M.; Diallo, M.H.; Makinson, A.; Galtier, F. Efficacy of approved vaccines to prevent COVID-19: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of reconstructed individual patient data from randomized trials. Z. Gesundh. Wiss. 2022 , 31 , 1463–1472. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Ashrafian, F.; Bagheri Amiri, F.; Bavand, A.; Zali, M.; Sadat Larijani, M.; Ramezani, A. A Comparative Study of Immunogenicity, Antibody Persistence, and Safety of Three Different COVID-19 Boosters between Individuals with Comorbidities and the Normal Population. Vaccines 2023 , 11 , 1376. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Farid, E.; Herrera-Uribe, J.; Stevenson, N.J. The Effect of Age, Gender and Comorbidities upon SARS-CoV-2 Spike Antibody Induction after Two Doses of Sinopharm Vaccine and the Effect of a Pfizer/BioNtech Booster Vaccine. Front. Immunol. 2022 , 13 , 817597. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Singh, R.; Kang, A.; Luo, X.; Jeyanathan, M.; Gillgrass, A.; Afkhami, S.; Xing, Z. COVID-19: Current knowledge in clinical features, immunological responses, and vaccine development. FASEB J. 2021 , 35 , e21409. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Falahi, S.; Kenarkoohi, A. Host factors and vaccine efficacy: Implications for COVID-19 vaccines. J. Med. Virol. 2022 , 94 , 1330–1335. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Variable	Total Samples		Positive Samples
Variable	n	%	n	%
Gender
Females	88	58.7	83	94.3
Males	62	41.3	56	90.3
Type of vaccine
CanSino	118	78.6	107	90.6
AstraZeneca	16	10.6	16	100
Others	16	10.6	16	100
Age group
18–30 years old	30	20.0	30	100
31–45 years old	29	19.3	25	86.0
46–59 years old	27	18.0	25	92.5
60–69 years old	31	20.7	28	90.3
70 years and older	33	22.0	31	93.9
Comorbidity
Absence	104	69.4	97	93.2
≥1	46	30.6	42	91.3
BMI
Healthy weight	26	29.9	24	92.3
Overweight	35	40.2	35	100
Obesity	26	29.9	23	88.5

Variable	No. of Positive Individuals	Antibody Rate %	95% ICs
Gender
Female	83	60	51–67
Male	56	40	32–48
Age group
18–30 years old	30	22	15–29
31–45 years old	25	18	12–25
46–59 years old	25	18	12–25
60–69 years old	28	20	14–27
70 years and older	31	22	16–29
BMI
Healthy weight	24	29	20–39
Overweight	35	42	32–53
Obesity	23	28	19–38

	-value
Gender	−2.21	0.028
Comorbidity	1.23	0.220
	-value
Type of vaccine	0.73	0.483
Age group	0.36	0.839
Body mass index *	1.65	0.198

The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

Rodríguez-Martínez, L.M.; Chavelas-Reyes, J.L.; Medina-Ramírez, C.F.; Cabrera-Santos, F.J.; Fernández-Santos, N.A.; Aguilar-Durán, J.A.; Pérez-Tapia, S.M.; Rodríguez-González, J.G.; Rodríguez Pérez, M.A. Gender, Immunological Response, and COVID-19: An Assessment of Vaccine Strategies in a Pandemic Region of Oaxaca, México. Microbiol. Res. 2024 , 15 , 1007-1015. https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres15020066

Rodríguez-Martínez LM, Chavelas-Reyes JL, Medina-Ramírez CF, Cabrera-Santos FJ, Fernández-Santos NA, Aguilar-Durán JA, Pérez-Tapia SM, Rodríguez-González JG, Rodríguez Pérez MA. Gender, Immunological Response, and COVID-19: An Assessment of Vaccine Strategies in a Pandemic Region of Oaxaca, México. Microbiology Research . 2024; 15(2):1007-1015. https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres15020066

Rodríguez-Martínez, Luis M., José L. Chavelas-Reyes, Carlo F. Medina-Ramírez, Francisco J. Cabrera-Santos, Nadia A. Fernández-Santos, Jesús A. Aguilar-Durán, Sonia M. Pérez-Tapia, Josefina G. Rodríguez-González, and Mario A. Rodríguez Pérez. 2024. "Gender, Immunological Response, and COVID-19: An Assessment of Vaccine Strategies in a Pandemic Region of Oaxaca, México" Microbiology Research 15, no. 2: 1007-1015. https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres15020066

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

This article has a correction

Expression of concern: Excess mortality across countries in the western world since the COVID-19 pandemic: ‘Our World in Data’ estimates of January 2020 to December 2022 - 14 June 2024

Excess mortality across countries in the Western World since the COVID-19 pandemic: ‘Our World in Data’ estimates of January 2020 to December 2022

Marcel Hoogland ,

Minke Huibers ,

Gertjan Kaspers .

https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bmjph-2023-000282

Introduction Excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic has been substantial. Insight into excess death rates in years following WHO’s pandemic declaration is crucial for government leaders and policymakers to evaluate their health crisis policies. This study explores excess mortality in the Western World from 2020 until 2022.

Methods All-cause mortality reports were abstracted for countries using the ‘Our World in Data’ database. Excess mortality is assessed as a deviation between the reported number of deaths in a country during a certain week or month in 2020 until 2022 and the expected number of deaths in a country for that period under normal conditions. For the baseline of expected deaths, Karlinsky and Kobak’s estimate model was used. This model uses historical death data in a country from 2015 until 2019 and accounts for seasonal variation and year-to-year trends in mortality.

Results The total number of excess deaths in 47 countries of the Western World was 3 098 456 from 1 January 2020 until 31 December 2022. Excess mortality was documented in 41 countries (87%) in 2020, 42 countries (89%) in 2021 and 43 countries (91%) in 2022. In 2020, the year of the COVID-19 pandemic onset and implementation of containment measures, records present 1 033 122 excess deaths (P-score 11.4%). In 2021, the year in which both containment measures and COVID-19 vaccines were used to address virus spread and infection, the highest number of excess deaths was reported: 1 256 942 excess deaths (P-score 13.8%). In 2022, when most containment measures were lifted and COVID-19 vaccines were continued, preliminary data present 808 392 excess deaths (P-score 8.8%).

Conclusions Excess mortality has remained high in the Western World for three consecutive years, despite the implementation of containment measures and COVID-19 vaccines. This raises serious concerns. Government leaders and policymakers need to thoroughly investigate underlying causes of persistent excess mortality.

What is already known on this topic

Excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic has been substantial. Insight into excess death rates in years following WHO’s pandemic declaration is crucial for government leaders and policymakers to evaluate their health crisis policies.

What this study adds

Excess mortality has remained high in the Western World for three consecutive years, despite the implementation of containment measures and COVID-19 vaccines. This raises serious concerns.

How this study might affect research, practice or policy

Government leaders and policymakers need to thoroughly investigate the underlying causes of persistent excess mortality.

Introduction

Excess mortality is internationally recognised as an accurate measure for monitoring and comparing health crisis policies across geographic regions. 1–4 Excess mortality concerns the number of deaths from all causes during a humanitarian emergency, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, above the expected number of deaths under normal circumstances. 5–7 Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, excess mortality thus includes not only deaths from SARS-CoV-2 infection but also deaths related to the indirect effects of the health strategies to address the virus spread and infection. 1–4 The burden of the COVID-19 pandemic on disease and death has been investigated from its beginning. Numerous studies expressed that SARS-CoV-2 infection was likely a leading cause of death among older patients with pre-existing comorbidities and obesity in the early phase of the pandemic, that various containment measures were effective in reducing viral transmission and that COVID-19 vaccines prevented severe disease, especially among the elderly population. 1 8–14 Although COVID-19 containment measures and COVID-19 vaccines were thus implemented to protect citizens from suffering morbidity and mortality by the COVID-19 virus, they may have detrimental effects that cause inferior outcomes as well. 1 2 15 It is noteworthy that excess mortality during a crisis points to a more extensive underlying burden of disease, disablement and human suffering. 16

On 11 March 2020, WHO declared the COVID-19 pandemic. 17 Countries in the Western World promptly implemented COVID-19 containment measures (such as lockdowns, school closures, physical distancing, travel restrictions, business closures, stay-at-home orders, curfews and quarantine measures with contact tracing) to limit virus spread and shield its residents from morbidity and mortality. 18 These non-pharmaceutical interventions however had adverse indirect effects (such as economic damage, limited access to education, food insecurity, child abuse, limited access to healthcare, disrupted health programmes and mental health challenges) that increased morbidity and mortality from other causes. 19 Vulnerable populations in need of acute or complex medical treatment, such as patients with cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular conditions, diabetes and cancer, were hurt by these interventions due to the limited access to and delivery of medical services. Shortage of staff, reduced screening, delayed diagnostics, disrupted imaging, limited availability of medicines, postponed surgery, modified radiotherapy and restricted supportive care hindered protocol adherence and worsened the condition and prognosis of patients. 19–26 A recent study investigated excess mortality from some major non-COVID causes across 30 countries in 2020. Significant excess deaths were reported from ischaemic heart diseases (in 10 countries), cerebrovascular diseases (in 10 countries) and diabetes (in 19 countries). 27 On 14 October 2020, Professor Ioannidis from Stanford University published an overall Infection Fatality Rate of COVID-19 of 0.23%, and for people aged <70 years, the Infection Fatality Rate was 0.05%. 28 Governments in the Western World continued to impose lockdowns until the end of 2021.

In December 2020, the UK, the USA and Canada were the first countries in the Western World that started with the roll-out of the COVID-19 vaccines under emergency authorisation. 29–31 At the end of December 2020, a large randomised and placebo-controlled trial with 43 548 participants was published in the New England Journal of Medicine , which showed that a two-dose mRNA COVID-19 vaccine regimen provided an absolute risk reduction of 0.88% and relative risk reduction of 95% against laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 in the vaccinated group (8 COVID-19 cases/17 411 vaccine recipients) versus the placebo group (162 COVID-19 cases/17 511 placebo recipients). 32 33 At the beginning of 2021, most other Western countries followed with rolling out massive vaccination campaigns. 34–36 On 9 April 2021, the overall COVID-19 Infection Fatality Rate was reduced to 0.15% and expected to further decline with the widespread use of vaccinations, prior infections and the evolution of new and milder variants. 37 38

Although COVID-19 vaccines were provided to guard civilians from suffering morbidity and mortality by the COVID-19 virus, suspected adverse events have been documented as well. 15 The secondary analysis of the placebo-controlled, phase III randomised clinical trials of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines showed that the Pfizer trial had a 36% higher risk of serious adverse events in the vaccine group. The risk difference was 18.0 per 10 000 vaccinated (95% CI 1.2 to 34.9), and the risk ratio was 1.36 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.83). The Moderna trial had a 6% higher risk of serious adverse events among vaccine recipients. The risk difference was 7.1 per 10 000 vaccinated (95% CI −23.2 to 37.4), and the risk ratio was 1.06 (95% CI 0.84 to 1.33). 39 By definition, these serious adverse events lead to either death, are life-threatening, require inpatient (prolongation of) hospitalisation, cause persistent/significant disability/incapacity, concern a congenital anomaly/birth defect or include a medically important event according to medical judgement. 39–41 The authors of the secondary analysis point out that most of these serious adverse events concern common clinical conditions, for example, ischaemic stroke, acute coronary syndrome and brain haemorrhage. This commonality hinders clinical suspicion and consequently its detection as adverse vaccine reactions. 39 Both medical professionals and citizens have reported serious injuries and deaths following vaccination to various official databases in the Western World, such as VAERS in the USA, EudraVigilance in the European Union and Yellow Card Scheme in the UK. 42–48 A study comparing adverse event reports to VAERS and EudraVigilance following mRNA COVID-19 vaccines versus influenza vaccines observed a higher risk of serious adverse reactions for COVID-19 vaccines. These reactions included cardiovascular diseases, coagulation, haemorrhages, gastrointestinal events and thromboses. 39 49 Numerous studies reported that COVID-19 vaccination may induce myocarditis, pericarditis and autoimmune diseases. 50–57 Postmortem examinations have also ascribed myocarditis, encephalitis, immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia, intracranial haemorrhage and diffuse thrombosis to COVID-19 vaccinations. 58–67 The Food and Drug Administration noted in July 2021 that the following potentially serious adverse events of Pfizer vaccines deserve further monitoring and investigation: pulmonary embolism, acute myocardial infarction, immune thrombocytopenia and disseminated intravascular coagulation. 39 68

Insight into the excess death rates in the years following the declaration of the pandemic by WHO is crucial for government leaders and policymakers to evaluate their health crisis policies. 1–4 This study therefore explores excess mortality in the Western World from 1 January 2020 until 31 December 2022.

Materials and methods

The Western World is primarily defined by culture rather than geography. It refers to various countries in Europe and to countries in Australasia (Australia, New Zealand) and North America (the USA, Canada) that are based on European cultural heritage. The latter countries were once British colonies that acquired Christianity and the Latin alphabet and whose populations comprised numerous descendants from European colonists or migrants. 69

Study design

All-cause mortality reports were abstracted for countries of the Western World using the ‘Our World in Data’ database. 12 Only countries that had all-cause mortality reports available for all three consecutive years (2020–2022) were included. If coverage of one of these years was missing, the country was excluded from the analysis.

The ‘Our World in Data’ database retrieves their reported number of deaths from both the Human Mortality Database (HMD) and the World Mortality Dataset (WMD). 5 HMD is sustained by research teams of both the University of California in the USA and the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research in Germany. HMD recovers its data from Eurostat and national statistical agencies on a weekly basis. 5 70 The ‘Our World in Data’ database used HMD as their only data source until February 2021. 5 WMD is sustained by the researchers Karlinsky and Kobak. WMD recovers its data from HMD, Eurostat and national statistical agencies on a weekly basis. 5 71 The ‘Our World in Data’ database started to use WMD as a data source next to HMD since February 2021. 5

‘Excess mortality’ is assessed as the deviation between the reported number of deaths in a country during a certain week or month in 2020 until 2022 and the expected or projected number of deaths in a country for that period under normal conditions. 5 For the baseline of expected deaths, the estimate model of Karlinsky and Kobak was used. This linear regression model uses historical death data in a country from 2015 until 2019 and accounts for seasonal variation in mortality and year-to-year trends due to changing population structure or socioeconomic factors. 5 7

‘Excess mortality P-score’ concerns the percentage difference between the reported number of deaths and the projected number of deaths in a country. 5 This measure permits comparisons between various countries. Although presenting the raw number of excess deaths provides insight into the scale, it is less useful to compare countries because of their large population size variations. 5 The ‘Our World in Data’ database presents P-scores in a country during a certain week or month in 2020 until 2022. 5 These P-scores are calculated from both the reported number of deaths in HMD and WMD and the projected number of deaths using the estimate model of Karlinsky and Kobak in WMD. 5 7 70 71

For correct interpretation of excess mortality provided by the ‘Our World in Data’ database, the following needs to be taken into consideration: the reported number of deaths may not represent all deaths, as countries may lack the infrastructure and capacity to document and account for all deaths. 5 In addition, death reports may be incomplete due to delays. It may take weeks, months or years before a death is actually reported. The date of a reported death may refer to the actual death date or to its registration date. Sometimes, a death may be recorded but not the date of death. Countries that provide weekly death reports may use different start and end dates of the week. Most countries define the week from Monday until Sunday, but not all countries do. Weekly and monthly reported deaths may not be completely comparable, as excess mortality derived from monthly calculations inclines to be lower. 5 7

For our analysis, weekly all-cause mortality reports from the ‘Our World in Data’ database were converted to monthly reports. Subsequently, the monthly reports were converted to annual reports.

Patient and public involvement

Patients and/or the public were not involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting, or dissemination plans of this research.

The ‘Our World in Data’ database contained all-cause mortality reports of 47 countries (96%) in the Western World for the years 2020, 2021 and 2022. Only Andorra and Gibraltar were excluded. Both countries lacked all-cause mortality reports for the year 2022. Most countries (n=36, 77%) present weekly all-cause mortality reports, whereas 11 countries (23%) report monthly. The latter countries include the following: Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, Faeroe Islands, Greenland, Kosovo, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, North Macedonia, San Marino and Serbia.

The all-cause mortality reports were abstracted from the ‘Our World in Data’ database on 20 May 2023. At this date, four countries (9%) still lacked all-cause mortality reports for various periods: Canada (1 month), Liechtenstein (3 months), Monaco (3 months) and Montenegro (4 months). It is noteworthy that all-cause mortality reports are also still being updated for the other countries due to registration delays which may take weeks, months or even years.

Excess mortality

Online supplemental table 1 illustrates that the total number of excess deaths in the 47 countries of the Western World was 3 098 456 from 1 January 2020 until 31 December 2022. Excess mortality was documented in 41 countries (87%) in 2020, in 42 countries (89%) in 2021 and in 43 countries (91%) in 2022.

In 2020, the year of the COVID-19 pandemic and implementation of the containment measures, 1 033 122 excess deaths (P-score 11.4%) were recorded. In 2021, the year in which both COVID-19 containment measures and COVID-19 vaccines were used to address virus spread and infection, a total of 1 256 942 excess deaths (P-score 13.8%) were reported. In 2022, the year in which most containment measures were lifted and COVID-19 vaccines were continued, preliminary available data counts 808 392 excess deaths (P-score 8.8%).

Figure 1 presents the excess mortality and cumulative excess mortality in 47 countries of the Western World over the years 2020, 2021 and 2022. The linear excess mortality trendline is almost horizontal.

Excess mortality and cumulative excess mortality in the Western World (n=47 countries). Preliminary and incomplete all-cause mortality reports are available for 2022.

Excess mortality P-scores

Figure 2 shows the excess mortality P-scores per country in the Western World. Only Greenland had no excess deaths between 2020 and 2022. Among the other 46 countries with reported excess mortality, the percentage difference between the reported and projected number of deaths was highest in 13 countries (28%) during 2020, in 21 countries (46%) during 2021 and in 12 countries (26%) during 2022. Figure 3 exemplifies excess mortality P-score curves of the highest-populated country of North America (the USA), the four highest-populated countries of Europe (Germany, France, the UK and Italy) and the highest-populated country of Australasia (Australia).

Excess mortality P-scores per country in the Western World (n=47 countries). Preliminary and incomplete all-cause mortality reports are available for 2022.

Excess mortality P-score curves of six countries in the Western World. Preliminary and incomplete all-cause mortality reports are available for 2022.

Figure 4 highlights a map of excess mortality P-scores in the Western World over the years 2020, 2021 and 2022. 74 Table 1 presents a classification of excess mortality P-scores in the Western World.

Map of excess mortality P-scores in the Western World (n=47 countries). 74 Preliminary and incomplete all-cause mortality reports are available for 2022.

This study explored the excess all-cause mortality in 47 countries of the Western World from 2020 until 2022. The overall number of excess deaths was 3 098 456. Excess mortality was registered in 87% of countries in 2020, in 89% of countries in 2021 and in 91% of countries in 2022. During 2020, which was marked by the COVID-19 pandemic and the onset of mitigation measures, 1 033 122 excess deaths (P-score 11.4%) were to be regretted. 17 18 A recent analysis of seroprevalence studies in this prevaccination era illustrates that the Infection Fatality Rate estimates in non-elderly populations were even lower than prior calculations suggested. 37 At a global level, the prevaccination Infection Fatality Rate was 0.03% for people aged <60 years and 0.07% for people aged <70 years. 38 For children aged 0–19 years, the Infection Fatality Rate was set at 0.0003%. 38 This implies that children are rarely harmed by the COVID-19 virus. 19 38 During 2021, when not only containment measures but also COVID-19 vaccines were used to tackle virus spread and infection, the highest number of excess deaths was recorded: 1 256 942 excess deaths (P-score 13.8%). 26 37 Scientific consensus regarding the effectiveness of non-pharmaceutical interventions in reducing viral transmission is currently lacking. 75 76 During 2022, when most mitigation measures were negated and COVID-19 vaccines were sustained, preliminary available data count 808 392 excess deaths (P-score 8.8%). 39 The percentage difference between the documented and projected number of deaths was highest in 28% of countries during 2020, in 46% of countries during 2021, and in 26% of countries during 2022.

This insight into the overall all-cause excess mortality since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic is an important first step for future health crisis policy decision-making. 1–4 The next step concerns distinguishing between the various potential contributors to excess mortality, including COVID-19 infection, indirect effects of containment measures and COVID-19 vaccination programmes. Differentiating between the various causes is challenging. 16 National mortality registries not only vary in quality and thoroughness but may also not accurately document the cause of death. 1 19 The usage of different models to investigate cause-specific excess mortality within certain countries or subregions during variable phases of the pandemic complicates elaborate cross-country comparative analysis. 1 2 16 Not all countries provide mortality reports categorised per age group. 2 12 Also testing policies for COVID-19 infection differ between countries. 1 2 Interpretation of a positive COVID-19 test can be intricate. 77 Consensus is lacking in the medical community regarding when a deceased infected with COVID-19 should be registered as a COVID-19 death. 1 77 Indirect effects of containment measures have likely altered the scale and nature of disease burden for numerous causes of death since the pandemic. However, deaths caused by restricted healthcare utilisation and socioeconomic turmoil are difficult to prove. 1 78–81 A study assessing excess mortality in the USA observed a substantial increase in excess mortality attributed to non-COVID causes during the first 2 years of the pandemic. The highest number of excess deaths was caused by heart disease, 6% above baseline during both years. Diabetes mortality was 17% over baseline during the first year and 13% above it during the second year. Alzheimer’s disease mortality was 19% higher in year 1 and 15% higher in year 2. In terms of percentage, large increases were recorded for alcohol-related fatalities (28% over baseline during the first year and 33% during the second year) and drug-related fatalities (33% above baseline in year 1 and 54% in year 2). 82 Previous research confirmed profound under-reporting of adverse events, including deaths, after immunisation. 83 84 Consensus is also lacking in the medical community regarding concerns that mRNA vaccines might cause more harm than initially forecasted. 85 French studies suggest that COVID-19 mRNA vaccines are gene therapy products requiring long-term stringent adverse events monitoring. 85 86 Although the desired immunisation through vaccination occurs in immune cells, some studies report a broad biodistribution and persistence of mRNA in many organs for weeks. 85 87–90 Batch-dependent heterogeneity in the toxicity of mRNA vaccines was found in Denmark. 48 Simultaneous onset of excess mortality and COVID-19 vaccination in Germany provides a safety signal warranting further investigation. 91 Despite these concerns, clinical trial data required to further investigate these associations are not shared with the public. 92 Autopsies to confirm actual death causes are seldom done. 58 60 90 93–95 Governments may be unable to release their death data with detailed stratification by cause, although this information could help indicate whether COVID-19 infection, indirect effects of containment measures, COVID-19 vaccines or other overlooked factors play an underpinning role. 1 8–14 20–25 39–60 68 90 This absence of detailed cause-of-death data for certain Western nations derives from the time-consuming procedure involved, which entails assembling death certificates, coding diagnoses and adjudicating the underlying origin of death. Consequently, some nations with restricted resources assigned to this procedure may encounter delays in rendering prompt and punctual cause-of-death data. This situation existed even prior to the outbreak of the pandemic. 1 5

A critical challenge in excess mortality research is choosing an appropriate statistical method for calculating the projected baseline of expected deaths to which the observed deaths are compared. 96 Although the analyses and estimates in general are similar, the method can vary, for instance, per length of the investigated period, nature of available data, scale of geographic area, inclusion or exclusion of past influenza outbreaks, accounting for changes in population ageing and size and modelling trend over years or not. 7 96 Our analysis of excess mortality using the linear regression model of Karlinsky and Kobak varies thus to some extent from previous attempts to estimate excess deaths. For example, Islam et al conducted an age- and sex-disaggregated time series analysis of weekly mortality data in 29 high-income countries during 2020. 97 They used a more elaborate statistical approach, an overdispersed Poisson regression model, for estimating the baseline of expected deaths on historical death data from 2016 to 2019. In contrast to the model of Karlinsky and Kobak, their baseline is weighing down prior influenza outbreaks so that every novel outbreak evolves in positive excess mortality. 7 97 Islam’s study found that age-standardised excess death rates were higher in men than in women in nearly all nations. 97 Alicandro et al investigated sex- and age-specific excess total mortality in Italy during 2020 and 2021, using an overdispersed Poisson regression model that accounts for temporal trends and seasonal variability. Historical death data from 2011 to 2019 were used for the projected baseline. When comparing 2020 and 2021, an increased share of the total excess mortality was attributed to the working-age population in 2021. Excess deaths were higher in men than in women during both periods. 98 Msemburi et al provided WHO estimates of the global excess mortality for its 194 member states during 2020 and 2021. For most countries, the historical period 2015–2019 was used to determine the expected baseline of excess deaths. In locations missing comprehensive data, the all-cause deaths were forecasted employing an overdispersed Poisson framework that uses Bayesian inference techniques to measure incertitude. This study describes huge differences in excess mortality between the six WHO regions. 99 Paglino et al used a Bayesian hierarchical model trained on historical death data from 2015 to 2019 and provided spatially and temporally granular estimates of monthly excess mortality across counties in the USA during the first 2 years of the pandemic. The authors found that excess mortality decreased in large metropolitan counties but increased in non-metropolitan counties. 100 Ruhm examined the appropriateness of reported excess death estimates in the USA by four previous studies and concluded that these investigations have likely understated the projected baseline of excess deaths and therewith overestimated excess mortality and its attribution to non-COVID causes. Ruhm explains that the overstatement of excess deaths may partially be explained by the fact that the studies did not adequately take population growth and age structure into account. 96 101–104 Although all the above-mentioned studies used more elaborate statistical approaches for estimating baseline mortality, Karlinsky and Kobak argue that their method is a trade-off between suppleness and chasteness. 7 It is the simplest method to captivate seasonal fluctuation and annual trends and more transparent than extensive approaches. 7

This study has various significant limitations. Death reports may be incomplete due to delays. It may take weeks, months or years before a death is registered. 5 Four nations still lack all-cause mortality reports for 1–4 months. Some nations issue complete data with profound arrears, whereas other nations publish prompt, yet incomplete data. 5 7 The presented data, especially for 2022, are thus preliminary and subject to backward revisions. The more recent data are usually more incomplete and therefore can undergo upward revisions over time. This implies that several of the reported excess mortality estimates can be underestimations. 7 The completeness and reliability of death registration data can also differ per nation for other reasons. The recorded number of deaths may not depict all deaths accurately, as the resources, infrastructure and registration capacity may be limited in some nations. 5 7 Most countries report per week, but some per month. Weekly reports generally provide the date of death, whereas monthly reports often provide the date of registration. Weekly and monthly reports may not be entirely comparable. 5 7 Our data are collected at a country level and provide no detailed stratification for sociodemographic characteristics, such as age or gender. 5 7

In conclusion, excess mortality has remained high in the Western World for three consecutive years, despite the implementation of COVID-19 containment measures and COVID-19 vaccines. This is unprecedented and raises serious concerns. During the pandemic, it was emphasised by politicians and the media on a daily basis that every COVID-19 death mattered and every life deserved protection through containment measures and COVID-19 vaccines. In the aftermath of the pandemic, the same morale should apply. Every death needs to be acknowledged and accounted for, irrespective of its origin. Transparency towards potential lethal drivers is warranted. Cause-specific mortality data therefore need to be made available to allow more detailed, direct and robust analyses to determine the underlying contributors. Postmortem examinations need to be facilitated to allot the exact reason for death. Government leaders and policymakers need to thoroughly investigate underlying causes of persistent excess mortality and evaluate their health crisis policies.

Dissemination to participants and related patient and public communities

We will disseminate findings through a press release on publication and contact government leaders and policymakers to raise awareness about the need to investigate the underlying causes of persistent excess mortality.

Supplementary files
Publication history

IMAGES

📌 Essay Sample: Reflection on the Global Health Crisis: COVID-19
≫ Nationalism and Covid-19 Pandemic Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com
Fourth Grader Pens Essay About Coronavirus Anger and Fears
10+ Examples of a Persuasive Essay About Covid-19
📗 Essay Sample on The Vulnerability of Organizations to Breaches During
≫ Setting Up Homeworking Radiology Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic Free

VIDEO

Impact of COVID 19 on human life|essay writing|write an essay on Impact of Coronavirus on human life
Pandemic COVID-19 Essay
Technology Use in Education During the Coronavirus Pandemic
imp.essays || patwari || last essay || Covid-19 || urdu || jkssb || #patwari #urduessay #jkssb #urdu
10 lines Essay on Corona virus(Covid-19)in hindi/Coronavirus essay in hindi
Skill: SRQ6 Blahblah essay

COMMENTS

COVID-19's Lasting Impact on the Body
COVID-19 is often thought of as a respiratory disease that we either recover or die from, but researchers continue to learn that the disease is more complicated. COVID-19 affects many different parts of the body, from our stomachs to our hearts to our brains. While none of the patients in this study had been diagnosed with Long COVID, these ...
Persuasive Essay About Covid19
Body Paragraph: One compelling reason for implementing COVID-19 vaccination mandates is the overwhelming evidence of vaccine effectiveness. According to a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine, the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines demonstrated an efficacy of over 90% in preventing symptomatic COVID-19 cases.
What We Learned About Ourselves During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Alex, a writer and fellow disabled parent, found the freedom to explore a fuller version of herself in the privacy the pandemic provided. "The way I dress, the way I love, and the way I carry ...
My Experience During The Covid-19 Pandemic
Body Physical impact. Firstly, contracting the virus was a terrifying experience. I became infected after attending a social event with a friend who later tested positive. ... My Life During the Pandemic: Finding Resilience Essay. The COVID-19 pandemic has left an indelible mark on the world, altering our daily lives in unprecedented ways. In ...
How to Write About Coronavirus in a College Essay
Writing About COVID-19 in College Essays. Experts say students should be honest and not limit themselves to merely their experiences with the pandemic. The global impact of COVID-19, the disease ...
Insights into the impact on daily life of the COVID-19 pandemic and
1. Introduction. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to unprecedented changes in people's daily lives, with implications for mental health and well-being [1-4], both at the level of a given country's population, and when considering specific vulnerable groups [5-7].In order to mitigate the untoward impact of the pandemic (including lockdown) and support mental health ...
The pandemic body: How we have changed physically and what to do about
He says the Covid-19 crisis has had "profound economic, social and educational impacts". "General practice is seeing at first hand the effects of the pandemic on the mental health of the population.
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic: an overview of systematic
Navigating the rapidly growing body of scientific literature on the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is challenging, and ongoing critical appraisal of this output is essential. We aimed to summarize and critically appraise systematic reviews of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in humans that were available at the beginning of the pandemic. Nine databases (Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, Web of ...
Writing about COVID-19 in a college essay GreatSchools.org
The student or a family member had COVID-19 or suffered other illnesses due to confinement during the pandemic. The student suffered from a lack of internet access and other online learning challenges. Students who dealt with problems registering for or taking standardized tests and AP exams. Jeff Schiffman of the Tulane University admissions ...
12 moving essays about life during coronavirus
Read these 12 moving essays about life during coronavirus. Artists, novelists, critics, and essayists are writing the first draft of history. A woman wearing a face mask in Miami. Alissa Wilkinson ...
Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic is far from over and could yet evolve in unanticipated ways, but one of its most important lessons is already clear: preparation and early execution are essential in ...
Covid 19 Essay in English
100 Words Essay on Covid 19. COVID-19 or Corona Virus is a novel coronavirus that was first identified in 2019. It is similar to other coronaviruses, such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, but it is more contagious and has caused more severe respiratory illness in people who have been infected. The novel coronavirus became a global pandemic in a very ...
A Narrative Review of COVID-19: The New Pandemic Disease
Nearly every 100 years, humans collectively face a pandemic crisis. After the Spanish flu, now the world is in the grip of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). First detected in 2019 in the Chinese city of Wuhan, COVID-19 causes severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Despite the initial evidence indicating a zoonotic origin, the contagion ...
Essay On Covid-19: 100, 200 and 300 Words
Essay On Covid-19: 100, 200 and 300 Words. COVID-19, also known as the Coronavirus, is a global pandemic that has affected people all around the world. It first emerged in a lab in Wuhan, China, in late 2019 and quickly spread to countries around the world. This virus was reportedly caused by SARS-CoV-2. Since then, it has spread rapidly to ...
Impact of COVID-19 on people's livelihoods, their health and our food
Reading time: 3 min (864 words) The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a dramatic loss of human life worldwide and presents an unprecedented challenge to public health, food systems and the world of work. The economic and social disruption caused by the pandemic is devastating: tens of millions of people are at risk of falling into extreme poverty ...
An Introduction to COVID-19
COVID-19 has reached to more than 150 nations, including China, and has caused WHO to call the disease a worldwide pandemic. By the time of 2nd week of April 2020, this COVID-19 cases exceeded 18,738,58, although more than 1,160,45 deaths were recorded worldwide and United States of America became the global epicentre of coronavirus.
Covid 19 Essays: Examples, Topics, & Outlines
Here are some essay topic ideas related to Covid-19: 1. The impact of Covid-19 on mental health: Discuss how the pandemic has affected individuals' mental well-being and explore potential solutions for addressing mental health challenges during this time. 2.
Essay on COVID-19 Pandemic
Essay on COVID-19 Pandemic. Published: 2021/11/08. Number of words: 1220. As a result of the COVID-19 (Coronavirus) outbreak, daily life has been negatively affected, impacting the worldwide economy. Thousands of individuals have been sickened or died as a result of the outbreak of this disease. When you have the flu or a viral infection, the ...
PDF Writing COVID-19 into your thesis
The structure of a doctoral thesis and Covid-19 In this document we attempt to guide you through the usual chapters in a thesis and suggest how the pandemic might be referenced within them. We have listed the purpose of each chapter and considered how you may acknowledge the shaping influence of Covid-19. While this information has
Editor in Chief's Introduction to Essays on the Impact of COVID-19 on
Editor in Chief's Introduction to Essays on the Impact of COVID-19 on Work and Workers. On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared that COVID-19 was a global pandemic, indicating significant global spread of an infectious disease ( World Health Organization, 2020 ). At that point, there were 118,000 confirmed cases of the ...
Paragraph Writing on Covid 19
Covid-19, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, emerged in late 2019 and rapidly spread across the globe, leading to an unprecedented pandemic. The virus's high transmission rate prompted governments worldwide to implement stringent measures such as lockdowns, social distancing, and mask mandates to control its spread.
The Way Ahead: Life After COVID-19
The coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic has dramatically changed clinical practice, medical education, and research. It has brought about new challenges for the healthcare system, such as how best to combat misinformation, address the disproportionate impact on minorities and marginalized groups, and treat the ever-growing population of ...
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
People who are at high risk of serious illness may get medicine to block the spread of the COVID-19 virus in the body. Or your healthcare team may plan regular checks to monitor your health. ... 'Deaths of Despair' contribute to 17% rise in Minnesota's death rate during COVID-19 pandemic March 13, 2023, 12:00 p.m. CDT; Rising cases of COVID-19 ...
Paragraph Writing on Covid 19
Paragraph Writing on Covid-19 in 250 Words. The coronavirus was responsible for the Covid-19 pandemic. It is an infectious disease that has affected millions of people's lives. The pandemic has impacted people all across the world in diverse ways. It was first discovered in Wuhan, China, in 2019.
Symptoms of COVID-19
COVID-19 is caused by infection with a coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2, and flu is caused by infection with influenza viruses. You cannot tell the difference between flu and COVID-19 by symptoms alone because some of the symptoms are the same. Some PCR tests can differentiate between flu and COVID-19 at the same time.
PDF Argumentative Essay About Covid 19 with Introduction Body and Conclusion
Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic has thrown the entire world into disarray, affecting nearly all. aspects of life. This outbreak is not only a health crisis but also an economic one; businesses are. closing and people are losing their jobs. Social distancing has become the battle cry for many.
Essay
Sociological Imagination - How the COVID-19 Pandemic Changed Societal Norms and Influenced My Individual Choices P a g e | 2 It has been over three years since the COVID-19 pandemic and the sociological effects from that time have had a huge impact on my life. Using sociological imagination, I will reflect on my individual experiences to help me understand how my life choices are linked to ...
How Coronavirus Spreads
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is most often spread from person to person among close contacts (about 6 feet). Symptoms, testing, what to do if sick, daily activities, and more. ... Pandemic Planning Scenarios; COVID-19Surge; Staff Shortages; Electronic Case Reporting; Training; Non-US Healthcare Settings plus icon. COVID-19 & IPC Overview;
Gender, Immunological Response, and COVID-19: An Assessment of ...
COVID-19 is no longer a public health emergency of international concern, but long COVID's effects are yet to be fully understood. Hence, globally, SARS-CoV-2 is still a profound threat to public health and of perilous nature as a zoonotic disease. Timely vaccination provided to individuals worldwide during the pandemic phase was under a certain degree of control; however, few studies have ...
Excess mortality across countries in the Western World since the COVID
Introduction Excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic has been substantial. Insight into excess death rates in years following WHO's pandemic declaration is crucial for government leaders and policymakers to evaluate their health crisis policies. This study explores excess mortality in the Western World from 2020 until 2022.Methods All-cause mortality reports were abstracted for ...

COVID-19’s Lasting Impact on the Body

What you need to know

What did the researchers do?

What did they learn?

Why is this research important?

Where can I go to learn more?

News and Stories

NIH COVID-19 Resources by Topic

Related Stories

I Thought We’d Learned Nothing From the Pandemic. I Wasn’t Seeing the Full Picture

More from TIME

More Must-Reads from TIME

My Experience During The Covid-19 Pandemic

Table of contents

Cite this Essay

Related Essays

Still can’t find what you need?

Related Essays on Covid 19

Related Topics

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

The pandemic body: How we have changed physically and what to do about it

Want to get a better night’s sleep? Declutter your bedroom

Plenty of ways to exercise our bodies and allow our minds some respite

Give a little back in 2022: volunteering options for the new year

Mental health

A seasonal look at James Bond’s health lifestyle

Attempted murder investigation in Co Down after shotgun pellets fired into house

Judge in Donald Trump’s documents case rejected suggestions to step aside

Detention of Palestinian writers opens new cultural front in Israel’s war with Hamas

Novo Nordisk drops Dublin factory plan

Iran’s reformist candidate jolts presidential race with nuclear pitch

State remembrance ceremony for Stardust victims to take place in Dublin

Russia missile attack on Kyiv region injures two and damages houses, Ukraine says

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic: an overview of systematic reviews

On behalf of the International Network of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (InterNetCOVID-19)

Conclusions

Methodology

Study design

Eligibility criteria

Information sources

Study selection

Data collection process

Quality assessment in individual reviews

Synthesis of results

Managing overlapping systematic reviews

Characteristics of included reviews

Population and study designs

Systematic review findings

Clinical symptoms

Diagnostic aspects

Therapeutic possibilities

Laboratory and radiological findings

Quality of evidence in individual systematic reviews

Availability of data and materials

Acknowledgments

Author information

Contributions

Corresponding author

Ethics declarations

Consent for publication

Competing interests

Additional information

Supplementary Information

Additional file 2: Appendix 2.

Additional file 3: Appendix 3.

Additional file 4: Appendix 4.

Additional file 5: Appendix 5.

Additional file 6: Appendix 6.

Rights and permissions

About this article

Share this article

BMC Infectious Diseases

Writing about COVID-19 in a college admission essay

The CommonApp COVID-19 question

Counselor recommendations and school profiles

Writing about COVID-19 in your main essay

Homes Nearby

What should I write my college essay about?

Read these 12 moving essays about life during coronavirus

Most Popular

What nuclear annihilation could look like Audio