This chapter describes what are the dependent and independent variables for conducting research experiments. It introduces the readers to the different conditions to the use of the two types of variables (dependent and independent) in scientific research and hypothesis testing. The differences between the two variables and examples of each use case scenario are provided in this chapter. The relationship between the independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables is the key foundation of most statistical data analysis or scientific tests. The authors note that an easy way to identify the independent or dependent variable in an experiment is: independent variables (IV) are what the researchers change or changes on its own , whereas dependent variables (DV) are what changes as a result of the change in the independent variable (IV). Thus, independent variables (IV) otherwise known as the “predictor variable” are the cause while dependent variables (DV) or the “response variable” are the effect .
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Agravante, M. (2018). What Is the Meaning of Variables in Research? https://sciencing.com/meaning-variables-research-6164255.html.
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Okoye, K., Hosseini, S. (2024). Understanding Dependent and Independent Variables in Research Experiments and Hypothesis Testing. In: R Programming. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-3385-9_5
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People taking Ozempic and Wegovy may be at increased risk of developing a debilitating eye condition that can cause irreversible vision loss, a study published Wednesday in JAMA Ophthalmology finds. The authors stressed, however, that more studies are needed to confirm a link between the blockbuster drugs and vision problems.
Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, or NAION , is a condition that affects the optic nerve, a bundle of fibers that connects to the back of the eye and carries signals to the brain so a person can see. In people with NAION, blood flow to the optic nerve gets reduced or blocked, leading to sudden vision loss.
“It is, in effect, a stroke of the optic nerve,” said senior study author Dr. Joseph Rizzo, the director of neuro-ophthalmology at Mass Eye and Ear in Boston.
NAION is the second most common optic nerve disease in the U.S., occurring in up to 10 out of 100,000 people, according to the American Academy of Ophthalmology , and it’s one of the most common causes of sudden blindness. The condition is permanent with no known treatment.
The new study was based on an analysis of medical records spanning six years from more than 16,800 patients in the Boston area, none of whom were initially diagnosed with NAION.
The researchers focused on a subset of those patients — about 1,700 — who either had diabetes, were overweight or had obesity, and compared outcomes after 36 months in those who were prescribed semaglutide to those who weren’t. Semaglutide is the ingredient in Ozempic and Wegovy .
Almost 200 of the diabetes patients were prescribed semaglutide and 17 went on to develop NAION, a rate more than four times higher than those not prescribed the drug. For the obesity group, 361 people were prescribed semaglutide and 20 people developed the condition, a seven times higher rate.
Rizzo said that because the findings were based on a review of existing data, researchers can’t say for sure whether semaglutide causes the eye condition. He said a large, randomized controlled clinical trial is still needed to confirm a link.
“What it does show is an association between taking semaglutide and developing this condition where you lose vision,” he said.
Dr. Andrew Lee, clinical spokesperson for the American Academy of Ophthalmology and a neuro-ophthalmologist at Houston Methodist Hospital, said he's had some patients who developed NAION who were taking semaglutide , but the question was always whether “this is a causal association or merely an association alone.”
People with Type 2 diabetes are already at an increased risk for vision problems, including NAION. Another vision problem, diabetic retinopathy, is the leading cause of blindness in adults and is caused by damage to the retina from high blood sugar levels.
What’s more, risk factors for NAION include sleep apnea and hypertension, which are diseases that are more likely to occur in people with obesity.
Lee said that it’s plausible that weight loss medications could cause the condition, however, it is “premature to conclude” a link based on the single study. “The study can only generate the hypothesis” of a possible link, he said.
There have been some anecdotal reports suggesting that weight loss drugs may be linked to vision problems, including blurred or warped vision.
Rizzo said it’s unclear how the weight loss drugs could cause the condition. It could be due to some mechanism with the class of drugs, called GLP-1s , broadly, he said, or something specific to the way semaglutide works. (The study only looked at semaglutide and not other popular weight loss medications such as tirzepatide, the active ingredient in Eli Lilly’s Mounjaro and Zepbound.)
Dr. Susan Mollan, a consultant neuro-ophthalmologist at the University Hospitals Birmingham in the United Kingdom, wrote in an email that past trials in people with diabetes have shown that when a patient’s blood sugar control is tightened, “they may have a paradoxical worsening of their diabetic retinopathy (temporarily),” so it’s plausible that the GLP-1 drugs, which also help control blood sugar, could “have a paradoxical biological effect.” Mollan wrote an editorial that was published alongside the new study.
Rizzo said patients should speak with their doctor if they are concerned about developing the potential health condition.
“As someone who sees patients who have diseases like this, if someone already has visual loss for whatever reason, and they were wondering whether they would go on semaglutide, I would just have added caution,” Rizzo said.
Dr. Shauna Levy, a specialist in obesity medicine and the medical director of the Tulane Bariatric Center in New Orleans, said the findings won’t change how she prescribes the drugs.
“As for now, the risk still seems low,” she said.
In a statement, a spokesperson for Novo Nordisk said the study is not sufficient to establish a link between semaglutide and the condition.
“Patient safety is a top priority for Novo Nordisk, and we take all reports about adverse events from the use of our medicines very seriously,” the spokesperson said.
Berkeley Lovelace Jr. is a health and medical reporter for NBC News. He covers the Food and Drug Administration, with a special focus on Covid vaccines, prescription drug pricing and health care. He previously covered the biotech and pharmaceutical industry with CNBC.
And there’s $1 million at stake.
The “Millennium Problems” are seven infamously intractable math problems laid out in the year 2000 by the prestigious Clay Institute, each with $1 million attached as payment for a solution. They span all areas of math , as the Clay Institute was founded in 1998 to push the entire field forward with financial support for researchers and important breakthroughs.
But the only solved Millennium Problem so far, the Poincare conjecture, illustrates one of the funny pitfalls inherent to offering a large cash prize for math. The winner, Grigori Perelman, refused the Clay prize as well as the prestigious Fields Medal. He withdrew from mathematics and public life in 2006, and even in 2010, he still insisted his contribution was the same as the mathematician whose work laid the foundation on which he built his proof, Richard Hamilton.
Math, all sciences, and arguably all human inquiries are filled with pairs or groups that circle the same finding at the same time until one officially makes the breakthrough. Think about Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz, whose back-and-forth about calculus led to the combined version of the field we still study today. Rosalind Franklin is now mentioned in the same breath as her fellow discoverers of DNA, James Watson and Francis Crick. Even the Bechdel Test for women in media is sometimes called the Bechdel-Wallace Test, because humans are almost always in collaboration.
That’s what makes this new paper so important. Two mathematicians—Larry Guth of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and James Maynard of the University of Oxford—collaborated on the new finding about how certain polynomials are formed and how they reach out into the number line. Maynard is just 37, and won the Fields Medal himself in 2022. Guth, a decade older, has won a number of important prizes with a little less name recognition.
The Riemann hypothesis is not directly related to prime numbers , but it has implications that ripple through number theory in different ways (including with prime numbers). Basically, it deals with where and how the graph of a certain function of complex numbers crosses back and forth across axes. The points where the function crosses an axis is called a “zero,” and the frequency with which those zeroes appear is called the zero density.
In the far reaches of the number line, prime numbers become less and less predictable (in the proverbial sense). They are not, so far, predictable in the literal sense—a fact that is an underpinning of modern encryption , where data is protected by enormous strings of integers made by multiplying enormous prime numbers together. The idea of a periodic table of primes, of any kind of template that could help mathematicians better understand where and how large primes cluster together or not, is a holy grail.
In the new paper, Maynard and Guth focus on a new limitation of Dirichlet polynomials. These are special series of complex numbers that many believe are of the same type as the function involved in the Riemann hypothesis involves. In the paper, they claim they’ve proven that these polynomials have a certain number of large values, or solutions , within a tighter range than before.
In other words, if we knew there might be an estimated three Dirichlet values between 50 and 100 before, now we may know that range to be between 60 and 90 instead. The eye exam just switched a blurry plate for a slightly less blurry one, but we still haven’t found the perfect prescription. “If one knows some more structure about the set of large values of a Dirichlet polynomial, then one can hope to have improved bound,” Maynard and Guth conclude.
No, this is not a final proof of the Riemann hypothesis. But no one is suggesting it is. In advanced math, narrowing things down is also vital. Indeed, even finding out that a promising idea turns out to be wrong can have a lot of value—as it has a number of times in the related Twin Primes Conjecture that still eludes mathematicians.
In a collaboration that has lasted 160 years and counting, mathematicians continue to take each step together and then, hopefully, compare notes.
Caroline Delbert is a writer, avid reader, and contributing editor at Pop Mech. She's also an enthusiast of just about everything. Her favorite topics include nuclear energy, cosmology, math of everyday things, and the philosophy of it all.
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Margaret Estapa has long yearned to help uncover whether life exists beyond Earth. For two decades, she has studied the biogeochemical processes of ocean particles and believes her work can someday help with investigating vast ice-covered seas on other worlds.
Thanks to a grant from the Hypothesis Fund , Estapa can now explore whether the same tools for studying oceanic particles on Earth can be used for investigating those in other celestial bodies, particularly the ice-covered waters on Europa and Enceladus, the moons of Jupiter and Saturn.
“There’s something inside us that drives us by what’s out there,” Estapa said. “This is an opportunity to chase something cool and exciting and help with one of these fundamental questions.”
For the next 18 months, Estapa, assistant professor of chemical oceanography at the University of Maine, will create design specifications for sensors that could someday be used to pinpoint signs of life in oceans on moons and other planets. These sensors would be suited for analyzing seafloor hydrothermal vents, openings in the ocean’s crust near underwater volcanoes that spew hot water like geyser; water just below the ice sheets and solid particles suspended in water.
Sean O’Neill, research associate with UMaine’s School of Marine Sciences, and postdoctoral researcher Patrick Gray will collaborate with Estapa on the project, one of the very few that bring together planetary science and oceanography.
Sensors for exploring Earth’s oceans can identify various types of microbial cells through high-resolution imaging that measures light signatures — the color and wavelengths of the light that cells reflect or absorb. Light signatures of organic particles, as well as inorganic particles such as those in minerals, are determined by their chemical and physical properties.
Designing the sensors will require Estapa to approximate the properties of seawater on Europa and Enceladus and the particulate matter in it. She will focus on determining the best possible estimates for pH, salinity, salt composition and other chemical and physical properties through an extensive literature review. Additionally, she will assess how these otherworldly ocean particles would likely interact with light based on modeling and lab experiments using similar particles found on Earth.
Estapa’s work will also help her determine which ocean environments on Earth compare the closest to those on Europa and Enceladus — with their extensive ice cover and underwater vents — as they would be best suited for testing the sensors.
“What can we infer about the chemical compositions that probably exist on these moons? And what will we be able to see using sensors based on broad exploration on Earth?” Estapa said.
Estapa is amongst the most recent researchers from multiple scientific disciplines who so far have grants from the Hypothesis Fund to advance early-stage research with bold, new ideas.
“Dr. Estapa is pursuing an exciting and innovative project that leverages what we have learned about the optical properties of life in the ocean to interrogate extraterrestrial oceans for signatures of a beating microbial ‘heart.’ She is a creative and thoughtful scientist who thinks outside of the box, and her bold project has the potential to create a new discipline at the intersection of optical oceanography and planetary science,” said Angelicque White, a scientist scout for the Hypothesis Fund.
Contact: Marcus Wolf, 207.581.3721; [email protected]
U.S. government statistics about arts and cultural organizations and industries can tell us quite a lot. We can learn about revenue, head count, payroll, and compensation—to name a few data elements. Still, there are many glaring omissions. Not only are data often lacking about specific types of arts organizations, i.e., relative to mission or artistic discipline, but distinctions between nonprofit and commercial entities are not always clear.
In May, Dance/USA issued a research report , Dancing Through the Pandemic: Financial Changes in the U.S. Nonprofit Dance Ecosystem . For this analysis, the organization’s research director, Sarah Morrison, used government data but managed to tap a source that frequently goes unexamined when nonprofit arts executives want to know how their part of the sector is faring: IRS Form 990.
Dancing Through the Pandemic sampled 708 nonprofit dance companies, based on public data that the entities submitted to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) annually from 2018 to 2022 when filing their returns as tax-exempt, nonprofit organizations. (Dance/USA estimates that a total of 4,762 nonprofit “dance-related” organizations were “actively registered” with the IRS as of last October.)
By selecting 708 organizations as a representative cohort, and following them throughout the five years, Morrison was able to observe fluctuations in budget sizes, revenue sources and streams, and employment levels throughout the reign of the COVID pandemic. She analyzed IRS Form 990 data from Candid, a nonprofit information service provider. Using an IRS taxonomy of organization types, she pinpointed dance entities that are classifiable either as “Dance” or “Ballet.”
This approach, the report acknowledges, excludes the roughly 4,000 other nonprofit dance organizations that might appear under different codes on the taxonomy. Yet, because each of the 708 sampled organizations filed tax returns in each year of the study period (2018-2022)—and since the sample adheres to other useful criteria set by Dance/USA—the tradeoff seems worthwhile.
High-level findings show that the sample’s total revenue dipped by nearly 25 percent from fiscal years 2018 to 2021, but that it recovered in fiscal year (FY) 2022. Still, the gains have not offset cumulative inflation over those years (+ 17 percent).
By FY 2022, organizations’ contributions, including grant support, had overtaken program service revenue (e.g., box-office returns) as a share of their total revenue. In FY 2018, there was a 54/46 split between earned and contributed revenue; five years on, it was 40/60.This turnaround likely occurred due to halting ticket sales and growth in governmental support, especially for the organizations with the largest budgets.
These larger organizations, however, were not spared major declines in employment and wages—declines that bypassed many other dance companies. In response, Dance/USA points out that smaller-budget organizations tend to have had lower employment and wage numbers at baseline, and that they often operate on a project-to-project basis, and thus rely more heavily on contractual workers.
Larger-budget organizations also saw the greatest declines in overall expenses. On the whole, dance companies experienced 27 percent growth in net assets between FY 2018 and 2022, owing to “the larger drop in expenses than in revenue over the COVID-19 pandemic,” the report states.
I’ve used this space before to extol the value of IRS 990 data and other sources for better understanding and analyzing the U.S. nonprofit arts sector. Examples include a blog post about a study commissioned by the Alliance for California Traditional Arts, and a blog post about an Urban Institute report that avails of findings from a longitudinal survey of nonprofit organizations.
Stay tuned for information about a new data partnership between the NEA and the National Endowment for the Humanities that will allow both agencies, and the general public, to monitor evolving characteristics and trends of nonprofit arts, humanities, and cultural organizations.
Sunil Iyengar directs the Office of Research & Analysis at the National Endowment for the Arts.
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Research begins with a research question and a research hypothesis. But what are the characteristics of a good hypothesis? In this article, we dive into the types of research hypothesis, explain how to write a research hypothesis, offer research hypothesis examples and answer top FAQs on research hypothesis. Read more!
A research hypothesis is an assumption or a tentative explanation for a specific process observed during research. Unlike a guess, research hypothesis is a calculated, educated guess proven or disproven through research methods.
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Explore examples and learn how to format your research hypothesis.
A research hypothesis, in its plural form "hypotheses," is a specific, testable prediction about the anticipated results of a study, established at its outset. The research hypothesis is often referred to as the alternative hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection.
There are 13 different types of hypothesis. These include simple, complex, null, alternative, composite, directional, non-directional, logical, empirical, statistical ...
Definition: Hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomenon, based on some initial observations or data. It is a tentative statement that can be tested and potentially proven or disproven through further investigation and experimentation. Hypothesis is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments ...
An overview of the research hypothesis As much as the term exists in everyday language, there is a detailed development that informs the word "hypothesis" when applied to research. A good research hypothesis is informed by prior research and guides research design and data analysis, so it is important to understand how a hypothesis is defined and understood by researchers.
A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection.
Uncover the significance, qualities, types and examples of research hypothesis. Learn step-by-step guide in developing, testing and validating them effectively.
What makes an effective research hypothesis, how do you create one, and what types of hypotheses are there?
A research hypothesis proposes a link between variables. Uncover its types and the secrets to creating hypotheses for scientific inquiry.
A research hypothesis must be specific, testable or measurable, and verifiable. In other words, the research hypothesis should create clear predictions than can be tested. Ideally, a hypothesis can be drawn from previous theoretical research publications.
The story of a research study begins by asking a question. Researchers all around the globe are asking curious questions and formulating research hypothesis. However, whether the research study provides an effective conclusion depends on how well one develops a good research hypothesis. Research hypothesis examples could help researchers get an idea as to how to write a good research hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a prediction of what will be found at the outcome of a research project and is typically focused on the relationship between two different variables studied in the research. It is usually based on both theoretical expectations about how things work and already existing scientific evidence. Within social science, a hypothesis can ...
A research hypothesis (also called a scientific hypothesis) is a statement about the expected outcome of a study (for example, a dissertation or thesis). To constitute a quality hypothesis, the statement needs to have three attributes - specificity, clarity and testability. Let's take a look at these more closely.
A research hypothesis explains a phenomenon or the relationships between variables in the real world. See good and bad hypothesis examples.
Types of Research Hypotheses. There are seven different types of research hypotheses. Simple Hypothesis. A simple hypothesis predicts the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable. Complex Hypothesis. A complex hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables.
A research hypothesis defines the theory or problem your research intends to test. It is the "educated guess" of what the final results of your research or experiment will be. Before you can write the research hypothesis and its alternative, you must focus and define your research problem.
Learn how to craft effective research questions and hypotheses for scholarly articles, with examples and tips from quantitative and qualitative approaches.
Scientists use research hypotheses to determine the directions of their studies before they begin work. The hypothesis chosen by researchers will influence the design of the study or experiment, and will direct the way that the study's results are communicated in academic papers or other methods.
What is Hypothesis? Hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of a study. Hypotheses are drawn from theories and research questions or from direct observations. In fact, a research problem can be formulated as a hypothesis. To test the hypothesis we need to formulate it in terms that can actually be analysed with statistical tools.
This chapter describes what are the dependent and independent variables for conducting research experiments. It introduces the readers to the different conditions to the use of the two types of variables (dependent and independent) in scientific research and hypothesis testing.
Ozempic may be linked to condition that causes blindness, but more research is needed People who were prescribed semaglutide were more likely to develop an optic nerve condition that can lead to ...
A new preprint math paper is lighting up the airwaves as mathematicians tune in for a possible breakthrough in a very old, very sticky problem in number theory. Riemann's hypothesis—concerning ...
Remote Work Agreement Centralized Data Collection System. Length: 60 minutes Presenter(s): Amy Grier, University HR; Valerie VanHaaften, ITS Description: U-M will be implementing a central data collection system to manage remote work information and support the university with improved metrics and reporting, with a targeted go-live date of September 2024.
Margaret Estapa has long yearned to help uncover whether life exists beyond Earth. For two decades, she has studied the biogeochemical processes of ocean particles and believes her work can someday help with investigating vast ice-covered seas on other worlds. Thanks to a grant from the Hypothesis Fund, Estapa can…
In the new Measure for Measure post, NEA Research Director Sunil Iyengar looks at how Sarah Morrison of Dance/USA utilized IRS Form 990 data to analyze financial changes in the U.S. nonprofit dance ecosystem during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The amyloid hypothesis holds that sticky plaques and other so-called amyloid-beta proteins build up in the brain and prompt changes that cause Alzheimer's disease's cruel decline, gradually ...
In addition to these consultations, we conducted multiple rounds of academic literature reviews, qualitative user research, and on-platform research designed to help us understand how people use and understand the term "Zionist" on our platforms. In March, this work culminated with a Policy Forum on this issue.