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Laboratory products for “Research Use Only” (RUO) – often a dangerous claim

Manufactures use the “Research Use Only” (RUO) label to declare that their products should not be used in diagnostic procedures. This enables them to avoid the time-consuming and costly documentation required for conformity-assessed in vitro diagnostic medical devices (CE-IVDs). Nevertheless, some medical laboratories still use RUO products in diagnostic procedures, sometimes even with the knowledge of the manufacturers. This can have consequences – not just for manufacturers and operators but for patients as well.

In this article, you will learn

• what the “Research Use Only” (RUO) label means,
• what the requirements for RUO products are,
• how to avoid legal problems, and
• what alternatives there are to RUO products.

1. “Research Use Only” – what does it mean?

Products labeled “For Research Use Only” are hardly subject to any regulatory controls. Regulation (EU) 2017/746 on in vitro diagnostic medical devices (IVDR) aims to distance itself from RUO products clearly:

The scope of application of this Regulation should be clearly delimited from other legislation concerning products, such as medical devices, general laboratory products and products for research use only. IVDR Foreword (7)

a) Institutions affected

The following institutions, in particular, use RUO products:

• Medical laboratories can utilize RUO products, but doing so designates them as the manufacturer, carrying all the associated consequences.
• If medical laboratories utilize RUO products for purposes beyond research, this can potentially render them liable for damages and subject to criminal liability in the worst-case scenario.

You can find more information on “Lab Developed Tests” in our article The EU regulates medical laboratories – Are Laboratory Developed Tests still allowed?

• Manufacturers can incorporate RUO products as components in their IVD, but they are subsequently responsible for ensuring the conformity of the end device with the IVDR. The RUO labeling of the component is not mandatory.
• If manufacturers designate their devices as “RUO,” the intended use of these devices must be interpreted accordingly and, if required, substantiated. For instance, reasonably foreseeable misuse should be taken into account. The RUO label should not be applied to the device as a mere “protective claim,” as this may result in legal consequences.

b) Definition

There is no standardized definition for “Research Use Only” (RUO) products. Generally, they can be understood as products designed for analysis intended solely for scientific research purposes, as the name implies. Their main distinction from medical devices lies in their inability to be used for medical purposes.

Nevertheless, the interpretation of “Research Use Only” varies between Europe and the USA.

Definition in Europe

In Europe, the  MEDDEV 2.14/2  guidance document ( IVD Guidance: Research Use Only products – A guide for manufacturers and notified bodies ) provides a definition of RUOs. This guidance was written within the framework of the now obsolete Directive 98/79/EC on in vitro diagnostic medical devices (IVDD) and, in the absence of an up-to-date replacement, it can still be considered the state of the art.

MEDDEV 2.14/2 states:

“for a product to be categorized as an RUO product it must have no intended medical purpose or objective.” Source: MEDDEV 2.14/2 rev.1

This means that an RUO product must not have a medical purpose, even not a rudimentary one.

This also applies to tests developed in-house (Laboratory Developed Tests) that are only used in a health institution for research purposes.

The IVDR also addresses RUO products. Article 1 (3) a) of the IVDR excludes RUO products from its scope:

This Regulation does not apply to: (a) products for general laboratory use or research-use only products, unless such products, in view of their characteristics, are specifically intended by their manufacturer to be used for in vitro diagnostic examination; Source: IVDR, Article 1 (3) a)

Furthermore, Article 2 (45) specifies:

“A device intended to be used for research purposes, without any medical objective , shall not be deemed to be a device for performance study;” IVDR, Article 2 (45)

Devices for performance studies are:

“‘device for performance study ’ means a device intended by the manufacturer to be used in a performance study” IVDR, Article 2 (45)

The IVDR thus distinguishes RUO products from IVDs and products for performance studies. The EU regulation also highlights the lack of a medical intended purpose for RUO products.

Definition in the USA

In 2013, the FDA published a guidance document on RUOs  entitled “ Distribution of In Vitro Diagnostic Products Labeled for Research Use Only or Investigational Use Only .”

This guidance defines RUO products as follows:

“ An RUO product is an IVD product that is in the laboratory research phase of development and is being shipped or delivered for an investigation that is not subject to part 812” [NB: Part 812 concerns the provision of devices for performance evaluation purposes as a preliminary step to IVDs] FDA guidance “Distribution of In Vitro Diagnostic Products Labeled for Research Use Only or Investigational Use Only”, Chapter III A

Some examples of products that the FDA believes fall into this research phase of development are:

• Tests that are in development to identify test kit methodology, necessary components, and analytes to be measured.
• Instrumentation, software, or other electrical/mechanical components under development to determine correct settings, subcomponents, subassemblies, basic operational characteristics, and possible use methods.
• Reagents under development to determine production methods, purification levels, packaging needs, shelf life, storage conditions, etc.

However, the FDA further specifies:

“FDA also recognizes that there are certain products, such as instruments, systems, and reagents that are labeled for research use only and intended for use in the conduct of nonclinical laboratory research with goals other than the development of a commercial IVD product […].” FDA guidance “Distribution of In Vitro Diagnostic Products Labeled for Research Use Only or Investigational Use Only”, Chapter III A

And subsequently gives examples of such research purposes in which the product itself is not the subject of research.

The FDA thus sees two “types” of RUO products: First, IVD devices whose development is ongoing and which are themselves the subject of the research purpose, and second, products for nonclinical research.

In both cases, the FDA requires a clearly visible RUO label to be affixed to the products. The RUO label is intended to prevent use for clinical diagnostics, patient management, and other investigations with a medical purpose.

c) What are the consequences of using the “Research Use Only” label?

Normally, IVDs are subject to regulatory requirements (for example, according to the IVDR or FDA) based on their risk class.

However, RUO products do not fall within the definition of “in vitro diagnostic medical devices” given by the IVDR or the  relevant FDA regulations . This means that these regulations do not apply to RUO products.

‘ In vitro diagnostic medical device’ means any medical device which is a reagent, reagent product, calibrator, control material, kit, instrument, apparatus, piece of equipment, software or system, whether used alone or in combination, intended by the manufacturer to be used in vitro for the examination of specimens, including blood and tissue donations, derived from the human body, solely or principally for the purpose of providing information on one or more of the following:

(a) concerning a physiological or pathological process or state; (b) concerning congenital physical or mental impairments; (c) concerning the predisposition to a medical condition or a disease; (d) to determine the safety and compatibility with potential recipients; (e) to predict treatment response or reactions; (f) to define or monitoring therapeutic measures.

Specimen receptacles shall also be deemed to be in vitro diagnostic medical devices.

Source: Article 2 IVDR

“In vitro diagnostic products are those reagents, instruments, and systems intended for use in diagnosis of disease or other conditions, including a determination of the state of health, in order to cure, mitigate, treat, or prevent disease or its sequelae. Such products are intended for use in the collection, preparation, and examination of specimens taken from the human body.”

Source: 21 CFR 809.3

However, RUO products do not automatically fall entirely outside the regulatory scope in the EU. Depending on the product, they may still have to comply with requirements that are not specifically intended for IVDs (such as the  REACH regulation  for chemicals or the  Machinery Directive ).

Read more about the Machinery Directive: Which parts apply to medical devices .

Since RUO products are subject to considerably fewer controls than IVDs, it is necessary to severely restrict their use. Therefore, in particular they may not be used to

• make diagnoses and
• conduct performance studies.

2. Use and misuse of “Research Use Only” labels

A) what should ruo products be used for.

As the name “For Research Use Only” indicates, products with RUO labeling are intended for research purposes only. RUO products are particularly attractive for the research sector due to the simplified process and lower hurdles for placing them on the market.

MEDDEV. 2.14/2 rev.1 provides a precise list of areas where RUO products may potentially be used:

• basic research
• pharmaceutical research
• better identification and quantification of individual chemical substances or ligands in biological specimens
• in-house manufacturing of so called “Laboratory Developed Tests” for research purposes

And of areas where the use of RUOs is expressly  not  permitted:

• use of raw materials which are labeled “For Research Use Only” but which are incorporated into a finished product
• so called “research use products” being tested against a comparator IVD product that bears the CE mark
• products for market studies/feasibility studies

These products can be assigned a medical purpose.

b) What RUO products are often used for

However, the low hurdles are also the reason why RUO products are often used for purposes they are not intended for. This poses significant dangers for manufacturers, operators, and patients.

Sale of RUO products to medical laboratories

RUO products are sold by manufacturers to medical laboratories. Although doctors sometimes also conduct research, this is not really the main purpose of a medical laboratory.

Therefore, when discussing sales with doctors, it should always be assumed that there is a medical reason behind the use of the product. This means that anyone who knowingly sells RUO products to medical laboratories is potentially under suspicion of using the pretext “For Research Use Only” to ignore an intended medical purpose and thus avoid responsibility for a medical device.

Avoid reference to any specific diagnostic procedures in your advertising materials for products that clearly do not have a medical purpose. You should always stay on the technical or purely analytical level.

Use of RUO products in medical laboratories

The issue of selling RUOs to medical laboratories is not limited to manufacturers alone. The laboratories themselves may also not be acting in line with their status as operators and may, as a result, be liable under certain circumstances.

• Medical laboratories are free to develop in-house tests themselves. In such cases, RUO products are often used in diagnostic procedures. The laboratory bears full responsibility for these tests. Even under the IVDD,  MEDDEV 2.14/2  saw this topic critical. However, with the IVDR, the EU is explicitly placing more restrictions on the routine use of such Lab Developed Tests.

Read more in our article  The EU regulates medical laboratories – Are Laboratory Developed Tests still allowed?

• Due to the low regulatory hurdles, purchasing RUO products is very affordable. As a result, medical laboratories prefer them over expensive CE-IVD devices if they can achieve the same level of performance. Nevertheless, the use of RUO products for purposes other than research, even in cases where they provide similar results, is not permitted.

3. Consequences of incorrect classification

Lack of controls can have a negative effect on quality. As a result, the relevant authorities (e.g., authorities during inspections) take a closer look at whether a product is actually intended “For Research Use Only.”

Manufacturers should also be aware that simply sticking an RUO label on a product does not on its own mean that the product no longer has to comply with requirements for IVDs that would otherwise apply.

The RUO status is determined solely by the actual intended use of a device. To this end, authorities (both European and FDA) also use marketing material or other information as evidence.

Manufacturers and operators who misuse the RUO label could face severe penalties, as such behavior can cause serious harm to patients or even the general public.

a) Consequences for manufacturers and operators

Improperly selling IVDs with an RUO label or using RUO products for purposes other than research is not a trivial offense.  Manufacturers who intentionally conceal or attempt to conceal a diagnostic purpose behind the RUO label should anticipate legal consequences in Germany. The same applies for operators who misuse RUO products. There is the possibility of a fine or even prison sentences. In addition, there is potential liability for harm suffered by patients.

b) Consequences in the USA

There are also severe penalties in the USA. If an RUO label is deemed to have been incorrectly used for a product, the product would be considered misbranded under sections 502(a) and 502(o) of 21 US Code, 352(a), 352(o) [A1] and would be considered adulterated under section 501(f) of 21 US Code 351(f).

c) Consequences for patients

However, the consequences can be even worse for patients. After all, the regulatory requirements for IVDs aren’t just plucked out of thin air to annoy manufacturers and operators. The regulations are intended to protect patients against incorrect results and subsequent wrong decisions. False-negative results can lull patients into a false sense of security and an existing undetected disease may worsen. One example would be the metastasis of an undetected cancer due to a test not performing as intended.

Some incorrect diagnoses could even be so severe that they can cause the death of a lot of people: an undetected viral infection can cost many lives in the early stages of an epidemic or pandemic, as the coronavirus pandemic sadly demonstrated.

4. Alternatives to “Research Use Only” products

To avoid legal problems and risks to third parties, manufacturers and users should use general laboratory equipment as an alternative to RUO products.

There are laboratory products that obviously have no specific medical purpose, such as

• pure chemicals,
• culture media,
• reaction vessels,
• washing solutions,
• qPCR cycler,
• sequencers,
• centrifuges.

Read more on the topic here: General laboratory equipment: What manufacturers and laboratories need to know to avoid problems and unnecessary expense

5. Ways to protect yourself

Manufacturers, operators, and patients can take the following steps to avoid legal and other negative consequences when using RUO products:

a) Manufacturers

In the case of manufacturers, it is particularly important that they narrowly define the intended purpose of their product.

Analyte specific reagents should only be labeled as RUO products for specific non-medical purposes.

SARS-CoV-2 and its mutations: a test kit that uses specific primers and probes to distinguish the variants B.1.1.7 (alpha variant) and B.1.351 (beta variant) from the initial variant following a positive result may be an RUO product if it is only intended to be used to determine the prevalence of the variant in the population.

A specific intended purpose in this case would be: “ Intended solely for epidemiological research for the purpose of surveying the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 variants in the general population. ”

If a medical laboratory subsequently, based on new findings, used this test to provide the best possible treatment for infection by a specific variant, this would be an off-label use. The laboratory would then be responsible for the test’s conformity.

Tip: Provided the manufacturer did not advertise the product with this clinical benefit, it would be adequately protected.

b) Operators

Operators should record exactly for what they use IVDs and RUO products.

Medical laboratories are operators of medical devices and IVDs and, therefore, are responsible for only using medical devices according to their intended purpose and in accordance with the generally accepted rules of the technology. This is stipulated in Section 4 of the German Medizinprodukte-Betreiberverordnung (MPBetreibV).

To be on the safe side, laboratories should keep a record of which medical devices and IVDs are in operation and routine use. This record should include a reference to the applicable test procedure and the intended purpose of the IVD.

This record can also be used to identify investigational procedures for which there are no adequate CE-IVDs available on the market. The lack of alternatives would justify the use of RUOs in validated processes as in-house IVD, provided that the laboratory verifies and demonstrates that the general safety and performance requirements and the additional requirements of Article 5(5) of the IVDR are met.

Read more about the requirements for LDTs in our article .

c) Patients

Patients lack the knowledge to recognize what is and isn’t an RUO on their own. They are often given little to no information about the test they are undergoing. So, patients should follow this basic rule: ask your doctor or pharmacist!

• Patients can ask for the complete test report from the laboratory so that they can get a second opinion in case of doubt. The report should also indicate which specific test was performed.
• Patients should inform themselves about how “well” or “poorly” a test works, as well as the benefit-risk ratio.
• In the future, patients and doctors will also be able to get information about medical devices from EUDAMED and use this information to decide whether or not the test was performed with certified and thus legally compliant IVDs.

6. Conclusion

In the opinion of the EU Commission and the FDA, products “For Research Use Only” have no place in diagnostics. To be used for diagnostic purposes, products have to go through the necessary controls. But these controls do not apply to RUO products.

Anyone who ignores this prohibition and uses or sells RUO products for purposes other than pure research is playing with fire. Manufacturers and operators run the risk of legal trouble and could even endanger patients’ health. Therefore, RUO products should only be used for research purposes. For other uses, manufacturers and operators should use the alternatives mentioned.

If you, as a manufacturer or medical laboratory, find that an RUO product is particularly well-suited for in vitro diagnostics, consider whether further development and conformity assessment to make it an IVD is worthwhile.

Thanks to Dr. Boris Handorn , lawyer and partner at PRODUKTKANZLEI , Augsburg, for his valuable input on this article.

Benefit from the support of our IVD experts:

• They will help you qualify your devices or examination procedures, for example, with in-house workshops on approval strategy and in-house IVDs.
• They provide you with expert opinions on the qualification of your device, which you can submit to your customers and/or notified bodies.
• They support you in all activities up to the “certification” of your device (e.g., performance evaluation) and beyond (e.g., post-market surveillance).

Or use our e-learning platform : Learn how to meet the regulatory requirements and get access to our IVD-specific templates and tutorials on how to get your device approved.

Change history

• 2024-02-01 Complete revision; section “The thing with analyte-specific reagents” removed; shortening of chapter 4 (deletion of subchapters a) to c)); reference to article on general laboratory equipment
• 2021-11-16 First publication

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An Introduction to Research Use Only (RUO)

In this blog, we recap our eBook, “An Introduction to Research Use Only (RUO)” – Click HERE to download the entire publication.

Learn how it differs from adjacent labels, the FDA and EU guidance, its appropriate use, and the consequences of mislabeling products RUO.

Introduction

In the complex world of medical device development, regulation, and distribution, finding the appropriate label to put on a device may not be simple. When is one label appropriate over another? Does a device need to go through additional testing, verification, or validation? And what are the consequences of using the wrong label? In this eBook, we’ll cover the differences between Research Use Only (RUO) and a medical device – although, it’s generally a very clear distinction.

Using the right language and label is critical to complying with best practices. This is why Regulatory Affairs works with the regulatory bodies to ensure that the limitations of the product are properly documented. In a rush to get products to market, it may be tempting to use a Research Use Only (RUO) label to avoid additional regulatory processes while still empowering other researchers and developers. However, there are risks to using the RUO label inappropriately that can have serious consequences for developers, users, and patients. In fact, mislabeling a product is illegal, and punishable. You can see an example warning letter the FDA sent to Carolina Liquid Chemistries Corp after finding intentional mislabeling in 2019 here.

This introduction will provide an overview of the Research Use Only label, how it differs from similar, adjacent labels, its appropriate use, and the consequences of mislabeling products RUO.

What is Research Use Only (RUO)?

The label Research Use Only (RUO) is generally used to indicate products that are intended for scientific research only. They cannot be used for diagnostic or medical purposes. However, there is no standard definition of “research use only,” and the label has slightly different meanings in the European Union and the United States. With the IVDR regulations, RUO products that are being used in the LDT space are going to be revisited and potentially reclassified as a medical device. With this new classification, teams will likely need to follow design controls, best practices, and industry standards.

What is the FDA guidance on Research Use Only products?

Under the FDA’s guidance issued in 2013 , a product labeled Research Use Only is an In Vitro Diagnostic (IVD) product “that is in the laboratory research phase of development and is being shipped or delivered for an investigation that is not subject to part 812.” The agency includes in this category:

• “Tests that are in development to identify test kit methodology, necessary components, and analytes to be measured.
• “Instrumentation, software, or other electrical/mechanical components under development to determine correct settings, subcomponents, subassemblies, basic operational characteristics, and possible use methods.
• “Reagents under development to determine production methods, purification levels, packaging needs, shelf life, storage conditions, etc.”

The European guidance document MEDDEV 2.14/2 states that a product categorized as an RUO product “must have no intended medical purpose or objective.” The guidance does exempt some tests developed for in-house use as long as the products are not sold to other companies. Some examples of items that can be classified as “research use only” under this exemption include PCR enzymes, gel component agars, and primers.

RELATED: FDA released new draft guidance of premarket submissions for medical devices – are you ready?

What is the difference between ruo and ivd.

An IVD is an “In Vitro Diagnostic Medical Device,” and the general term applies to any device or product that either alone or with other products is intended to be used for diagnostic, monitoring, or compatibility purposes. There are four different regulatory levels for IVDs:

• Research Use Only (RUO)
• General Laboratory Use (GLU)
• For Performance Studies Only (PSO)
• In Vitro Diagnostic Medical Device (IVD)

The simplest explanation for these different levels is that each increasing level requires more testing and oversight. Research Use Only products are at the lowest level of regulation, and In Vitro Diagnostic Medical Devices are at the highest level. Occasionally in the US, products will be labeled as “RUO IVD,” which means an in vitro device that is intended for research use only.

Products labeled with the “CE-IVD” label indicate that they have progressed through the applicable regulatory process and standards (such as IVDD or IVDR). These products are approved for diagnostic use and must include the IVD symbol to be used for medical purposes.

In the EU, as of May 2022, IVDs must comply with Regulation (EU) 2017/746 (IVDR) . The IVDR defines IVDs as follows:

“‘in vitro diagnostic medical device’ means any medical device which is a reagent, reagent product, calibrator, control material, kit, instrument, apparatus, piece of equipment, software or system, whether used alone or in combination, intended by the manufacturer to be used in vitro for the examination of specimens, including blood and tissue donations, derived from the human body, solely or principally for the purpose of providing information on one or more of the following:

(a) concerning a physiological or pathological process or state; (b) concerning congenital physical or mental impairments; (c) concerning the predisposition to a medical condition or a disease; (d) to determine the safety and compatibility with potential recipients; (e) to predict treatment response or reactions; (f) to define or monitoring therapeutic measures.”

All IVDs that comply with the IVDR must carry the CE Mark if marketed in the EU.

Research Use Only products are not subject to regulatory requirements in either the US or the EU, but because they don’t meet the same compliance standards as IVDs, they must be clearly labeled as RUO products and cannot be used for medical purposes.

A known exception is the lab developed test (LDT) pathway for clinical purposes.

What are the requirements for an RUO product?

In the US, RUO products are basically unregulated and do not need to meet any specific requirements to carry the RUO label. The FDA does not specify any restrictions or limitations on RUO products, provided they are clearly labeled “For Research Use Only. Not for use in diagnostic procedures.” For this reason, RUO products can be an excellent solution for laboratories that need research materials for testing and research purposes. Because products with the RUO label do not require extensive testing, verification, and validation, they tend to be more cost-effective for research purposes.

The EU rules are similar. Because RUO products do not have clinical applications, they are not considered medical devices, and there are no requirements for RUO products defined by either the IVDD or the IVDR. These products should not be marked with the IVD mark, and they should be clearly labeled as “Research Use Only.”

RELATED: See how Jama Software ® helped Össur improve the mobility of millions by replacing process rigidity with speed and agility.

Are there alternatives to ruo labels.

Given the significant differences between labeling a product as RUO and labeling a product as IVD, manufacturers and users can’t be too careful when it comes to assigning labels or using products for specific purposes. If there is a risk to using products labeled as RUO, manufacturers and users should opt for products that have attained a higher compliance level. For example, for a doctor’s office or home use, IVD is the right path. For clinical purposes or hospital labs, RUO could be used as LDT as long as they are CAP/CLIA certified, such was the case with COVID-19 testing kits when the pandemic first hit.

For products that meet a higher degree of compliance, it is possible to assign General Laboratory Use (GLU), Performance Studies Only (PSO), or even In Vitro Diagnostic Medical Device (IVD) labels. However, depending on the intended use for the Research Use Only products, pursuing these additional levels of compliance may or may not make sense.

What is CLIA certification?

CLIA stands for Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments. The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) regulates all clinical laboratory testing performed on humans in the United States through CLIA.

What is a CAP accreditation?

CAP stands for The College of American Pathologists (CAP) . The purpose of CAP laboratory accreditation is to ensure laboratories provide precise test results for accurate patient diagnoses, meet CLIA and CAP requirements, and demonstrate compliance with professionally and scientifically sound and approved laboratory operating standards.

What are RUO products used for?

As the name implies, RUO projects should be used for research purposes only. They may be used for basic research, pharmaceutical research, or in-house manufacturing of “home brew kits” for research purposes and potentially for clinical applications via the LDT pathway. RUO products are specifically not to be used to make diagnoses, conduct performance studies, or as a substitute or comparator for a CE-IVD device. They may also not be used for market or feasibility studies. Raw ingredients labeled as RUO products may not be incorporated into a finished IVD product.

Learn more about the advantages and disadvantages of the RUO label (and more) by downloading the entire eBook HERE .

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Research Use Only Products

What are Research Use Only (RUO) products? Research Use Only (RUO) products are a distinct category of in vitro diagnostics (IVDs) exclusively tailored for laboratory research. RUOs encompass specialised reagents, equipment, and materials crucial for scientific investigations, contributing significantly to the development of cutting-edge tools and solutions for research applications.

Research Use Only (RUO) products play a crucial role in medical research and innovative management of many patients. These specialised products, which include laboratory reagents and equipment, are exclusively designed for research in controlled laboratory environments. As essential tools for medical and scientific investigations, experimentation, and analysis, RUOs contribute to developing innovative solutions and advancements in medical research.

For example: RUO products can be used for Fundamental Research, in Pharmaceutical Research to find new drug compounds, and for a better identification and quantification of individual chemical substances. In diagnostics research, RUO products are essential to the development of new diagnostic assays and tools.

Unlike in vitro diagnostic medical devices (IVDs), RUOs are dedicated to facilitating research initiatives and are not intended for direct medical procedures with human patients. RUOs are not defined in the EU’s In Vitro Diagnostic Medical Devices Regulation 2017/746 (IVDR); they are regulated by the EU General Product Safety Regulation and other applicable EU legislations. Manufacturers of RUO products clearly label them as “Research Use Only” and use the RUO label.

From a production and specifications general perspective, the knowledge and processes needed to manufacture RUOs are very similar to those needed to manufacture CE marked IVDs. Many companies which operate in the IVD space will have RUO products in their portfolio. RUOs will generally have a similar chemical and physical composition compared to IVDs, but their intended purpose will be different. While RUO or IVDs might seem similar in their appearance and specifications, unambiguous and documented evidence associating the use of devices with in vitro diagnostic examination procedures is required to qualify a device as an IVD.

RUOs provide researchers and scientists – including those operating in medical laboratories – with valuable resources to advance in the understanding of disease, in drug discovery, in the development of new therapies and diagnostic tools. Laboratories or research consortia often collaborate with RUO manufacturers to tailor products to meet specific research needs and requirements, fostering a collaborative environment and contributing to the continuous evolution of research tools and solutions.

One critical application of RUO is to enable medical laboratories to develop in-house assays to e.g. diagnose rare and emerging conditions or to improve the current knowledge and management of specific diseases for which no adequate CE marked IVDs exist. This not only fulfils a critical and imminent healthcare need but is also a key stepping stone in the eventual development of IVDs. A poignant example of this was the development of COVID-19 assays during the early phase of the pandemic – initially, reference laboratories developed in house assays test for the SARS-CoV-2 virus, and shortly afterwards, commercial IVDs began to reach the market in order to fulfil a critical need during the global health crisis. However, it is worth noting that the use of in-house assays is regulated in IVDR and is subject to certain conditions.

In essence, RUO products provide researchers and physicians with the necessary tools to conduct experiments and studies, contributing to the overall progress in medical research.  Their intended use in laboratory settings supports the development of new technologies and innovative solutions for various research applications.

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Article Contents

2 nonstandard abbreviations:.

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“Research Use Only” Reagents: Is There an Imperative for Increased FDA Oversight?

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Timothy J O'Leary, “Research Use Only” Reagents: Is There an Imperative for Increased FDA Oversight?, Clinical Chemistry , Volume 57, Issue 12, 1 December 2011, Pages 1681–1683, https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2011.174268

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On June 1, 2011, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 2 Office of In Vitro Diagnostic Device Evaluation and Safety issued draft guidance for industry and FDA staff intended to provide guidance regarding the FDA's thinking about in vitro diagnostic device (IVD) products labeled for “Research Use Only” (RUO) or “Investigational Use Only” (IUO) ( 1 ). Reagents may be marketed under either of these labels without FDA premarket review and are partially or totally exempt from compliance with the Quality Systems Regulation (21 CFR 820). Therefore, an IVD manufacturer might it very tempting to avoid the trouble and expense of a 510(k) or premarket-approval submission by labeling a product as RUO or IUO, despite knowing full well that the product is likely being used as an IVD under conditions in which there is no research protocol and no oversight by an institutional review board.

There is no doubt that the FDA's intent is to improve patient safety. Compliance with the Quality Systems Regulation provides assurance that an IVD meets manufacturing specifications and that lot-to-lot variations are minimized and well understood. FDA clearance provides further assurance that the performance characteristics of laboratory tests are sufficiently well understood as to enable their intelligent use. Furthermore, the use by clinical laboratories of FDA-cleared IVD products likely reduces interlaboratory variation in testing and increases the ease with which results can be “ported” from one healthcare facility to another, potentially reducing healthcare costs that arise from duplicate testing. Nevertheless, the laboratory community is right to be concerned about the guidance document statement that manufacturers should not sell RUO or IUO reagents “to laboratories that they know use the product for clinical diagnostics use.” This statement could have unintended consequences that adversely affect patient care. In particular, the molecular diagnostics community has expressed concern that such reagents as PCR primers and sequencing reagents and equipment could become unavailable and that this outcome could affect many aspects of medical care, including newborn screening, HLA testing, and human papilloma virus genotyping, among others.

When considering approaches by which the FDA and the laboratory community can improve patient care and safety, it is important to consider the overall medical and regulatory environment in which laboratory tests that currently use RUO and IOU IVDs are conducted. In the remainder of this Opinion, I consider potential deficits in laboratory testing that currently do not rely on FDA-cleared IVDs and discuss principles that the FDA and other agencies may wish to consider when determining whether a regulatory solution is the most appropriate way to address the perceived deficits in laboratory testing.

The design and implementation of regulations entail substantial costs on the part of both regulator and regulated, both of which must ultimately be borne by the public. Therefore, regulators should take a measured approach when deciding to implement a regulatory solution to a perceived problem. In my opinion, such decisions should be based on a careful and narrow definition of the public health problem to be addressed, a scientifically valid and quantitative assessment of the magnitude of this problem, and strong evidence that the overall cost of implementing the regulatory approach (including both the cost to the regulator and the cost to the regulated entities) is cost-effective. The regulatory reasoning and the cost–benefit analysis should be published together to facilitate public scrutiny and comment. Implementation of this approach would unquestionably be associated, at least initially, with an adverse financial impact on regulatory agencies, because the assessment of regulatory impact would undoubtedly be more costly than is currently the case. The overall cost to the public seems likely to be offset, at least in part, by avoidance and/or rescission of ineffective and costly regulatory interventions. The recent FDA guidance document does not implement such an approach, so I consider some of the issues that the agency may have attempted to address.

Several potential problems are associated with the use of RUO and IUO reagents in clinical laboratory testing: ( a ) the creation of an uneven playing field for manufacturers; ( b ) the perception that manufacturers or laboratories are defying FDA regulatory authority; and ( c ) the reporting of inaccurate, misleading, or inconsistent results, either within a laboratory or among several laboratories. There is no question that the cost avoidance produced by ignoring regulatory requirements creates an economic environment that gives unfair advantage to commercial manufacturers, compared with institutions that play by the FDA interpretation of the law. Both the clinical investigations and the paperwork requirements associated with FDA submissions are costly. These costs may come at the expense of profit or at the expense of healthcare organizations and insurers (including the federal government).

Inaccurate or misleading results can occur when a clinical laboratory result does not mean what a clinician believes that it means. That situation could arise, for example, if an RUO or IUO reagent is not what the vendor says it is or performs in a manner that both is inconsistent with what the vendor states and is unexpected by the clinical laboratory. It is thus incumbent on laboratories to conduct their quality-assurance activities in a manner that ensures that reported results mean exactly what they purport to mean, whether or not a laboratory test has been cleared by the FDA. Under the framework proposed above, increased regulatory effort by the FDA might be appropriate if evidence of harm exists, although CLIA also provides a framework for achieving this objective.

Although the FDA has not officially elucidated the reason for issuing the guidance document, there have been a number of reports of inaccurate testing with laboratory-developed tests. Perhaps the most prominent is prescribing Herceptin® based on the results of immunohistochemical tests for HER2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2) overexpression. 3 Some of these results have depended on the use of uncalibrated laboratory-developed tests; indeed, some authors have postulated that as much as 20% of immunohistochemical HER2 testing used for selecting patients for Herceptin therapy has not been correlated, either directly or indirectly, with response to the drug ( 2 ). If true, that finding demonstrates a clear failure of the CLIA framework alone to adequately protect public health, and it seems likely that the burden of regulatory compliance, if narrowly directed to this issue, is proportionate to the problem. Inaccurate or misleading results have also been associated with direct-to-consumer genetic testing ( 3 ), which is widespread. The magnitude of the harm associated with such testing is uncertain but may be considerable, and oversight under the CLIA mechanism has failed to address the issue.

The potential reach of the FDA guidance document is broader than necessary to deal with HER2 assessment and direct-to-consumer testing. There are substantial numbers of important laboratory-developed tests for which only RUO and IUO reagents are currently available. The FDA guidance document (which, I should note, is nonbinding) could lead to withdrawal of these tests from clinical practice. In my opinion, FDA officials should work to minimize the likelihood of such an occurrence. In addition, there is a risk that innovative new tests for which only RUO and IUO reagents are available will not be deployed in a timely way, further compromising patient well-being. There is clearly a role in medical practice for laboratory-developed and -validated tests that will, of necessity, use reagents that have not passed FDA muster. The failure of CLIA oversight mechanisms is not a reason for the FDA to act unilaterally. Enforcement of both the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act and the Public Health Service Act [which created the CLIA 88 (CLIA amendments of 1988) framework] falls to the Department of Health and Human Services. It is thus appropriate for the FDA and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services to work cooperatively, not only with each other but also with industry and laboratory communities, to develop a robust framework for reducing inaccurate and unreliable laboratory testing while maintaining access to high-quality laboratory testing and minimizing its economic burden.

US Food and Drug Administration

in vitro diagnostic device

Research Use Only

Investigational Use Only

human epidermal growth factor receptor 2

CLIA amendments of 1988.

HER2 is used in this Opinion to refer to the protein encoded by the gene with HUGO-approved gene symbol ERBB2 [v-erb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 2, neuro/glioblastoma derived oncogene homolog (avian)], as HER2 is the name commonly used in practice.

Author Contributions: All authors confirmed they have contributed to the intellectual content of this paper and have met the following 3 requirements: (a) significant contributions to the conception and design, acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; (b) drafting or revising the article for intellectual content; and (c) final approval of the published article .

Authors' Disclosures or Potential Conflicts of Interest: Upon manuscript submission, all authors completed the Disclosures of Potential Conflict of Interest form. Potential conflicts of interest:

Employment or Leadership: T.J. O'Leary, Association for Molecular Pathology and Journal of Molecular Diagnostics .

Consultant or Advisory Role: None declared.

Stock Ownership: None declared.

Honoraria: None declared.

Research Funding: None declared.

Expert Testimony: None declared.

Disclaimer: The views or opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author and are not to be construed as official or as representing the views of the Department of Veterans Affairs or any other entity of the United States government.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration . Draft guidance for industry and FDA staff-commercially distributed in vitro diagnostic products labeled for research use only or investigational use only: frequently asked questions . http://www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/deviceregulationandguidance/guidancedocuments/ucm253307.htm (Accessed October 2011) .

Carlson B . HER2 tests: How do we choose? Biotechnol Healthc 2008 ; 5 : 23 – 7 .

Google Scholar

U.S. Government Accountability Office . Direct-to-consumer genetic tests: misleading test results are further complicated by deceptive marketing and other questionable practices . http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10847t.pdf (Accessed October 2011) .

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Research Use Only or IVD: What’s Right for Your Lab?

by Tina Sobania | Clinical , Molecular

Publish Date: September 13, 2018

There are many misconceptions in the clinical industry regarding laboratory quality control materials. With numerous products available and manufacturers using various labeling practices, how do you know what’s best for your laboratory?

To help clear up the confusion, we’re answering two important questions clinical laboratorians have about quality control products.

Are diagnostic system controls IVDs?

One common misconception is that materials used for quality control of diagnostic systems are not themselves in vitro diagnostics (IVDs).  However, the U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) has written regulations citing quality control material as medical devices. For example, 21 CFR  862.1660 , Mulit-Analyte Controls Unassayed under Clinical Chemistry, and more recently 21 CFR 866.3920 , classify Class II controls requiring FDA 510(k) review under microbiology.

It’s important to understand that if a manufacturer for controls of nucleic acid amplification states its product works with a specific instrument or assay in its labeling or marketing literature, the FDA considers the material to be a Class II IVD and requires a 510(k) review . The FDA has established special controls for this type of material to ensure the product is properly labeled, performs according to claims and remains stable. In addition, IVD material must be manufactured under the FDA’s current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP).

Should “Research Use Only” products be used for quality control?

The second misconception clinical laboratories should be aware of involves material labeled as Research Use Only (RUO).  RUO labeling is intended for products that are still under development and are not commercially distributed.  A developer would use this labeling to ship product for “investigation relating to product development” as explained by the FDA in guidance document, Distribution of In Vitro Diagnostic Products Labeled for Research Use Only or Investigation Use Only .

Another factor one must consider is products labeled RUO are not required to be manufactured in accordance with cGMP and FDA Quality System Regulation. Lack of manufacturing controls may be detrimental to the quality of the control material. As such, clinical laboratories using RUO quality control materials to ensure the quality of testing may be placing patients at unnecessary risk.

Key Takeaway

To maintain the highest possible quality of your diagnostic testing, it’s best to choose materials that have been manufactured by a cGMP compliant facility under the FDA QSR, and when necessary reviewed by the FDA.  Materials clearly labeled as IVDs provide that assurance and lower your laboratory’s risk.

Follow the links below to find all the FDA regulations cited in this post.

• 21 CFR 862.1660 CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Subchapter H – Medical Devices
• 21 CFR 866.3920 CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Subchapter H – Medical Devices
• Distribution of In Vitro Diagnostic Products Labeled for Research Use Only of Investigation Use Only

Written by Tina Sobania

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Research Uses and Disclosures

217-may a covered entity accept documentation of an irb waiver of authorization.

Yes. The HIPAA Privacy Rule explicitly permits a covered entity to reasonably rely on a researcher’s documentation of an Institutional Review Board (IRB) or Privacy Board waiver of authorization pursuant to 45 CFR 164.512(i) that the information requested is the minimum necessary for the research purpose. See 45 CFR 164.514(d)(3)(iii).

302-Will HIPAA hinder medical research

We do not believe that the Privacy Rule will hinder medical research. Indeed, patients and health plan members should be more willing to authorize disclosures of their information for research and to participate in research when they know their information is protected.

303-Are some criteria so subjective that IRB and privacy boards may makeinconsistent determinations

Under the HIPAA Privacy Rule, IRBs and Privacy Boards need to use their judgment as to whether the waiver criteria have been satisfied.

304-Does HIPAA prohibit researchers from conditioning participation in a clinical trial on an authorization to use/disclose existing information

No. The Privacy Rule does not address conditions for enrollment in a research study. Therefore, the Privacy Rule in no way prohibits researchers from conditioning enrollment in a research study on the execution of an authorization for the use of pre-existing health information.

305-Does HIPAA permit creating a database for research purposes through an IRB or Privacy Board waiver

Yes. A covered entity may use or disclose protected health information without individuals’ authorizations for the creation of a research database, provided the covered entity obtains documentation that an IRB or Privacy Board has determined that the specified waiver criteria were satisfied.

306-Can researchers access existing databanks or repositories created prior to the compliance date without permission

Under the HIPAA Privacy Rule, covered entities may use or disclose protected health information from existing databases or repositories for research purposes either with individual authorization as required at 45 CFR 164.508, or with a waiver of individual authorization as permitted at 45 CFR 164.512(i).

307-How does the Rule help IRBs handle the additional responsibilities imposed by the HIPAA Privacy Rule

Recognizing that some institutions may not have IRBs, or that some IRBs may not have the expertise needed to review research that requires consideration of risks to privacy, the Privacy Rule permits the covered entity to accept documentation of waiver of authorization from an alternative body called a Privacy Board–which could have fewer members, and members with different expertise than IRBs.

308-By establishing new waiver criteria and authorization requirements, hasn't HIPAA modified the Common Rule

No. Where both the Privacy Rule and the Common Rule apply, both regulations must be followed. The Privacy Rule regulates only the content and conditions of the documentation that covered entities must obtain before using or disclosing protected health information for research purposes.

309-Is documentation of IRB and Privacy Board approval required by the HIPAA

No. The HIPAA Privacy Rule requires documentation of waiver approval by either an IRB or a Privacy Board, not both.

310-Does HIPAA require a covered entity to create an IRB or Privacy Board before using or disclosing protected health information for research

The IRB or Privacy Board could be created by the covered entity or the recipient researcher, or it could be an independent board.

311-What does HIPAA say about a research participant's right of access to research records or results

With few exceptions, the Privacy Rule gives patients the right to inspect and obtain a copy of health information about themselves that is maintained by a covered entity or its business associate in a “designated record set.”

313-Do HIPAA's requirements for authorization and the Common Rule's requirements for informed consent differ?

Yes. Under the Privacy Rule, a patient’s authorization is for the use and disclosure of protected health information for research purposes. In contrast, an individual’s informed consent, as required by the Common Rule and the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) human subjects regulations, is a consent to participate in the research study as a whole, not simply a consent for the research use or disclosure of protected health information.

314-When is a researcher considered to be a covered health care provider under HIPAA

A researcher is a covered health care provider if he or she furnishes health care services to individuals, including the subjects of research, and transmits any health information in electronic form in connection with a transaction covered by the Transactions Rule.

315-When can a covered determine whether a research component of the entity is part of their covered functions

A covered entity that qualifies as a hybrid entity, meaning that the entity is a single legal entity that performs both covered and non-covered functions, may choose whether it wants to be a hybrid entity. If such a covered entity decides not to be a hybrid entity then it, and all of its components, are subject to the Privacy Rule in its entirety. Therefore, if a researcher is an employee or workforce member of a covered entity that has decided not to be a hybrid entity, the researcher is part of the covered entity and is, therefore, subject to the Privacy Rule.

316-If a research subject revokes authorization to disclose information can a researcher continue using the information already obtained

Covered entities may continue to use and disclose protected health information that was obtained prior to the time the individual revoked his or her authorization, as necessary to maintain the integrity of the research study.

317-Can the preparatory research provision of the HIPAA Privacy Rule be used to recruit individuals into a research study

The preparatory research provision permits covered entities to use or disclose protected health information for purposes preparatory to research, such as to aid study recruitment. However, the provision at 45 CFR 164.512(i)(1)(ii) does not permit the researcher to remove protected health information from the covered entity’s site.

318-Does HIPAA require documentation of IRB approval of an alteration or waiver of individual authorization

No. Documentation of IRB or Privacy Board approval of an alteration or waiver of individual authorization is only needed before a covered entity may use or disclose protected health information under 45 CFR 164.512(i)(1)(i).

319-If consent was obtained before the compliance date but the IRB modifies the document is authorization required

If informed consent or reconsent (ie., asked to sign a revised consent or another informed consent) is obtained from research subjects after the compliance date, the covered entity must obtain individual authorization as required at 45 CFR 164.508 for the use or disclosure of protected health information once the consent obtained before the compliance date is no longer valid for the research.

320-Can covered entities continue to disclose adverse event reports that contain information

Yes. The Office for Human Research Protections is a public health authority under the HIPAA Privacy Rule. Therefore, covered entities can continue to disclose protected health information to report adverse events to the Office for Human Research Protections either with patient authorization as provided at 45 CFR 164.508, or without patient authorization for public health activities as permitted at 45 CFR 164.512(b).

321-Can covered entities continue to disclose information to the HHS Office for Human Research Protections

Yes. The Office for Human Research Protections is a health oversight agency under the HIPAA Privacy Rule. Therefore, covered entities can continue to disclose protected health information to the Office for Human Research Protections for such compliance investigations either with patient authorization as provided at 45 CFR 164.508, or without patient authorization for health oversight activities as permitted at 45 CFR 164.512(d).

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research

(48 reviews)

Cheryl Lowry, Ohio State University

Copyright Year: 2016

Publisher: Ohio State University Libraries

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Elbert Davis, Assistant Professor, Marshall University on 10/24/21

The author does an incredible job in explaining the research process, from choosing a research question to how to search for sources (and citing those sources), and more. There are relevant self-check quizzes throughout the book to check for... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The author does an incredible job in explaining the research process, from choosing a research question to how to search for sources (and citing those sources), and more. There are relevant self-check quizzes throughout the book to check for understanding, along with other supplemental resources. As the book was published through The Ohio State University, some of the sources are only available to OSU students, but the author makes it clear when this is the case.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The author did an excellent job with the accuracy of the book, Two specific examples that stood out: taking care to mention that Wikipedia is a great as a starting point, but not as an endpoint for research. Lowry also clearly explained that educational use did not automatically mean fair use, which seems to be an issue with students and faculty alike.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The book should remain relevant in years to come, as academic research seems to follow the same basic pattern. The only issue would be if The Ohio State University changes the links used in the book, although I expect these to be easy to update. The book would still be able to be used without the supplemental links though.

Clarity rating: 5

The book seems to be targeting an introductory audience. Lowry does a great job of breaking down the jargon of academic research into plain English for the beginning researcher.

Consistency rating: 5

I thought the author used approprate terminology for a student learning about academic research.

Modularity rating: 5

The book is designed into specific chapters for the different aspects of choosing a source. While there are specific sections devoted to The Ohio State University library, I would not expect to have any trouble assigning the other chapters in my courses.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The author started at the beginning, with how to design a research question before going into choosing a source, which gave good background knowledge.

Interface rating: 5

The contents of the book were clean and crisp. No distortions were noted. Navigation from the table of contents was easy.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No grammatical errors were noted.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

Nothing offensive was in the book.

I have a difficult time in getting beginning graduate student to understand the different types of sources and fair use. I think using most chapters of this book would help a great deal in that comprehension.

Reviewed by Kelly LeFave, Instructor, Portland Community College on 6/15/21

This student friendly overview of academic research, including a strong focus on information literacy, covers many of the salient points that college level writing and writing for research classes curricula contain, making it a strong choice as a... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This student friendly overview of academic research, including a strong focus on information literacy, covers many of the salient points that college level writing and writing for research classes curricula contain, making it a strong choice as a comprehensive and useful overview. Chapters include enough depth of coverage to make the leap from information to practice for students; self-directed activities are provided to check knowledge, work through concept applications, and offer more specifics. The book provides an easy-to-navigate Table of Contents, but an Index and Glossary do not seem to be available.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Some errors appear that a thorough proofread would catch. Some resources may need to be updated since information practices and modes change so quickly; some references and links direct students to OSU information that would not apply to all readers.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The book’s topic – academic research – necessarily demands constant updating given our fast-changing digital landscape and the shifting paradigms we are witnessing for locating and evaluating information in our times. Resources can become obsolete fairly quickly in this environment. The book’s content is largely up-to-date, though a thorough review of linked resources, perhaps annually, would be beneficial. For instance, a video on RSS mentioned a Google feature that looks to be no longer available, though finding alternatives proves simple when searched online. The book’s organization makes updating or replacing linked resources easy, so keeping the content relevant would be straightforward with regular review.

Content is presented in a style engaging for students, using the “you” pronoun address to walk readers through a thinking process that applies and links ideas to practice; this effective approach is used for many of the book’s concepts. The writing strikes a good stylistic balance between engaging the student reader and informing/challenging that same reader by modeling research brainstorming or methods. The style seems appropriate for college level readers and college level curricula. The topic of academic research does include some technical terms at times, but the book’s approach is to define and explain such terms a part of its content.

Stylistically and organizationally, the content is consistent and easy-to-follow. A user begins to anticipate knowledge check activities or “try it out” activities at particular points in each section. The knowledge check quizzes, which are simplified multiple choice questions, seem at odds with the highly contextualized concept explanations in much of the book’s prose; perhaps a different approach to knowledge check quizzing, which as an element can be helpful, would work better.

Modularity rating: 4

Headings and subheadings follow a logical organization and are easy to navigate in the book. Some sections do refer to—and link to—other book sections, but most would work as stand-alone modules. An instructor or course designer could pick and choose sections and adapt them for their own purposes. As a whole, the book remains self-referential to the context of a specific university, which limits the easy adaptation of the book, and perhaps even sections, for faculty and course designers at other educational institutions.

The book’s organization is easy to navigate and coheres with the overall focus on presenting academic research and information literacy in a way that invites students toward a practical and fuller understanding. Topic order makes sense and is organized via headings and subheadings well.

Overall, no significant navigation issues or interface distractions.

A few errors that look like typos remain in the book. Otherwise, grammatical errors are not an issue for readability.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

A more nuanced and inclusive awareness of cultural relevance and diversity is worth considering for the book. The choice of some example topics, such as school shootings, might be distracting or traumatic for some student populations, while adding more examples that showcase interests or topics related to non-dominant cultural ideas would widen the sense of inclusivity throughout the book. Choices might be contingent on the demographics of the Ohio State University population, but more awareness of this aspect of the book might also make it more appealing as a resource for others to adapt

Reviewed by Nell McCabe, Associate Professor, Berkshire Community College on 6/15/21

This text is very-student friendly and covers all aspects of writing a student research paper, including steps that students frequently overlook such as the value of preliminary research and the different ways to incorporate different kinds of... read more

This text is very-student friendly and covers all aspects of writing a student research paper, including steps that students frequently overlook such as the value of preliminary research and the different ways to incorporate different kinds of information in a paper.

This text provides a well-balanced, research-driven approach to guiding students through the process of writing an academic research paper. Spelling mistakes, flaw grammar and usage, and factual errors are few and far between (as in I didn't find any during the course of this review).

Kinds of sources and the means of evaluating them are broad enough to be long-lasting, but the examples and other supporting details are timely and relevant.

This text uses student-friendly language and avoids jargon and other symptoms of academia run amok, while still maintaining high standards and expectations for students. Connections between the different stages of conducting research and developing an argument are well laid out and clear.

Terms associated with locating, evaluating, and incorporating a range of different kinds of sources are clear and consistent throughout the text.

The chapters do stand alone and I could image someone using bits and pieces or leaving out bits and pieces, but since the text is primarily focused on supporting the needs of a college research throughout the research process, it is hard to image much need for separating it into discrete modules. You could certainly rearrange the order of the chapters too if that worked better for your approach to teaching student research.

The flow of one chapter into the next is well-integrated and smooth. The order of the chapters

I had no issues with the interface; everything worked as expected.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

The book does not go out of its way to make obviously inclusive examples. Increasing the cultural perspectives represented in the examples would enhance the overall value of this text.

Reviewed by Darci Adolf, Director of Library & Media Services, Oregon Coast Community College on 6/11/21

I found "Choosing and Using Sources" to be quite comprehensive and included the major areas that I cover in my LIB 101 Research skills class. In my class I like to cover each area of Eisenberg's Big6 Research model: Task definition, information... read more

I found "Choosing and Using Sources" to be quite comprehensive and included the major areas that I cover in my LIB 101 Research skills class. In my class I like to cover each area of Eisenberg's Big6 Research model: Task definition, information seeking strategies, location and access, use of information, synthesis, and evaluation. I was pleased to find the subject of synthesis covered under the writing chapter-- many research textbooks leave this out. I did not find anything that talked about Evaluation of the process and product. Also, I would've liked to have seen social justice and equity issues in information publishing and access addressed as a chapter or portion of a chapter. The textbook has a great Table of Contents, but no index.

This textbook seems to contain accurate and error-free content. I spot-checked most of the chapters and didn't find anything I didn't believe to be true, and links weren't broken. Because this book is mostly factual in nature, there aren't areas where an author's opinion was used over facts, and opinions seem to be be appropriate and unbiased. For example, the author remarks on the use of blogs in research: "Blogs – Frequently updated websites that do not necessarily require extensive technical skills and can be published by virtually anyone for no cost to themselves other than the time they devote to content creation." This is a wide-held belief among librarians.

The content appeared to be up-to-date throughout the book. The area that might change the quickest is the types of sources, Chapter 2 in the book. They did a good job including an overview of all of the major source types and should stay relevant for a good period of time. Because they've listed these source types in a single chapter, updates to the text should be fairly straight forward and easy to do without disturbing much of the rest of the book.

Clarity rating: 4

The text was clear to me, a seasoned librarian. But I think there were terms used throughout the textbook that might not be familiar to a student first starting out in library research. So I would add some clarification around some of the language if I were using this textbook for a lower-level class. For example: There are several types of specialized databases listed including: Bibliographic, Full-text, Multimedia, etc. Many first year students wouldn't know those terms, or others such as "circulation, World-cat, discharge, InterLibrary Loan" and so forth.

The text was consistent throughout in terms of terminology and the overall frame. As I mentioned previously, some of the terms might need to be defined for the first-year student, either in-text or in a separate glossary. The framework is well-done, with clear chapters and sections--it was definitely written by those who teach research at the college level.

The textbook has 13 chapters that are again sub-divided into six or more sub-topics. This makes it very easy for an instructor to pick and choose which topics to cover. The thirteen broader subjects makes it easy to use the entire textbook for a term-- or just choose the pieces you want to use. For example, I would use the "Ethical Use and Citing Sources" chapter if I were doing a one-shot in a classroom, but might choose to use most of the chapters for an online class.

The structure was easy to follow. If I were setting it up myself, I'd probably combine the chapters on Ethical Use of Sources (Ethical Use and Citing Sources, Why Cite Sources, and Challenges in Citing Sources) with the chapter on "How to Cite Sources," but it's easier to have them separate and combine them for a class than to have a big block of text that would make it difficult to work through.

The textbook online version was done in Wordpress, and was easy to view and navigate. There were several other choices for students, including a PDF that could be viewed off line. There were charts, graphs, and links throughout that added to the content, but not so much as to be distracting. Any visuals were simple and enough white space was left as to not overwhelm, with colors that were contrasting visually.

I spot-checked throughout the text in each chapter and did not find any grammatical errors.

The textbook seemed to be inclusive of all races, ethnicities, and backgrounds.

Ohio State University has included a lot of links to their own pages, handouts, and resources that would need to be changed or omitted by a new user. For example, they have a handout from the OSU Writing Center, and they link to the OSU World Cat platform. These would need to be changed by the adopter.

Reviewed by Kaia Henrickson, Assistant Professor of Library & Information Science, Information Literacy Librarian, University of Alaska, Southeast on 11/4/20, updated 12/16/20

This text does a good job highlighting the steps in the research process, from formulating a strong research question, to finding and evaluating sources, to incorporating ideas from research into writing, and finally, to citing and using sources... read more

This text does a good job highlighting the steps in the research process, from formulating a strong research question, to finding and evaluating sources, to incorporating ideas from research into writing, and finally, to citing and using sources properly. Each chapter can stand on its own as useful content for a research-based course, or the entire text could be used to walk students through the entire research and writing process. Based on tutorials created for Ohio State University Libraries, some sections, like Chapter 5 on search tools as well as some of the activities, are fairly specific to OSU. Still, much of the text and many of the activities are applicable to all student researchers. This would be a great base text for someone who wanted to remix and add in information from their own university library and student service supports to replace the OSU-focused sections.

The material is accurate overall.

Text content, as well as videos and activities, are fairly current. Sections are small, so making updates should be fairly easy.

While the text is generally clear, there are sections that are a bit cumbersome or wordy. The Evaluating Sources section, especially, seems overly complicated.

References and links to other helpful sections within the text are appropriate and useful. Key concepts and ideas are repeated and built upon as the text progresses.

Each chapter is divided into manageable sections, and there are few sections which require a lot of scrolling. Those that are longer are broken up by subheadings. Embedded video content, visuals, and boxes are used to break up the text for easier reading and more visual appeal.

The text clearly progresses through the steps in the research and writing process from start to finish, but it can also be accessed by section if a particular subtopic is all that is needed. Each chapter stands on its own, as well as being integrated into the whole.

Interface rating: 3

The web version of the text has no paragraph indents or lines of space between paragraphs, which makes it a bit difficult to read, especially when there are longer blocks of text. There are many videos included that only have automatically-created closed captions (and a few with no closed captions available at all). A few of the graphics are blurry, but most visual and audiovisual content is clear and easy to read. With some of the linked activities, it is unclear what to do when you have selected an incorrect answer, and there is not much feedback for students who answer questions incorrectly.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

There are a few typos and other minor issues here and there in the text. Some of the linked activities have more significant errors.

The text is not culturally insensitive, but it also doesn't present much in the way of diversity in examples or ideas. In addition, there is a noticeable amount content that is focused on Ohio State University resources and students, and this may not be relevant for readers from other universities.

Reviewed by Marybeth Beller, Associate Professor, Marshall University on 3/13/20

The book provides a thorough review of the research process; that said, a professor will have to add discipline-specific information and requirements, such as expected citation practices and research methods. read more

The book provides a thorough review of the research process; that said, a professor will have to add discipline-specific information and requirements, such as expected citation practices and research methods.

I found no errors in the text.

I will use this book for my undergraduate research course as it gives a very good introduction to research, from narrowing the topic to turning questions into hypotheses.

The book is very clear and provides graphs, links and videos for the reader to have additional information as needed.

Each chapter is organized similarly to the others and is written in the same easy-to-follow, technical-free language. It removes any inhibitions a reader might have.

Each chapter section has its own heading and link. The entire book could be assigned or sections of the book could be just as easily assigned. A drop-down table of contents menu allows the reader to move freely between topics.

This guide is beautifully organized for the beginning researcher but can easily be followed through the table of contents for students needed refreshers on particular elements of research.

I found no interface issues at all in navigating the book.

There were no grammatical errors in the text.

I believe the book would be welcomed by a diverse group of people. There is no insensitive language or use of poor examples in the book.

I really enjoyed the organization of the book and that the author takes the time to include links to additional information as well as videos for students who want to spend more time with a particular concept.

Reviewed by Racheal Rothrock, Assistant Professor, Miami University on 2/28/20

The text is comprehensive in its covering of topics related to choosing and using sources, though it does not go into great depth for each topic. Rather this text provides a broad overview around the topic of sources. This text seems to be written... read more

The text is comprehensive in its covering of topics related to choosing and using sources, though it does not go into great depth for each topic. Rather this text provides a broad overview around the topic of sources. This text seems to be written for an upper-level, undergraduate student audience. No glossary is provided.

This information is presented in an unbiased way that informs on the topic rather than presenting a strong bias or slant toward a particular type of source (though, there is cultural bias—see review comments in “cultural” section). The text does provide details on what approaches might be more helpful in certain situations. This provides a balance of usefulness for students trying to determine which sources to use, while also not assigning value to some sources over others or create a hierarchy.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

The text demonstrates a current understanding around the topic of sources, taking into account the shift away from paper and toward digital sources. While overall this text should be useful for several years, there are some areas that may require updating (e.g. links, OSU policies or statements, specifics about various citation styles, software options available, copyright laws, etc.). Throughout the text, the authors do depend on examples that are specific to OSU (e.g. a section on “WorldCat@OSU”), and this might provide less useful for non-OSU students.

The text is written with simple language and explanations are given for more technical terminology (e.g. peer-reviewed, quantitative, qualitative, etc.).

Little specialized terminology is used throughout the text, however, the language and terminology used is consistent throughout. The format, structure, and approach the authors use, is also consistent throughout the text and forms a cohesive narrative.

The text is broken up by main topics and then within each topic, subtopics are provided to support the main topic. The length of each subtopic is fairly brief and examples are provided throughout with graphical separation for clarity. While the topics and subtopics support each other, each subtopic could be assigned individually and would maintain usefulness.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

Overall, the organization is logical and clear. There are a few topics that might be shifted in their order, but this is not a critical need. For instance, moving the information about copyright closer to the section on ethical use of sources might make sense, but does not overly disrupt the general flow of the text.

There are no significant issues. A fixed bar at the bottom of the screen allows for navigation to pages directly preceding and proceeding the current page and a clickable contents button at the top right side of the page allows further navigation between sections. Overall, visuals do not appear to be distorted, however, many of the visuals are quite large, taking up the majority of the screen, and could be reduced in size without losing effectiveness. Additionally, on pages 9 and 11, a graphic is presented that contains text that is too small to read. While it is not necessary to read the text in the visual in order to understand the lesson of the section, because it is provided, it would be reasonable to make this large enough to be legible.

The text seems to be free of any major grammatical errors.

This text is written from an academic, western cultural perspective that is relevant to the particular topic and audience (i.e. “A guide to academic research”), but does not take into other ontological or epistemological scholarly perspectives (e.g. testimonios or oral histories as significant sources). The visuals and examples do privilege the U.S. and mainstream cultures, such as through a photo of a White woman using her Mac computer in a library, a photo of a football team, an illustration with the U.S. flag in it, an example question of “How has NASA helped America,” an example opinion of “George Clooney is the sexiest actor alive,” etc. The text is not overtly insensitive or offensive, but it also does not appear to take up or address non-dominant perspectives and cultures in any substantive way.

Reviewed by Audrey Besch, Temporary Faculty , East Tennessee State University on 10/31/19

This text is very comprehensive! From choosing sources to the final research project, this book does a wonderful job of providing all the steps. read more

This text is very comprehensive! From choosing sources to the final research project, this book does a wonderful job of providing all the steps.

Information is accurate for the purposes of writing research and using sources.

Up-to-date and relevant, this text does a good job of outlining various types of sources that can be used and the appropriate ways in which to use them.

Very easy to read content that would be great for students, especially those who are just starting the academic writing process for research.

The text remained consistent in it's use of terminology and framework.

Text has an appropriate use of subheadings and includes activity sections that focus on concepts. Material was broken into easy to grasp ways that didn't seem too lengthy.

Content is well organized and in a logical format for the content provided.

Book did not have any navigation issues and all images were appropriately used for content.

To the extent of my knowledge, there were no grammatical errors in this text.

There were no culturally insensitive issues or offensive language in this text that I could find.

Reviewed by Kris Frykman, Community Faculty, Minnesota State University System on 10/18/19

Comprehensive overview, with examples, to punctuate learning. read more

Comprehensive overview, with examples, to punctuate learning.

Clear, accurate process in showcasing academic research.

Appropriate book for researchers of all levels.

Chapter follow-up questions and videos are included to further enhance clarity.

Terminology and examples are included to further make the content accessible for the reader.

The book is divided in sections so that students can study and apply one concept at a time.

Content is clearly organized.

Charts, diagrams, examples, and videos are highlighted to exemplify key contents.

No discernable grammatical errors.

Appropriately culturally sensitive.

Reviewed by TyRee Jenks, Research Librarian & Library Instruction Coordinator, Montana State University - Billings on 7/31/19

The text is very comprehensive and covers all the necessary aspects of information literacy and student research. There is no index or glossary included, but terms are well explained within the text. The extensive coverage of topics, like types... read more

The text is very comprehensive and covers all the necessary aspects of information literacy and student research. There is no index or glossary included, but terms are well explained within the text. The extensive coverage of topics, like types of sources and copyright, was thorough while not being so in-depth as to bore students. The activities, quizzes, and short videos reinforce the concepts covered in the chapters and add interest, however some quizzes would benefit from additional explanation as to why answers are right or wrong.

The content of the text seems to be accurate. Very minor spelling errors and a copy/paste duplicate. No apparent bias.

Content is up to date and relevant for students while being broad enough to be useful for a longer period of time. Updating information would be easy. The text contains a lot of hyperlinks that an instructor would need to stay on top of to keep the links current. In some cases the links were to very reliable sources that will remain stable for a long time (i.e. Purdue OWL) while others are more transient (i.e. YouTube videos).

In general the text is clear, including good explanations of terms and concepts. It contains very little jargon and the prose is accessible. In “The Details Are Tricky” section, the finer points of primary, secondary, or tertiary information could be confusing to students who are trying to comprehend the basics. The author’s inclusion of informative tables with sample responses as well as the blank template for students to use was helpful.

There is consistent use of terminology and layout throughout the text.

The book has good modularity, excellent graphics, and the text and/or activities can easily be used at the point of need in an information literacy class or one that is discipline specific. Chapters can be used individually or rearranged as needed.

Overall the organizational flow worked well, however the chapters on copyright and fair use might make more sense when grouped with the chapters on the ethical use of sources and how to cite sources.

The EPUB and web versions of the text are easy to navigate with a clickable table of contents and left/right arrow navigation at the bottom of each page. Other than some images that could be resized, the formatting lent itself to consistency throughout the text giving students a uniform experience. In some cases the URL links were just written text instead of hyperlinked which was a little inconsistent. Pleasant graphics added value, explained concepts, balanced out the text, and added visual interest. The inclusion of links that lead out to further explanations of concepts (i.e. the peer review process or how to read a scholarly article) are a nice addition.

There are no major grammatical errors that would be distracting to the reader.

The text is applicable to students in all disciplines, and there are no concerns about cultural relevance or insensitivity. The text is heavily OSU centric (i.e. referencing the OSU code of conduct and requiring students to log in to OSU resources for some activities and examples) and requires effort on the part of instructors at other institutions to make the necessary changes making the content applicable at their institution.

With modifications this text could be incorporated into a three credit information literacy course for undergraduates or into other disciplines. The fair use and copyright sections could be useful to instructors as well as students. Could easily integrate with the ACRL Framework. There is some great general information on writing and making an argument that are applicable across disciplines.

Reviewed by Eric Bradley, Research and Instruction Librarian, Goshen College on 5/31/19

The focus of the book is on published sources for college level research and writing. In this area it is comprehensive. It does not address other areas of academic research. read more

The focus of the book is on published sources for college level research and writing. In this area it is comprehensive. It does not address other areas of academic research.

The content is accurate, error-free, and politically neutral. The last piece makes this a excellent source in the current United States political climate.

Content reflects the current realities of the information landscape. Several of the chapters use up-to-date wording that may need to be updated more frequently, but the excellent modularity of the text allows for accommodation.

The book is straight forward and uses contemporary language of the information and academic landscapes.

The text follows a consistent framework throughout the book.

The text is divided in a way to teach across a course. While the text builds upon itself, many of the chapters stand alone well. I have skipped several chapters of the text and it has not caused any disruption with students.

Excellent organization. The text guides the reader step by step through the research process.

Interface rating: 4

The overall interface is strong. The images and charts are excellent, although the use of branded logos in some of the images may become dated.

No grammatical errors noted.

The text is focused on academic research practices for a North American context. While not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way, it does not take into consideration research practices of other cultures.

I use this text as a replacement of Booth et al.’s Craft of Research. Beside the benefits of being a open textbook, this text provides a more relevant guide to finding sources in the current academic environment.

Reviewed by Kathleen Murphy, Coordinator and Assistant Professor of Music Thearpy, Loyola University-New Orleans on 4/30/19

This book includes all relevant information to help students choose appropriate sources for an academic research paper. It clearly defines different types of sources that can be used, and the difference between primary and secondary sources. It... read more

This book includes all relevant information to help students choose appropriate sources for an academic research paper. It clearly defines different types of sources that can be used, and the difference between primary and secondary sources. It gives an overview of how to search various databases, and defines and describes boolean operators. The chapter on ethical uses of sources clearly defines plagiarism and how and when to cite so as to avoid plagiarizing. The chapter on copyright is an excellent addition; that information is not common in many texts related to academic writing. Each chapter contains extra activities students can work on independently to help with understanding and application of the material covered.

Overall, I found the book to be accurate. I did find one error in Chapter 7. In the section titled "Challenges in Citing Sources" the entry labeled "Running out of Time" was repeated. In regards to bias--I did not find the content to be biased; however, the majority of links where students could go to get extra information were connected to Ohio State University. The one notable exception were the links to the Perdue Online Writing Lab.

The content is up-to-date and relevant. Choosing and using sources for an academic paper has not changed much. What has changed is how to access and find the sources to choose and use. This book does a nice job of explaining how to find sources--databases, google scholar, and search engines. My only concern is the frequent suggestion to search Wikipedia. As an academic, I find this a little troubling. To the author's credit, they did not that one should not cite Wikipedia or use information from Wikipedia in an academic paper. I am not able to comment on ease of updating information, as that is a technical issue.

The book is written in clear, accessible language, with limited "jargon." At times I found the writing to be too simple, written more for high school students than college students. Definitions are provided for all relevant terms.

The book is internally consistent. It moves through the process of choosing and using sources in a linear fashion. However, to their credit, the authors note that writing an academic research paper is not always a linear process.

Each chapter is broken up into smaller units that cover a topic relevant to the chapter theme. Sections of this book could be assigned as individual assignments based on areas of difficultly students seem to be having. Alternatively, a professor could develop a class session or two around each of the chapters. These book seems to be very versatile; there are links to previous chapters that readers can click on to refresh their memories.

The topics in the text are presented in a logical and clear way. The book moves through each topic associated with choosing and using sources in sequence that most researchers would follow. The table of contents, with main headings and subtopics provide a step-by-step guide to help undergraduate students through the research process.

There are many links in throughout the book that students can click on to get more information or to practice skills. Navigation back to the main text is a little trickier. Sometimes, clicking on the back arrow will get the reader back to the page s/he was studying before clicking on the hyperlink. More often, however, the back arrow will take the reader back to the Table of Contents, or front cover of the book. Not all the links worked when I went through the book

I did not fine any grammatical or mechanical errors. I think the book is well-written and appropriate for high school students. I think the language may be too simplistic for most college students.

I did not come across anything that was culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

I think this book is an excellent resource for high school students, and maybe college freshman who need help in choosing and using sources for an academic paper. The book is logical, gives an overview of the process and provides excellent examples and extra activities to enhance learning. I think it also could be used as a self-study guide.

Reviewed by Miguel Valderrama, Adjunct Assistant Professor, New York City College of Technology on 4/7/19

This book is a great resource of all steps needed to be taken in an academic research process. The book's index clearly displays a suggested methodology to follow and makes it easier to comeback for the review of previous chapters. In general the... read more

This book is a great resource of all steps needed to be taken in an academic research process. The book's index clearly displays a suggested methodology to follow and makes it easier to comeback for the review of previous chapters. In general the book is easy to read and every time a new world or a particular terminology related to the topic comes up, it is clearly defined and put into context.

This book collects a series of methodologies that have been proven to be efficient when they are put into use during the process of academic research. These techniques are not only presented and described to the readers, they are also actively used in the various examples, pretty much in every chapter in the book. These techniques may not be the only way a person can start and develop a research process but they are certainly a clear and convenient way to do so for beginners. There may be complex terminology entered to the discussion which may slow down the reading process. However, this is effectively addressed by separated easy to access links; This provide more in detail definitions and exercises from a particular section.

This book is a guide that presents many particularities of research methods and techniques that have been used for long time. These methodologies have been proven to be very effective in academic research. This book not only collects many of these techniques but carefully relate them to new searching tools that are part of the communication era we live in nowadays. This was not the case just couple of decades ago. I anticipate long life to the methodologies presented in this text with years or decades before they could become obsolete. Within this context, the searching tools may keep changing but the methodologies that are used here could keep working efficiently; at least as a way to approach to a research process for an undergrad student.

The author uses a clear and easy way to understand the language and terminology that makes part of a research process. Without getting too deep into technical terminology the book marks clearly words that deserve more understanding and usually provides separate links which connects the reader with a deeper explanation. The text doesn't have very large paragraphs all around which to me allows readers to keep a good and dynamic paste. Links to previous discussed topics presents a quick way to review previous content without loosing the paste.

Consistency rating: 4

Through out the entire text it is consistent that at the beginning of every chapter there's a statement related to what the previous set of contents was, also in several parts of the book this first paragraph makes a point about how this relates to what it is about to be presented in that chapter. This is why several words allusive to the subject of research are reuse constantly in different chapters. This makes lots of sense to me as a way to keep the reader's familiarity with these terms which will also ended up increasing retentivity levels in the subject. Since the book is clearly broken down into steps they all seemed to be well placed in order to present a cohesive structure that guides the process of research.

Academic research it is a process that should be flexible by nature in many ways. Even though some parts of the process could be done simultaneously to others, this will definitely not apply to all of them. This book brings up an interesting way to order this process which even though may look rigid at times it tries to make sure that some parts are developed before others in the research. It is presented that way so that there's enough understanding of the bases before there can be any progression or even conclusions. This is mostly reflected in the techniques that are presented, where some of then have as their main job to detonate creative thinking. For example: the importance of the set of questions that are asked at the beginning is that the answers will be used mostly to clarify the end goals of a research.

This text is organized following a clear and efficient way to develop an academic research process. It is well distributed in chapters that are all connected to each other in one or other way. The book is efficient at establishing this connections, specially at the beginning and end of every chapter where there's mentioning of the previous and following topic's main ideas. This helps readers to keep track with the overall content.

This book presents an excellent graphic approach to expose its content. The electronic version has the really nice feature of having the index accessible at any point of the reading process. This text is full of links that are either deeper explanations of a particular topic or a set of exercises that are directly related to what the reader is learning. If the idea was to present the information in a format that doesn't look congested to the eyes and that it is not distracting the reader from the important ideas, the editors made an excellent job. This book can't be easier to read, follow through and understand.

Besides a couple of punctuation spaces here and then I was not able to perceive any major grammatical errors. The book is well written all around. Punctuation is pretty much excellent and its composition keeps the reader in track with the content effectible.

Particularly the topics used as examples were very diverse in therms of gender allusion, cultural backgrounds and specialized fields. Research is a process that apply to all disciplines and the professionals working in them. This makes the research process a particularly broad one. The book makes efforts to present this idea by using numerous examples that connect with different segments of the population at numerous levels.

This books is an excellent tool available to anyone who wishes to start a serious research process in almost any particular professional area or field, even amateur researchers can benefit from its content. The book was written to merge the topic content with a series of exercises, tests and examples using a cohesive testing dynamic that helps to increase retention. This dynamic becomes the most efficient way to understand what it takes to start a professional research. The steps to follow the process are laid out clearly in this guide and the important things that need to be taking in account during the research process are highlighted and deconstructed to obtain a deeper overall understanding by the reader or researcher. The fact that the reader is being quizzed constantly during the entire book generates a stronger connection with the important subjects and a good way to evaluate the reader's understanding in real time as well. Highly recommended to undergrad and graduate students and perhaps even amateur researchers becoming familiar with the process of research as well.

Reviewed by Cindy Gruwell, Professor/Research Librarian, Minnesota State on 1/11/19

Choosing and Using Sources does a very good job of covering the topic of Academic Research. Each chapter focuses on an aspect of the research process and thoroughly covers the content with easy to read text and examples/activities for student... read more

Choosing and Using Sources does a very good job of covering the topic of Academic Research. Each chapter focuses on an aspect of the research process and thoroughly covers the content with easy to read text and examples/activities for student practice. Most importantly first-year students through seniors should find the content informative and presented in a collegial format.

All of the content is accurate and explained in a manner that is easy to grasp. There are some minor typos in some of the activities, but they do not confuse the reader. The text is bias-free and includes interesting examples that students can relate to.

The overall content is highly relevant and will age very well. Updates would definite be easy to handle and manipulate. By breaking down each chapter into a variety of content areas, readers will be able to focus and review areas of concern.

Having read several print and online texts of a similar nature, it was a pleasure to come across a text that is clean, consistent, and concise. Each topic has an appropriate amount of information to get the point across as well as tips that lead the reader to additional information. The presentation is consistent throughout without any bloating often found in print texts.

The authors of the text did an excellent job of producing an online text that is consistent and easy to use. No tricks that make it difficult to navigate or confusing to read.

One aspect of the text that I especially like is the modularity that allows for the use of a particular chapter or page(s). Too often texts have chapters that make readers feel like there is no end in sight. The concise nature of this work blends extremely well with the modularity of the complete text.

What makes this text easy to adapt is the layout from beginning to end. Each chapter and section scaffolds upon the other which will allow students to build their skills in a natural manner. Knowledge attained will easily transfer from one topic to another as they move through the book.

While I believe that the text is excellent and I have adopted it for my class, I do find myself frustrated by not being able to move from one section to another within a chapter without having to go back to the contents list. This surprised me because most books and tutorials have forward and backward links, especially within chapters.

There are a few grammatical (spelling) errors in several of the exercises, however, they do not interfere or confuse the reader.

This is definitely a professional work that has no cultural issues and is an excellent example of a non-biased text.

While looking for an OER text I was delighted to come across this book. The content and flow fit in with my class content extremely well and is an excellent resources for courses in the liberal arts, general research, and library-centric classes.

Reviewed by Kathy Moss, Clinical Professor, University of Missouri on 11/27/18

The hyperlinks and examples include a wide range of topics that include cooking, surgery, architecture and sports. read more

The hyperlinks and examples include a wide range of topics that include cooking, surgery, architecture and sports.

Credit is given to an editor, production and design specialists, as well as several content contributors. No additional information is provided to support inference regarding author credibility.

The open textbook Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research presented material that is relevant to my current issues course, including Background reading, Developing a complex research question, Classifying sources, and Evaluating sources.

The topics are presented clearly, using an engaging conversational style and frequent tips and activities. A reader who has no background in information science may be hampered by some terms used in the book (e.g., blog, podcast, Wikipedia, browser, database, Gawker, Reddit). The book does give intentional attention to the technology-naïve audience with some skills (Control-F) and topics (brief description of LexisNexis Academic, Lantern Online).

Terms and organizational framework are consistent throughout the text.

I plan to assign particular chapters of this text that are most relevant to my course's goals. The consistency of the text's terminology and organization should permit this reading plan with minimal distraction to the reader.

The information is clearly organized with a contents listing, chapter numbers and section headers. This organization facilitates easy access for learners with a specific interest in a single topic.

The author’s frequent use of hyperlinks invites students to explore topics more in-depth.

I note a few minor typographical errors that did not adversely affect my ability to comprehend the text.

The book includes examples of non-Western sources such as the allAfrica news database. Some of the links and examples are only available to individuals who have accounts with The Ohio State University. Though the book includes examples in audio and video formats, it could be improved by giving specific attention to topics related to accessibility.

The book provides the opportunity for readers to apply the topics by analyzing its frequent examples.

Reviewed by Lori Meier, Associate Professor, East Tennessee State University on 11/8/18

This text is exceedingly comprehensive. It addresses all elements of academic research (i.e. choosing questions, exploring and selecting sources, searching strategies, citation issues, copyright) as well as providing abundant links for student... read more

This text is exceedingly comprehensive. It addresses all elements of academic research (i.e. choosing questions, exploring and selecting sources, searching strategies, citation issues, copyright) as well as providing abundant links for student use. It is lacking an index or glossary - although many concepts are defined in the various chapters.

This book is accurate and comprehensive. I would not hesitate to use this resource with undergraduate or graduate students as a beginning primer for research.

The book is relevant and timely in regards to the various resources and tech tools it mentions (Google Scholar, EndNote, Ref Works). Given the subject matter I suspect that this book will have longevity to users.

The text is clear and provides definitions for jargon/technical terminology that is used. It is very comprehensive which might be a bit intimidating for the first time reader, but all elements needed for cogent research are included and therefore necessary. I appreciate the use of student scenarios as a way to step-by-step show the thinking process of choosing research questions.

Very consistent and thorough.

This text would be ideal for use as single chapters in courses where the content is needed. While the content is crafted with Ohio State University students in mind it is still very relevant for use by students and scholars. I am already thinking how I might use this next semester with an undergraduate honor's thesis student - both as modules to be read but also as a reference source.

The book is organized in a logical manner but spends only a brief amount of time about qualitative and quantitative research as peer-reviewed sources and only gives basic definitions for those two terms. I would perhaps suggest an additional section on qual/quant/mixed methods research methodology and perhaps a quick overview of research methods or samples via discipline. Additionally, a mention of the common IRB process for Human Subject Research might be helpful to those students using academic sources that discuss that process. It is a very clear text and this could be added with just a few pages of information that might be beneficial to students.

Navigation links worked well for me. The book is easy to read and the display features are not troublesome to me.

Grammatically sound.

Appropriate and is accessible to a wide audience.

Reviewed by Kathy Lamb, ELL Specialist/ English Instructor, Miami University on 8/2/18

The text covers most areas of academic research, and has a table of contents but no glossary, which is much needed. Topics are clear and concise, transitioning smoothly from general to more specific, such as “What is a Research Question?” to... read more

The text covers most areas of academic research, and has a table of contents but no glossary, which is much needed. Topics are clear and concise, transitioning smoothly from general to more specific, such as “What is a Research Question?” to “Narrowing Topics” and finding “Related Terms”. Perfect for college freshmen.

The content is accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The source is up-to-date and it would be relatively easy to update information.

The text is easily understand and flows in a clear manner. Ideas and topics progress easily and examples are used to offer context.

Ideas build one upon another and academic vocabulary is repeated throughout.

Some parts of the book seem a little “text heavy”, but overall it is well organized with efficient flow. The embedded links in the text connect earlier concepts

One problematic is that there lacks a glossary. The table of contents is very long, but broken down so that one is able to easily reference topics. Chapters are concise enough to be read in a timely manner and effectively used.

For some of the online activities it was confusing to discern which answers were correct or incorrect. And, after clicking on and completing an activity one must go back to the former page in order to navigate further. On the other hand, being able to access other information about the chapter topics via link is a handy tool.

There are no grammatical errors.

This book is culturally relevant and not offensive or insensitive in any way.

Reviewed by Sara Abrahamson, Faculty, Minneosta West Community and Technical College on 8/2/18

This text is very comprehensive. The complete research process is broken down from start to finish. read more

This text is very comprehensive. The complete research process is broken down from start to finish.

Very accurate information.

The content is very relative to today's researchers and does a fine job of detailing types of sources.

Very easy to read with content that is easily understood by even a first-time researcher.

The content was very consistent and easy to follow because if it.

LOVED the easy of reading because of the small, digestible informational pieces!

The flow of the text was perfect, following the research process from beginning to end.

I enjoyed the hyperlinked Activities, however, they did not all work for me.

No grammatical errors found.

Very culturally unbiased.

Excellent text that I wished I had years ago!

Reviewed by Justin Megahan, Librarian / Associate Professor, Fontbonne University on 6/19/18

The text does a good job covering academic research. There is a table of contents, but I feel like a glossary and index would be helpful for this book. read more

The text does a good job covering academic research. There is a table of contents, but I feel like a glossary and index would be helpful for this book.

The content is accurate. I did not notice any errors.

The content is up-to-date. There are many databases and websites referred to in the text so it is important to check those relevant links on occasion. It would be straightforward to update the text as needed.

The text clearly steps the reader through the research process. The process is discussed in detail over the 13 chapters.

The text is consistent.

The book is modular. Chapters can be rearranged without confusion. The Copyright Chapter is a good example of a component that can be used separately as a supplemental reading in another course.

The book is organized logically. The addition of a glossary and index could help navigation.

The book has images, charts, and videos that are useful. There are quick activity questions that tests the students’ knowledge on the current topic. These activities do link out to OSU’s site so it is important to make sure those links continue to stay active.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

This book does not have cultural concerns.

Many links direct the reader to OSU resources that have restricted access. The discussion of OSU resources and tools needs to be modified to fit the reader’s institutional resources. “ACTIVITY: Quantitative vs. Qualitative” has a link that is no longer working.

Reviewed by Jane Theissen, Reference Librarian/Professor, Fontbonne University on 5/21/18

The research process is explained in detail, from how to develop a research question to where and how to research through the application of copyright, fair use and citation styles. read more

The research process is explained in detail, from how to develop a research question to where and how to research through the application of copyright, fair use and citation styles.

The content is accurate and unbiased. Most of the links, which are plentiful and well placed, are either broken or link to resources at OSU's library, which I could not access. Use of this book would require time to correct this.

The content is stable. Other than updating the links, little would need to be done to use this text.

Very clearly written; jargon is appropriately explained. Self-checks allow students to make sure they understand the material.

Each section logically builds on the previous, and tone is consistent throughout.

The text has a great deal of modularity. Each section is listed in the Table of Contents and covers a few pages or less. There is no index. It is easy to find and move to sections quickly. the structure allows one to pull sections out for other courses (which I have done).

The research process is explained step-by-step with appropriate detail and excellent graphics.

Images, charts, and diagrams serve to explain and support the text. Many seem rather large and I found them a bit distracting. Additionally, there are page breaks in strange places, leaving large blocks of white space on pages while the narrative continued on the next page. This was very confusing. It would also be helpful if the links would open in a new window.

It seemed inclusive where applicable.

This text impressed me as appropriate for high school students or college freshmen.

Reviewed by Laura Heinz, Librarian, Texas Tech University on 3/27/18

This book provides beginning student researchers with a clear and complete path to the research process for class assignments and undergraduate research projects. read more

This book provides beginning student researchers with a clear and complete path to the research process for class assignments and undergraduate research projects.

The content is presented is accurate and in an unbiased manner for students to easily grasp the process and concepts.

This book was written in 2016 and may need some minor updates. The material is presented in a logical manner that leads students through the process as they begin their research. Each chapter can be used independently as the instructor fits the chapters into course content.

This book is easily understood by an undergraduate and doesn't require extra readings or content to be understood. It is concise and clear which will be appreciated by the student as they conduct research.

This book is consistent in it's framework which leads the student to each step logically avoiding confusion or frustration.

The chapters can easily be used independently and refer students to other chapters with supporting information.

The book is written to lead students in a logical manner through the research process. The length of the chapters allows a student to easily read the chapter for that step in their research, apply it and refer to it easily.

The book downloads easily onto a laptop or e-reader. The graphics display nicely on either size screen and enhance the text.

No grammatical errors were noticed.

This book is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. Examples used are appropriate.

This book introduces beginning student researchers to the academic research process in a thoughtful and deliberate manner. The books lack of jargon and abbreviations will help international students learn how to better navigate an academic library for research. Instructors in all disciplines should consider this book as an additional textbook for their classes requiring research for assignments, class projects and/or papers.

Reviewed by Hilary Johnson, Learning & Teaching Librarian, The Open University on 3/27/18

The text does not include an index or glossary. However, it covers a complex (and dry) subject in an economical and stimulating fashion. Each reader would learn about the subject from the basic text but the authors have enriched the text by... read more

The text does not include an index or glossary. However, it covers a complex (and dry) subject in an economical and stimulating fashion. Each reader would learn about the subject from the basic text but the authors have enriched the text by embedding audio-visual resources, download-and-keep checklists and formative activities of excellent quality.Chapter 9 'Making an Argument' is particularly strong and complements Chapter 1's analysis of research questions well. It is an excellent resource for undergraduates, post-graduates and beyond, and could also be useful for professionals researching topics to support evidence-based practice protocols.

More tips about applying facets to search results on services like Summon, EDS or Primo would be a useful addiition. I was surprised the authors did not employ language to frame the skill development in the language of 'employability' and life-skills, which might hook readers who are not planning to engage in academic research in the long-term.

The accuracy of the book was excellent, My score would have been 5, except the advice about copyright legislation and fair use is only applicable to students of Ohio State or elsewhere in the USA; so an institution in the Britain, Ireland or Europe would not be able to use or recommend chapters 11 or 12. However, these chapters are well-judged for the intended audience; succinct and comprehensible, where so many guides are too woolly or arcane to be useful to a general readership.

Chapter 1 had a dead link to an audio-visual resource. The explanation of how to use Wikipedia for academic study was nuanced, classic and practical. The explanation of how to use truncation and wildcards were similarly time- (and platform-) proof. There is much current interest in 'fake news' and the manipulation of Facebook and Google algorithms. So it could be timely to add a section on the known issues and some practical strategies to compensate for them.

The authors use excellent, clear English that should be comprehensible to anyone with academic english reading proficiency. My only qualms related to an ambiguous use of the term "poster" (this word has a particular meaning in an academic setting which was not explained) and more extensively around the slightly simplistic and dated language used for the university library catalogue and abstract & indexing databases. One of the activity sheets is structured like a decision-tree and starts with the question "are you working from a database"; with modern resource discovery platforms and other aggregating tools, students may not be able to tell whether they are looking at results from a single database, all the databases from one supplier or multiple databases from a variety of suppliers.

The stylesheet and planning of content is elegant and the quality is consistent throughout the text.

Each chapter is split into useful subsections, with clear formatting to demarcate between topics, tips and activities. The authors have also helpfully embedded hyperlinks to relevant chapters or sections earlier or later in the book.The length of individual subsections is consistent to make reading online easy (balancing scrolling and page turning). However, the length of embedded audio-visual materials varies so a student planning their time might be surprised in places.

The text has a sensible progression of topics, with hyperlinks back and forwards to connect relevant topics. And the final chapter, 'Roles of Research Sources', pulls together the lessons learnt with a useful acronym (BEAM), giving the book a strong ending.

I accessed the text on a variety of browsers, screen sizes and operating systems without any problems with the interface.

I only spotted two minor errors - site instead of cite and White's definition (page 186) without an apostrophe.

Not all the video materials embedded are captioned making them inaccessible to some categories of disabled users.

Reviewed by Lydia Bales, Academic Skills Tutor & Librarian, Staffordshire University on 2/1/18

Considering the book is not overly large, the guide manages to be very through and comprehensive guide to locating sources and using them correctly. It even goes further in giving some great information on making an argument and writing out the... read more

Considering the book is not overly large, the guide manages to be very through and comprehensive guide to locating sources and using them correctly. It even goes further in giving some great information on making an argument and writing out the research. The chapters are in easily digestible chunks covering the process of searching and evaluating resources in a useful and cross-discipline manner. It covers the source search process of research in an easily digestible manner.

The topics are accurate and have been written in a way that they will not date too much. The links and examples of the services provided may need updating to keep them accurate but the nature of the online format makes this easily possible. The Copyright chapter is obviously only applicable to those studying in the US. Having a version of this chapter available discussing copyright law in the UK could be useful any access the course for a different location.

The topics, examples and videos used are relevant and useful and should not date too much. The links and examples of the services provided may need updating to keep them accurate but the nature of the online format makes this easily possible. Some of the examples and links are specific to Ohio State and America and this can limit the relevance for students who do not have the ability to access Ohio State resources or are not based in America. Also the copyright section specfically is obviously only US copyright law limiting it's usefulness for students based in other locations.

The writing style is straightforward and easy to follow. It is sometimes slightly repetitive but overall the information is clearly presented and the vocabulary used is not too advanced. The style is informal and it makes a weighty topic much easier to process. I think it would be useful to have a glossary in the resource for students who maybe have not come across some of the topic specific words before and need them defining.

I was impressed with the consistency considering the work is made up of different author’s contributions. I could not identify different voices within the text, which helped improve the flow of the work. The arrangement of the contents tab is very useful to help navigate to specific sections of chapters as well as the overall chapter.

The layout of the book makes this modular. You can choose which sections to look at in any order and they read clearly and separately well. The other sections are signposted throughout the text and you can link back through to these using the hyperlinks provided. I think the order could be slightly improved by moving the citing and copyright information after the information on argument and writing but because you can choose how to read the book then it is not really an issue. I think it is important to note that if you cannot play the video content or the links in the book are Ohio State Specific the book does lose some of its positive features.

Overall, the structure is straightforward and logical. It flows in a manner that is easy to read and to process. Using the navigation you can work your way through the book in any order you feel is appropriate. As I stated I feel the referencing and copyright information could be in a different place but because you can choose to read this in a different order, it does not really matter.

Having read the online version on both a PC and a tablet I found the interface both easy to use and accessible. The page and chapter length worked well on both platforms and it was easy to access the links and activities contained within the resource. I could not access the videos on the PC due to not having Adobe Flash and it would be useful to have known I would require this to access the resource in its entirety. The video content is a refreshing change to just text and the images used are overall relevant. The videos do not all include a text version and this would be useful for accessibility. A few of them do have this option. Some of the images in the text viewed blurry on my PC and tablet. I am not sure if this was an issue with my own software or an error in the book.

I did not notice any errors during this read through. In some places, the text was a bit repetitive but this not disrupt the flow too drastically.

The examples used are not offensive and are diverse in their range. They have not given examples that define the guide for specific subset of students, which makes it more applicable.

Just for accessibility purposes, I think all the videos need a text version not just some. In addition, the RefWorks program has now been updated and it is called New Refworks with a changed logo and this could be updated in the book along with the guide to setting up Refworks if your institution subscribes. I feel that there are many links that you could not access unless you were an Ohio State user and this could disrupt the flow of the book for some users.

Reviewed by Lori Jacobson, Associate Director, Curriculum Development, William & Mary Writing Resources Center on 2/1/18

The book provides a comprehensive introduction to the use of sources in academic writing. read more

The book provides a comprehensive introduction to the use of sources in academic writing.

The book is a polished, professional and appropriate tool to help students improve their information literacy.

The content is relevant for undergraduate students and their instructors. It focuses primarily on fundamental approaches to finding, evaluating, and deploying sources in order to enter the scholarly conversation. While the authors occasionally mention a specific tool, or insert links to outside sources, these are placed within "Tip" boxes that can easily be updated.

Because this book was created for students at Ohio State University, it is sometimes quite specific about tools or processes that are unique to OSU. Instructors using this book at other institutions may sometimes need to suggest their own's institution's available tools to keep the text relevant for their students.

The book is well-crafted for an undergraduate audience, taking an easy-going, friendly tone and clearly defining key terms and concepts. It is also accessibly structured, making it fairly easy for users to jump between topics, rather than requiring a linear read. Links between related sections are provided wherever it is appropriate.

The book uses a consistent design scheme and structure. Features that appear in each chapter include graphics, tip boxes, examples, activities, and summaries.

Each unit of the text stands on its own and could be easily assigned as an individual reading. Rather than being self-referential, the text will suggest that more information on a related topic can be found in one of the other modules.

The text is organized to flow in roughly the same sequence as a typical research project. Students who are reading the text while working on a project should find individual sections logically presented and relevant. This is clearly not a text designed as background reading; rather it functions best as "just in time" information for students working through the research process.

I found the text quite easy to use in it its online form. It is visually appealing, easy to navigate, and thoughtfully arranged.

I noticed a couple of typos, but no significant grammatical errors.

The examples provided are of broad interest, and most readers will have some familiarity with them. There were no insensitive or offensive comments or examples.

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research is a practical tool for novice researchers. It asks students to begin the process with a research question, and then provides a step-by-step approach to creating the question. All the other chapters flow from this effective beginning, and should increase students' information literacy by helping them understand types of sources available to researchers, the relationship between sources and information needs, how sources should be evaluated, and how they can be deployed effectively and ethically. Additional chapters on argumentation and copyright round out the book's overall usefulness to students engaged in a research project. This book could be easily paired with a staged research project, and would provide students with the "just-in-time" information they need to successfully complete the assignment.

Reviewed by Kristin Green, Reference and Instruction Librarian, Penn State Worthington Scranton on 2/1/18

The aspects of academic research that are prudent to cover within the first year of any undergraduate student's general education are all covered within this textbook. From an introduction to the ethics of source use to crafting basic Boolean... read more

The aspects of academic research that are prudent to cover within the first year of any undergraduate student's general education are all covered within this textbook. From an introduction to the ethics of source use to crafting basic Boolean search strings, all facets of entering scholarly discourse are addressed in brief chapters that feel modern and accessible. While instructors may wish to supplement or replace some of the exercise sets in the text with their own assessments, the content of the text provides ample coverage if selected to serve as a primary textbook for a foundational information literacy course.

The book is accurate in addressing the current state of the information landscape as encountered in the realm of academic research, as well as the legalities of copyright and fair use.

All content within this book is current and the content within chapters sections are written in a style that today's undergraduate students will be able to learn easily from. Many of the concepts, processes, and principles that are covered in the text have an inherent longevity that will prolong the relevance of this text past its initial publication date. However some chapter sections, tutorials, and videos are institution-specific reducing the overall relevancy of using the entire text at other locations.

The text is written in a clear and concise style that current students will find very accessible. The authors consciously defined any technical terminology or jargon as it was introduced throughout the chapters. Furthermore, the technical concepts that were more complex to define are often accompanied by visuals to help convey what is being defined.

The terminology and format of the book, along with the linked exercise sets and visualizations, provide a solid consistency that will helps students focus on learning the content rather than being bogged down with understanding the textbook format.

Instructors could easily parse different chapters of this book to use for modular instruction, especially in "one-shot" or other limited instructional scenarios. Some of the chapters are a bit self-referential which may generate a minor degree of confusion if used out of the holistic context.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

While there is a logical flow to most of the chapters, some seem a little out of place such as the "Making an Argument" chapter. I would have preferred a division of chapters into sections, where the writing-related chapters were separated from the source-related chapters. I also think the chapters that covered Copyright, Fair Use, ethical source use, and citations would have a stronger flow if organized together in their own section.

The ability to navigate through the book from the table of contents page is a great feature for students, especially when the instructor is choosing to assign only particular chapters or work through some of the chapters in a different sequence. The linked exercise sets are also easy to navigate through, allowing students to focusing on applying learned concepts rather than learning new interfaces. However, throughout my review some of the linked external content would not open for me and links to external materials always have the possibility of changing which may result in future inaccessibility

No grammatical errors were detected when reviewing this book.

This book is not offensive nor culturally insensitive in any manner.

For any instructor looking for an open textbook to orient undergraduate students to the basics of the academic research and writing processes while simultaneously providing context of contemporary issues surrounding these scholarly activities, this is a comprehensive and accessible choice!

Reviewed by Anne Behler, Information Literacy Librarian & Instruction Coordinator, The Pennsylvania State University on 2/1/18

This text offers a comprehensive breakdown of the academic research process, with special effort made to demystify jargon that may present itself in either the classroom or library environment. Beginning with establishing a research question and... read more

This text offers a comprehensive breakdown of the academic research process, with special effort made to demystify jargon that may present itself in either the classroom or library environment. Beginning with establishing a research question and carrying through to integrating and citing sources, the text includes practical tools for students to use in their own research, as well as links to supplemental information. If anything, the text errs on the side of providing too much information, such that a novice researcher may feel overloaded.

The text offers an accurate articulation of the research process, and avoids bias by covering a wide variety of potential information sources, including the use of web search engines other than Google.

Because the information landscape is constantly shifting, the text will require fairly frequent review. This is particularly important when it comes to how web sources are addressed. For example, the book does not address fake news and/or dealing with problematic web resources, and it glosses over use of social media as an information source. However, the concepts related to the research process itself change very little, and the information presented about them has staying power.

The text is written in accessible language, and works to address uses of jargon that are typical within the academic environment by providing explanations for what professors typically want when they request a particular item in the research process. This is an effective way to establish relevance with students, as well as clarify academic expectations.

The language within the text is consistent and accessible, with helpful insertions of definitions and/or links to explanatory supplementary information online.

The text's sections are clearly and logically labeled, and could very easily be plugged into a course in part or whole.

The order of topics in the text follow the research assignment process, from point of assignment decoding through to writing and source citation. Given the audience for the text and its intended purpose, this makes great sense.

The text contains links to many outside web sources that may provide helpful supplemental information for the reader; however many of these links were found to be dead. Comprehensive review of all links is highly recommended. In addition, I recommend continuing review of available videos related to the topics, as many selected are either rudimentary or contain dated material.

The writing and grammatical quality of this text are of the highest quality.

The text is culturally relevant and inclusive in its examples.

As stated, this book holds great utility and relevance, but requires updating for links to external web resources. It will also need to be adapted to keep up with the changing landscape of information sources themselves.

Reviewed by Craig Larson, Librarian, North Hennepin Community College on 2/1/18

The book is very comprehensive, sometimes almost too much so (sections on copyright seem to be more detailed than the average college student would need or perhaps be interested in; the section on the lifecycle of information, while interesting,... read more

The book is very comprehensive, sometimes almost too much so (sections on copyright seem to be more detailed than the average college student would need or perhaps be interested in; the section on the lifecycle of information, while interesting, also is a bit questionable as to its overall relevance). Instructors who choose this book for a one- or two-credit information literacy course will have much more material at their hands than they can reasonably cover in a semester. This book would make a good companion volume to just about any course involving research.

The content is accurate and unbiased. As an example, I was interested to find that the author actually recommends that students use Wikipedia, at least in the very early stages of research, to get an overall picture of their topic. So many college instructors, regardless of the subject, seem to have a strong aversion to Wikipedia. Here, the author actually goes into some detail on how using the references in an entry can lead the researcher to additional sources he/she might not find through other means. Some of the activities are a bit misleading or written in such a way that there could be more than one right answer, which isn't necessarily an error, but could be tightened up a bit.

The content is largely relevant and up-to-date, though I was a bit surprised to not find a section addressing "fake news," which has become such a watchword over the past year. I was also a bit surprised that, although the author has a section talking about which "neighborhood" certain types of information "hangs out," there wasn't a discussion of different domain names, such as ".edu," ".org," and ".com" and what they indicate to readers. Also hampering the book's relevance somewhat is an overabundance of examples and activities that require an Ohio State student ID to log-in. Many of these would have to be re-worked or re-written for the book to be useful at other schools.

In large part, the book is clearly written and new ideas are clearly explained. The writer does a pretty good job of avoiding jargon and technical terminology or where it can't be avoided, of providing examples and clear definitions of terms. Some of the activities aren't so clearly written that there is one obviously correct answer. Also, some of the scoring of activities isn't clear enough to indicate to the user what was wrong and why it was wrong or even the correct answer that should have been chosen. Not every concept is adequately explained or thoroughly developed (for instance, the crucial process of moving from an initial reading to a research question could use further clarification and development). Another area that could use further discussion and development would be how to use databases.

The book is largely consistent, though there are occasions where the consistency falls through. For example, most of the accompanying activities will open in a new window, but not all. There were several occasions where this reader closed out an activity window and closed out the entire book as well. This is an area that someone really should take a look at, as it can be confusing and irritating for the user. Also, the fact that many of the book's activities require an Ohio State student ID effectively locks out users from other institutions.

The book is largely modular, with sections that can easily be broken apart and assigned at different points in the course. There is a very useful table of contents, broken down by subject into smaller pieces that can easily be accessed. As mentioned previously, the book is very comprehensive, almost too much so at times, so having this table of contents is very helpful.

The book is fairly-well organized, though there are things placed in odd locations that could be touched on earlier or later, as the case may be. For instance, there is a good discussion fairly late in the book about deciding whether to quote, paraphrase, or summarize, which would have been much more useful if it was placed in the section of the book that directly addresses each of those activities. Instead, it is placed in a section on academic integrity (which, again, is very Ohio State-specific, too much so, really). I also question the relevance of a chapter on creating an academic argument, which if it is to be included at all, would seem to make much more sense earlier in the book, when students are learning the basics of research and how to apply it to their writing.

The book is largely free of significant issues, although as mentioned previously, many of the activities require an Ohio State student ID to log-in and use, which makes them useless to students from other institutions. Also, the activities are sometimes difficult to follow--one doesn't know why one answered incorrectly or what the correct answer even is in some instances. And the fact that some activities open a new browser window and some don't can also be confusing. There are a few activities that lead to broken links.

There are the occasional run-on sentences and spelling mistakes in the text. It's almost impossible not to have some issues in this area. However, the infrequent errors don't detract from the book or its overall usefulness, though it might be a good idea for someone to go through the text and try to clear some of these up.

The book does a good job of avoiding being culturally insensitive or offensive. Activities and examples are written in such a way as to be inclusive. Many of the examples link directly to sites that deal with minority themes and issue.

I think, on the whole, this is a very useful book and one that could be put to immediate use in many instances. However, the number of activities and examples that require an Ohio State student ID to access make this less relevant than it could be if the author had striven for more universal examples.

Reviewed by Mairéad Hogan, Lecturer, National University of Ireland, Galway on 2/1/18

This book covers the subject matter in a comprehensive and detailed way. The way in which the material is presented is very suitable for students who have not previously been involved in academic research as it starts at the very beginning and... read more

This book covers the subject matter in a comprehensive and detailed way. The way in which the material is presented is very suitable for students who have not previously been involved in academic research as it starts at the very beginning and assumes no prior knowledge. It has additional features that help to reinforce the material, such as activities and MCQs. These help to reinforce the learning and test the reader’s understanding. Additionally, the examples used are very useful and helpful in gaining understanding of the subject matter.

It goes into the material in depth and not only tells students how to progress their research but also explains clearly why they should be doing it this way. For example, it explains to students how to differentiate between good and bad sources. However, I have one small concern with this aspect. They do not tell students how to differentiate between different standards of peer-reviewed journals. They do mention looking at citation count but state that is not a useful measure for very recent articles. Some discussion on determining the quality of the journal itself would be helpful. For example, looking at citation counts for the journal, rather than the article would be one example, as would looking at rankings.

Overall, I would see this as an excellent reference book to last students through their academic careers.

The material itself is accurate. However, many of the links to additional material either do not work or are inaccessible to those without OSU credentials.

The material is mainly presented in a way that will last. However, many of the links no longer work so these should be checked and alternatives put in on a regular basis. Additionally, there are links to videos that may not be there in the future, although all I clicked on were available. However, the text description of the videos did not work. Many of the activities (MCQ’s etc) have a dated feel about them in terms of layout and interaction. The design of them could do with some updating.

The writing itself is very clear and easy to understand. Diagrams are used to good effect to clarify concepts (e.g. use of Venn diagrams to explain Boolean concepts). However, some of the terminology is not as clearly defined as it could be. While terms are generally explained clearly in the text, it would be nice to have a glossary of terms. Additionally, the MCQs are not always clear as if the reader gets an answer wrong it is not always apparent which is the correct one.

The book is consistent in writing style and interface.

The book is structured in a modular format whereby the reader can dip in and out of different sections, as they need to. Equally, for a student starting out, it is structured in a way that is likely to follow the steps in the same order as the student, making it a good companion to their research projects.

The book was organised in a very natural and sensible way and flowed smoothly from one topic to another. Links were provided to related sections of the book where relevant so that if the reader forgot what was meant by a particular topic, they could easily hop back and forth. The book started at the very beginning with good coverage of developing a research question and then progressed through tools and sources to help with this. The additional activities were all web based, which works fine if you have easy access. However, I was using a kindle with poor broadband so struggled to access it at times. It also felt a bit disruptive leaving the book to do the activities. It’s also not always clear whether links lead to another part of the book or to an external site. The tips are a useful addition. The stand out when flicking through the book and help to reinforce the important points. It is also useful the ways steps are clearly broken down into sub-steps.

I downloaded it to Kindle, and found a number of issues. It struggled to deal with larger fonts, resulting in some text not being visible.. There were also references to “the bottom of the page” but the bottom of the page varies depending on font size. Not all of the activities worked. Some of the activities required OSU credentials to access them, which was frustrating.

There were some minor grammatical and typographical errors but nothing major.

The book is very US centric in its use of examples. For example, there is an American football example and news sources referred to are US based generally. Additionally, copyright discussion is US centric.

Overall, I found this to be an excellent book that will help students in their research projects. I think it is a book that they will use for a number of years as it is has sufficient depth to help at different levels. The one main change I would make would be to broaden OSU references and activities so they are referring to databases in general, for example, rather than simply talking about the OSU one. Much of the material is relevant regardless of institution but a reader unfamiliar with databases would not be aware of this and might skip over some very useful information.

Reviewed by Anthony Patterson, Assistant Professor, North Carolina Central University on 2/1/18

Choosing and Using Sources is an extremely thorough text taking readers through the research process from formulating research questions to fair use and copy right issues. I particularly liked the online examples and resources including quizzes... read more

Choosing and Using Sources is an extremely thorough text taking readers through the research process from formulating research questions to fair use and copy right issues. I particularly liked the online examples and resources including quizzes and videos. The table of contents is thorough but there is not a glossary. While this is a strong text some discussion of theory and how theoretical frameworks are used in academic writing.

While the text could have addressed additional areas, the authors were accurate and detailed. Chapter 8 - How to Cite Sources is well done and accurately takes novel researchers through when they should and should not provide citations.

The authors present how to develop, approach, and conduct sound research in a well thought out format. This text is up-to-date addressing issues like Wikipedia and Google Scholar. While issues around these information sources will change, the way this text is set up, it can easily be updated in the future.

The book is well written, clear, and easy to follow. Jargon such as primary, secondary, and tertiary sources were explained clearly with appropriate examples. This text will be accessible for my students and most others pursuing advanced degrees.

The authors are consistent throughout the text when discussing topics like presenting arguments and the relationship this has with concepts like research questions and the sources researcher select. While consistency is expected is difficult to do especially when writing as a team. More impressively is the consistency of supplemental materials throughout the text.

The book has long chapters and occasionally I had some difficulty knowing where one section ended and another began but overall it is readily divisible. Another important aspect of the text are the supplemental materials like online quizzes and videos which are also clearly align with the sections in the text.

I was skeptical at first when I began reading but the overall organization of this text is good. Even though the text is about writing and sources, a section of theory and incorporating theoretical frameworks would have strengthen the book. However the topics selected flowed well and led potential researchers through a logical process.

A few problems linking to sum supplemental materials but overall I was impressed by the quality of the graphics as well as the links to quizzes and videos that were provided.

I did not come across any grammatical or typographical issues.

I did not see any cultural insensitive examples or information provided. However I also did not see a lot of racial or ethnic diversity in examples throughout this text. Overall, I feel the authors approached the subject matter appropriately.

Reviewed by Rachelle Savitz, Assistant Professor, Clemson University on 2/1/18

The text is quite comprehensive regarding finding, using, and understanding sources. It provides the process of sourcing from start to finish with examples and activities provided throughout to support the reader. Various ways to find sources... read more

The text is quite comprehensive regarding finding, using, and understanding sources. It provides the process of sourcing from start to finish with examples and activities provided throughout to support the reader. Various ways to find sources are described. There is a focus throughout on software and databases for the students at the authors institution and that can be confusing to readers from other institutions. The information provided regarding citing, ethics and copyright, and fair use was informative and would be beneficial to the reader. There were sections throughout that could have been more in depth and more specific. For instance, when going over the various ways to cite sources, additional examples could be provided and the version/edition should be listed. For instance, was the APA citation in APA 6th edition format? Also, make sure to address citing from secondary sources as students do this often and tend to cite what they read even if they read it from another text. The TOC was helpful and allowed ease of understanding what was to be covered in each section. One main complain that I have was regarding the additional information provided to help the reader in writing a paper. This information would be helpful for basic college writing but not for academic writing, thesis or dissertation writing. The sections required for some of these papers are not discussed and the text eludes that the sections provided regarding writing an argumentative piece would be appropriate for all. Also, synthesizing information could be explained a bit more and with more depth. Synthesizing includes more than critiquing and summarizing. All in all, the sourcing information is spectacular and the additional information could be expanded upon.

Accuracy of sourcing was spot on. Some of the additional categories discussed, as mentioned in the first section of this review, could be expanded upon to fully explain that category, if it is to be included in the book. The examples and activities provided were quite good and would be very beneficial for students to apply what they are learning in real-life contexts. Links were provided for extending information. I did not attempt to open every link but making sure they are up-to-date will be important as time goes forward. I also feel that the section on popular texts can be misleading. Stating that the Washington Post is "popular" eludes that it is not reliable or valid. This is not necessarily true as many experts in various fields write sections in "popular" newspapers.

As previously stated, a lot of links go to OSU resources. This could be problematic for any reader that is not at OSU. More information should be provided to support any student in the world as that part would be confusing to many students.

The text is easy to read and follow. All new information is explained and then examples and activities are provided. This is student friendly and allows any reader to quickly follow along and understand what is being stated, especially regarding the sourcing elements. As stated above, there are some sections that could/should be expanded upon for clarity and this might be best for beginning university students but the text was easy to understand in regards to sourcing, citing, and fair use. More information on how to use the sources and sections of papers would be beneficial to all students.

Each chapter seemed to follow a similar structure that followed the TOC.

Modularity rating: 3

Reading the book online provides ability to chunk the text based on assignments and can be read chapter by chapter, entirety or starting at different places. Due to the extensive amount of outside links and examples, this would be quite different if read in paper format. This book truly has to be read online to ensure benefit from all of the additional activities, links, examples, sources, etc. In addition, the many links specific to OSU would not be helpful for other students.

The organization is consistent from chapter to chapter. Information is explained and then examples and activities are provided to further knowledge. This works well for readers that needs examples.

Using a laptop provided no issues. However, when using a smartphone, the pages changed in size and various display features did not load properly or at all.

Very few grammatical errors were noticed.

No cultural issues noticed other than the many OSU references and sources. This could be offensive to other institutions as they will not be able to access many of the links.

Reviewed by Scott Rice, Associate Professor, Appalachian State University on 2/1/18

The book is very comprehensive which sometimes detracted from its usefulness. There were a few units that may be superfluous, but I did appreciate that the author seemed to err on the side of inclusivity, leaving it to other adoptees how much... read more

The book is very comprehensive which sometimes detracted from its usefulness. There were a few units that may be superfluous, but I did appreciate that the author seemed to err on the side of inclusivity, leaving it to other adoptees how much content they might use and repurpose.

The book is error-free and appears to be free of bias.

The book is pitched to an Ohio State University audience, so some of the resources pointed to would not be the same as a potential adopter's institution might select. In addition, the book needs some updating regarding the impact of social media on the information cycle. Social media formats are mentioned, but a fuller treatment of how they fit into the information climate would be a good addition.

The text was clear and easy to read, and provided numerous examples for its points. It also did not rely on jargon in its explanations, which makes it much more accessible.

The text was consistent in its use of terms. I found its tone consistent, as well as the level of explanation for the wide variety of concepts explored.

The organization of the text into units makes it very easy to break the content apart into smaller units and use it for a variety of purposes. I could see using the content for different parts of several courses, as well as incorporating it into e-learning content.

The topics are presented in a logical fashion, following the path that a typical research assignment might take. This will also make it easier to fit within the flow of a course that uses the textbook to teach about the process of academic research.

The interface of the text itself works appropriately, but some of the ancillary quizzes and extra material did not work so well. Many of the graphics did not work as well within the pdf format as they do in the web format.

The textbook was free of grammatical errors and was easy to read.

The text did not appear to be culturally insensitive.

I am exploring the creation of a for-credit information literacy class at my institution and this book is a possible candidate for adoption for the course.

Reviewed by Bryan Gattozzi, Lecturer, General Studies Writing, Bowling Green State University on 2/1/18

I was impressed how the text began helping students understand the benefits of leading a research project by writing research question(s), following with assessment of research methods, and thinking about research writing as an avenue to test a... read more

I was impressed how the text began helping students understand the benefits of leading a research project by writing research question(s), following with assessment of research methods, and thinking about research writing as an avenue to test a hypothesis instead of one simply confirming a previous, and perhaps uninformed, belief.

The book didn't seem to dismiss any possible research method. Instead it provided suggestions of how and when any individual research method may be relevant.

The book was published last academic year and the content included is still relevant, mostly because best-practices in research (and research writing) haven't changed much.

The volume of research methods students can use given the internet's power is ever increasing, yet the book does well to isolate a handful of long standing tenets that academic writers have used for decades while allowing for discussion of web-based writing and multi-modal presentation methods instructors may increasingly require students to use.

Each section is concise, clear, and easy to follow . . . for me.

I assume students will be capable of reading the text, performing quizzes provided, and plotting out a research path to complete their assignment(s).

Then again, as an academic I obsess over these issues. I can see a student yawning while reading this text.

The content isn't especially fun to read yet the information provided in relevant and time-saving if students are willing to relax, read actively, and apply the material to the assignment their instructor has given.

I don't imagine many students would seek the book out and read about research methods, yet an instructor can pair excerpts from the book with specific assignments along a student's research path to help the student retain and apply the helpful suggestions in the book.

The text does well to allow students to name the process they're going through when composing a research question then deciding on what research path fits their question. Students are guided to consider what blend of qualitative / quantitative, primary / secondary / tertiary, or public / professional / scholarly research will fit their research and writing goals.

The book refers back to the same terms throughout and provides students with active learning worksheets to plot a research AND writing plan to complete their work, one they could conceivably follow throughout their academic and professional career.

Each subheading contains, on average, not more than a page of content allowing instructors the ability to easily limit reading assignments from the book to concise, focused sections.

The book is very process-based, and follows the workflow necessary to write a successful academic researched assignment.

The limit of this strategy might be students being overwhelmed with so much discussion of process they'd be paralyzed to inaction.

An instructor, then, would have to be direct in assigning reading materials relevant to a student's immediate research goal.

I like how the text follows the path a student would follow: from narrowing a research question, selecting and reviewing research materials, then choosing how to implement them ethically in writing.

It also details how to process research considerations students may not consider including how to archive research results, to respect copyright law when publishing blog posts or submitting student work to an online repository.

The text contains many online activities, sample research artifacts, and instructional handouts. Some require on Ohio State student authentication. The text is still useful without access to these materials, though an instructor would have to alert students to this issue.

Text was proofread well.

Didn't see any culturally insensitive content.

Reviewed by Jonathan Grunert, Assistant Professor of Library Services: Information Literacy Coordinator, Colorado State University - Pueblo on 2/1/18

This textbook covers the concepts found in the ACRL frameworks in a way that is meaningful and accessible to academic researchers at all levels. It adequately provides a discussion of the complete research process, with clear signposts as to which... read more

This textbook covers the concepts found in the ACRL frameworks in a way that is meaningful and accessible to academic researchers at all levels. It adequately provides a discussion of the complete research process, with clear signposts as to which steps writers might need to revisit to improve their work.

The content appears to be accurate to 2016, with some acknowledgement that finding sources is an activity that has seen many changes in the past few decades, and will likely seem more, and rapidly.

Information discovery and retrieval is a rapidly changing process in a changing field. But much of the content in this textbook—as far as general advice and instruction for finding resources and the ways to use them—remains relevant. As information processes change and as information uses change, I have no doubt that librarians will be at the forefront of maintaining the relevance of a textbook like this one through various edition changes.

This textbook is clear, and accessible to researchers at all levels. Jargon, where present, is well-explained, and the contexts for the various components of the textbook are provided.

The text and frameworks in this book are consistent with ACRL frameworks as well as with the ways librarians tend to talk about finding and using sources. Furthermore, the book consistently uses the same terminologies to clearly explain sometimes difficult practices.

I would be very comfortable using any chapter of this book to teach a component of the academic research process. The chapters are discrete, with well-defined boundaries. The modularity of this textbook helps reinforce the overarching idea in this book: the iterative research process. Students might read the chapters in virtually any order, and come away with a valuable understanding of the research process.

This textbook presents the research process in the way that many students and faculty think about the process—from the perspective of the end goal, and through the organizational structure of an academic paper. But, it also indicates throughout the process places when the researcher needs to revisit an earlier step, to modify the project, or to make the end product more meaningful.

No issues in the interface; nothing distracting from the content.

Some minor punctuation errors, but no grammatical errors that distract from the content.

This textbook comes from an American perspective for ways of searching for, retrieving, and using information, as well as the traditionally American ways of constructing arguments. Though there is not discussion of other cultural ways of arguing academically, this textbook does not dismiss or otherwise denigrate other cultures; nor is it insensitive in any way.

Many examples are university-specific to the libraries at Ohio State University, as should be expected from a textbook such as this. As such, this book will be most helpful to students using the book at OSU. However, instructors using this book need to be aware of this focus, and must prepare to supplement with materials accessible by researchers outside OSU.

Reviewed by Susan Nunamaker, Lecturer, Clemson University on 2/1/18

This textbook is comprehensive. It goes in-depth covering the topics of research questions (specifically how to narrow down topics), types of sources, sources and information needs, precision searching, search tools, evaluating sources, ethical... read more

This textbook is comprehensive. It goes in-depth covering the topics of research questions (specifically how to narrow down topics), types of sources, sources and information needs, precision searching, search tools, evaluating sources, ethical use of sources, how to cite sources, making an argument, writing tips, copyright basics, fair use, and roles of resource sources. The textbook hits all of the topics that I plan to cover in my upcoming classroom-based research course with the exception of techniques for completing and writing a literature review. The textbook touches on the topic through a section on "background reading", but does not go in-depth. Otherwise, the textbook covers every aspect of academic research.

I found no errors or bias issues in my initial first read of the textbook.

The information and techniques provided within this textbook are up-to-date and relevant for academic research. I reviewed several textbooks before choosing this one for my upcoming masters-level classroom-based research course. I chose this book because of its relevance in regard to the practical skills needed in order to complete research assignments within the course, as well as, writing a capstone research paper.

This textbook is clear and exceptionally readable. It is organized by research skills in an order that makes sense to the reader. For example, the book begins with a chapter on choosing one's research question. Verbiage is clear and concise for all levels of academia to be able to effectively utilize this text.

This textbook is consistent in terms of terminology and framework. Each chapter of the textbook builds on the last. The reader is not necessarily expected to have prior knowledge of research before reading chapter one, but should easily be able to have a good frame of reference for academic research by the end of the textbook due to its high-quality framework for scaffolding knowledge with each chapter.

This textbook does a great job of sectioning academic research into small bites for the reader. It was easy for me to create modules from the textbook's chapters, spreading the information within the text over an 8-week course. The modularity of this textbook was a selling point for utilizing the textbook with students.

This is a well-organized textbook. Each chapter builds on prior chapters. Chapters are organized in a logical manner. The first chapter begins with the purpose of research questions and builds content to assist the reader in narrowing down options for research questions. The textbook progresses to assist the reader in building skills as an academic researcher throughout the textbook.

No interface issues were discovered during my initial exposure to the online format. I printed the PDF (because I still love paper) and all display features printed properly. The online navigation is easy to use and pleasing to the eye, as well.

No grammar issues were detected during my initial review of the textbook.

This text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in my opinion.

This is an excellent textbook if you are looking to utilize it to introduce students to the academic research and writing process. Its layout and design and conducive to module-based instruction, and the content is well thought out and beneficial.

Reviewed by Diane Kauppi, Library Faculty, Technical Services & Systems, Ruth A Myers Library at Fond du Lac Tribal & Community College on 2/1/18

The text did a great job of covering the subject and the table of contents were laid out well. The content was well thought out. read more

The text did a great job of covering the subject and the table of contents were laid out well. The content was well thought out.

I found the accuracy to be good. The content is a good representation of what a student needs to know in order better understanding library research.

The content itself is good & should stand the test of time for the near future. The only exception is that even though it's only one year from the publishing date (2016) many of the links are broken. And I would have preferred a OER text that was geared more generally for application to any institution vs. the inclusion of OSU specific references, links, resources.

For a text written to a 4-year university/college audience the text was good. For a 2-year community college audience some of the terminology would need to be defined.

I found the consistency to be good. It followed through each section with including tips, activities, etc.

I think the modularity was good. And the text could easily be broken down into smaller sections to be used as units by themselves or refresher units. The only issue would be where there are links within a module that link to other modules. Add to this that these links didn't work-- I rec'd errors each time I tried a module link.

The overall organization and flow as great. As stated on p 6 ("... as though you are conducting a research project while reading them [the sections]...") this made my logical side happy.

I like the links to activities for students to practice the skills being taught. The problem though was that many of the links no longer work. Additionally, many of the links are to areas not available to users who are not affiliated with OSU. And as mentioned in another review section, module links to other modules didn't work either.

I found the grammar to be quite good with only a few exceptions or where it was clunky at times.

I thought the text was neutral in this area. Nothing that blatantly jumped out at me.

I appreciated the link to application of research to other areas of our lives outside of academic research. I try to get this point across to students, especially when they are hesitant and resistant to library research. I found the "tips" & "summaries" to be a nice added 'pop' & easy for referring back to later. I liked the bold letters/words for emphasis. And the suggestion to "brush up" on p 31 was a nice touch vs outwardly assuming they don't know. The downloadable templates are a great resource for students. Overall, I found the text to be a good resource.

Reviewed by Kristine Roshau, Instructional Technology Specialist and PT Faculty Librarian, Central Oregon Community College on 8/15/17

This text is extensive! Like the title suggests, it truly is a full guide to academic research, from developing a topic, finding sources, and using them appropriately. It also follows the logical order of the search process, from identifying an... read more

This text is extensive! Like the title suggests, it truly is a full guide to academic research, from developing a topic, finding sources, and using them appropriately. It also follows the logical order of the search process, from identifying an information need, evaluating source quality (and purpose), and how to perform complex searches. It also highlights several common areas where academic research can be performed, from the college library catalog to specialized databases and how to find academic sources on the free web.

The book also covers what to do once sources have been found, including the importance of properly citing sources, ethical use of source material, and how to cite unusual or non-standard source material. It then moves into addressing the writing process: developing an argument and idea, writing tips, and a large section on copyright, fair use, creative commons, and public domain.

The table of contents is very granular, which is helpful. The sections vary in length, but given the overall size of the book (190 pages) having a very specific TOC is useful when returning to the text as a reference source.

I did not find any objectionable or questionable content. The authors have done a good job of selecting examples for each section (often with associated online activities or examples linked out to the web) that are varied and unbiased, but also represent realistic examples of what students might be encountering during their research process. I was really pleased when looking through the section on citing sources - styles can change, but the book is written in such a way as to be comprehensive about the purpose of citing sources, and links out to many helpful web sources, citation tools, etc so the information will remain accurate in the textbook even if the style guides themselves are updated in the future.

The section on copyright is similarly done.

See previous note - it is clear the authors have taken care to include examples that will remain relevant, not evaporate into popular culture, and provide flexibility where the content may be updated or changes (such as copyright law and citation style guides). They do provide a LOT of external links and activities, not all produced by Ohio State. So it's possible that some of their links may break in the future. It does appear that they have made an effort to either link to open sources they control, or which are unlike to change significantly (ie: government websites).

If I were using this text, I would probably modify some of the resource sections (eg: databases) to reflect those that the students at my institution have access to, though the writers do make a point of identifying OSU access-only resources where applicable. I would also update the copyright/plagiarism section to include our college's student handbook blurbs, etc.

The tone is extremely approachable in all of the areas I checked. This is extremely important in academic research where there are a lot of areas of possible legal entanglement, and the authors have done a credible job of breaking down complex concepts into approachable prose and examples.

The textbook is consistent in both writing and structure; however, I do with the table of contents was split into sections in the same way the content is. Page numbers are given though, so that's not really a big deal. There were one or two places where I saw formatting errors, but nothing overly distracting - it did not adversely effect the content.

It is visually appealing and for the most part, easy to navigate. No huge blocks of text, and it also intersperses activities, tips, and examples. The text is also organized in such a way that it can be used as a reference, without needing to be read from start to finish in order to make sense, which is helpful for the researcher who may need to pop in for just pieces of the work.

However, there is a strong presence of external sources (often OSU library webpages) and activities that are linked out of the text. The writing itself is certainly standalone, but the book would lose a lot of its character if it were printed and not viewed digitally. I would have liked a References or bibliographic section that listed some of these resources, but there wasn't one, meaning the user would not be able to search for the resource if the linked text didn't work.

I can see the potential for too many asides for activities to be distracting, but they are generally held to the end of their relevant sections, so it wasn't too overwhelming. The organization follows a logical research process, walking the reader through from beginning to end.

As mentioned before, there are a few places where it looks like images have distorted the intended formatting, pushing items to empty pages, etc. But these instances are rare. A few of the images could be higher resolution, but they were certainly legible (and I was viewing this text at 125% zoom on a larger screen, so my experience is probably not representative of every reader).

It is long though, and I would have loved to be able to jump to sections through anchor bookmarks in the content page - that would be a nice touch.

I also found a few broken links, which is not totally surprising, given the volume of them in this book.

None noticed in this review.

No objectionable content found - the authors have chosen inclusive examples wherever possible, while remaining realistic about subjects students might be researching.

Not all of the links to activities are self-describing (there are no plain URLs, but many of the activity links contain the same 'Open Activity in Web Browser' text, which would be confusing if a user was navigating with a screen reader.

Reviewed by Deborah Finkelstein, Adjunct Professor, George Mason University on 6/20/17

The book is very comprehensive. The authors consistently explain concepts well and provide easy-to-understand examples that are approachable for the undergraduate audience. For example, the authors don’t just say, “narrow down your source,” they... read more

The book is very comprehensive. The authors consistently explain concepts well and provide easy-to-understand examples that are approachable for the undergraduate audience. For example, the authors don’t just say, “narrow down your source,” they go through steps to narrow it down, walking students through the process. (p 9) Very thorough. They also spend a page and a half giving examples of “Regular Question” vs. “Research Question.” (p 13-14) This ensures that students will understand the difference. They also do well with explaining fact vs. option, objective vs. subjective, primary vs. secondary vs. tertiary sources, popular vs. professional vs. scholarly magazines, when to quote vs. paraphrase vs. summarize, and other concepts that are critical to performing research.

The book does not have an index. The table of contents is quite thorough and very useful in understanding the breakdown of the book or locating certain topics.

The book is error-free.

There are many digital examples in the text. As long as authors make updates as technology inevitably changes in the future, the book should remain relevant.

The book has a conversational tone that is connective, trustworthy, and approachable for the undergraduate audience. This makes it easy to read and easy to understand.

The book is very consistent with tone, and terminology.

In the introduction, the book encourages students to “jump around a bit in this guide to meet your needs.” (p 5). The book stays true to this idea. Students could read the book straight through, but it is well-designed for “jumping around.” The sections stand alone, and instructors could easily assign sections in the book out of order. This book could be used as the only textbook in a classroom, or an instructor could use these modules to supplement an existing textbook. Topics are easily found in the book thanks to an excellent table of contents, a clear organizational structure, and a great use of headers.

The book is well-organized and follows a logical structure. Individual topics are also well-organized. The authors break processes into step-by-step, making is easy for students to learn.

Great use of visual aids. For example, there is a chart on how to narrow down research topic (p 9), and a chart on the roles of resources in research (p 179). These items are great for visual learners, and they make the text come alive while emphasizing important concepts.

The book shares links to outside sources. This provides students that would like more information that is beyond the book with resources. It additionally provides students links to activities, such as one that asks them if a source is primary, secondary, or tertiary (p 34). On occasion, it links to outside companies, such as citation management software, news outlets, and social media, making the book a resource. In this way, the book utilizes the medium of a digital book.

The book is free of grammatical errors.

The book is culturally sensitive. The book is designed for Ohio University students. Examples given occasionally apply to Ohio, such as when the authors are providing examples of newspapers, they list two out of six that are from Ohio, including the campus newspaper (p 43) There is also a link to the OSU Libraries’ newspaper database (p 44), and when talking about citation management software, they mention the three that are available at OSU. It’s not a large enough issue that one should not use the book; it’s still easy to understand, but it is a limitation and worth mentioning to students.

I teach a 300-level English class on performing research and writing research papers. I plan to utilize this book next semester due to the excellent organization of modules, the approachable tone, and the great explanations and examples.

Reviewed by Constance Chemay, Head of Public Services, Library Services; Asst. Professor, User Instruction, River Parishes Community College, Gonzales, LA on 6/20/17

The book does an excellent job covering the subject, and even goes beyond what its title suggests, with chapters on writing and formulating an argument. The chapters on copyright and fair use are exceptional. However, it lacks both a glossary and... read more

The book does an excellent job covering the subject, and even goes beyond what its title suggests, with chapters on writing and formulating an argument. The chapters on copyright and fair use are exceptional. However, it lacks both a glossary and an index. Some terms are defined in their appropriate chapters, but not all. Some students, particularly first-year or those who may be enrolled in developmental courses, would benefit greatly from a glossary. The activities, while appropriate for their contexts, are mixed in their effectiveness; some provide good feedback with clarification, but most offer little more than a smiley face for a correct answer or an “x” for a wrong answer with no other feedback.

For the most part, this book is accurate and unbiased, but one area where I noticed discrepancies is the chapter on citing sources. MLA released its 8th edition in April 2016, yet the examples provided are 7th edition. I also noticed errors in the example for APA; only the first word, proper nouns, and those following major punctuation marks are to be capitalized in article titles following APA formating guidelines. Regarding bias, the book is unbiased; however, I disagree with the discussion of news sources regarding mainstream versus non-mainstream (or mainline as used in the text); main-stream media includes "traditional" sources, e.g., television, newspapers, and radio, as opposed to online sources, especially social media. The authors’ inclusion of Fox News, a right-leaning national television news network, a contemporary of CBS, NBC, and ABC, as non-mainline rather than mainline shows bias, in my opinion. It’s difficult to find news from any news source, mainstream or not, right, left or center, that doesn’t have some bias or opinions in its reporting.

This textbook itself is written so that it will be relevant for a long time. However, there are some exceptions. The discussion of citation styles uses examples for MLA that reflect the 7th edition rather than the 8th, which was released in April 2016. The book covers this discrepancy somewhat with its tip regarding choosing a citation style, with its remarks that styles do change and its recommendation to check with one’s instructors. Another issue is the potential for link rot regarding external websites; in fact there are a few dead links in the text and activities already. A couple of online resources mentioned and linked to, IPL2 and the Statistical Abstracts of the US, have been retired for at least a couple of years, which makes me wonder about when the book was actually last reviewed edited.

The book is well-written, easy to read, conversational. Most technical language is defined and used appropriately.

This book is consistent in terms of its terminology and framework.

This book is extremely modular in its organization at the chapter level and within the chapters. It can be easily reordered to meet specific course or instructor needs. It does refer to other sections of the text, but these references are appropriate, emphasizing more in-depth information elsewhere in the book. Sections that are unique to OSU can be replaced/revised to make the text relevant to other institutions as needed.

It is well organized and reflects the processes and stages of research. While the research process is not linear, the topics are presented in a logical manner that guides students through the process. I did note that a couple of sections in chapter 7, on ethical use of sources don’t really seem to fit there, however. The paragraphs on page 118 discussing a lack of understanding of the materials and lack of time might fit better in other chapters.

While the online version works well, the PDF format has issues. Some of the in-text navigation links work (the TOC links) while others found throughout the text don’t, often giving an “error: unknown export format” message. There are also a few dead links in both the online and PDF formats, as well as in some of the online activities. Some links direct users to OSU Libraries’ resources, either their catalog or their licensed databases, but not all such links are clearly identified as such.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

For the most part, this text is well-written, grammatically; however, it does have a few grammatical/typographical errors, possibly more than one might expect from a text of this length, and assuming that the author is most likely a committee rather than an individual, more eyes reviewing the text should catch such errors. There are also instances of tense inconsistencies, shifting from present to past in the same sentence. Two paragraphs on page 47, under “Finding Data in Articles . . .,” repeat the same four sentences verbatim in different order. This occurs again on page 88. While these are not grammatical errors, they are certainly editorial errors. Most of the online activities have typos, as well, more so than the textbook.

This textbook is not culturally insensitive or offensive.

I do like this book. I think it puts the topic in terms that students can readily use and understand. I'd even recommend the chapters on copyright and fair use to faculty! I do think that it could benefit from the inclusion of a glossary and an index, as well as regular and frequent review, especially in regards to the linked resources. The PDF version definitely needs revisions since it seems that most of the in-text referral links throughout the text don’t work. Since it is tailored to OSU’s library resources, any instruction librarian using the book can substitute content relevant to his/her institution; non-library faculty using the text can consult their own librarians for help with this.

Reviewed by Dawn Kennedy, Ed.S, Health Education, Anoka-Ramsey Community College on 4/11/17

Choosing &amp; Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research serves as an excellent guide for teaching the research process. It takes the learner through the process of academic research and writing in an easy to understand manner. As an educator... read more

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research serves as an excellent guide for teaching the research process. It takes the learner through the process of academic research and writing in an easy to understand manner. As an educator in a community college setting, I am working with students who are new to the research process. This text will be useful when working with students to start developing the appropriate process of research writing. The text has neither a back-of-the-book index nor a glossary. It is beneficial that key terms are defined throughout the chapters.

The information presented in the text is accurate at this point in time and unbiased. One concern is that some of The information presented in the text is accurate at this point in time and unbiased. One concern is that some of the links do not work.

Content is up-to-date at this point in time. Most examples and exercises are arranged separately from the main text and can be updated as needed. Some of the content links to the Ohio State University Libraries databases which may not be assessable to students outside that institution.

This text is clearly written, well-illustrated, and user-friendly for the undergraduate audience. It avoids technical jargon and provides definitions where appropriate.

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research is consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

Regarding the book’s modularity, users of this text can be selective in chapter choice. In this sense the text is useful to instructors and students who wish to focus on a single component and /or use the text as a reference. For a better understanding of the research process in its entirety, reading the text in the order written may prove to be more beneficial.

The text's organization mirrors the research process in a logical, clear manner. Chapters 1-8 lead the reader through the basics of research literacy and research skills; chapters nine and ten explain the process for making an argument and writing tips; Subsequent chapters zero in on copyright and Fair Use information. Key concepts and points are supported with highlights, examples and colorful illustrations.

The text displays generous use of visuals which are clear and free of distortion. The activities provided support the concepts and skills being addressed and are easy to navigate. One concern is the activities which are linked to Ohio State University may not provide access to all, resulting in limited access of information and frustration for the reader.

• The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

This is a text does an excellent job of explaining the research process in a logical manner. The text uses examples, illustrations, and skill practice to support the learning process. I recommend this text for use in it's entirely for teaching and learning the research process and as a resource for the rest of us.

Reviewed by Scott Miller, Reference and Instruction Librarian, Rogue Community College on 4/11/17

The book is very comprehensive and even goes beyond what might be expected in this kind of textbook. Along with choosing and using sources, the authors include a section on making an argument. Topics are dealt with appropriately and the text... read more

The book is very comprehensive and even goes beyond what might be expected in this kind of textbook. Along with choosing and using sources, the authors include a section on making an argument. Topics are dealt with appropriately and the text employs tests and activities along the way. I found some of the activities were not particularly well designed and sometimes answers to questions were based on assumptions by the authors as to context that in real life may or may not be appropriate. For instance, they claim that the periodical/journal title "Coral Reefs" is a scholarly journal, but judging by the title alone in a real life exercise there is no way to know whether it is scholarly or popular in nature.

There could have been more discussion about context and how it defines whether a sources is primary, secondary or tertiary. '

What the this textbook does not have is any kind of index or glossary, which I found disappointing.

I did not find any instances of inaccuracies in the text. I did find, however, some assumptions in the text that were not always warranted. I took issue with the assumption that mainline news sources are objective (p. 42). It is very clear that news articles are often biased. I think telling students that mainline news sources are objective effectively disarms instead of promotes critical thinking by students doing research.

On page 126 there is a discussion about using quotations where the authors say that all quotes are to be put within quotation marks. This is not true of block quotes in MLA or APA style and they omit any mention of it.

This textbook should retain its relevancy for several years, but it will lose its effectiveness very soon, since many of the dozens and dozens of links in the text will surely break before long. In the short term the links are a great feature, but they do severely limit the longevity of the book. I also found them annoyingly pervasive.

It should also be noted that the MLA citation example on page 122 uses the outdated MLA 7th edition guidelines.

Overall, I thought the book was very clearly written and easy to follow. The one section I struggled reading was the section on sources and information need. It seemed to want much more editing and was often wordy and almost obscure.

I did not notice any lack of consistency in terminology or framework.

This is one the book's strengths. It was clearly organized into topics and subtopics which sometimes could be addressed in an order chosen by an instructor. There were, however, occasional self-references to earlier sections or previously used external sources.

Moving from the simpler aspects of choosing and evaluating sources to the more complex uses of them and how arguments are constructed made good sense.

Interface rating: 2

I found the interface to have significant problems. At least a dozen links would not work from the PDF text when opened in Firefox. I often got the message, "error: unknown export format." The links seemed to work when viewing the text online, however.

The textbook's usefulness outside of Ohio State is severely limited by the frequent use of sources only available through OSU student logins. The textbook was written for OSU students, but it really fails as a textbook for any other institution unless it is significantly modified.

I found a few missing punctuation marks, and only two missing or wrong words in sentences. For a textbook this long, that's very good.

The textbook used interesting and non-offensive examples.

While it's a good textbook for choosing and using information sources it suffers from being too specifically written for OSU students, as well as including an overabundance of links that will reduce its longevity. Not including any kind of index or glossary is also a drawback.

Reviewed by Vanessa Ruccolo, Advanced Instructor of English, Virginia Tech on 2/8/17

Ch. 1 has a great overview of regular versus research questions and the difference between qualitative and quantitative research. Ch. 2 covers primary, secondary, and tertiary sources as well as popular, professional, and scholarly. Ch. 3... read more

Ch. 1 has a great overview of regular versus research questions and the difference between qualitative and quantitative research. Ch. 2 covers primary, secondary, and tertiary sources as well as popular, professional, and scholarly. Ch. 3 includes a source plan (i.e. what do you need the sources for and what is your plan). Ch. 4 gives tips and hints for searching on a library database. Ch. 5 gives different search options, like the library or Google Scholar. Ch. 6 is all about evaluating the sources you find, including clues about sussing out bias and thoroughness, as well as discussing currency of topic. Ch. 7 discusses why you should cite sources. Ch. 8 discusses ways to cite sources. Ch. 9 is looking at argument as dialog and what is necessary in that exchange and a recommended order of components. Ch. 10 covers quoting, paraphrasing,and summarizing and signal phrases. Ch. 11, 12 are copyright and fair use. Ch. 13 covers the roles or research.

I will use Ch. 1 and 2 in my classes, as I think the breakdown of research is useful and clear. Ch. 3 also has useful imbedded tools that will help students plan; Ch. 4 and 5 might be used as references post-library visit. I will also use Ch. 6 and Ch. 10.

I think the information provided for distinguishing scholarly, popular, and professional is helpful and I hope the resources help students understand good, reliable sources a bit better. The same is true for searching for sources, and I think the sections on search engines and evaluation of sources are going to be quite useful.

While the information on copyright, fair use, and why and ways to cite sources is fine, I won't be using these for my English classes as I find them not as helpful or relevant.

I think the book is quite accurate in terms of information provided. They use sources that both I and my students use, so clearly the book is addressing real needs in the classroom. It also makes suggestions that reinforce the concepts our librarians share with the students and instructors, so I find this to be extremely helpful.

The book suggests Purdue OWL, a source I also use; however, I realized this year that OWL was behind in updating some of the MLA citation changes. So that's something maybe for the book authors to note or address when recommending websites.

With that said, I think the book covers key specifics like university library websites, Google Scholar, and search engines, in broad enough terms to keep it relevant. Also, the graphics are simple and not dated, and there is one drawing of the "outernet" that shows what social media, Youtube, etc. would look like in the "real, outer" world. This drawing is the only thing I saw that might be dated soon, but its point is still solid.

Very easy to read, clear terminology and explanation of terms, and lists are also provided to help break up each page's prose, which means the information is presented in a visually clear form as well.

I think the consistency of terminology as well as the scaffolding makes sense on the whole. I didn't seem places where the language changed or seemed to have several writers or definitions.

Perhaps one of the best parts of this book is how each chapter is contained, succinct, includes an activity, but still builds on and with the other chapters. Each chapter is stand-alone and clear and easy to read online, or if you chose to print it. The creators clearly had the online reader in mind, however, and the chapter lengths and fonts are comfortable.

Overall, I like the organization, specifically for chapters 10-6. I would change the order of the final chapters so that Ch. 9 and 10 come before Ch. 7, 8, 11, 12. I would also move Ch. 13 "The Roles of Research" to earlier in the book, perhaps around Ch. 3 or Ch. 6. If I use these materials, I will reorder some of the chapters for my class so that the scaffolding and explanations work a bit more side by side.

Again, comfortable, easy-to-read pages, simple graphics and the charts used are helpful and appropriate. I especially appreciated that the authors didn't use images that showed people or figures that could both date the book and also make students feel talked down to - I hate images like this and refuse to use textbooks that incorporate them, so kudos!

Additional resources are easy to access.

I wish the email option (for sending yourself a page) pulled up a screen in which I could type the email I wanted it sent to. Instead, it pulls up Messenger, which I don't use.

The Table of Contents didn't let me jump to the chapter when I pulled down the menu. Was that just my computer/browser?

Now, I didn't read through as though I was grading (it is winter break, after all!) but nothing jumped off the page. If something had, if there had been a mistake, I would still use the text; if there had been several, I would have considered abandoning it for class. However, the information is still so good I i might have told my students to find the grammar mistakes as part of an assignment just so that I could use the research parts still; however, I didn't not see any.

No, nothing. Perhaps if the authors include more examples for citations they could pull from culturally different sources then, but the material here was so broad in terms of textual sources it was in no way exclusive.

I will be using parts of this book in my English classes. Well done to the authors - a helpful, free supplement.

Reviewed by Dale Jenkins, Advanced Instructor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University (Virginia Tech) on 2/8/17

Having taught freshmen how to write college research papers for the past 18 years, I gave the text high marks on addressing all of the key elements college students need to engage in academic research. read more

Having taught freshmen how to write college research papers for the past 18 years, I gave the text high marks on addressing all of the key elements college students need to engage in academic research.

The text implements content from a host of sources which is extremely useful, but the grammar needs a few tweaks.

This represents a strong aspect of the text. The writers did a good job of winnowing out unnecessary components of the research process, although my freshmen would not delve into the Fair Use and Copyright chapters.

The book gets outstanding marks on clarity. Students will find this to be a definite strength of the text.

The authors did a good job with consistency. I kept my students in mind as I evaluated this aspect of the text.

Students would find this book extremely accessible in terms of modularity. I don't see them being overwhelmed by the text or high-brow jargon.

I noted a logical progression to all thirteen of the chapters. Students in upper-level classes would find the chapters on Fair Use and Copyright more significant in their academic studies.

The hyperlinks and the interactive elements of the book will be extremely appealing to students as well as being substantive.

The book still needs some work in this regard. Pronouns don't always agree with the antecedents, and I noted several shifts in voice in the text.

The text doesn't have any instances of cultural insensitivity, and I pay close attention to this aspect of textbooks when I peruse them for potential use in my courses.

The hyperlinks, using different types of media, and the chapters on "Why Precision Searching?" and the discussion of plagiarism proved to be well-crafted and accessible for students. I also commend the authors for the lack of jargon that would leave students in its wake.

Reviewed by Jarrod Dunham, Instructor - English Composition, Portland Community College on 2/8/17

A very comprehensive guide to the writing of the research paper. I've taught research writing for several years, and this book covers all the material I'd typically cover in a class. Previously I've not used a textbook in that class, but I'm... read more

A very comprehensive guide to the writing of the research paper. I've taught research writing for several years, and this book covers all the material I'd typically cover in a class. Previously I've not used a textbook in that class, but I'm teaching an online section this term and find that the book offers a very effective substitute for the lectured and activities I'd otherwise be presenting in class.

This text is accurate and up-to-date with the most recent developments and issues in the field.

This text is very much up-to-date. It shows an awareness of changing conventions in academic writing, and emphasizes the latest technological tools for researching and managing citations. It frequently links to outside resources, which could be problematic in the event those resources were removed or relocated, but in practice I never encountered such an issue.

Clarity is one of the book's strengths. It is written in clear, simple, and concise prose, resisting the kind of "academese" that is frequently employed in textbooks and gives students a false impression of what academic writing should look like. I found all of the content very easy to understand, and, although it's intended for slightly more advanced classes, accessible for Freshman writing students.

The text is highly consistent, both in terms of the terminology it employs, its organizational structure, and its systematic incorporation of tips, learning activities, and quizzes.

The book is divided into 13 chapters, each of which addresses particular aspects of research writing and can be employed on its own, or in conjunction with other related chapters. I found that assigning chapters in order was generally perfectly appropriate, although there was no issue with assigning the odd chapter out of order - links to previous or later content are provided where appropriate, so students can easily navigate to other relevant sections of the text.

This text is very nicely organized. It moves from the beginning stages of the pre-writing process - choosing a topic and identifying appropriate guiding questions - through the research to the writing of the paper itself. I found that the organizational structure of the text very closely mirrored the structure I use myself in teaching research writing. As such, adopting this text for the course (and adapting the course to the text) was a delightfully straightforward exercise.

The interface of the text is excellent. It is very easy to navigate, very attractive, and all tools work as intended. Some features are only available to those with Ohio State University log-ins, which yields a handful of frustrating moments, but in general I didn't find this to be a significant issue.

The text is error free and written in a simple, accessible, and engaging style. It's not merely an easy read, but one that effectively models clear and concise academic prose for writing students.

To the extent such issues come into play, the text is inclusive and culturally sensitive. The content of the text is mostly neutral on such issues - they simply tend not to come into play - but I was pleased to find a comprehensive chapter on the ethical use of sources, which introduces an ethical dimension to the research and writing process that many students may not anticipate or otherwise be prepared to navigate.

Overall I was quite pleased with this text. In my online section of Research Paper Writing, I have assigned nine of the thirteen chapters, and am very pleased with the breadth of content covered thereby. With one exception, I've been able to assign those chapters in the order they appear in the book, which simplified the planning process for myself, and offers a structure to the course that will be more readily apparent to my students as well. Late chapters on Copyrights Basics and Fair Use struck me as unnecessary and a little off topic, but it is of course easy to simply not assign those chapters, and since this is not a print book they have no bearing on materials costs.

For an online class like the one I am currently teaching, this is an excellent primary text. Even in a face-to-face class it could prove to be a very useful supplemental text. Normally I resist the use of supplemental texts in face-to-face classes, but since this one is free it is ideal for that purpose: instructors and students can simply rely on it to whatever extent feels useful.

Reviewed by Jennifer Lantrip, Reference Librarian, Umpqua Community College on 2/8/17

This book is an excellent source for guiding undergraduate students through the research process, from understanding the purposes for doing research and writing a research question, to composing a thesis and contributing to a scholarly... read more

This book is an excellent source for guiding undergraduate students through the research process, from understanding the purposes for doing research and writing a research question, to composing a thesis and contributing to a scholarly conversation. Students learn where and how to find relevant sources and how to evaluate and use them ethically. The main text is supplemented with links to useful resources, videos, worksheets, examples, and exercises. These are all high quality sources, making this a comprehensive resource for teaching information literacy and the research process. While no index or glossary is provided, terms are well defined within the text. Links are provided to other sections within the text where terms are further discussed.

The content is error-free, unbiased, and accurate. Ideas and concepts are in accordance with the Association of College and Research Libraries’ “Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education,” with the exception of several small sections that could easily be clarified or adapted.

The opening section of Chapter 3 states that researchers should find sources in order to meet their information needs. However, it states that one information need is “to convince your audience that your answer is correct or, at least, the most reasonable answer.” This should be clarified for students so that they understand that they should start their research with an open mind as opposed to looking for sources which support their predetermined thesis.

The section “The Sources to Meet Needs” in Chapter 3 states that convincing one’s audience is an information need and that students should find sources based upon what their audience would be convinced by. Researchers should not choose their sources based upon what would convince their audience, but rather upon what sources best answer their research question. The most relevant and highest quality sources should not be omitted from the research process because the researcher does not think that his/her audience would be convinced by them. It is part of the researcher’s job to educate and convince his/her audience why the chosen sources and the research are relevant and of high quality.

Chapter 13 mentions briefly, “Putting your sources to work for you in these roles can help you write in a more powerful, persuasive way—to, in fact, win your argument.” It is very important for researchers to make convincing arguments through using quality sources, doing quality research, and presenting the information in an understandable way. Students should understand that the goal of scholarly conversation is not to “win” arguments, but rather to contribute to the world’s shared knowledge. While one argument may hold for a time, it will most likely be refined in some way by future researchers.

The main content of each chapter is current and does not contain terms that will soon be outdated. Specific examples and exercises are arranged separately from the main chapter text and can be updated independently. Some of the content discusses and links to Ohio State University Libraries databases which are unavailable to students at other institutions. While some of this knowledge is transferable, the specific information about these databases is unique to OSU Libraries. It would be useful if this information could be generalized in the main flow of the text so that it would be applicable for students at other institutions.

This text is very readable and easy to understand. Concepts are explained clearly. Exercises and examples are provided to help students grasp each new concept. It is written in a casual tone that appears to make an effort to put its readers at ease while giving solid information about how to complete research and writing assignments successfully.

The terminology used in this book and its framework are consistent. Each chapter, chapter sections, examples, and exercises are organized in a consistent manner throughout the book, making it easy to follow. Students can refer to specific sections of the book or read it straight through. Because links are provided to sections of the book where important terms are defined or discussed further, students can easily jump to relevant sections of the book.

The book is divided into chapters and subsections which lead the reader seamlessly and logically through the research process. The book could easily be assigned to be read linearly, but it would also work well for instructors to assign specific chapters as applicable to the course content.

This book takes students through the research process in logical steps, from choosing and refining research questions, to producing and sharing what they have learned. For students who are unfamiliar with the research process, it would be most useful to read the book linearly as each chapter prepares students for future chapters.

This text is easy to navigate in both the PDF and online versions. Images are clear. There are currently no broken links. The contents in the PDF version could be made clearer by making a greater distinction between the main chapter and chapter section titles.

The text has negligible grammatical errors.

This text is not culturally insensitive or offensive.

I highly recommend this book for teaching information literacy and the research process to undergraduates.

Reviewed by Patricia Akhimie, Asst. Prof of English, Rutgers University-Newark on 2/8/17

This textbook does not include an index or glossary but is full-text searchable, returning a an easy to read and access menu of clickable search results to take readers directly to the desired information. In addition, an expandable Table of... read more

This textbook does not include an index or glossary but is full-text searchable, returning a an easy to read and access menu of clickable search results to take readers directly to the desired information. In addition, an expandable Table of Contents for the book is available as a tab so that readers can view an overview of topics and jump to other sections at any time. This textbook offers a review of research methods that is certainly comprehensive. Instructors will likely find that individual sections, rather than the whole work, are most useful in planning lessons and constructing student assignments in research based and writing intensive courses at the undergraduate level.

This textbook is accurate in its representation of research methods and of the reasoning behind these approaches. In addition, details about citation styles, and search tools, seem error-free. Treatments of the more complex aspects of research, such as constructing an argument, are unbiased and thorough.

The textbook should be useful to students and instructors for some time. It should be noted, however, that research software and citation styles are updated, though infrequently. Thus, the video walkthroughs of particular databases, for example, may be obsolete or misleading after some time.

This textbook is remarkably lucid and approachable for undergraduate readers. Discussions of complex ideas are illustrated with useful graphics that readers and instructors will find particularly helpful. The video walkthroughs are perhaps the most attractive illustrations for instructors. These guides will be appealing and easy to use for students intimidated by large databases and their idiosyncrasies.

The textbook is immanently usable. It is consistent in its tone as well as in its use of terms.

It is clear that this textbook has been designed with modularity in mind. Individual sections will be more useful than others, depending on the type and level of the class. In addition, sections can easily be assigned at different points over the course of a semester. For example, sections might be assigned at intervals that reflect the stages of the development of undergraduate student’s independent research paper. The section on formulating research questions might appear early in the semester, the section on citation styles toward the end.

The organization of the book reflects the stages of research. This means that navigating the textbook will be intuitive.

Navigating this textbook will be intuitive, the Table of Contents tab makes moving between sections very easy.

Readers will find the textbook free of simple typos and errors.

Readers will find the textbook inclusive. Some readers may find that the attempt made in the textbook to speak to research in the humanities, social sciences and sciences has meant that discussions can be vague at times but this is to be expected in a textbook on this topic aimed at a broad range of readers and researchers.

Reviewed by Heather Jerónimo, Assistant Professor, University of Northern Iowa on 2/8/17

This text is a comprehensive review of the various types of sources one might need to complete a research project or paper. The book begins with a clear explanation of how to formulate a research question, while the majority of the chapters focus... read more

This text is a comprehensive review of the various types of sources one might need to complete a research project or paper. The book begins with a clear explanation of how to formulate a research question, while the majority of the chapters focus on finding and evaluating sources. The topics in this text are well-chosen and reflect several aspects of academic writing in which beginning researchers might struggle, such as how to do a precision search, understanding biased versus unbiased sources, and how to decide between quoting or paraphrasing. This book is written at a level that undergraduates should easily be able to comprehend, while the content of the chapters gets increasingly detailed and complex throughout the book. There is no index or glossary at the back of the book, but there is a very complete table of contents at the beginning of the text. Readers might find it useful if the chapter titles in the table of contents were in bold, as the detailed breakdown of sections—while helpful—can be overwhelming when one is looking for the main categories of the book.

The text provides helpful and unbiased examples for how to do research in many different areas. The practice activities relate quite well to the content of the chapters, although some links do not work. One of the strengths of the text is its applicability in a general sense to many different types of research.

In most chapters the information is kept very general, allowing the text to enjoy relative longevity, as the process of how to conduct academic research, cite quotes, etc., likely will not change drastically in the near future. For example, in the section on databases, different types of databases are explained, but the author does not reference many specific databases to which students may or may not have access. With an understanding of the concept, students then are equipped to find the databases that pertain to their field and that are offered by their institutions. There are several references to Ohio State throughout the text that will not be helpful to all readers, but they do not impede the reader’s comprehension of the text.

It is a very readable text, written at a level that makes it easily accessible to undergraduate students. The author has avoided jargon that would be confusing to the readers.

Even though the book gives examples of various types of research and sources, it maintains a high level of consistency throughout.

The chapters are clearly divided in a way that allows the reader the option to skip between chapters or to read the chapters in succession. This text could be put to a variety of uses within the classroom. As an instructor, one could use it as a primary text for a Research Methods or Composition class. One could also suggest that students read only certain sections in a class that was not primarily focused on the writing of research papers but that had a research component. This text is a valuable how-to manual that students can reference throughout their academic journey.

The text has a logical organization and flow. The book transitions from more basic information at the beginning to more specialized knowledge in later chapters, allowing students to gradually become more immersed in the topic. The structure permits students to read the text from cover to cover, or to read only the information and chapters about which they are curious. The activities serve as good checkpoints to assess students’ knowledge and break up longer readings.

The interface of the text is easy to manage and does not distract from the content. The placement and accessibility of the activities provide quick and easy checks to assess whether students have understood the concepts of the chapters. The images support the text and are linked closely to the message.

There are few grammatical errors in this text.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive. Like many textbooks, it could be more intentional in its inclusion of a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds, perhaps in the examples or practice activities.

Reviewed by Dr. William Vann, Information Studies Faculty, Minneapolis Community and Technical College on 12/5/16

While there is neither a back-of-the-book index nor a compiled glossary in this outstanding textbook (key terms are defined, however, throughout the chapters), one cannot deny its comprehensiveness. In fact, this text covers so much ground it is... read more

While there is neither a back-of-the-book index nor a compiled glossary in this outstanding textbook (key terms are defined, however, throughout the chapters), one cannot deny its comprehensiveness. In fact, this text covers so much ground it is unlikely to be used in its entirety for any single college course. Information literacy and research skills courses will find the first eight chapters to be a robust introduction to their subject matter, replete with interactive activities and auto-graded assessments. Composition courses engaged in research-based writing will likely work through the first eight chapters selectively, but then dwell on chapters nine and ten on argument formation and writing. Such courses may also benefit from the excellent chapter thirteen on Joseph Bizup's BEAM method of deploying research sources in scholarly communication. Chapters eleven and twelve on copyright and fair use, respectively, are likely to be used only by advanced undergraduates, faculty, and professional librarians, but they do serve as a handy reference nonetheless.

All of the chapters of this textbook contain authoritative and accurate information, in line with national information literacy standards and sound pedagogical methods for composition and critical thinking. The only section of the text I took issue with was the "Fact or Opinion" part of the second chapter, where the authors try to distinguish between fact, opinion, subjective information, and objective information. The authors' attempt results in claims like "the death penalty is wrong" being rendered as opinions, while claims like "women should stock up on calcium to ensure strong bones" are judged to be subjective information. Facts and objective information are superior, on this way of thinking, because they are the result of research studies, particularly empirical, quantitative ones.

I suspect that this way of drawing the distinction would do little to challenge the naive relativism most undergraduates bring to the classroom. (How many of us, when analyzing a text with beginning undergraduates, have had to entertain the question "Isn't that just the author's opinion though?") A better approach would be to talk about claims that are empirically justified (facts), claims that are justified, but not empirically (value judgments - "x is wrong", prescriptive claims - "women should do x"), and claims that are not adequately justified by any means (opinions). In this way, answering a research question like "Is the death penalty unjust?" is not merely an exercise in subjective opinion-making, but rather an exploration of reasoned argumentation, only some of which may be empirical or based on research studies.

The text is current and will likely be so for some time. Examples, activities, and tips are marked off from the main chapter prose, so will be easy to refresh when necessary.

There is no lack of technical terms in the world of information studies, but this textbook does a fine job of providing definitions where appropriate in each chapter. Concepts and methods are explained in context, and illustrative, easy-to-follow examples adorn each chapter.

The only area of the text that falls a little short on clarity is the interactive activities. These are usually multiple choice or matching questions, but some of the word choice in questions left this reader confused, and in some cases the instructions could have been more explicit.

Being authored by committee, we might expect this textbook to suffer in the consistency category. Yet it does not, thanks again to the fine editing job by Cheryl Lowry. Perhaps the book's provenance as a series of online tutorials put together by librarians and faculty at OSU is partly responsible for this.

As the authors suggest on the first page, the research process isn't always linear. So reading a text modeled on the research process oughtn't to be a straightforward chapter-by-chapter march either. Consequently, faculty and students can comfortably read this text selectively and skip chapters as needed. For the most holistic understanding of the research process, however, it would be sensible to work through at least chapters one through eight in their entirety.

I appreciate how the text's organization mirrors the research process itself. The first chapter takes on research questions, exactly where student researchers need to begin their projects. Subsequent chapters explore types of information sources, how to find and evaluate them, and finally how to deploy them in a well-argued scholarly product. The writing in each chapter is clear and crisp, with important concepts amplified by colorful visualizations.

As mentioned above, the chapters on copyright and fair use which occur near the end of the book feel like a logical interruption to the book's flow, and they might well fit more comfortably as appendices for occasional reference by advanced undergraduates, faculty, and librarians.

The "look and feel" of this textbook is clean and very intuitive to navigate through. The design strikes a pleasing balance between prose, graphics, and special formatting features like the explanatory, grey-background "TIPS" found in each chapter. Subheadings, bulleted and ordered lists, and judicious font choices make the text easy to read in all its online file formats.

One weakness of the interface is that several of the linked activities point to OSU Libraries' resources, thus requiring OSU authentication to be accessed. While it is understandable that the authors wanted to include their libraries' proprietary information sources in the activities - these are the sources their students and faculty will be using in actual practice, after all - this obviously makes this text less of an "open" textbook. Those outside of the OSU community who would like to adopt this textbook will therefore have to come up with their own replacement activities in such cases, or do without.

A few of the links in the text did lead me to a curious OSU server error message: "Error: Unknown export format", but I expect these links will be repaired as they are reported to the authors.

This textbook has clearly been edited with careful eyes by Cheryl Lowry, as grammatical errors are few to none. The grammatical hygiene of the text can probably also be attributed to its collective authorship - over a dozen librarians and faculty of the Ohio State University Libraries developed the content, which was born out of a series of online tutorials.

This textbook is culturally relevant in its use of examples and depictions of college students.

This text is a substantial contribution to the open textbook movement, and its quality easily meets or exceeds anything comparable in the commercial publishing arena. Highly recommended.

Reviewed by Kelly McKenna, Assistant Professor, Colorado State University on 12/5/16

The book provides a thorough introduction and how to regarding sources in academic writing. With the exception of the first chapter on writing research questions, the rest of the book is focused on sources, which is relevant for any type of... read more

The book provides a thorough introduction and how to regarding sources in academic writing. With the exception of the first chapter on writing research questions, the rest of the book is focused on sources, which is relevant for any type of academic writing not just research papers. The information is relevant across disciplines and readable to a wide audience. It is clearly written for and geared towards undergraduate students, particularly from Ohio State University. The index is detailed making it easy to locate specific information and includes hyperlinks for clear navigation. A slightly altered index format would make the chapter topics more readily available and accessed. All subjects and chapters are aligned rather than clearly indicating each of the chapters found within the text.

Content throughout the book is accurate and clearly written. There does not appear to bias in reading the material. The book includes numerous resources linked throughout the text, however some are no longer active resulting in error messages.

Due to the significant number of links throughout the book, it is likely updates will be necessary on a consistent basis. These links are extremely beneficial, so ensuring they are accurate and up to date is essential to the content of this book. Much of the book reads as a "how to" regarding sources, so although practices for scholarly writing will likely not become obsolete the sources and technology used to locate the sources will evolve.

The informal tone of the text is engaging and applicable for the intended audience. The writers are aware of their audience, avoiding technical jargon. Also, throughout the book they provide numerous examples, resources, activities, and tips to provide insight and relevancy to students.

The structure of the book is clear and well organized with each chapter providing scaffolding for the next. Although the text is internally consistent regarding terminology there are formatting differences between and within some chapters. Blue boxes throughout the text contain tips, examples, answers, etc. Organization, readability, and consistency could be improved if these were constant throughout the text similar to the presentation of activities in the text.

Sections of the book could be easily assigned and read in isolation. Subsections of material are clearly marked and chapters are presented in organized fashion with clear delineation between segments. The inclusion of numerous activities, examples, resources, and tips improve modularity.

The book is created as a tool for students completing academic writing and follows this course. Topics contained in the book are presented in a clear and logical structure. As mentioned above, with exception of the first chapter, the material is relevant to all undergraduate academic writing, not just research.

The layout and display work well as a PDF or electronic book. Numerous visuals are included throughout and are free of distortion or other distracting or confusing issues. As mentioned above, the index could be improved by clearly articulating the subheadings as within a chapter.

The book contains minimal to no grammatical errors.

The book is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

Some sections of the book are specific to Ohio State University potentially limiting its relevancy and audience in specific chapters or sections.

Table of Contents

• 1. Research Questions
• 2. Types of Sources
• 3. Sources and Information Needs
• 4. Precision Searching
• 5. Search Tools
• 6. Evaluating Sources
• 7. Ethical Use of Sources
• 8. How to Cite Sources
• 9. Making an Argument
• 10. Writing Tips
• 11. Copyright Basics
• 12. Fair Use
• 13. Roles of Research Sources

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Choosing & Using Sources presents a process for academic research and writing, from formulating your research question to selecting good information and using it effectively in your research assignments. Additional chapters cover understanding types of sources, searching for information, and avoiding plagiarism. Each chapter includes self-quizzes and activities to reinforce core concepts and help you apply them. There are also appendices for quick reference on search tools, copyright basics, and fair use.

What experts are saying about Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research :

“…a really fantastic contribution that offers a much needed broadened perspective on the process of research, and is packed to the brim with all kinds of resources and advice on how to effectively use them. The chapter on plagiarism is really excellent, and the chapter on searching for sources is utterly brilliant.”

– Chris Manion, PhD Coordinator of Writing Across the Curriculum at Ohio State University

“… an excellent resource for students, with engaging content, graphics, and examples—very compelling. The coverage of copyright is outstanding.”

– J. Craig Gibson Co-chair of ACRL's Task Force on Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education

About the Contributors

Cheryl Lowry , training and education specialist, Ohio State University Libraries.

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--> -->     --> Partnerships International development current work International Development Published reviews DFID Education Rigorous Literature Reviews Call for systematic reviews: advance notice Call for systematic reviews under SARH programme Health Systems Published Reviews CSRHRH Information Information resources relating to low-resource settings Domestic violence and abuse Education and social policy - protocols Publications Evidence Use International Public Policy Observatory Meta-analysis of Minority Populations NICE Research Support Unit LACES work in progress ESG working group in automation and technological advancement Work in progress Published reviews (by topic) Published reviews (by date) People & contact Social Care Automation for discovery of inequalities research AI and equity UCL Health of the Public Past projects Short courses Research Advisory Service Projects in research use Evidence Informed Policy and Practice Guidance on research impact and knowledge exchange Machine learning / automation / AI in systematic reviews Blog Archive Comments Policy Chronological list of systematic reviews Topic index of systematic reviews Methodological development NICE identifying data NICE scoping review UK What Works Centres: Aims, methods and contexts Evidence standards and evidence claims in web based research portals Links The EPPI Centre as a centre for research use When most people think about research use, they think about a linear process where research evidence informs decision-making directly. However, there is growing recognition that research use is a complex social process consisting of several multi-directional elements. A further insight is that research evidence can ‘inform’ policy and practice in many different ways. It can be used in everyday practice alongside other forms of knowledge, such as that from professional or personal experience. It can be used directly to inform policy and/or practice, where it is seen as having a direct, instrumental influence on behaviour change. In addition, it is understood that there are indirect, more conceptual or enlightened, uses of research in shaping knowledge, understanding and attitudes. There is also the crucial issue of how users of research are engaged in informing the setting of research agendas and approaches to research. Although not exhaustive, an overview of the different types of research use is shown below:   The EPPI Centre is interested in all types of research use. It is involved in the following areas: Access to syntheses of research evidence Reviews published by the EPPI Centre are freely available through our Evidence Library . When conducting or supporting the conduct of reviews, we invite outsiders to focus our efforts, in order to make the reviews relevant to those asking the review questions, those well placed to make use of the findings, and those whose lives may be affected by any subsequent decisions. Guidance on research use As part of our commitment to capacity building activities to help ensure that those who want and need research can find, understand and use it effectively, we have produced a number of introductory guides for postgraduate researchers and academic staff to assist understanding of terms such as ‘research impact’ and ‘knowledge exchange’ and the key issues within them. Supporting research use Building on our coordination of two European Commission funded projects in this area, our work includes supporting those who wish to use research by providing direct support services. We currently offer a Research Advisory Service (RSA) to enable users of research to consider whether research might be helpful to their decision making, and, if so, in what way and what type of research would meet that need. Studying research use A growing area of interest is the study of research use in policy and practice, including the processes, structures and systems (both formal and informal) that shape this use. We believe that research can assist decision making; in which case, how best to do this is itself an important research question. We need to be ‘evidence informed’ about how we use research evidence!  Our work in this area develops further the work undertaken in the European Commission funded ‘ Evidence Informed Policy and Practice in Education in Europe’ (EIPPEE) project.  :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: Have a language expert improve your writing Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free. Knowledge Base Methodology What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023 by Pritha Bhandari. A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects Your data collection methods The procedures you’ll follow to collect data Your data analysis methods A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data. Table of contents Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design. Introduction Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate. There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve. The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach. Qualitative approach Quantitative approach and describe frequencies, averages, and correlations about relationships between variables Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process. Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection. It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions. Practical and ethical considerations when designing research As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics . How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research? Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)? Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)? Will you need ethical approval ? At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible. Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services Discover proofreading & editing Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research. Types of quantitative research designs Quantitative designs can be split into four main types. Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them. Type of design Purpose and characteristics Experimental relationships effect on a Quasi-experimental ) Correlational Descriptive With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ). Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement. Types of qualitative research designs Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research. The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data. Type of design Purpose and characteristics Grounded theory Phenomenology Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects. In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from. Defining the population A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people. For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product? The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample. Sampling methods Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample. To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole. Probability sampling Non-probability sampling Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population. For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population. Case selection in qualitative research In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant. For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying. In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question . For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them. Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem. You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study. Survey methods Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews . Questionnaires Interviews ) Observation methods Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting. Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative. Quantitative observation Other methods of data collection There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic. Field Examples of data collection methods Media & communication Collecting a sample of texts (e.g., speeches, articles, or social media posts) for data on cultural norms and narratives Psychology Using technologies like neuroimaging, eye-tracking, or computer-based tasks to collect data on things like attention, emotional response, or reaction time Education Using tests or assignments to collect data on knowledge and skills Physical sciences Using scientific instruments to collect data on things like weight, blood pressure, or chemical composition If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used. Secondary data If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic. With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study. Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself. However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited. As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased. Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity. Operationalization Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators. If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count? If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered? You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established. Reliability and validity Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in. Reliability Validity ) ) For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant. If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance. Sampling procedures As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample. That means making decisions about things like: How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size? What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants? How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person? If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate? If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample? Data management It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data. Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly. Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ). On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data. Quantitative data analysis In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses. Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of: The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test) The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score) The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are) The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables. Using inferential statistics , you can: Make estimates about the population based on your sample data. Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables. Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups. Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data. Qualitative data analysis In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question. Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis . Approach Characteristics Thematic analysis Discourse analysis There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field. If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples. Simple random sampling Stratified sampling Cluster sampling Likert scales Reproducibility  Statistics Null hypothesis Statistical power Probability distribution Effect size Poisson distribution Research bias Optimism bias Cognitive bias Implicit bias Hawthorne effect Anchoring bias Explicit bias A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data. A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions. Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories: Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships . Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs. The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify: Your research questions and/or hypotheses Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative ) The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study ) Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations) Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management) Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis ) A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students. In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations. For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations. Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure. A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic. Cite this Scribbr article If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator. McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 10, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/research-design/ Is this article helpful? Shona McCombes Other students also liked, guide to experimental design | overview, steps, & examples, how to write a research proposal | examples & templates, ethical considerations in research | types & examples, what is your plagiarism score. An official website of the United States government The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. Publications Account settings Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now . Advanced Search Journal List J Adv Pract Oncol v.6(2); Mar-Apr 2015 Understanding and Evaluating Survey Research A variety of methodologic approaches exist for individuals interested in conducting research. Selection of a research approach depends on a number of factors, including the purpose of the research, the type of research questions to be answered, and the availability of resources. The purpose of this article is to describe survey research as one approach to the conduct of research so that the reader can critically evaluate the appropriateness of the conclusions from studies employing survey research. SURVEY RESEARCH Survey research is defined as "the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions" ( Check & Schutt, 2012, p. 160 ). This type of research allows for a variety of methods to recruit participants, collect data, and utilize various methods of instrumentation. Survey research can use quantitative research strategies (e.g., using questionnaires with numerically rated items), qualitative research strategies (e.g., using open-ended questions), or both strategies (i.e., mixed methods). As it is often used to describe and explore human behavior, surveys are therefore frequently used in social and psychological research ( Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). Information has been obtained from individuals and groups through the use of survey research for decades. It can range from asking a few targeted questions of individuals on a street corner to obtain information related to behaviors and preferences, to a more rigorous study using multiple valid and reliable instruments. Common examples of less rigorous surveys include marketing or political surveys of consumer patterns and public opinion polls. Survey research has historically included large population-based data collection. The primary purpose of this type of survey research was to obtain information describing characteristics of a large sample of individuals of interest relatively quickly. Large census surveys obtaining information reflecting demographic and personal characteristics and consumer feedback surveys are prime examples. These surveys were often provided through the mail and were intended to describe demographic characteristics of individuals or obtain opinions on which to base programs or products for a population or group. More recently, survey research has developed into a rigorous approach to research, with scientifically tested strategies detailing who to include (representative sample), what and how to distribute (survey method), and when to initiate the survey and follow up with nonresponders (reducing nonresponse error), in order to ensure a high-quality research process and outcome. Currently, the term "survey" can reflect a range of research aims, sampling and recruitment strategies, data collection instruments, and methods of survey administration. Given this range of options in the conduct of survey research, it is imperative for the consumer/reader of survey research to understand the potential for bias in survey research as well as the tested techniques for reducing bias, in order to draw appropriate conclusions about the information reported in this manner. Common types of error in research, along with the sources of error and strategies for reducing error as described throughout this article, are summarized in the Table . Sources of Error in Survey Research and Strategies to Reduce Error The goal of sampling strategies in survey research is to obtain a sufficient sample that is representative of the population of interest. It is often not feasible to collect data from an entire population of interest (e.g., all individuals with lung cancer); therefore, a subset of the population or sample is used to estimate the population responses (e.g., individuals with lung cancer currently receiving treatment). A large random sample increases the likelihood that the responses from the sample will accurately reflect the entire population. In order to accurately draw conclusions about the population, the sample must include individuals with characteristics similar to the population. It is therefore necessary to correctly identify the population of interest (e.g., individuals with lung cancer currently receiving treatment vs. all individuals with lung cancer). The sample will ideally include individuals who reflect the intended population in terms of all characteristics of the population (e.g., sex, socioeconomic characteristics, symptom experience) and contain a similar distribution of individuals with those characteristics. As discussed by Mady Stovall beginning on page 162, Fujimori et al. ( 2014 ), for example, were interested in the population of oncologists. The authors obtained a sample of oncologists from two hospitals in Japan. These participants may or may not have similar characteristics to all oncologists in Japan. Participant recruitment strategies can affect the adequacy and representativeness of the sample obtained. Using diverse recruitment strategies can help improve the size of the sample and help ensure adequate coverage of the intended population. For example, if a survey researcher intends to obtain a sample of individuals with breast cancer representative of all individuals with breast cancer in the United States, the researcher would want to use recruitment strategies that would recruit both women and men, individuals from rural and urban settings, individuals receiving and not receiving active treatment, and so on. Because of the difficulty in obtaining samples representative of a large population, researchers may focus the population of interest to a subset of individuals (e.g., women with stage III or IV breast cancer). Large census surveys require extremely large samples to adequately represent the characteristics of the population because they are intended to represent the entire population. DATA COLLECTION METHODS Survey research may use a variety of data collection methods with the most common being questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires may be self-administered or administered by a professional, may be administered individually or in a group, and typically include a series of items reflecting the research aims. Questionnaires may include demographic questions in addition to valid and reliable research instruments ( Costanzo, Stawski, Ryff, Coe, & Almeida, 2012 ; DuBenske et al., 2014 ; Ponto, Ellington, Mellon, & Beck, 2010 ). It is helpful to the reader when authors describe the contents of the survey questionnaire so that the reader can interpret and evaluate the potential for errors of validity (e.g., items or instruments that do not measure what they are intended to measure) and reliability (e.g., items or instruments that do not measure a construct consistently). Helpful examples of articles that describe the survey instruments exist in the literature ( Buerhaus et al., 2012 ). Questionnaires may be in paper form and mailed to participants, delivered in an electronic format via email or an Internet-based program such as SurveyMonkey, or a combination of both, giving the participant the option to choose which method is preferred ( Ponto et al., 2010 ). Using a combination of methods of survey administration can help to ensure better sample coverage (i.e., all individuals in the population having a chance of inclusion in the sample) therefore reducing coverage error ( Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2014 ; Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). For example, if a researcher were to only use an Internet-delivered questionnaire, individuals without access to a computer would be excluded from participation. Self-administered mailed, group, or Internet-based questionnaires are relatively low cost and practical for a large sample ( Check & Schutt, 2012 ). Dillman et al. ( 2014 ) have described and tested a tailored design method for survey research. Improving the visual appeal and graphics of surveys by using a font size appropriate for the respondents, ordering items logically without creating unintended response bias, and arranging items clearly on each page can increase the response rate to electronic questionnaires. Attending to these and other issues in electronic questionnaires can help reduce measurement error (i.e., lack of validity or reliability) and help ensure a better response rate. Conducting interviews is another approach to data collection used in survey research. Interviews may be conducted by phone, computer, or in person and have the benefit of visually identifying the nonverbal response(s) of the interviewee and subsequently being able to clarify the intended question. An interviewer can use probing comments to obtain more information about a question or topic and can request clarification of an unclear response ( Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). Interviews can be costly and time intensive, and therefore are relatively impractical for large samples. Some authors advocate for using mixed methods for survey research when no one method is adequate to address the planned research aims, to reduce the potential for measurement and non-response error, and to better tailor the study methods to the intended sample ( Dillman et al., 2014 ; Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). For example, a mixed methods survey research approach may begin with distributing a questionnaire and following up with telephone interviews to clarify unclear survey responses ( Singleton & Straits, 2009 ). Mixed methods might also be used when visual or auditory deficits preclude an individual from completing a questionnaire or participating in an interview. FUJIMORI ET AL.: SURVEY RESEARCH Fujimori et al. ( 2014 ) described the use of survey research in a study of the effect of communication skills training for oncologists on oncologist and patient outcomes (e.g., oncologist’s performance and confidence and patient’s distress, satisfaction, and trust). A sample of 30 oncologists from two hospitals was obtained and though the authors provided a power analysis concluding an adequate number of oncologist participants to detect differences between baseline and follow-up scores, the conclusions of the study may not be generalizable to a broader population of oncologists. Oncologists were randomized to either an intervention group (i.e., communication skills training) or a control group (i.e., no training). Fujimori et al. ( 2014 ) chose a quantitative approach to collect data from oncologist and patient participants regarding the study outcome variables. Self-report numeric ratings were used to measure oncologist confidence and patient distress, satisfaction, and trust. Oncologist confidence was measured using two instruments each using 10-point Likert rating scales. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) was used to measure patient distress and has demonstrated validity and reliability in a number of populations including individuals with cancer ( Bjelland, Dahl, Haug, & Neckelmann, 2002 ). Patient satisfaction and trust were measured using 0 to 10 numeric rating scales. Numeric observer ratings were used to measure oncologist performance of communication skills based on a videotaped interaction with a standardized patient. Participants completed the same questionnaires at baseline and follow-up. The authors clearly describe what data were collected from all participants. Providing additional information about the manner in which questionnaires were distributed (i.e., electronic, mail), the setting in which data were collected (e.g., home, clinic), and the design of the survey instruments (e.g., visual appeal, format, content, arrangement of items) would assist the reader in drawing conclusions about the potential for measurement and nonresponse error. The authors describe conducting a follow-up phone call or mail inquiry for nonresponders, using the Dillman et al. ( 2014 ) tailored design for survey research follow-up may have reduced nonresponse error. CONCLUSIONS Survey research is a useful and legitimate approach to research that has clear benefits in helping to describe and explore variables and constructs of interest. Survey research, like all research, has the potential for a variety of sources of error, but several strategies exist to reduce the potential for error. Advanced practitioners aware of the potential sources of error and strategies to improve survey research can better determine how and whether the conclusions from a survey research study apply to practice. The author has no potential conflicts of interest to disclose. Rethinking Research for Schools The Center for Research Use in Education is “Rethinking Research for Schools” (R4S) Our mission. is to expand the study of research use and produce a more holistic picture of what drives it, from the production of knowledge by researchers to the application of research in schools . We also seek to identify strategies that can make research more meaningful to classroom practice .   Why Research Use? At our center, we believe that education research is an important part of the educational process. We further believe that rigorous evidence, whether qualitative or quantitative, can foster better opportunities and outcomes for children by empowering educators, families, and communities with additional knowledge to inform better decision-making. For this reason, we seek to support strong ties between research and practice.    Use of Research Evidence Increase the impact of your research:, strategies for knowledge mobilization, for education researchers. Evidence about Evidence Use: New Findings from a National Survey of Teachers and Administrators which will highlight the barriers and facilitators to successful use of research evidence by educators.  CRUE researchers Henry May, Elizabeth Farley-Ripple, Samantha Shewchuk, and Kati Tilley present findings from surveying over 4000 educators nationwide on their use of research in decision-making. What is Knowledge Mobilization and What Does It Look Like? provides examples of tools and resources to support researchers in developing knowledge mobilizations strategies. Dr. Samantha Shewchuk and other acclaimed researchers share their knowledge mobilization strategies to increase the impact of their research. Actionability and Compatibility: Meeting the Research Needs of Educators focuses on better understanding educator perspectives on education research.  Hear from a panel of educators about their research use practices and their perspectives on how researchers can produce and communicate research that better meets their needs.  Leveraging the Intermediary Space: Connecting with Influential Organizations to Expand your Reach introduces representatives from key intermediary organizations to share their work linking research and practice and their need to collaborate with researchers.  Research for Practice: Virtual workshop series for educators. What is Research and Why Should I Be Using It?   with Dr. Elizabeth Farley-Ripple and Dr. Samantha Shewchuk Evaluating Research: A Cost-Utility Framework?   with Dr. Fiona Hollands, who discusses how to use the DecisionMaker®, an online tool to help educators make evidence-based decisions. Using Research-Informed Theories of Change in PLCs  with Dr. Chris Brown and Jane Flood Finding and Accessing Useful Research  with Erin Pollard of What Works Clearinghouse, Laura Mikowychok of Pennsylvania Evidence Resource Center, and  Medha Tare and Jessica Jackson of Digital Promise What is an RPP and How Do I Get One?   with Dan Gallagher discussing ways that schools and researchers can collaborate Using the Marshall Memo in Teams   with Kim Marshall, author of the Marshall Memo Taking Action as an Evidence-Informed Educator  with Dr. Elizabeth Farley-Ripple and Dr. Samantha Shewchuk To access the materials from this series or for more information, contact us at [email protected] . Survey of Evidence in Education If you would like to see the Survey of Evidence in Education for Schools and/or the Survey of Evidence in Education for Researchers, please make a request by emailing [email protected] . Learn more about our two-part research plan and our guiding framework. Learn more > Check out user guides, fact sheets, and more downloadable resources. Publications Delve into our team’s library of research on knowledge utilization. Get to know the R4S team and their powerful mix of expertise. We’re proud to have a strong foundation of institutional support behind our Center. Find insights from stakeholders about their work with evidence. Elizabeth J. Peterson Thinking Through Philosophy, Culture, and Psychology A Guide to Using the Internet for Research This is the second in a series on using the internet as a learning device. You can read part one here and part three here . We are looking at the best practices for using the Internet for research. Think of the internet as a library; it houses information on every topic you can imagine. It can point you to the best resources on Earth for information or link you to an authority on whichever topics capture your imagination. The Internet as a Library This massive library, a place where “reading materials are systematically arranged,” represents the whole of human knowledge, and sits accessible day and night. It can jump-start your research, narrow down sources, challenge your ideas on your topic and questions, and yield a ton of information very easily. In the words of Noam Chomsky, it’s invaluable as a research tool. However, because the Internet isn’t regulated, anyone can post anything, regardless of it’s accuracy. There is no committee tasked with making sure the internet is a safe and truthful place; we are truly still in the Wild West days of internet usage. You need to develop an incredibly skeptical approach to claims or ideas you discover, and a process to determine their accuracy, to see through bias – the author’s and your own – to separate fact from opinion. A few questions to start with: Is the owner or author’s name and contact information available? What kind of sources do they use, and are their conclusions reasonable based on the information presented? What sort of proof or references do their posts offer? Do they link to research or original documents, to news releases or other blogs? Do they link to other pages or offer proof at all? Then, a few tips to keep in mind while looking for information online: Be cautious and find out information about the author and their background or qualifications, as well as look at the information they link to or reference in their work. Verify their claims and sources back to the original source or document. You want to be confident in the reliability of a writer’s work. Don’t make the mistake of thinking breaking news is better. It takes time for details and facts to be validated and a clear picture to emerge. Often, informing yourself with older, established aspects of the subject will equip you to process the newer and more detailed articles and reading you do later. It’s worth looking at whether the website is updated and links are not broken, so you’re aware that facts or research found there may be out of date. However, not every website needs to be recently written to be accurate, especially when dealing with older, historical figures and facts. I’ve found hobby websites and posts on explorers and other figures through history which were written years ago to be full of facts and quotes which didn’t make it into the summaries on the person. They were simply written in 2012, instead of this year. However, do rigorously check the claims and facts on these older posts and sites. Keep in mind the role bias can play in writing and reading research. Bias leads us to only seek out news or facts which bolster our beliefs. When doing research, we want to find information which challenges those beliefs, to test them for accuracy. Most importantly, search with the end in mind. Consider the purpose of your research, as this will dictate the nature of sources to look for. If you’re doing research to come up with ideas, perhaps reading through blogs and websites will supply creative ideas. If you are writing for an academic audience, scholarly articles and peer-reviewed sources would provide a firm foundation for your paper. If you want to know the latest discoveries in current research on a specific topic, news releases and publications will likely point you in the right direction. Sources become more or less convincing depending on your goals. As I’ve shared in a couple editions of Five for Friday, Wikipedia has significantly improved its quality and the veracity of its sources since its beginnings in 2001. Once a joke among students, and blacklisted by instructors, the “free encyclopedia” has all but reinvented itself. Now, its summaries often inform the search results in the sidebars of internet browsers, and more likely than not, the top search results lead to Wikipedia. Where once Wikipedia pages were primarily opinion and often false or misleading, now entries are vetted and continually improved. Behind the webpages, a team of over 130,000 monthly editors work to clean up grammar, flag when a source needs to be cited, and discuss the intricacies of perceived bias and opinion. This increase in standards has positioned Wikipedia to become a serious rival to other databases, like the Encyclopedia Britannica website. Where the Encyclopedia Britannica articles have historically been written by celebrated academics or leaders in their fields, including Nobel laureates and former presidents, Wikipedia allows anyone to edit and contribute. This has been the source of much hesitancy, and in part, contributed to the ribbing visited upon anyone seriously citing Wikipedia in conversation. If anyone can write what they want, how can anything be trusted? The website requires rigorous validation and quality sources to be cited. There are discussions about bias, opinion, and diversity of experience. This also allows for more people, more debate, and ultimately more consensus on a topic. Britannica have paid their contributors, attracting talent, but therein limiting the number of participants and entries. Wikipedia, with their millions of registered volunteers, attracts writers and researchers because they care about the topic at hand. Perhaps this passion for knowledge is what has allowed Wikipedia to succeed. Wikipedia is also the more extensive source to start with when researching living people. Wikipedia has made this their calling card, over the years, with updates happening seemingly instantaneously. The Wikipedia article on Elon Musk, for instance, currently sits at over 11,000 words, while the Britannica listing is just over 900 words, though, to be fair they do link to related articles about his businesses. I’ve found the single most useful feature of Wikipedia to be the “Further Reading” section at the bottom of most entries. This lists books, videos, articles, and other vetted sources on the topic, often from which the entry has been compiled. After familiarizing myself with a summary of the person or idea, I click on this section. It is a wealth of information, listing out biographies, documents available online, and other quality source material which you can then explore and learn from yourself. For example, in my recent research on Marshall McLuhan, I discovered that his family maintains an extensive website with quotes, notable appearances or references to his work, and a full biography and bibliography. I was able to find several quality books and webpages from the single Further Reading one section on McLuhan’s Wikipedia page . Other Websites For any topic you can list, there is a blog about it. Blogs and other personal websites can also be very helpful, particularly when they list or link to their source material. Not all websites link to source material; many simply quote other stories without bothering to verify any further. When you are looking for accurate information, you’ll need to take on this work yourself, finding the actual book, study, or interview to which the article is referring. Don’t be content with the fact that everyone else seems to think it’s legitimate; do the work to know for certain that the information is valid. Encyclopedia Britainnica is a great resource for historical research in particular. The Encyclopedia website is written by professionals, which adds a bit of weight to their articles. Those former Presidents and globally respected leaders write extensively about their interest and sources, which provides the reader with a long list of references to explore. Scholarly sources are also a great place to gather information. Depending on your topic and the purpose of your research, you may want to focus primarily on these sources. Google Scholar searches through academic articles. The drawback here is that Google searches the entire document, rather than only the abstracts, which may or may not be available to you to view online. You may also need to pay to access the research returned in a search. Many of these studies are rather pricey, averaging $25 for a copy of a single study. If you are a student, most likely your institution has access to many of these databases already. Otherwise, I would recommend going through your public library, and asking which databases they have access to. In either case, ask your librarian and they’ll know how to help you gain access. Google Scholar allows you to refine with Boolean terms, or within a certain time range. This is great for when you are looking for particularly newer research. Their search results also show how many times a particular study has been referenced, and include links to other articles which cite the original study. This is a great place to discover studies on related topics. JSTOR is an academic library, which hosts books, journals, and other scholarly material. Their search system is more similar to a database search. You can use quotations to search for exact phrases, which will help return more exact results. For philosophy, and many psychology theories and figures, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is an amazing source of scholarly essays on nearly every topic imaginable. They have biographies, thorough examinations of theories and implications of philosophical ideas, and helpful summaries of every major school of philosophy and philosopher. Other resources to look at are the websites of the Library of Congress and National Archives. Many philosophers, authors, and historical figures have inspired dedicated websites, or even societies, which can also be rich sources of information. Online courses and podcasts are also great options for learning and finding interesting ideas; they are just more likely take more time. If you want to take a deep dive into a particular topic or find more sources, you could look into a course. I don’t usually use these sources, though, unless I have weeks to devote to the topic. A more recent discovery for me is lectures on YouTube. The platform has information on just about any topic you could imagine; there are lectures from JRR Tolkien on his Middle Earth epics; obscure history videos sharing lesser known details about historical events; you can hear lectures given by modern thinkers. There are also videos on art history, famous speeches, and any hobby you can think of. Rather than being a platform where we waste time, YouTube can actually be a great source of learning material and research. Recently, I’ve listened to several lectures and debates from Marshall McLuhan, a Canadian philosopher and professor in the 1960s and 70s. His work dealt with the impact of information and media on society and many of his lectures and interviews on YouTube, aren’t available in text or other mediums. When you look for a video, you’ll want to be specific in your search terms, and look for videos from universities, legitimate organizations, or the estate of author’s (as in the case of Tolkien or McLuhan, for example). You’ll probably also want find a video around twenty minutes; long enough to cover an overview, but not so short you don’t gain any context or information. A great video will also list sources or further study suggestions in the video description for you to continue your research. Discovering Books The internet is also unparalleled in discovering books, particularly those which are obscure or older. Books are amazing for research because of the amount of concentrated information they contain. The underrated index and reference sections are gold-mines for finding more books on your topic of interest. Read the index and reference sections of books you enjoyed, or on topics you want to explore more. Go through the bibliography and write down the titles of a couple books to look up and read. A habit I am working to develop is looking through the reference section of books as I finish them, and choosing at least one title to read next. Every book is written from an amalgamation of the author’s references and experiences, often in the form of dozens of books. While each and every title of inspiration may not be listed, the author will take great care to acknowledge the sources of the material which directly made it into the book. Every piece of writing is the result of cutting out and removing other ideas, references, and information – some of which will interest you. By continuing your reading in related books, you are building a more complete understanding of the topic at hand and how it fits into the larger context of society. So far as choosing books, I first tend to look at how many times a title is referenced. After getting titles from the bibliography of a book, I’ll usually do an internet search on the topic, then go to Wikipedia to see the references and further reading recommendations. If the same author’s name keeps popping up, that should indicate to you that their text is widely read and accepted. If Wikipedia lists a title, and that same title has been referenced in a book I’ve read, I usually go to Amazon to look it up. On Amazon, I first look for reported issues concerning the quality of certain editions. I’ll also look to see whether the work has mixed reviews. I’m not looking for high reviews so much as discussion or differing opinions. I tend to gravitate toward ideas with are older and maybe discussed a bit less, in order to widen my perspective on a topic. Reading through the reviews can usually give you an idea of whether their ideas are popular today or not. There are of course many out of print books and primary sources which exist only in analog form. The internet, particularly Google Scholar, can help to narrow down the topics and ideas presented in these older books. Round ups of books on specific topics can also be very helpful. Take a general topic, such as “media history” and do an internet search for the best books on media history. From there you can refine, perhaps you want to look closer at yellow journalism and muckraking in the early 20th century. Perhpas you are more interested in the digital revolution’s effects on journalism. Start out general, then use authors names and more specific topics to whittle down the results until you are left with a manageable number of sources. Get Specific The internet is the greatest resource mankind’s knowledge has produced. With a simple internet search, you have access to the wisdom of history – from Plato’s cave allegory, detailed and put into striking video – to NASA’s documentation of 1969’s mission to the moon and everything in between. There is no single resource as detailed, and capable of high quality as the internet. However, mixed in with these extraordinary creations and accounts of genius, there are a lot of duds; a lot of mediocre information exists. No matter how specific your topic is, there are thousands of resources available. The internet is simply too large to function well under general terms. In order to find high quality information, we need to get specific. The internet rewards specific interests. Putting It Together While all of these resources are great starting places, they are only that – a place to start. Developing a deep understanding of a subject requires effort and quality material. Note the ideas and titles in your commonplace book, along with your takeaways. When you come across a name or new term, do an internet search and go to the Wikipedia page. Read the summary at the top, and jump to what stands out or lines up with your original reason for the search. Allow your curiosity to lead you to surprising places, and always verify that your sources are reliable. Keep in mind the purpose of your research, whether for deeper personal understanding, an academic presentation, or to familiarize yourself with new ideas. Take your responsibility toward your education seriously, and keep asking questions. 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Turning Discovery Into Health The independent source for health policy research, polling, and news. A New Use for Wegovy Opens the Door to Medicare Coverage for Millions of People with Obesity Juliette Cubanski , Tricia Neuman , Nolan Sroczynski , and Anthony Damico Published: Apr 24, 2024 The FDA recently approved a new use for Wegovy (semaglutide), the blockbuster anti-obesity drug, to reduce the risk of heart attacks and stroke in people with cardiovascular disease who are overweight or obese. Wegovy belongs to a class of medications called GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1) agonists that were initially approved to treat type 2 diabetes but are also highly effective anti-obesity drugs. The new FDA-approved indication for Wegovy paves the way for Medicare coverage of this drug and broader coverage by other insurers. Medicare is currently prohibited by law from covering Wegovy and other medications when used specifically for obesity. However, semaglutide is covered by Medicare as a treatment for diabetes, branded as Ozempic. What does the FDA’s decision mean for Medicare coverage of Wegovy? The FDA’s decision opens the door to Medicare coverage of Wegovy, which was first approved by the FDA as an anti-obesity medication. Soon after the FDA’s approval of the new use for Wegovy, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) issued a memo indicating that Medicare Part D plans can add Wegovy to their formularies now that it has a medically-accepted indication that is not specifically excluded from Medicare coverage . Because Wegovy is a self-administered injectable drug, coverage will be provided under Part D , Medicare’s outpatient drug benefit offered by private stand-alone drug plans and Medicare Advantage plans, not Part B, which covers physician-administered drugs. How many Medicare beneficiaries could be eligible for coverage of Wegovy for its new use? Of these 3.6 million beneficiaries, 1.9 million also had diabetes (other than Type 1) and may already have been eligible for Medicare coverage of GLP-1s as diabetes treatments prior to the FDA’s approval of the new use of Wegovy. Not all people who are eligible based on the new indication are likely to take Wegovy, however. Some might be dissuaded by the potential side effects and adverse reactions . Out-of-pocket costs could also be a barrier. Based on the list price of $1,300 per month (not including rebates or other discounts negotiated by pharmacy benefit managers), Wegovy could be covered as a specialty tier drug, where Part D plans are allowed to charge coinsurance of 25% to 33%. Because coinsurance amounts are pegged to the list price, Medicare beneficiaries required to pay coinsurance could face monthly costs of $325 to $430 before they reach the new cap on annual out-of-pocket drug spending established by the Inflation Reduction Act – around $3,300 in 2024, based on brand drugs only, and $2,000 in 2025. But even paying $2,000 out of pocket would still be beyond the reach of many people with Medicare who live on modest incomes . Ultimately, how much beneficiaries pay out of pocket will depend on Part D plan coverage and formulary tier placement of Wegovy. Further, some people may have difficulty accessing Wegovy if Part D plans apply prior authorization and step therapy tools to manage costs and ensure appropriate use. These factors could have a dampening effect on use by Medicare beneficiaries, even among the target population. When will Medicare Part D plans begin covering Wegovy? Some Part D plans have already announced that they will begin covering Wegovy this year, although it is not yet clear how widespread coverage will be in 2024. While Medicare drug plans can add new drugs to their formularies during the year to reflect new approvals and expanded indications, plans are not required to cover every new drug that comes to market. Part D plans are required to cover at least two drugs in each category or class and all or substantially all drugs in six protected classes . However, facing a relatively high price and potentially large patient population for Wegovy, many Part D plans might be reluctant to expand coverage now, since they can’t adjust their premiums mid-year to account for higher costs associated with use of this drug. So, broader coverage in 2025 could be more likely. How might expanded coverage of Wegovy affect Medicare spending? The impact on Medicare spending associated with expanded coverage of Wegovy will depend in part on how many Part D plans add coverage for it and the extent to which plans apply restrictions on use like prior authorization; how many people who qualify to take the drug use it; and negotiated prices paid by plans. For example, if plans receive a 50% rebate on the list price of $1,300 per month (or $15,600 per year), that could mean annual net costs per person around $7,800. If 10% of the target population (an estimated 360,000 people) uses Wegovy for a full year, that would amount to additional net Medicare Part D spending of $2.8 billion for one year for this one drug alone. It’s possible that Medicare could select semaglutide for drug price negotiation as early as 2025, based on the earliest FDA approval of Ozempic in late 2017 . For small-molecule drugs like semaglutide, at least seven years must have passed from its FDA approval date to be eligible for selection, and for drugs with multiple FDA approvals, CMS will use the earliest approval date to make this determination. If semaglutide is selected for negotiation next year, a negotiated price would be available beginning in 2027. This could help to lower Medicare and out-of-pocket spending on semaglutide products, including Wegovy as well as Ozempic and Rybelsus, the oral formulation approved for type 2 diabetes. As of 2022, gross Medicare spending on Ozempic alone placed it sixth among the 10 top-selling drugs in Medicare Part D, with annual gross spending of $4.6 billion, based on KFF analysis . This estimate does not include rebates, which Medicare’s actuaries estimated to be  31.5% overall in 2022  but could be as high as  69%  for Ozempic, according to one estimate. What does this mean for Medicare coverage of anti-obesity drugs? For now, use of GLP-1s specifically for obesity continues to be excluded from Medicare coverage by law. But the FDA’s decision signals a turning point for broader Medicare coverage of GLP-1s since Wegovy can now be used to reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke by people with cardiovascular disease and obesity or overweight, and not only as an anti-obesity drug. And more pathways to Medicare coverage could open up if these drugs gain FDA approval for other uses . For example, Eli Lilly has just reported clinical trial results showing the benefits of its GLP-1, Zepbound (tirzepatide), in reducing the occurrence of sleep apnea events among people with obesity or overweight. Lilly reportedly plans to seek FDA approval for this use and if approved, the drug would be the first pharmaceutical treatment on the market for sleep apnea. If more Medicare beneficiaries with obesity or overweight gain access to GLP-1s based on other approved uses for these medications, that could reduce the cost of proposed legislation to lift the statutory prohibition on Medicare coverage of anti-obesity drugs. This is because the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), Congress’s official scorekeeper for proposed legislation, would incorporate the cost of coverage for these other uses into its baseline estimates for Medicare spending, which means that the incremental cost of changing the law to allow Medicare coverage for anti-obesity drugs would be lower than it would be without FDA’s approval of these drugs for other uses. Ultimately how widely Medicare Part D coverage of GLP-1s expands could have far-reaching effects on people with obesity and on Medicare spending. The estimate of Medicare beneficiaries who could be eligible for Medicare coverage of Wegovy for cardiovascular disease is based on individual-level claims and encounter data for beneficiaries in traditional Medicare and Medicare Advantage from the Chronic Conditions Data Warehouse (CCW). For beneficiaries in traditional Medicare, coding of individual-level fee-for-service (FFS) claims data matched the following chronic condition flags in the 2020 Medicare Beneficiary Summary File and segments: AMI_EVER, STROKE_TIA_EVER, and OBESITY. In addition to obesity, beneficiaries were coded with overweight if the following ICD-10 codes were identified in the claims with the same requirements as the CCW OBESITY flag: E66.3, Z68.25, Z68.26, Z68.27, Z68.28. Z68.29. To identify beneficiaries with peripheral arterial disease (PAD), we used ICD-9 diagnosis codes for PAD identified by either or in their analyses of peripheral arterial disease among Medicare beneficiaries; these studies are two of three references cited by CCW in the for peripheral vascular disease. We used the to convert the ICD-9 codes used in the Hirsch and Jaff studies to corresponding ICD-10 codes for our analysis based on the 2020 data (ICD-9 codes were replaced by ICD-10 codes in 2015). Beneficiaries who were coded with obesity or overweight and either a prior heart attack (AMI_EVER), prior stroke (STROKE_TIA_EVER), or peripheral arterial disease were coded as being eligible for the new use of Wegovy. Among this group, beneficiaries who were flagged as having diabetes (not including Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus) based on ICD-10 codes and using the same requirements as the CCW DIABETES flag, were identified as being eligible for GLP-1s approved for use as diabetes treatments. For Medicare Advantage enrollees, the ICD-10 codes for the CCW-developed algorithms for AMI, stroke, obesity, and diabetes (not including Type 1), plus ICD-10 codes specified above for overweight and peripheral arterial disease, were used to identify whether enrollees were eligible for the new use of Wegovy, based on 2020 encounter data and utilizing a within-year lookback period for all conditions (rather than ever, or in some cases a 2-year lookback that is used for traditional Medicare enrollees). Earlier years of data to enable a longer lookback period were not available for this analysis. Among the factors contributing to imprecision in the overall estimate: It is not possible to measure the degree of uncertainty associated with these different factors. Medicare Part D Chronic Diseases Heart Disease Medicare Advantage news release An Estimated 1 in 4 Medicare Beneficiaries With Obesity or Overweight Could Be Eligible for Medicare Coverage of Wegovy, an Anti-Obesity Drug, to Reduce Heart Risk Also of Interest An Overview of the Medicare Part D Prescription Drug Benefit FAQs about the Inflation Reduction Act’s Medicare Drug Price Negotiation Program What Could New Anti-Obesity Drugs Mean for Medicare? Medicare Spending on Ozempic and Other GLP-1s Is Skyrocketing Skip to main content Skip to FDA Search Skip to in this section menu Skip to footer links The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. U.S. Food and Drug Administration   Search   Menu Medical Devices Device Advice: Comprehensive Regulatory Assistance How to Study and Market Your Device Premarket Submissions: Selecting and Preparing the Correct Submission Investigational Device Exemption (IDE) FAQs about Investigational Device Exemption On this page:, adverse events, clinical investigator, confidentiality, early collaboration, fda contacts. Foreign Companies/Studies In Vitro Diagnostic Devices Institutional Review Board (IRB) New indication for marketed device, promotion of investigational devices, charging for investigational devices, medicare coverage, significant/nonsignificant risk, statistical guidance. Study Sites If my device has been approved and marketed in a foreign country and I am conducting clinical trials in the U.S., should I report an adverse event from the U.S. trial under the IDE program or the Medical Device Reporting (MDR) program? If your device is not marketed in the U.S., you should report an adverse event under the IDE program (812.150). The sponsor must report the results of an evaluation of an unanticipated adverse device effect to FDA and all reviewing IRBs and investigators within 10 working days after the sponsor first receives notice of the adverse effect. If the adverse event occurs in a foreign country in which it is legally marketed and not under the control of a clinical study, the adverse event should be discussed in the IDE progress report since the adverse information may affect risk analysis. The adverse event should not be reported under the MDR program because the MDR program only applies to medical devices that are legally marketed in the U.S. My device is marketed in the U.S. I am conducting a clinical trial in the U.S. for the same device, but for a different indication for use, should I report an adverse event under the IDE program or the MDR program? Adverse events that occur in subjects enrolled in the clinical trial should be reported under the IDE program (812.150). The sponsor must report the results of an evaluation of an unanticipated adverse device effect to FDA and all reviewing IRBs and investigators within 10 working days after the sponsor first receives notice of the adverse effect. Adverse events that occur in the U.S. but outside of the clinical trial would be reported through MDR; however, the adverse event should be discussed in the IDE progress report since the adverse information may affect risk analysis. Can a clinical investigator submit an IDE? Yes, a clinical investigator can sponsor his/her own study in which case they are considered a sponsor-investigator and must comply with all the responsibilities of both the sponsor and investigator. Does the clinical investigator need to sign form FDA-1572? No, this is a form used for drug studies. For device studies, the sponsor should develop an investigators agreement which includes the elements of 21 CFR 812.43(c). The sponsor should have all investigators sign the agreement prior to participating in the study. Are IDE records released to the public? FDA will not disclose the existence of an IDE unless: FDA determines that the information had been previously disclosed to the public; FDA approves a PMA for a device subject to an IDE; or a notice of completion of a Product Development Protocol (PDP) is in effect. If the existence of an IDE file has not been publicly disclosed or acknowledged, no data or information in the file are available for public disclosure except for information on banned devices and a report of an adverse effect to an individual on whom an investigational device has been used. [(§812.38)] Data or information contained in the file is not available for public disclosure before approval of an application for PMA or the effective date of a notice of completion of a PDP. Upon approval FDA will release a summary of the safety and effectiveness data on which the decision was based. Other disclosable information available after the device has been approved includes any protocol for a test or study, adverse reaction reports, and correspondence after confidential information has been deleted. Information available for public disclosure is outlined in 21 CFR 814 Premarket Approval of Medical Devices section §814.9. Can I receive advice from FDA on non-clinical testing and/or on my clinical protocol? Yes. There are numerous guidance documents available from FDA that provide recommendations on the non-clinical and clinical testing of specific device types. Additionally, FDA accepts Pre-Submissions, in which you can submit information to FDA and receive advice on topics such as a non-clinical testing plan and/or a draft clinical protocol. Additional information on Pre-Submissions may be found in the FDA guidance " Requests for Feedback and Meetings for Medical Device Submissions: The Q-Submission Program ." FDA's guidance represents FDA’s approach to this topic. Additionally, there are two types of early collaboration meetings available that are discussed in the FDA guidance " Early Collaboration Meetings Under the FDA Modernization Act (FDAMA) ". These formal interactions (Determination Meetings and Agreement Meetings) are specific to clinical investigations and do not address non-clinical testing or protocols. I have questions about the IDE regulations. Who should I contact at CDRH? For comprehensive regulatory education about medical devices and radiation-emitting products, please see Device Advice and CDRH Learn . Additionally, you may contact the Division of Industry and Consumer Education (DICE) to ask a question about a specific regulatory topic. See the DICE website for more information or contact DICE by email ( [email protected] ) or phone (1-800-638-2041 or 301-796-7100). For questions about devices regulated by the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER), contact CBER’s Office of Communication, Outreach and Development (OCOD) at either 1-800-835-4709 or [email protected] Foreign companies/studies Can a foreign company submit an IDE/Is a U.S. Sponsor required? A foreign company cannot sponsor an IDE; the company must have a U.S. agent who acts as the sponsor (see 21 CFR 812.18(a)). The U.S. agent must fulfill all the responsibilities of a sponsor identified in the IDE regulations. Do clinical studies have to be conducted in the U.S. / Will foreign studies be accepted? The FDA continues to promote global harmonization in many aspects of medical device development and regulation, including our commitment to recognize the value of and accept, where appropriate, data from multiple sources and countries. For more information regarding the FDA’s acceptance of clinical data refer to our page on Acceptance of Data from Clinical Investigations for Medical Devices and the FDA guidance entitled “ FDA Acceptance of Clinical Data to Support Medical Device Applications and Submissions Frequently Asked Questions .”. In Vitro Diagnostic devices Do the IDE regulations apply to in vitro diagnostic devices? Many in vitro diagnostic (IVD) devices are exempt from the IDE regulations. Under section §812.2(c) of the IDE regulations, studies exempt from the IDE regulations include diagnostic devices if the testing: is noninvasive; does not require an invasive sampling procedure that presents significant risk; does not by design or intention introduce energy into a subject; and is not used as a diagnostic procedure without confirmation by another medically established diagnostic product or procedure; IVD devices that are under study, including IVD devices that are exempt from the IDE regulations, must comply with labeling requirements under 21 CFR 809.10(c)(2). One of two statements is required, as applicable for each case: "For Research Use Only. Not for use in diagnostic procedures", or "For Investigational Use Only. The performance characteristics of this product have not been established." Studies which are exempt from the requirements of the IDE regulations are not exempt from the requirements for IRB review and approval under Part 56 and the requirements for obtaining informed consent under Part 50. In addition, IDE exempt studies are not exempt from §812.119, Disqualification of a clinical investigator. For guidance regarding the applicability of these regulations with respect to investigations being conducted under the provisions of §812.2(c), contact the reviewing IRB and/or the CDRH IDE Staff at 301-796-5640 or CBER’s OCOD at 301-827-1800 . Additional guidance for in vitro diagnostic device studies can be found in the guidance “ In Vitro Diagnostic (IVD) Device Studies – Frequently Asked Questions .” Where can I find an IRB? The institutions where the study is to be conducted should be contacted to determine if they have their own IRB. If the study is conducted at a site that does not have its own IRB, the investigators should be queried to see if they are affiliated with an institution with an IRB that would be willing to act as the IRB for that site in the study. There are also independent/contract IRBs that can be contracted to act as the IRB for a site. Additionally, an IRB reviewing and approving IDE investigations should comply with the requirement of 21 CFR Part 56. Additional information on IRBs is available in the FDA Information Sheets . Are there special labeling requirements for investigational devices? Yes. Under § 812.5 an investigational device or its immediate package must bear a label with the following information: the name and place of business of the manufacturer, packer, or distributor; the quantity of contents, if appropriate; and the statement, "CAUTION ­­ Investigational device. Limited by Federal (or United States) law to investigational use." The label must also describe all relevant contraindications, hazards, adverse effects, interfering substances or devices, warnings, and precautions. The labeling of an investigational device must not contain any false or misleading statements nor imply that the device is safe or effective for the purposes being investigated. If the investigational device is used solely for research on laboratory animals, the label must contain the following statement: "CAUTION ­­ Device for investigational use in laboratory animals or other tests that do not involve human subjects." The sponsor should provide detailed information on device labeling in the investigational plan. This information may vary depending on the device and the nature of the study. Product labeling should be sufficient to ensure stability of the test article for the duration of the study (storage requirements, calibration procedures), bear sufficient directions for proper administration, and detail procedures to follow in the event of patient injury. Do IDE regulations apply if the device has already been approved for a different indication for use? Yes, the clinical study of a new indication for an already marketed device falls under the IDE regulations. Can I advertise my investigational device? What other restrictions apply? Under § 812.7, a sponsor, investigator, or any person acting for or on behalf of a sponsor or investigator cannot: Promote or test market an investigational device, until after FDA has approved the device for commercial distribution. Commercialize an investigational device by charging the subjects or investigators a higher price than that necessary to recover costs of manufacture, research, development, and handling. Unduly prolong an investigation. If data developed by the investigation indicate that premarket approval (PMA) cannot be justified, the sponsor must promptly terminate the investigation. Represent that an investigational device is safe or effective. However, the sponsor may advertise for research subjects to solicit their participation in a study. Appropriate advertising methods include but are not necessarily limited to: newspaper, radio, TV, bulletin boards, posters, and flyers that are intended for prospective subjects. Advertisements should be reviewed and approved by the IRB to assure that they are not unduly coercive and do not promise a certainty of cure beyond what is outlined in the consent and the protocol. No claims should be made, either explicitly or implicitly, that the device is safe or effective for the purposes under investigation, or that the test article is known to be equivalent or superior to any other device. FDA considers direct advertising for study subjects to be the start of the informed consent and subject selection processes. Additional guidance is available in the following guidance documents: " IRB Information Sheets - Recruiting for Study Subjects ". Preparing Notices of Availability of Investigational Medical Devices and for Recruiting Study Subjects Can I charge for my investigational device? The Investigational Device Exemption (IDE) regulations allow sponsors to charge for an investigational device, however, the charge should not exceed an amount necessary to recover the costs of manufacture, research, development, and handling of the investigational device [ 21 CFR 812.7(b) ]. A sponsor must justify the proposed charges for the device in the IDE application, state the amount to be charged, and explain why the charge does not constitute commercialization [ 21 CFR 812.20(b)(8) ]. The FDA informed consent regulations require the consent document to include a description of any additional costs to the subject that may result from participation in the research [ 21 CFR 50.25(b)(3) ]. Will insurance cover treatment with an investigational device? For patients with Medicare, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) determines whether costs associated with routine care and the investigational devices are covered. To support this determination, the FDA categorizes IDE-approved devices based on whether available data demonstrates that initial questions of safety and effectiveness have been resolved. IDE-approved devices are assigned to one of two categories: Category A - Experimental Category B - Non Experimental/Investigational The FDA communicates the assigned category in a formal letter sent to the study sponsor. The sponsor submits the letter to CMS, which considers the FDA-assigned category and other factors to determine whether or not a device meets the requirements for Medicare coverage. The background and criteria associated with the FDA’s categorization process is described in the guidance document titled, “ FDA Categorization of IDE Devices to Assist CMS with Coverage Decisions .” For an IDE-approved device assigned to Category A, CMS may cover only routine care items and services, but not the cost of the device itself. For an IDE-approved device assigned to Category B, CMS may cover routine care items and services as well as the cost of the investigational device if specific criteria are met. If the criteria are not met for a Category B device, neither the device nor other elements of the study are covered by Medicare. To review the criteria and process for requesting coverage for an IDE, the IDE sponsor may refer to their website ( Medicare Coverage Related to Investigational Device Exemption (IDE) Studies ). Is my study significant risk or nonsignificant risk? FDA has a guidance document to help explain how to determine whether a device study is significant or nonsignificant risk. If the sponsor believes a device study is nonsignificant risk, the sponsor can provide information to the IRBs reviewing the study explaining why the device study does not pose a significant risk. If the IRBs agree and approve the study, the research may be conducted and FDA does not need to be notified. However, if an IRB determines the study is significant risk, the sponsor must notify FDA in writing (21 CFR 812.150(b)(9)). The study may not begin until FDA approves the study or provides a determination that the investigation is nonsignificant risk. How many subjects and sites do I have to include in the study? The number of subjects and sites to include in a study depends on the study objectives and the study design needed to result in a scientifically valid conclusion. It is recommended that more than one site be included to provide assurance that study results are reproducible. FDA has developed several guidance documents that address statistics for clinical trials. Statistical Guidance on Reporting Results from Studies Evaluating Diagnostic Tests Guidance for the Use of Bayesian Statistics in Medical Device Clinical Trials Study sites I am a patient. Where can I find a clinical study that will help me? There is no centralized repository for information on device clinical trials. Your health care provider may be able to provide information. Hospitals associated with medical schools are often involved in research and institutions that are participating in clinical trials will sometimes place advertisements in newspapers or magazines to recruit subjects. At this time, FDA does not maintain a clinical trials database for medical devices and our regulations do not permit us to release information regarding investigational devices. However, the National Institutes of Health maintains a clinical trials database for trials that they support. It may be accessed through the Internet at ClinicalTrials.gov . Please remember that participating in a clinical trial may or may not help you. The safety and effectiveness of an investigational device is not known. Can the sponsor get a waiver from certain IDE requirements? Under § 812.10, a sponsor may request FDA to waive any requirement of the IDE regulations. A waiver request with supporting documentation may be submitted as part of an application or separately. FDA may grant a waiver of any requirement that is not required by the FD&C Act and that is unnecessary to protect the human subject by providing a letter to the sponsor outlining the waiver. Common Comorbidities with Substance Use Disorders Research Report Part 1: The Connection Between Substance Use Disorders and Mental Illness Many individuals who develop substance use disorders (SUD) are also diagnosed with mental disorders, and vice versa. 2,3 Although there are fewer studies on comorbidity among youth, research suggests that adolescents with substance use disorders also have high rates of co-occurring mental illness; over 60 percent of adolescents in community-based substance use disorder treatment programs also meet diagnostic criteria for another mental illness. 4 Data show high rates of comorbid substance use disorders and anxiety disorders—which include generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. 5–9 Substance use disorders also co-occur at high prevalence with mental disorders, such as depression and bipolar disorder, 6,9–11 attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 12,13 psychotic illness, 14,15 borderline personality disorder, 16 and antisocial personality disorder. 10,15 Patients with schizophrenia have higher rates of alcohol, tobacco, and drug use disorders than the general population. 17 As Figure 1 shows, the overlap is especially pronounced with serious mental illness (SMI). Serious mental illness among people ages 18 and older is defined at the federal level as having, at any time during the past year, a diagnosable mental, behavior, or emotional disorder that causes serious functional impairment that substantially interferes with or limits one or more major life activities. Serious mental illnesses include major depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder, and other mental disorders that cause serious impairment. 18 Around 1 in 4 individuals with SMI also have an SUD. Data from a large nationally representative sample suggested that people with mental, personality, and substance use disorders were at increased risk for nonmedical use of prescription opioids. 19 Research indicates that 43 percent of people in SUD treatment for nonmedical use of prescription painkillers have a diagnosis or symptoms of mental health disorders, particularly depression and anxiety. 20 Youth—A Vulnerable Time Although drug use and addiction can happen at any time during a person’s life, drug use typically starts in adolescence, a period when the first signs of mental illness commonly appear. Comorbid disorders can also be seen among youth. 21–23 During the transition to young adulthood (age 18 to 25 years), people with comorbid disorders need coordinated support to help them navigate potentially stressful changes in education, work, and relationships. 21 Drug Use and Mental Health Disorders in Childhood or Adolescence Increases Later Risk The brain continues to develop through adolescence. Circuits that control executive functions such as decision making and impulse control are among the last to mature, which enhances vulnerability to drug use and the development of a substance use disorder. 3,24 Early drug use is a strong risk factor for later development of substance use disorders, 24 and it may also be a risk factor for the later occurrence of other mental illnesses. 25,26 However, this link is not necessarily causative and may reflect shared risk factors including genetic vulnerability, psychosocial experiences, and/or general environmental influences. For example, frequent marijuana use during adolescence can increase the risk of psychosis in adulthood, specifically in individuals who carry a particular gene variant. 26,27 It is also true that having a mental disorder in childhood or adolescence can increase the risk of later drug use and the development of a substance use disorder. Some research has found that mental illness may precede a substance use disorder, suggesting that better diagnosis of youth mental illness may help reduce comorbidity. One study found that adolescent-onset bipolar disorder confers a greater risk of subsequent substance use disorder compared to adult-onset bipolar disorder. 28 Similarly, other research suggests that youth develop internalizing disorders, including depression and anxiety, prior to developing substance use disorders. 29 Untreated Childhood ADHD Can Increase Later Risk of Drug Problems Numerous studies have documented an increased risk for substance use disorders in youth with untreated ADHD, 13,30 although some studies suggest that only those with comorbid conduct disorders have greater odds of later developing a substance use disorder. 30,31 Given this linkage, it is important to determine whether effective treatment of ADHD could prevent subsequent drug use and addiction. Treatment of childhood ADHD with stimulant medications such as methylphenidate or amphetamine reduces the impulsive behavior, fidgeting, and  inability to concentrate that characterize ADHD. 32 That risk presents a challenge when treating children with ADHD, since effective treatment often involves prescribing stimulant medications with addictive potential. Although the research is not yet conclusive, many studies suggest that ADHD medications do not increase the risk of substance use disorder among children with this condition. 31,32 It is important to combine stimulant medication for ADHD with appropriate family and child education and behavioral interventions, including counseling on the chronic nature of ADHD and risk for substance use disorder. 13,32 The state of AI in early 2024: Gen AI adoption spikes and starts to generate value If 2023 was the year the world discovered generative AI (gen AI) , 2024 is the year organizations truly began using—and deriving business value from—this new technology. In the latest McKinsey Global Survey  on AI, 65 percent of respondents report that their organizations are regularly using gen AI, nearly double the percentage from our previous survey just ten months ago. Respondents’ expectations for gen AI’s impact remain as high as they were last year , with three-quarters predicting that gen AI will lead to significant or disruptive change in their industries in the years ahead. About the authors This article is a collaborative effort by Alex Singla , Alexander Sukharevsky , Lareina Yee , and Michael Chui , with Bryce Hall , representing views from QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey, and McKinsey Digital. Organizations are already seeing material benefits from gen AI use, reporting both cost decreases and revenue jumps in the business units deploying the technology. The survey also provides insights into the kinds of risks presented by gen AI—most notably, inaccuracy—as well as the emerging practices of top performers to mitigate those challenges and capture value. AI adoption surges Interest in generative AI has also brightened the spotlight on a broader set of AI capabilities. For the past six years, AI adoption by respondents’ organizations has hovered at about 50 percent. This year, the survey finds that adoption has jumped to 72 percent (Exhibit 1). And the interest is truly global in scope. Our 2023 survey found that AI adoption did not reach 66 percent in any region; however, this year more than two-thirds of respondents in nearly every region say their organizations are using AI. 1 Organizations based in Central and South America are the exception, with 58 percent of respondents working for organizations based in Central and South America reporting AI adoption. Looking by industry, the biggest increase in adoption can be found in professional services. 2 Includes respondents working for organizations focused on human resources, legal services, management consulting, market research, R&D, tax preparation, and training. Also, responses suggest that companies are now using AI in more parts of the business. Half of respondents say their organizations have adopted AI in two or more business functions, up from less than a third of respondents in 2023 (Exhibit 2). Gen AI adoption is most common in the functions where it can create the most value Most respondents now report that their organizations—and they as individuals—are using gen AI. Sixty-five percent of respondents say their organizations are regularly using gen AI in at least one business function, up from one-third last year. The average organization using gen AI is doing so in two functions, most often in marketing and sales and in product and service development—two functions in which previous research  determined that gen AI adoption could generate the most value 3 “ The economic potential of generative AI: The next productivity frontier ,” McKinsey, June 14, 2023. —as well as in IT (Exhibit 3). The biggest increase from 2023 is found in marketing and sales, where reported adoption has more than doubled. Yet across functions, only two use cases, both within marketing and sales, are reported by 15 percent or more of respondents. Gen AI also is weaving its way into respondents’ personal lives. Compared with 2023, respondents are much more likely to be using gen AI at work and even more likely to be using gen AI both at work and in their personal lives (Exhibit 4). The survey finds upticks in gen AI use across all regions, with the largest increases in Asia–Pacific and Greater China. Respondents at the highest seniority levels, meanwhile, show larger jumps in the use of gen Al tools for work and outside of work compared with their midlevel-management peers. Looking at specific industries, respondents working in energy and materials and in professional services report the largest increase in gen AI use. Investments in gen AI and analytical AI are beginning to create value The latest survey also shows how different industries are budgeting for gen AI. Responses suggest that, in many industries, organizations are about equally as likely to be investing more than 5 percent of their digital budgets in gen AI as they are in nongenerative, analytical-AI solutions (Exhibit 5). Yet in most industries, larger shares of respondents report that their organizations spend more than 20 percent on analytical AI than on gen AI. Looking ahead, most respondents—67 percent—expect their organizations to invest more in AI over the next three years. Where are those investments paying off? For the first time, our latest survey explored the value created by gen AI use by business function. The function in which the largest share of respondents report seeing cost decreases is human resources. Respondents most commonly report meaningful revenue increases (of more than 5 percent) in supply chain and inventory management (Exhibit 6). For analytical AI, respondents most often report seeing cost benefits in service operations—in line with what we found last year —as well as meaningful revenue increases from AI use in marketing and sales. Inaccuracy: The most recognized and experienced risk of gen AI use As businesses begin to see the benefits of gen AI, they’re also recognizing the diverse risks associated with the technology. These can range from data management risks such as data privacy, bias, or intellectual property (IP) infringement to model management risks, which tend to focus on inaccurate output or lack of explainability. A third big risk category is security and incorrect use. Respondents to the latest survey are more likely than they were last year to say their organizations consider inaccuracy and IP infringement to be relevant to their use of gen AI, and about half continue to view cybersecurity as a risk (Exhibit 7). Conversely, respondents are less likely than they were last year to say their organizations consider workforce and labor displacement to be relevant risks and are not increasing efforts to mitigate them. In fact, inaccuracy— which can affect use cases across the gen AI value chain , ranging from customer journeys and summarization to coding and creative content—is the only risk that respondents are significantly more likely than last year to say their organizations are actively working to mitigate. Some organizations have already experienced negative consequences from the use of gen AI, with 44 percent of respondents saying their organizations have experienced at least one consequence (Exhibit 8). Respondents most often report inaccuracy as a risk that has affected their organizations, followed by cybersecurity and explainability. Our previous research has found that there are several elements of governance that can help in scaling gen AI use responsibly, yet few respondents report having these risk-related practices in place. 4 “ Implementing generative AI with speed and safety ,” McKinsey Quarterly , March 13, 2024. For example, just 18 percent say their organizations have an enterprise-wide council or board with the authority to make decisions involving responsible AI governance, and only one-third say gen AI risk awareness and risk mitigation controls are required skill sets for technical talent. Bringing gen AI capabilities to bear The latest survey also sought to understand how, and how quickly, organizations are deploying these new gen AI tools. We have found three archetypes for implementing gen AI solutions : takers use off-the-shelf, publicly available solutions; shapers customize those tools with proprietary data and systems; and makers develop their own foundation models from scratch. 5 “ Technology’s generational moment with generative AI: A CIO and CTO guide ,” McKinsey, July 11, 2023. Across most industries, the survey results suggest that organizations are finding off-the-shelf offerings applicable to their business needs—though many are pursuing opportunities to customize models or even develop their own (Exhibit 9). About half of reported gen AI uses within respondents’ business functions are utilizing off-the-shelf, publicly available models or tools, with little or no customization. Respondents in energy and materials, technology, and media and telecommunications are more likely to report significant customization or tuning of publicly available models or developing their own proprietary models to address specific business needs. Respondents most often report that their organizations required one to four months from the start of a project to put gen AI into production, though the time it takes varies by business function (Exhibit 10). It also depends upon the approach for acquiring those capabilities. Not surprisingly, reported uses of highly customized or proprietary models are 1.5 times more likely than off-the-shelf, publicly available models to take five months or more to implement. Gen AI high performers are excelling despite facing challenges Gen AI is a new technology, and organizations are still early in the journey of pursuing its opportunities and scaling it across functions. So it’s little surprise that only a small subset of respondents (46 out of 876) report that a meaningful share of their organizations’ EBIT can be attributed to their deployment of gen AI. Still, these gen AI leaders are worth examining closely. These, after all, are the early movers, who already attribute more than 10 percent of their organizations’ EBIT to their use of gen AI. Forty-two percent of these high performers say more than 20 percent of their EBIT is attributable to their use of nongenerative, analytical AI, and they span industries and regions—though most are at organizations with less than $1 billion in annual revenue. The AI-related practices at these organizations can offer guidance to those looking to create value from gen AI adoption at their own organizations. To start, gen AI high performers are using gen AI in more business functions—an average of three functions, while others average two. They, like other organizations, are most likely to use gen AI in marketing and sales and product or service development, but they’re much more likely than others to use gen AI solutions in risk, legal, and compliance; in strategy and corporate finance; and in supply chain and inventory management. They’re more than three times as likely as others to be using gen AI in activities ranging from processing of accounting documents and risk assessment to R&D testing and pricing and promotions. While, overall, about half of reported gen AI applications within business functions are utilizing publicly available models or tools, gen AI high performers are less likely to use those off-the-shelf options than to either implement significantly customized versions of those tools or to develop their own proprietary foundation models. What else are these high performers doing differently? For one thing, they are paying more attention to gen-AI-related risks. Perhaps because they are further along on their journeys, they are more likely than others to say their organizations have experienced every negative consequence from gen AI we asked about, from cybersecurity and personal privacy to explainability and IP infringement. Given that, they are more likely than others to report that their organizations consider those risks, as well as regulatory compliance, environmental impacts, and political stability, to be relevant to their gen AI use, and they say they take steps to mitigate more risks than others do. Gen AI high performers are also much more likely to say their organizations follow a set of risk-related best practices (Exhibit 11). For example, they are nearly twice as likely as others to involve the legal function and embed risk reviews early on in the development of gen AI solutions—that is, to “ shift left .” They’re also much more likely than others to employ a wide range of other best practices, from strategy-related practices to those related to scaling. In addition to experiencing the risks of gen AI adoption, high performers have encountered other challenges that can serve as warnings to others (Exhibit 12). Seventy percent say they have experienced difficulties with data, including defining processes for data governance, developing the ability to quickly integrate data into AI models, and an insufficient amount of training data, highlighting the essential role that data play in capturing value. High performers are also more likely than others to report experiencing challenges with their operating models, such as implementing agile ways of working and effective sprint performance management. About the research The online survey was in the field from February 22 to March 5, 2024, and garnered responses from 1,363 participants representing the full range of regions, industries, company sizes, functional specialties, and tenures. Of those respondents, 981 said their organizations had adopted AI in at least one business function, and 878 said their organizations were regularly using gen AI in at least one function. To adjust for differences in response rates, the data are weighted by the contribution of each respondent’s nation to global GDP. Alex Singla and Alexander Sukharevsky  are global coleaders of QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey, and senior partners in McKinsey’s Chicago and London offices, respectively; Lareina Yee  is a senior partner in the Bay Area office, where Michael Chui , a McKinsey Global Institute partner, is a partner; and Bryce Hall  is an associate partner in the Washington, DC, office. They wish to thank Kaitlin Noe, Larry Kanter, Mallika Jhamb, and Shinjini Srivastava for their contributions to this work. This article was edited by Heather Hanselman, a senior editor in McKinsey’s Atlanta office. Explore a career with us Related articles. Moving past gen AI’s honeymoon phase: Seven hard truths for CIOs to get from pilot to scale A generative AI reset: Rewiring to turn potential into value in 2024 Implementing generative AI with speed and safety How Technology Marketers Lead the Way in AI Experimentation [New Research] by Robert Rose | Published: February 21, 2024 | Trends and Research In a 20-minute demo, the sales engineer deftly clicked through the interface, configured a new image set, assigned the metadata, and set the rights-management properties. He logged in as different users to demonstrate a sophisticated workflow. Then, he published an asset and showed how the system presented it in channel-specific formats. No fewer than five times, he mentioned how “easy” it was for the business user to do what once only experts could do. I interrupted him. “Here’s the thing,” I said, “That isn’t easy for someone who doesn’t understand what you’re doing.”   As technology marketers, what you offer to the world seems simple from the outside. You provide a new tool to help your customers do something they couldn’t before acquiring it. But the more amazing the thing they can now do, the more skilled they usually need to be at using it. Said another way, a chainsaw in the hands of a lumberjack is a simple tool. But in my hands? It’s an ER trip waiting to happen.   Today, businesses work with some of the most sophisticated digital technology and interfaces in any industry. But that doesn’t make technology easier to market. It still involves a complex and difficult journey made more challenging by how quickly things change. We looked at the answers of 272 technology marketers who responded to CMI’s July 2023 survey to find out. (For more information about the full study of 1,084 marketers, see B2B Content Marketing Benchmarks, Budgets, and Trends .) One not-too-surprising finding: Tech content marketers outpace their marketing peers in AI use. More than two-thirds (79%) of tech marketers say they use AI compared with 72% of B2B marketers as a whole and only 58% of enterprise marketers.  What else to expect this year? Technology marketers say they’ll focus on these things in 2024: Increasing traffic, leads, and sales Nurturing existing clients Leveraging AI for content creation while ensuring authentic, quality content Enhancing content creation processes and systems Focusing on thought leadership Measuring content performance and value. The most common trends mentioned center around: AI proliferation in content creation — with concerns about authenticity and oversaturation. Authenticity and uniqueness — valuing human-created content that stands out from AI-generated noise, prioritizing quality over quantity. AI’s impact on SEO and content ranking — changes in SEO strategies to accommodate AI algorithms, emphasizing FAQ-oriented and thought leadership content. Increased personalization — hyper-personalized content delivery using AI-driven tools to cater to individual personas or niche segments. Let’s look deeper into the research sponsored by Foundry , an IDG, Inc. company . Table of contents Team structure Content marketing challenges Use of content types, distribution channels, and paid channels Social media use Content management and operations Measurement and goals Success factors Budgets and spending Action steps Methodology Ai use: 79% of technology marketers use generative tools. Many respondents predicted a rise in the use of AI to generate content . In fact, 79% say they already use AI for content-related tasks. How? More than half (53%) use generative AI to brainstorm new topics. Around half use the tools to write drafts (48%) and research headlines and keywords (43%). Fewer said they use AI to outline assignments (29%), proofread (19%), generate graphics/images (10%), and create videos (7%) and audio (7%). Most don’t pay for generative AI tools (yet) Of those using generative AI tools, 88% use free tools (e.g., ChatGPT ). Thirty-seven percent use tools embedded in their content creation/management systems, and 30% pay for tools like Writer and Jasper . AI in content remains mostly ungoverned When asked if their organizations have guidelines for using generative AI tools, 26% said yes, 63% said no, and 11% were unsure. “Change, especially rapid change, is not something most organizations adapt to quickly,” says Yadin Porter de León , global content marketing executive. “The capabilities of generative AI tools currently represent a form of rapid change that very few people can even grasp. So, it’s no surprise that very few companies have created or communicated guidelines for its use … because they don’t know how.”  Yadin says marketers should: Educate your team members so that they can be, at the very least, AI-literate. Establish an AI council to organize activities across the organization. Establish clear policies and guidelines for using AI. Identify use cases for the business and run pilot projects guided by those principles. How AI is changing SEO In the open-ended responses, several respondents predicted AI’s significant impact on SEO. How will AI’s integration in search engines shift technology marketers’ SEO strategy? Here’s what we found: Twenty-seven percent say they’re not doing any of those things, while 29% say they’re unsure, suggesting that many may be doing little to nothing. Now is the time to act. Ryan Brock , chief solution officer at DemandJump, says, “The days of building a keyword list based on metrics like search volume are over … at least for now. Until the dust settles and we collectively figure out what kinds of answers we trust Bard (now known as Gemini) with and which ones will always require a more thoughtful comparison of sources to find, we’ve got to use topical authority as the North Star for our tactical content decisions.” Ryan thinks of it this way: “I’m still going to be working to answer basic questions as part of my pillar content strategy, but I also acknowledge that answering them works more to build a foundation of topical authority than to drive immediate, convertible traffic. “Those traffic and conversion-driving queries will become harder to come by than they’ve ever been, so when I find one I need to rank well for, I should be able to do so quickly and efficiently. Competing on a query-by-query level just doesn’t work when every business in a sector sees the same dwindling number of targets. “Building interconnected, ‘choose-your-own-adventure’ style networks of pillar content is the best way to lay the proper topical authority foundation so you can rank fast when you find a term that’s ripe for true thought leadership.” Team structure: How does the work get done? Generative AI isn’t the only issue affecting content marketing these days. We also asked marketers about how they organize their teams . Among larger technology companies (100-plus employees), more than half (54%) say content requests go through a centralized content team. Others say each department/brand produces its own content (22%), and the departments/brand/products share responsibility (20%). Three percent indicate other, while 1% say they outsource it. Content strategies integrate with marketing, comms, and sales Seventy percent say their organizations integrate content strategy into the overall marketing sales/communication/strategy, and 2% say it’s integrated into another strategy. Fourteen percent say content in marketing is a stand-alone strategy, and 4% say it’s a stand-alone strategy for all content produced by the company. Eight percent say they don’t have a content strategy. The remaining 2% say other or are unsure. Employee churn means new teammates; content teams experience enlightened leadership Thirty-three percent of technology marketers say team members resigned in the last year, 28% say team members were laid off, and about half (51%) say they had new team members acclimating to their ways of working. While team members come and go, the understanding of content doesn’t. Fifty percent strongly agree, and 30% somewhat agree that the leader to whom their content team reports understands the work they do. Only 14% disagree. The remaining 6% neither agree nor disagree. And remote work seems well-tolerated: Only 21% say collaboration is challenging due to remote or hybrid work. Content marketing challenges: The right content, lack of resources Most technology marketers (61%) cite creating the right content for their audience as a challenge. Other content creation challenges include differentiating content (58%), creating content consistently (49%), creating quality content (43%), optimizing for SEO (43%), creating enough content to keep up with internal demand (40%), and creating content that requires technical skills (36%). One in four (25%) say they are challenged to create enough content to keep up with external demand. Other hurdles The most frequently cited non-creation challenge, by far, is a lack of resources (66%), followed by aligning content efforts across sales and marketing (52%) and aligning content with the buyer’s journey (52%). Forty-five percent say they have difficulty accessing subject matter experts, and 44% say they are challenged with workflow issues/content approval processes. Only 28% cite keeping up with new technologies as a challenge, 27% pick a lack of strategy, 12% say keeping up with privacy rules, and 13% point to tech integration issues. Use of content types, distribution channels, and paid channels: Staying at the top We asked technology marketers about the types of content they produce, their distribution channels , and paid content promotion. We also asked which formats and channels produce the best results. Popular content types and formats As in the previous year, the three most popular content types are short articles/posts (96%), case studies/customer stories (93%), and videos (90%). Eighty-two percent use thought leadership e-books/white papers, 81% use long articles/posts, 63% use data visualizations/visual content, 62% use product/technical data sheets, and 56% use research reports. Less than half of technology marketers use brochures (45%), interactive content (35%), livestreaming content (34%), and audio content (31%). Effective content types and formats Which formats are most effective? Fifty-nine percent say case studies/customer stories deliver some of the best results. Almost as many (57%) name thought leadership e-books/white papers. Slightly more than half say research reports (53%) and videos (51%). Popular content distribution channels Regarding the channels used to distribute content, 90% use blogs and social media platforms (organic), followed by webinars (79%), email newsletters (78%), and email (74%). Sixty-four percent use in-person events, and 58% use digital events. Less frequently used channels include: Microsites (40%) Podcasts (30%) Hybrid events (24%) Branded online communities (23%) Digital magazines (21%) Direct mail (19%) Online learning platform (18%) Print magazines (12%) Mobile apps (7%) Separate content brands (3%). Effective content distribution channels Which channels perform the best? Most surveyed tech marketers point to webinars (56%) and in-person events (53%). Forty-four percent say blogs, 43% pick email, and 37% say social media platforms (organic). Popular paid content channels When technology marketers pay to promote content , which channels do they invest in? Ninety-three percent use paid content distribution channels. Of those, 77% use social media advertising/promoted posts, 71% use sponsorships, 70% use search engine marketing/pay-per-click, and 66% use digital display advertising. Around one in three use native advertising (38%) and partner emails (33%). Far fewer invest in print display advertising (11%). Effective paid content channels Search engine marketing and pay-per-click produce good results, according to 61% of tech marketers. Fifty-three percent say sponsorships deliver good results, followed by social media advertising/promoted posts (43%) and partner emails (34%). Social media use: One platform rises way above When asked which organic social media platforms deliver the best value for their organization, technology marketers (92%) pick LinkedIn. Twenty-seven percent cite YouTube as a top performer, 18% say Facebook, and 10% pick Instagram and Twitter. Only 1% cite TikTok. It makes sense that 73% say they increased their use of LinkedIn over the last 12 months, while only 36% boosted their YouTube presence, 19% increased Instagram use, 15% grew their Facebook presence, 12% increased X use, and 9% increased TikTok use. Which platforms are marketers giving up? Did you guess X? You’re right — 34% of marketers say they decreased their X use. Twenty-four percent reduced their use of Facebook, with 14% decreasing on Instagram and YouTube, 3% pulling back on TikTok, and only 2% decreasing their use of LinkedIn. Interestingly, we saw a significant rise in technology marketers who use TikTok: 17% say they use the platform, which is triple from last year (5%). Content management and operations: The right tech isn’t a guarantee To explore how teams manage content, we asked tech marketers about their technology use and investments and the challenges they face scaling their content . Content management technology Among the technologies used to manage content, technology marketers point to: Analytics tools (82%) Social media publishing/analytics (73%) Email marketing software (71%) Content creation/calendaring/collaboration/workflow (66%) Content management system (58%) Customer relationship management system (57%) Marketing automation system (38%) Sales enablement platform (30%) Digital asset management (DAM) system (24%) But having technology doesn’t mean it’s the right technology (or its capabilities are used). Only 29% say they have the right tech to manage content across the organization. Thirty-two percent say they have the technology but aren’t using its potential, and 28% say they haven’t acquired the right technology. Eleven percent are unsure. Even so, 40% of technology marketers say their organization is likely to invest in new technology in 2024; however, another 39% say it’s unlikely. Twenty-one percent say their organization is neither likely nor unlikely to invest. Scaling content production This year, we introduced a new question to understand what challenges technology marketers face while scaling content production . Almost half (49%) say it’s a lack of communication across silos, and the same number say it’s not enough content repurposing. Thirty-one percent say they have no structured content production process, and 29% say they lack an editorial calendar with clear deadlines. Six percent say scaling is not a current focus. Among the other hurdles are difficulty locating digital content assets (19%), translation/localization issues (17%), technology issues (15%), and no style guide (13%). Measurement and goals: Generating sales and revenue rises Almost half (43%) of technology marketers agree their organization measures content performance effectively — but the same amount (43%) disagree. Thirteen percent neither agree nor disagree. Only 1% say they don’t measure content performance. The four most frequently used metrics to assess content performance are conversions (77%), website traffic (73%), email engagement (72%), and website engagement (70%). Sixty percent say they rely on quality of leads, 58% use social media analytics, 55% rely on search ratings, and 52% say quantity of leads. Less than half use tracking the cost to acquire a lead, subscriber, and/or customer (32%) and email subscribers (31%). The most common challenge measuring content performance experienced by technology marketers is integrating/correlating data across multiple platforms (88%), followed by extracting insights from data (82%), tying performance data to goals (81%), organizational goal setting (73%), and lack of training (71%). Among the goals assisted by content marketing, 82% of technology marketers say it created brand awareness in the last 12 months. Eighty percent say it helped generate demands/leads, 71% say it helped nurture subscribers/audiences/leads, and 61% say it helped generate sales revenue (up from 48% the previous year). Less than half say it helped grow loyalty with existing clients/customers (46%), grow a subscribed audience (42%), and reduce customer support costs (14%). Success factors: Know your audience To separate top performers from the pack, we asked technology marketers to assess the success of their content marketing. Twenty-seven percent rate the organization’s success as extremely or very successful. Another 58% report moderate success, and 15% feel minimally or not at all successful. The most common factor for successful technology marketers is knowing their audience (81%). That success factor makes sense because “creating the right content for our audience” is the top challenge. Top-performing content marketers prioritize knowing their audiences to create the right content for those audiences. Top performers also set goals that align with their organization’s objectives (74%), have a documented strategy (67%), and collaborate with other teams (64%). Thought leadership (62%) and effectively measuring and demonstrating content performance (59%) also help top technology performers reach content marketing success. Several other dimensions identify the differentiators of top technology performers: 75% of the most successful say they’re backed by leaders who understand their work. In contrast, just 50% of all tech respondents feel their leaders understand. They’re less likely to report a lack of resources (57% of top performers say they lack resources vs. 66% of all tech content marketers). They’re more likely to have the right content management technologies. About half (49%) of the top performers say they have the technology they need, compared with 29% of all tech marketers. Nearly three-fourths (74%) of top performers say they measure content performance effectively, compared with 43% of the whole set of tech marketers. They are more likely to use content marketing successfully to create brand awareness (96% vs. 82%), nurture subscribers/audiences/leads (82% vs. 71%), generate sales/revenue (81% vs. 61%), grow loyalty with existing customers/clients (64% vs. 46%), and grow a subscribed audience (57% vs. 42%). Little difference exists between top performers and all respondents when it comes to the adoption of generative AI tools and related guidelines. Budgets and spending: Holding steady To explore budget plans for 2024, we asked technology marketers about their knowledge of their organization’s budget/budgeting process for content marketing. Of the 53% who have knowledge of their budgets, we followed up to assess the specifics. Content marketing as a percentage of total marketing spend Here’s what they say about the total marketing budget (excluding salaries): 18% say content marketing consumes at least one-fourth of the total marketing budget. More than one in three (37%) indicate that 10% to 24% of the marketing budget goes to content marketing. Just under half (45%) say less than 10% of the marketing budget goes to content marketing. Content marketing budget outlook for 2024 Forty-eight percent think their content marketing budget will increase this year compared with 2023, whereas 39% think it will stay the same. Only 7% think it will decrease, and 6% are unsure. Where will the budget go? Next, we asked where respondents plan to increase their spending. Sixty-nine percent of technology marketers say they would increase their investment in video, followed by in-person events (60%), thought leadership content (54%), webinars (41%), paid advertising (40%), online community building (27%), audio content (22%), digital events (21%), and hybrid events (11%). Of course, content doesn’t exist in a vacuum. Kami Buckner , HPC solutions marketing manager at Dell Technologies, notes that content must be integrated into a larger plan and support the customer journey by driving them to other content. “Videos, in-person events, and thought leadership content may rank similarly in this survey because they are often developed to complement each other,” she says. “Thought leadership content is an important component of any event plan, and videos are an effective peripheral asset that can engage an audience to generate interest in downloading long-form thought leadership pieces, generate excitement before and after events, and be displayed at the event.” For example, Dell developed a 15-second video to use on social media to drive viewers to a landing page, which hosted the 60-second sizzle reel to promote an upcoming event. We also: Launched thought leadership content around the video and event. Created and displayed another video at the event highlighting key points in the new thought leadership content that could be shared post-event. Developed a virtual reality experience for the event that built credibility for Dell Technologies, both hosting and serving thought leadership content. Action steps: What tech marketers should do These results from tech marketers reflect what we find across other B2B organizations. You should know your audience, lean into brand awareness, integrate data across the buyer’s journey, and invest more in thought leadership, events, and video. But what should you prioritize as a technology marketer? Given where you are in 2024 and your relationship with modern technology, put these three things at the top of your list: Lean into the brand and develop relationships early and often . Marketing pundits laugh at the idea of technology companies developing “relationships” with audiences and buyers. They cynically surmise, “Nobody wants a relationship with their hydraulic actuator provider.” That may be true, but it doesn’t relieve you from trying. Today’s world makes it more imperative that technology companies differentiate, not just by providing the fastest, cheapest, easiest, or most scalable product on the market. You must also differentiate by helping customers be the best versions of themselves. As I used to say to my marketing team, “Our competitive advantage isn’t that we help people become better digital asset managers; it’s that we help digital asset managers become better people.” That leads to the second action. Grow owned media’s importance in your products and services. A differentiating strategy provides a reason for people to engage with you outside the small portion of their lives that goes into their buying journey. Owned media experiences create an ecosystem of value for your customers in the pre- and post-buying journey, foster a competitive advantage, and celebrate the complexity your products inherently induce. Yes, your tools are complex and sophisticated and do amazing things. Let you be the source of how to do those things better than anyone else. Connect first-party data. How you connect your buyers’ digital interactions will be the fabric that develops better relationships with your customers. If you understand their true intentions, needs, and wants, and more importantly, how they evolve, you can optimize every experience that leads and follows a sale. Of course, you likely must make big changes to implement any one or all three of these action steps. An audit, where you examine all your customers’ content-driven experiences along their journey, can help you develop a plan for which ones to keep, which should change, and which should be sunset for good. Creating this ecosystem gives you the power to transform what is seen as overly complex and hard into a worthwhile evolution and innovation. Your technology is not there to make the customer’s journey “easy” — it’s there to make it “worth it!”  For the 14 th annual content marketing survey, CMI and MarketingProfs surveyed 1,080 recipients around the globe in July 2023, representing a range of industries, functional areas, and company sizes. The survey was emailed to a sample of marketers using lists from CMI and MarketingProfs. This article presents the findings from the 272 respondents, mostly from North America, who indicated their organization is a technology company and that they are either content marketers or work in marketing, communications, or other roles involving content. Of this group, 84% represent B2B companies, while 13% work for B2B+B2C brands, and 3% say they work for a tech company of a different nature. Thirty-six percent work at businesses with more than 1,000 employees, 36% work at places with between 100 and 999 employees, 23% work for brands with 10 to 99 employees, and 5% work at tech companies with between one and nine employees. Thanks to the survey participants who made this research possible and everyone who helped disseminate these findings throughout the content marketing industry. Interested in sharing the key takeaways from this report with your team or associates? You can download a summary here (registration required). Get the latest Content Marketing Institute research reports while they're hot – subscribe to the daily or weekly newsletter. Cover image by Joseph Kalinowski/Content Marketing Institute About Content Marketing Institute Content Marketing Institute (CMI) exists to do one thing: advance the practice of content marketing through online education and in-person and digital events. We create and curate content experiences that teach marketers and creators from enterprise brands, small businesses, and agencies how to attract and retain customers through compelling, multichannel storytelling. Global brands turn to CMI for strategic consultation, training, and research. Organizations from around the world send teams to Content Marketing World, the largest content marketing-focused event, the Marketing Analytics & Data Science (MADS) conference, and CMI virtual events, including ContentTECH Summit. Our community of 215,000+ content marketers shares camaraderie and conversation. CMI is organized by Informa Connect. To learn more, visit www.contentmarketinginstitute.com . About Foundry, an IDG Inc. company Foundry helps companies bring their visions to reality through a combination of media, marketing technologies and proprietary data on a global scale. Our intent data and martech platforms are powered by data from an owned and operated ecosystem of global editorial brands, awards, and events, all engineered and integrated to drive marketing campaigns for technology companies. Foundry is dedicated to generating and innovating with data, driving demand for technology marketers with 38 offices in markets around the globe. Foundry is a wholly owned subsidiary of International Data Group, Inc. ( IDG ), the world’s leading tech media, data, research and marketing services company. To learn more about Foundry, visit www.foundryco.com . Robert Rose 185 COMMENTS Laboratory Products for "Research Use Only" (RUO) Manufactures use the "Research Use Only" (RUO) label to declare that their products should not be used in diagnostic procedures. This enables them to avoid the time-consuming and costly documentation required for conformity-assessed in vitro diagnostic medical devices (CE-IVDs). Nevertheless, some medical laboratories, for example, still ... Guidance for Industry Please use the document number 1723 to identify the guidance you are requesting. Or, contact: Office of Communication, Outreach and Development, HFM-40 Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research ... In Vitro Diagnostic Use (IVD) versus Research Use Only (RUO) in the Clinical laboratory professionals may not pause to remember that these labels stand for In Vitro Diagnostics (IVD) and Research Use Only (RUO). Even clinical laboratory professionals who are familiar with these regulatory designations for assays or instruments sometimes do not realize the full significance that these labels have for certain ... An Introduction to Research Use Only (RUO) Research Use Only products are at the lowest level of regulation, and In Vitro Diagnostic Medical Devices are at the highest level. Occasionally in the US, products will be labeled as "RUO IVD," which means an in vitro device that is intended for research use only. PDF College of American Pathologists College of American Pathologists 1350 I Street, NW, Suite 590 Washington, DC 20005 (202) 354-7100 (202) 354-7155 - fax (800) 392-9994 www.cap.org. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released a draft guidance entitled, "Commercially Distributed in Vitro Diagnostic Products Labeled for Research Use Only or Investigational Use Only ... Distribution of In Vitro Diagnostic Products Labeled for Research Use Provides the current thinking of CDRH and CBER on when IVD products are properly labeled 'for research use only' (RUO) or 'for investigational use only' (IUO). Research Use Only Products Research Use Only (RUO) products play a crucial role in medical research and innovative management of many patients. These specialised products, which include laboratory reagents and equipment, are exclusively designed for research in controlled laboratory environments. As essential tools for medical and scientific investigations ... "Research Use Only" Reagents: Is There an Imperative for Increased FDA On June 1, 2011, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 2 Office of In Vitro Diagnostic Device Evaluation and Safety issued draft guidance for industry and FDA staff intended to provide guidance regarding the FDA's thinking about in vitro diagnostic device (IVD) products labeled for "Research Use Only" (RUO) or "Investigational Use Only" (IUO) (). "For research use only": A comprehensive analysis ... The packaging also featured the "for research use only" warning, while lacking many requirements of true therapeutic goods. Qualitative chemical analysis revealed that while 94 of the 111 products correctly identified the main active pharmaceutical ingredient on the label, 90 were contaminated with other IPEDs. ... What information do I need to import a biological product for research Linkedin. Biological specimens that are used only for testing in a clinical laboratory or for basic scientific research are not regulated by FDA. These are specimens that are not intended to ... Research Use Only or IVD: What's Right for Your Lab? The second misconception clinical laboratories should be aware of involves material labeled as Research Use Only (RUO). RUO labeling is intended for products that are still under development and are not commercially distributed. A developer would use this labeling to ship product for "investigation relating to product development" as ... Research Methods Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question: Research Uses and Disclosures The preparatory research provision permits covered entities to use or disclose protected health information for purposes preparatory to research, such as to aid study recruitment. However, the provision at 45 CFR 164.512 (i) (1) (ii) does not permit the researcher to remove protected health information from the covered entity's site. Read the ... Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research Choosing & Using Sources presents a process for academic research and writing, from formulating your research question to selecting good information and using it effectively in your research assignments. Additional chapters cover understanding types of sources, searching for information, and avoiding plagiarism. Each chapter includes self-quizzes and activities to reinforce core concepts ... A Beginner's Guide to Starting the Research Process To learn how to use these tools responsibly, see our AI writing resources page. Step 4: Create a research design. The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you'll use to collect and analyze it, and the location and timescale of ... PDF Research on Research Use: Building Theory, Empirical research use looks like and explaining when, how, and under what conditions research is used in policy and practice (DuMont, 2015; Tseng, 2012). These descriptive studies examining the realities of research use were critical, given popular notions of research use as the direct application of findings to a given Research Use Studying research use. A growing area of interest is the study of research use in policy and practice, including the processes, structures and systems (both formal and informal) that shape this use. We believe that research can assist decision making; in which case, how best to do this is itself an important research question. What Is a Research Design A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach. Whether you'll rely on primary research or secondary research. Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects. Your data collection methods. Understanding and Evaluating Survey Research Survey research is defined as "the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions" ( Check & Schutt, 2012, p. 160 ). This type of research allows for a variety of methods to recruit participants, collect data, and utilize various methods of instrumentation. Survey research can use quantitative ... PDF Yale University Researcher'S Guide to Hipaa Research Using or Creating PHI of Living Individuals. PHI may not be used for research purposes unless at least one of the following conditions applies: Consent or Waivers of Informed Consent Obtained Prior to April 14, 2003 Subject Authorization For Research Home Evidence about Evidence Use: New Findings from a National Survey of Teachers and Administrators which will highlight the barriers and facilitators to successful use of research evidence by educators. CRUE researchers Henry May, Elizabeth Farley-Ripple, Samantha Shewchuk, and Kati Tilley present findings from surveying over 4000 educators nationwide on their use of research in decision-making. A Guide to Using the Internet for Research A Guide to Using the Internet for Research. by Elizabeth May 20, 2020. This is the second in a series on using the internet as a learning device. You can read part one here and part three here. We are looking at the best practices for using the Internet for research. Think of the internet as a library; it houses information on every topic you ... How UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital pediatrician and screen time researcher Jason Nagata, MD, shares why regulating screen time is important for your kids' short- and long-term health and offers tips on building a routine that balances screens with sleep, exercise and socialization. His recent research - published in multiple journals over ... What Is Data Analysis? (With Examples) Written by Coursera Staff • Updated on Apr 19, 2024. Data analysis is the practice of working with data to glean useful information, which can then be used to make informed decisions. "It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts," Sherlock ... How to Apply Use the application instructions found on this page along with the guidance in the funding opportunity to submit grant applications to NIH, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration, and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Prepare to Apply. A New Use for Wegovy Opens the Door to Medicare Coverage for ... This means that the FDA's approval of the new use for Wegovy potentially opens up access to this drug for 1 in 4 people on Medicare with obesity or overweight. Of these 3.6 million beneficiaries ... FAQs about Investigational Device Exemption For questions about devices regulated by the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER), contact CBER's Office of Communication, Outreach and Development (OCOD) at either 1-800-835-4709 ... Part 1: The Connection Between Substance Use Disorders and Mental Many individuals who develop substance use disorders (SUD) are also diagnosed with mental disorders, and vice versa. 2,3 Although there are fewer studies on comorbidity among youth, research suggests that adolescents with substance use disorders also have high rates of co-occurring mental illness; over 60 percent of adolescents in community-based substance use disorder treatment programs also ... The state of AI in early 2024: Gen AI adoption spikes and starts to If 2023 was the year the world discovered generative AI (gen AI), 2024 is the year organizations truly began using—and deriving business value from—this new technology. ... About the research. The online survey was in the field from February 22 to March 5, 2024, and garnered responses from 1,363 participants representing the full range of ... Technology Content Marketing Research 2024 Eighty-two percent use thought leadership e-books/white papers, 81% use long articles/posts, 63% use data visualizations/visual content, 62% use product/technical data sheets, and 56% use research reports. Less than half of technology marketers use brochures (45%), interactive content (35%), livestreaming content (34%), and audio content (31%). assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review speech thesis