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Faith, Reason, and Culture

An Essay in Fundamental Theology

• © 2020
• George Karuvelil 0

Faculty of Philosophy, Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth, Pune, India

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• Explores the rationality of faith in the contemporary world
• Addresses multiple issues of contemporary culture, including: secularism and atheism, science-religion relations, religious diversity and inter-religious dialogue
• Conceives fundamental theology as a discipline which seeks religious truth in the midst of diverse perspectives

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Table of contents (11 chapters)

Front matter, reason: the multi-coloured chameleon.

George Karuvelil

Religious Diversity and Theology

Science and religion: some parables and models, science and religion: autonomy and conflict, communication, culture, and fundamental theology, justification: beyond uniformitarianism, perception: its nature and justification, nature mysticism and god, religious diversity, christian faith, and truth, pulling together, back matter.

“The effort developed by Karuvelil is impressive, without a doubt, and – from my point of view – this is clearly a theological essay that brings more fresh air and a much needed renovation to FT. … Scientific reason is not everything, but neither can we ignore the objections of such people when it comes to practicing the healthy dialogue to which Karuvelil’s impressive work invites us.” (Lluis Oviedo, ESSSAT News & Reviews, March, 2021)

“George Karuvelil’s mastery of epistemology has enabled him to make a truly major contribution: he has justified brilliantly the essential rationality of religion and theology. This book has re-established a philosophical base for fundamental or foundational theology. Only a scholar with such epistemological expertise could have achieved this remarkable break through and elucidated a true and convincing starting-point for theology.” ­— Gerald O’Collins, SJ, former dean of theology, Gregorian University, Italy

“Faith, Reason, and Culture is an impressive and comprehensive engagement with some of the most difficult questions facing us today on religion and its role in society and the academy. Karuvelil robustly engages a wide range of classical and contemporary Western scholars who debate religion’s place and role in society, while remaining ever attentive to his home context in India. He is conscientious in considering a wide range of views, yet steadfast in his defense of religion’s enduring importance and relevance in every contemporary debate. This book will open doors on the philosophy of religions and fundamental theology for beginners, while yet too catching the attention of established scholars in the field.” — Francis X. Clooney, Harvard Divinity School, Harvard University, USA

“There have been many books on faith and reason but none comes close to the erudition and comprehensiveness that characterize this book. Karuvelil’s resourcefulness in philosophy and his long experience in interreligious dialogue enable him to explore important theological themes in original and highly informative ways. Thoroughly researched and rigorously argued, this book will prove indispensable for both theologians and philosophers who want to explore new frontiers in in the area of faith, reason and culture.” — Louis Caruana SJ , Dean, Faculty of Philosophy, Pontifical Gregorian University, Italy

“George Karuvelil’s Faith, Reason, and Culture: An Essay in Fundamental Theology is a real tour de force, which will delight those interested to explore the complex issue of the rationality of religious belief. Integrating Kierkegaard’s insistence on religious belief as existential concern and adroitly pressing into service Wittgenstein’s concepts of ‘language game’ and ‘grammar,’ Dr. Karuvelil has developed a convincing case to justify religious belief. In this process, he has built on the work of contemporary philosophers whose analyses he has found fertile while not mincing words in his critique of authors whose thinking he judges has gone astray, being particularly severe on those who are wedded to scientism as the last word in human rationality. Lucid writing, helpful introductions and summaries and numerous examples make this book intelligible to non-professionals while professionals will find the acute analysis and meticulous argumentationworth careful attention.” — Lisbert D'Souza , Emeritus Reader in Philosophy, Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth (Pontifical Athenaeum), Pune, India; former Assistant to the Superior General of the Society of Jesus.

“With skillful and patient archeology of the divide between reason and faith, especially in modernity and Western thinkers, resulting in severe harm for both, George Karuvelil convincingly shows that to successfully meet the challenges of contemporary religious pluralism we must, as Pope John Paul II says, breathe with both lungs and fly with both wings, namely, reason and faith. With this work, Karuvelil establishes himself as a first-class authority on fundamental theology. At a time when truth is dismissed as ‘alternative facts,’ Karuvelil's robust confidence in both reason and faith is all the more needed and urgent.” — Peter C. Phan , The Ignacio Ellacuria , S.J. Chair of Catholic Social Thought, Georgetown University, USA

“In its grand sweep of the history of philosophy, theology, and modernity, the book provides a remarkably open access to a theological project that is rationally based, and addressing the intellectual debates of our contemporary times.  The author opens up a splendid panorama of reason and critically challenges its Procrustean curtailment by scientism and positivism. The book is deep, and at the same time, highly engaging and accessible to a wider readership, thanks to its clarity of thought, expression and cogency.” — Felix Wilfred , Emeritus Professor, University of Madras, India

Authors and Affiliations

About the author.

George Karuvelil received his PhD from the University of Delhi and has a background in philosophy and theology. He is the editor of Romancing the Sacred (2007) and was the editor of Jnanadeepa: Pune Journal of Religious Studies .

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Faith, Reason, and Culture

Book Subtitle : An Essay in Fundamental Theology

Authors : George Karuvelil

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45815-7

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Religion and Philosophy , Philosophy and Religion (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-45814-0 Published: 25 July 2020

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-45817-1 Published: 26 July 2021

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-45815-7 Published: 24 July 2020

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XVII, 402

Number of Illustrations : 8 b/w illustrations

Topics : Christian Theology , Philosophy of Religion

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25 Most Influential Books in Religious Studies

Religious studies is the academic study of human religions from the point of view of the social sciences and the humanities, as opposed to a committed religious point of view.

As such, religious studies is a wide-ranging subject, encompassing the historical, philological, philosophical, and sociological analysis of the world’s various religious institutions, practices, and sacred texts. The field also includes the study of the cultural context and literary genre of sacred texts, as well as their influence on the subsequent historical development of religious ideas, practices, and institutions around the globe.

With these considerations in mind, we have compiled a list of the most influential books in religious studies of the past decade (2011–2021). We have assigned an objective measure of “influence” to each book on the basis of the number of references it has received in both the academic literature and the popular media.

Note that our list does not necessarily represent the most popular religious studies books overall published during the past ten years, nor is it a straightforward list of religious studies bestsellers during that time frame—for several reasons.

For one thing, we have excluded the sacred texts themselves. Moreover, we have omitted religious studies textbooks, technical reference works, and fictional works which may contain religious studies-related material.

Several of the works included on the list are classics in the field, dating to the early twentieth century. Nevertheless, ours is not a list of the most influential religious studies books of all time. Such a list would have a very different look and feel to it.

Rather, our list provides you with the 25 books on religious studies that have had the greatest combined academic and popular impact over the past decade.

Read on for a look at The 25 Most Influential Books in Religious Studies.

1. Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth

By: Reza Aslan , 2013

Aslan (b. 1972) is a religious studies scholar, author, and television host. He was born in Iran, but his family was forced to flee to the US in 1979 after the fall of the Shah and the establishment of the Islamic Republic under the Ayatollah Khomeini.

Aslan was raised in the San Francisco Bay area in California. He holds a Master of Theological Studies (MTS) degree from Harvard Divinity School and a PhD in sociology from the University of California, Santa Barbara. Aslan’s family’s religious background was Twelver Shi’ism, but the author converted to evangelical Christianity as a child.

In this book, Aslan advances the claim that Jesus of Nazareth’s proclamation of the kingdom of God, as narrated in the Gospels, ought to be seen as primarily a political challenge to the powers-that-be in first-century Palestine—namely, the Roman Empire and the hereditary Jewish priesthood. The book and its claims have been highly controversial.

2. The Varieties of Religious Experience

By: William James , 1902

James (1842–1910) is often considered the most important philosopher that America has produced. He is perhaps most famous as the promoter of the philosophy of “pragmatism” founded by his friend Charles S. Peirce (1839–1914). Pragmatism is a many-faceted worldview, one of the central tenets of which is the claim that belief is essentially linked to perception and action and that true beliefs are those that are successful or “useful.”

While James was not himself a conventional religious believer, he was strongly opposed to the “positivism” of his day (what we now call “scientism”), which attempted to discredit religion in the name of science. One of his chief philosophical concerns was to carve out an intellectually respectable public space for religious belief. (For more on this topic, see #8 below.)

James was invited to deliver the prestigious Gifford Lectures for 1901–1902 at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. Traditionally delivered over two academic years, the lecture series was completed in 1902 and immediately published as The Varieties of Religious Experience .

In this classic book, James describes and analyzes a wide variety of religious phenomena, from the traditional historical (“world”) religions to smaller-scale groups and even reports of individual, personal experiences. He weaves insightful historical, philosophical, and psychological observations on all of these different sorts of religious phenomena throughout this remarkable, one-of-a-kind study.

3. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

By: Max Weber , 1905

Weber (1864–1920) was a renowned German jurist, sociologist, political economist, and historian. His influence on the development of the social sciences around the turn of the twentieth century is difficult to exaggerate.

Weber’s famous pair of lectures, “Science as a Vocation” and “Politics as a Vocation”, delivered to the Free Students Union of Bavaria in 1919, provided a touchstone for several generations of budding German professionals in the law, in politics, and in the social sciences.

A principal focus of these lectures—as of much of Weber’s work—was the consequences of Modernity’s “disenchantment of the world” (a phrase he coined), meaning the widespread replacement of the traditional religious vision of mankind’s self-understanding by the modern scientific worldview.

It should be stressed, however, that Weber himself insisted on the appropriateness of the interpretative, or hermeneutic, method, in the human sciences, as opposed to the causal-reductive method of the natural sciences. In this, he followed Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) and his distinction between “understanding” (Verstehen) and “explanation” (Erklären).

The work under consideration here is Weber’s effort to understand the ideological and sociological background of the rise of capitalism in Europe. Specifically, he explores the Calvinist teaching that material prosperity is an outward sign of divine grace, or election, linking this doctrine to the view of industriousness as a prime moral virtue, which Weber saw as the main reason for the extraordinary success of capitalism in northern Europe during the early modern period.

Originally published as Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus , this book was first translated into English in 1930 by the distinguished American sociologist, Talcott Parsons (1902–1979). It has been reprinted in numerous later editions.

4. God: A Biography

By: Jack Miles , 1995

Miles (b. 1942) studied for the Roman Catholic priesthood at Xavier University in Cincinnati, the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, and Hebrew University in Jerusalem, but was never ordained. He received his PhD in Near Eastern Languages at Harvard University. In recent years, he has held several academic positions.

Before that, Miles spent most of his career in the publishing industry, working as an editor for Doubleday and University of California Press. He has also been the book review editor for the Los Angeles Times .

Miles has authored four books—beginning with the volume under consideration here—and also edited the Norton Anthology of World Religions (2014).

God: A Biography is the first of a trilogy in which the author explores the concept of God as it is developed in the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim scriptures, respectively. In this book, Miles represents God (Yahweh) as a character in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) from a narratological point of view.

5. Killing Jesus: A History

By: Bill O'Reilly and Martin Dugard , 2013

O’Reilly (b. 1949) is a journalist, author, political commentator, and former conservative television talk show host. Dugard (b. 1961) is a professional author.

The book under consideration is the third in a series about the murders of prominent historical individuals, following Killing Lincoln: The Shocking Assassination That Changed America Forever in 2011 and Killing Kennedy: The End of Camelot in 2012. All three books were also adapted into films by the National Geographic Channel.

This book recounts the dramatic events leading to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ—whom the book calls Jesus of Nazareth—as gleaned from the four gospels of the Christian New Testament. It presents the narrative of those events in the form of an accessible suspense thriller.

The authors present their work as ostensibly written from a secular point of view, rather than from a committed Christian perspective. However, while the book was very successful at a popular level—eventually attaining the number one position on the New York Times’s bestseller list—it was heavily criticized by academic reviewers for being historically inaccurate. Some critics accused it of adopting a sectarian, fundamentalist, Protestant viewpoint.

6. God and Sex: What the Bible Really Says

By: Michael Coogan , 2010

Coogan (b. 1942) is a lecturer on the Hebrew Bible at Harvard Divinity School, as well as Director of Publications for the Harvard Semitic Museum, and editor-in-chief of Oxford Biblical Studies Online .

The author, who is also professor emeritus of religious studies at Stonehill College, has taught at several other colleges and universities, including Fordham, Wellesley, and Boston College. He has also taken part in archaeological excavations in Egypt, Jordan, Israel, and Cyprus.

This book examines the discussions of sexual morality to be found in both the Hebrew Bible and the Christian New Testament. Coogan interprets the relevant passages as not supporting a conservative or traditionalist sexual morality—the usual, default interpretation of Jewish, Christian, and secular scholars alike.

Rather, the author claims that, if properly understood, the said passages support a modern, liberal viewpoint on sexual morality, including acceptance of intercourse and child-bearing outside of marriage, as well as homosexual relationships. The book provoked a good deal of controversy, which closely reflected the political divisions in contemporary American society on these issues.

7. No God but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam

By: Reza Aslan , 2005

In this book, the author (see #1 above) guides the reader on a tour of Islamic civilization, especially its theology and jurisprudence. The book consists of both historical and topical chapters—including, for example, a chapter on jihad. Aslan’s overall thesis is that Islam is fundamentally consistent with modern liberal political and social principles.

The author acknowledges that his interpretation diverges from the mainstream of Western scholarly opinion. However, he blames the latter on the self-serving attitudes of Western imperialism—which are reminiscent of “orientalism” as propounded by the Palestinian-American literary critic, Edward Said (1935–2003).

Orientalism, in Said’s sense, is the practice of constructing artificial, pseudo-Romanticized images of colonized peoples as exotic “others.” European scholars have repeatedly manufactured such images to help shore up European colonial power.

With respect to Islam, Aslan argues that the orientalist mindset has fostered the misinterpretation of Islamic law (shari’a) as barbaric. This fits in well with the West’s current posture of hostility toward Islam in accordance with the doctrine of the “clash of civilizations” propounded by Samuel P. Huntington (1927–2008) in his 1996 book, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order .

The book has been well received both in the West and in the Islamic world itself (according to reviewer, Reihan Salam).

8. “The Will to Believe”

By: William James , 1896

The author (see #2 above) first delivered the lecture entitled “The Will to Believe” in 1896 and it was published in the magazine, The New World , that same year. The lecture was published in book form the following year, in 1897, in the collection, The Will to Believe, and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy .

In his later writings, James changed the name of his main idea in this lecture to “the right to believe,” which he felt was closer to his meaning than “the will to believe.” James pointed out in his lecture and text that human beings must act on incomplete action all the time. Moreover, acting with confidence can improve one’s chances of success compared to acting while lacking confidence in one’s own ability. Putting these two ideas together, James concluded that belief based on incomplete evidence is not only inevitable, but is also positively useful. Therefore, we are fully within our cognitive rights in doing what in any case we cannot help doing and furthermore what is demonstrably useful to us.

Finally, James argued that what applies to our actions in everyday life also applies to our beliefs in the realm of religion. That is, he maintained that our right to believe extends to religious faith, as well.

“The Will to Believe” has been reprinted in numerous later editions.

9. The Phenomenology of Spirit

By: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , 1807

Hegel (1770–1831) is one of the most influential philosophers in the great German rationalist tradition. He was the leading light of the philosophical movement known as German Idealism, which arose around the turn of the nineteenth century in reaction to the pioneering thought of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804).

Other prominent German idealists include Hegel’s close friends, the philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854) and the poet Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843)—roommates from his student days—as well as the Romantic authors, Novalis (Georg Philipp Friedrich von Hardenberg) (1772–1801), Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829), and others.

In a nutshell, the German idealists accepted Kant’s subjective interpretation of the appearances (the phenomena) as largely constructed by the mind, while rejecting his realistic postulate of an objective order of being behind the appearances and thus beyond the reach of the senses and accessible only to reason (the noumena). In other words, they viewed the phenomena as comprising the whole of reality, which is thus fundamentally mind-like, or ideal, in character.

One of Hegel’s distinctive contributions to the idealistic philosophy was his postulate of “absolute idealism,” or “objective spirit” [objektiver Geist], of which the minds of individual human beings are so many manifestations. This absolute conception of spirit is also conceived of as having a historical dimension, by which Hegel meant that it progresses over the course of cosmic and human history according to the “dialectical” process he famously posited as consisting of a series of threefold stages he called “thesis,” “antithesis,” and “synthesis.”

The book under consideration here contains Hegel’s discussion of several such stages, one of the most important of which is religion. This understanding of the religious experience of mankind as a stage in the development of absolute spirit had a strong influence on later religious thought in the nineteenth century, representing as it did a sort of middle path between traditional Christian theism and scientifically inspired materialistic atheism.

This trend culminated with such thinkers as Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) in Germany, Thomas Henry Green (1836–1882) and F. H. Bradley (1846–1924) in England, and Josiah Royce (1855–1916) in the US. During the twentieth century, both the existentialist movement and the “death of God theology” popular at mid-century had been traced by some scholars to Hegel’s conception of religion.

Originally published as Die Phänomenologie des Geistes in 1807, the book was first translated into English as The Phenomenology of Mind in 1910 by the British moral philosopher, James Black Baillie (1872–1940). This translation has been reprinted in numerous later editions, while many new translations have also appeared, several just in the past few years.

10. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life

By: Émile Durkheim , 1912

Durkheim (1858–1917) is one of the most important founders of the science of sociology. He was born into an orthodox Jewish family long-established in France. His father, grandfather, and great-grandfather were all rabbis.

The young Émile was given a traditional religious education with a view to his becoming a rabbi in his turn; however, from an early age he took a greater interest in secular philosophy and science. Although Durkheim would go on to write the pioneering effort to understand religion from a scientific point of view under consideration here, he never broke with his faith entirely and always maintained his ties to the Jewish community in France.

Durkheim’s body of work may be divided into two sorts of studies: general philosophical reflections on the nature of social phenomena and the methodology of sociological science (e.g., The Rules of Sociological Method [1893]); and empirical analyses of specific social phenomena (e.g., The Division of Labor in Society [1893], Suicide [1897], the present book].

As a founding father of sociology, Durkheim is perhaps best known for his insistence on the objectivity of the social dimension of reality, pithily expressed in his celebrated maxim: “social facts are things.”

In the book under consideration, the author focuses on the religious beliefs and practices of various communities of first peoples around the world, including the Australian aborigines and the Pueblo Indians of the American Southwest. He concludes that the primary function of religion is to foster group solidarity and cohesion.

More specifically, Durkheim identifies religious entities such as sacred symbols and divinities with the group itself, writing: “So if [the totem animal] is at once the symbol of the god and of the society, is that not because the god and the society are only one?”

Originally published as Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse , the book was first translated into English in 1915 by the classical historian, Joseph Ward Swain (1891–1971). It has been reprinted in many later editions. A new translation published in 1995 is linked to above.

11. Encyclopedia of Hinduism

By: Constance Jones and James D. Ryan, 2006

Jones is a sociologist of religion who specializes in the study of offshoots of Hinduism in the West, as well as new religious movements. She has a special interest in the theosophist-mystic spiritual teachers, George Gurdjieff (c. 1870–1949) and Jiddu Krishnamurti (c. 1895–1986).

Ryan is a scholar of Tamil language and literature, as well as an expert on the Tantra tradition of Hinduism, especially, the traditions of Kashmir Shaivism, of Sri Aurobindo (Aurobindo Ghose) (1872–1950), and of Haridas Chaudhuri (1913–1975). He is also interested in Jainism.

Both Jones and Ryan currently teach at the California Institute of Integral Studies, which was founded by Haridas Chaudhuri in San Francisco in 1968.

Their book is organized alphabetically in an encyclopedic fashion. The standard topics for any survey of a world religion—basic concepts, typical practices, important historical events, sacred places, and scriptures—are well covered. The practice of Hinduism in geographical areas outside of South Asia (Bali, East Africa, Trinidad, the US) is also discussed.

Perhaps the most unusual thing about the authors’ approach, however, is that they have devoted about a quarter of the book to biographical entries on some 150 yogis, gurus, teachers, and saints, many of whom are virtually unknown outside of India. One reviewer praised the volume for its abundance of “lesser-known Hindu personalities and concepts that are not adequately covered elsewhere.”

12. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why

By: Bart D. Ehrman , 2005

Ehrman (b. 1955) is James A. Gray Distinguished Professor of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He is considered one of the world’s foremost scholars of the New Testament.

Ehrman is the highly prolific author of more than 30 books for scholarly or popular audiences. In the book under consideration here, and elsewhere, he has recounted his personal journal from becoming a born-again Christian as a teenager, to evolving into a liberal Christian as a budding religious studies scholar, to arriving at his current position as an atheist as a result of his own application of the method of textual criticism to the New Testament.

Textual criticism—which is the principal methodology taught in academic religious studies departments—involves the application of a wide array of scientific disciplines to the interpretation of religious texts. These disciplines encompass archaeology, ethnology, epigraphy, paleography, and comparative literary genre analysis, among other areas of study.

Ehrman has specialized in applying textual criticism to better understand the origin of the New Testament, the nature of the historical man, Jesus, and the development of early Christian communities.

In this book, Ehrman’s main claim is that the scribes who copied the texts that became the canonical books of the New Testament (the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles, and Revelations) consciously altered the original texts in order to bring them in line with a more conservative political philosophy than that which taught by Jesus himself. This is especially true with regard to the role of women in Christian societies.

While the author’s work has met with extraordinary acclaim in the academic world, and his textbooks are widely assigned in religious studies courses around the country, some of Ehrman’s volumes, including this one, have met with severe criticism for such things as “having an axe to grind” and lack of originality.

13. Why I Am Not a Muslim

By: Ibn Warraq , 1995

Ibn Warraq (b. 1946) is the pseudonym of an Indian-born, formerly Muslim author. His real identity is unknown.

“Ibn Warraq” is an allusion to the ninth-century religious skeptic, Abū ʿĪsā Muḥammad ibn Hārūn al-Warrāq (889–994 AD). The appellation “Ibn Warraq” has been used as a pen name by many other Arabic authors throughout history who have feared persecution on account of their writings. The name means, roughly, “son of the scribe.”

Ibn Warraq was born into a Kutchi family in what is now the Indian state of Gujarat (Kutchi is a language close to Sindhi). Being Muslims, the family migrated to Pakistan the year after he was born, in 1947, during the chaotic and bloody partition of India into independent, majority-Muslim and majority-Hindu states.

Ibn Warraq has stated that as a young man he studied Arabic on his own with a view to reading the Qurʼān. His grandmother wished him to study at a madrasa, but his father preferred to send him to a boarding school in England. Later, Ibn Warraq studied Arabic language and philosophy at the University of Edinburgh with the celebrated scholar of Arabic history and culture, W. Montgomery Watt (1909–2006).

After leaving university, Ibn Warraq taught primary school in London for five years. He then moved with his wife to France, where he operated a restaurant for a time and worked at odd jobs. He has stated it was the “Rushdie affair” in 1989 that jolted his life onto a different track.

Salman Rushdie (b. 1947) is an Indian-born author whose 1988 novel, The Satanic Verses , was deemed blasphemous by many pious Muslims. The ensuing international outcry led many Muslim countries to ban the book and culminated in a religious edict (fatwā) that was issued the following year by the Iranian leader, Ruhollah Khomeini (1900–1989), which put a price on Rushdie’s head. As a result, Rushdie was forced to go underground, living for several years with around-the-clock police protection.

Ibn Warraq says these events caused him to question his own religious beliefs, and ultimately led him to write the book under consideration here—his first. He has since written eight more books on Islam and its confrontation with the West.

The title, Why I Am Not a Muslim , alludes to the 1927 essay, “Why I Am Not a Christian,” by the famous English philosopher, Bertrand Russell (1872–1970). The book is a full-frontal attack on Islam, both as a religion and as a political culture. In addition to garden-variety arguments against the truth of Islamic doctrinal claims (which might be applied just as well to other religions), it contains sweeping judgments of the fundamental incompatibility of Islamic civilization with Western-style individual rights and liberal democracy.

The book was widely reviewed and largely approved of by European critics. However, more than a few reviewers and other commentators have taken the author to task, both for his overly polemical tone and for failing to distinguish between mainstream Islam and Islamism (Islamic fundamentalism and political extremism).

A second edition of Why I Am Not a Muslim was published in 2020.

14. The World’s Religions

By: Huston C. Smith, 1958

Smith (1919–2016) was often regarded as the doyen of religious studies in the US. He was born in China to American Christian missionary parents and spent his first 17 years in that country.

Smith traveled to the US for his higher education, receiving his bachelor’s degree from Central Methodist University in Fayette, Missouri, in 1940, and his Ph.D. in philosophy from the University of Chicago in 1945.

Smith specialized in the study of Vedanta (Hinduism), Zen (Buddhism), and Sufism (Islam), but eventually developed expertise in all of the world’s principal religious traditions. During his long career, he taught at several prestigious universities, including Washington University in St. Louis, MIT, Syracuse, and UC-Berkeley.

Originally published in 1958 as The Religions of Man , The World’s Religions has long been the most-popular, one-volume survey of the principal world religions on the market. It is widely assigned as a required text in religious studies courses around the country.

The volume devotes one chapter each to Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, as well as what he calls “primal religions” (i.e., the religions of first peoples around the world).

The book has been reprinted numerous times, most recently in 2009.

15. The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment

By: Eckhart Tolle , 1997

Tolle (b. 1948) was born Ulrich Tölle in a small Ruhr Valley town in Germany. He has stated that he was an unhappy child, whose parents did not get along, who was bullied at school, and who had to play among the bombed-out ruins of post-war Germany—a constant reminder of the suffering and devastation caused by the abominable war which had ended just before his birth.

After his parents divorced, Tolle’s father moved to Spain, where the young Ulrich came to join him. However, he did not attend high school, but began to study intensively on his own, especially literature, various languages, and astronomy.

When he was 19, Tolle moved to London, where he taught German and Spanish for three years at a language institute. Next, he matriculated at the University of London, where he studied philosophy, psychology, and literature, eventually taking a bachelor’s degree. He then enrolled in a PhD program at Cambridge University, but eventually dropped out.

Tolle has written that during this period of his life he suffered “almost unbearably” from anxiety, fear, and depression and that he was basically searching for answers to problems of a religious or spiritual nature regarding the purpose and meaning of life.

All of this changed one night in 1977, when he was 29 years old. During that night he experienced an epiphany, or inner transformation, which he later understood to be the obliteration of his conscious self, leaving only his pure “presence” or being. He had attained a “miraculous” sense of deep peace in which the past and future no longer existed, and his pure presence merely observed the world in the present moment without desire or judgment.

Tolle spent the next several years sleeping on the ground or on park benches, while living in a state of “deep bliss.” To others, including his family, he appeared to be an irresponsible “bum” or even insane. During this period, he changed his first name from Ulrich to Eckhart as an homage to the great medieval German mystic, Meister Eckhart (c. 1260–c. 1328), better known as “Meister Eckhart” [Master Eckhart].

Meanwhile, some students Tolle had taught during his stay at Cambridge began to hear about his transformation. Gradually, they began to seek him out. In this way, he began to work as a counsellor and spiritual teacher.

In 1995, Tolle moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, in Canada. Two years later, he published his first book, The Power of Now , in a small print run of only 3000. Unexpectedly, the book became a bestseller, eventually leading to Tolle’s becoming a major player in the burgeoning “mindfulness” movement of New Age spirituality.

In the years since 1997, Tolle has published four more books following up on The Power of Now , a children’s book on mindfulness, a graphic novel, and five DVDs.

Reprinted in 2004, The Power of Nowt has been translated into at least 33 languages and has sold over three million copies in North America alone.

16. The Myth of Persecution: How Early Christians Invented a Story of Martyrdom

By: Candida Moss , 2013

Moss (b. 1978) is a British-born religious studies scholar who is currently Edward Cadbury Professor of Theology at the University of Birmingham. She specializes in New Testament studies.

This book claims that (1) persecution and martyrdom of Christians by Roman and Jewish governmental and religious officials provided a rallying point against the outside world and thus were a unifying factor within the early Church, and (2) martyrs were accorded high social prestige among early Christian communities. For these reasons, the author claims that early Christians were motivated to grossly exaggerate their accounts of persecution and martyrdom.

For example, Moss claims that—in contrast to the common perception of Roman authorities’ long-standing hostility towards Christianity—the persecution of early Christians was a matter of official Roman imperial policy during a brief period of only 12 years.

In conclusion, she maintains that most early Christian narratives about martyrdom are untrustworthy and so should not be taken at face value. The book has been both widely reviewed and is highly controversial. One of the main complaints of critics has been that Moss’s thesis is exaggerated and that the author is ideologically driven.

17. The Revelation of John: A Narrative Commentary

By: James L. Resseguie , 2009

Resseguie (b. 1945) is currently J. Russell Bucher Chair of New Testament at Winebrenner Theological Seminary in Findlay, Ohio. Resseguie holds an MDiv (1972) from Princeton Theological Seminary and a PhD (1978) from Fuller Theological Seminary in Pasadena, California. He is an ordained minister of the Presbyterian Church (USA).

Resseguie had published four academic volumes prior to the one under consideration here, all investigating different aspects of the New Testament from the methodological perspective known as “narrative criticism” or “narratology.” This hermeneutic method encompasses such critical perspectives as “defamiliarization,” literary “point-of-view” analysis, and “reader-response” theory.

In this book, the author applies his narratological methodology to the book of Revelation. Proceeding through the text line by line, Resseguie emphasizes such literary factors as rhetoric, style, symbolism, plot, setting, point of view, and characterization, all with a view to teasing out the text’s meaning(s) and increasing the reader’s overall understanding.

This book is both scholarly and accessible. As such, it is suitable for academics, pastors, students, and lay readers.

18. A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life’s Purpose

By: Eckhart Tolle , 2005

Tolle published this book eight years after his breakthrough work, The Power of Now (see #15 above), originally released in 1997.

In his new book, Tolle first reprises many of his claims from his earlier book, to wit, that individuals can achieve bliss and deep inner peace by letting go of conflicts from the past, as well as anxieties and desires for the future, concentrating their pure presence, or being, on the calm and disinterested contemplation of the world in the present moment. Tolle then goes on to expand his field of vision from the troubled individual consciousness to the suffering collective consciousness of the world as a whole.

Finally, he shows how the practice of mindfulness can help us to overcome, not just our own individual distress and unhappiness, but also such negative, other-directed emotions as envy, jealously, resentment, anger, and fear. Why is that important? Because once these negative, other-directed emotions have been defeated, the practice of mindfulness can begin to spread, allowing the whole planet to initiate the process of psychic healing.

19. Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History

By: Andrew J. Nicholson, 2010

Andrew J. Nicholson is currently Associate Professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History at the State University of New York (SUNY) at Stony Brook (AKA Stony Brook University).

This book explores the historical roots of the concept of “Hinduism,” understood as a unified set of beliefs and practices common to all the manifold and highly diverse religions and philosophies native to the Indian subcontinent.

In addition, the book has an important meta-level, historiographic purpose. Namely, the author attempts to delineate a middle path between European “post-colonial” theorists who claim that Hinduism is an artificial belief system “constructed” by nineteenth-century Western “orientalist” scholars, on the one hand, and some contemporary Indian scholars who insist that Hinduism’s roots extend back to the origins of civilization itself, on the other.

More specifically, Nicholson reviews the thought of a number of Indian scholars from the fourteenth through the seventeenth centuries who saw the various traditional religious and philosophical systems of the subcontinent—including Vedanta, Samkhya, and Yoga, as well as the cults of Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti—as comprising a single system of beliefs and practices. In poetic terms, these scholars liked to speak of these systems as so many rivers flowing into the one great ocean of Brahman (ultimate reality).

In addition, Nicholson sees these medieval and early modern scholars as portraying Vedanta as a unifying factor binding together all the diverse Indian traditions. Moreover, he claims their work paved the way for modern advocates of the ultimate unity of all world religions, notably Swami Vivekananda (Narendranath Datta) (1863–1902), Mohandas K. “Mahatma” Gandhi (1869–1948), and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975).

Finally, Nicholson criticizes the way in which European philosophical conceptual dualities—such as monism/dualism, realism/idealism, theism/atheism, and orthodoxy/heterodoxy—have distorted modern academic discourse concerning Indian religions and philosophies.

20. Kali’s Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna

By: Jeffrey J. Kripal , 1995

Kripal (b. 1962) is currently the J. Newton Rayzor Chair in Philosophy and Religious Thought at Rice University in Houston, Texas. Kripal has authored nine academic and popular books (including the one under consideration here), co-edited five academic volumes, and authored numerous academic papers.

Kali’s Child is a biographical study of the Bengali mystic and saint, Ramakrishna (Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya) (1836–1886). Based on Kripal’s PhD dissertation written at the University of Chicago under the supervision of famed Indologist, Wendy Doniger (b. 1940), the book draws putative conceptual links between the beliefs and practices of tantrism as practiced by Ramakrishna and those of Western psychoanalysis.

In summary, the book is primarily aimed at supporting the author’s basic contention that Ramakrishna’s teaching embodies a deep connection between human sexuality and mystical experience.

Initially, Kali’s Child was met with praise by Western religious studies scholars. However, Ramakrishna’s followers in India soon voiced angry attacks on the book for what they viewed as its heretical interpretation of their saint’s life and work. They raised a storm of high-profile controversy among Indian public intellectuals, government officials, and others. Efforts were even made to pressure the Parliament of India to ban the book; however, the efforts failed.

European and Indian scholars also weighed in on the heated public controversy. In 1998, the author published a revised edition containing several responses to his academic critics.

21. Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion

By: Michael York , 2003

York (born c. 1939) is an American-born religious studies scholar specializing in pagan and nature religions. He is currently professor emeritus in the Department of Theology and Religious History at Cherry Hill Seminary in Columbia, South Carolina.

York received his bachelor’s degree (1961) from the University of California, Santa Barbara, his master’s degree (1970) from San Francisco State University, and his PhD (1992) from King’s College, University of London. He has also studied in Germany and India.

The book under consideration here is an ambitious attempt to revise the terms under which modern scholars discuss the religions of the extinct as well as the extant religions of indigenous or “first” peoples. As examples of extinct religions, one may mention the Druidic religions of Neolithic Europe; extant nature religions include Daoism in China and Shintoism in Japan. (Note that neo-pagan religions such as modern Druidism and Wicca constitute a distinct historical phenomenon.)

York’s main thesis is that the common elements among the various polytheist, animist, and nature religions of the world justify our classifying them under a single common category, for which he proposes the term “pagan theology.” York views pagan theology as the “root religion” of humankind.

Pagan Theology was met with controversy within the relatively small world of academics who study indigenous and nature religions. The main objection was that York’s proposed single category elides too many important distinctions among the various religions. A secondary objection was to the term “pagan theology” itself, seeing that the word “pagan” was originally used by early Christians in a pejorative sense to describe the indigenous beliefs of the Greeks and Romans.

22. Combating Cult Mind Control: The #1 Best-selling Guide to Protection, Rescue, and Recovery from Destructive Cults

By: Steven Hassan , 1988

Hassan (b. 1954) is a licensed mental health counselor. He holds a PhD from Fielding Graduate University in Santa Barbara, California.

When he was only 19 years old, Hassan became a convert to the Seoul, South Korea–based Unification Church founded by the Sun Myung Moon (1920–2012). Hassan spent two years as an active member of the church, recruiting and indoctrinating new members, as well as engaging in fundraising activities.

In time, he came to feel that the psychological techniques that he was taught to use on new recruits—which had been used on him—were coercive and unethical. He dropped out of the Unification movement and later became involved in efforts to help others to exit what he considered to be destructive cults.

Initially, Hassan set about studying a number of well-known psychologists who have written on the subject of mind control and psychological coercion, including Gregory Bateson (1904–1980), Leon Festinger (1919–1989), Margaret Singer (1921–2003), and Robert Jay Lifton (b. 1926), among others.

In the wake of the 1979 Jonestown massacre, Hassan founded the organization, Ex-Moon, Inc., to attempt to develop a more structured approach to helping people to exit cults. Today, he runs the website, Freedom of Mind Resource Center.

In this book, the author explores many of the psychological principles relevant to mind control which were developed by the scholars noted above. He then explains in detail and based on his own experience how these principles can help families, friends, and counselors to “deprogram” cult converts.

Hassan has also authored three other books on the subject on mind control in addition to the one under consideration here. The book was reissued in 1990 with the subtitle, “The #1 Best-selling Guide to Protection, Rescue, and Recovery from Destructive Cults.” In 2015, it was republished in a revised, 25th-anniversary edition.

23. Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (and Why We Don’t Know About Them)

By: Bart D. Ehrman , 2009

Ehrman is one of the world’s most prolific and high-profile religious studies scholars specializing in early Christianity (see #12 above).

In this book, the author provides a personal narrative of the development of his own religious beliefs as a function of his advancing understanding of academic biblical studies. He then transitions to an overview of many of the various intellectual issues raised by scholarly analysis of the Bible.

Ehrman’s tone and basic approach are not solely “academic.” Rather, he regards it as morally incumbent on everyone—believers and non-believers alike—to seek the truth about the nature and career of Jesus, and thus of approaching the gospels and the New Testament as a whole by means of the methodology he recommends.

The reason he cites for this attitude is the following: “The Bible is the most significant book in the history of our civilization. Coming to understand what it actually is, and is not, is one of the most important intellectual endeavors that anyone in our society can embark upon.”

Ehrman’s skepticism regarding traditional literalist interpretations of the gospels and Jesus is already signaled by the book’s title and subtitle.

24. The Jesus Dynasty: The Hidden History of Jesus, His Royal Family, and the Birth of Christianity

By: James Tabor , 2006

Tabor (b. 1946) is currently Professor of Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity in the Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. He has previously taught at Pepperdine University, the University of Notre Dame, the College of William and Mary, and elsewhere.

Tabor has published seven books (including the one under consideration here), mostly on early Christianity, for academic and popular audiences.

This book advances the thesis that the movement centered on the man, Jesus of Nazareth (c. 4 BC–c. 30 AD) should be understood in terms of a rivalry for the kingship of Judea and Galilee between the dynasty of King David (reigned c. 1010–970 BC) and the Herodian dynasty of Jesus’s time.

Tabor begins by pointing out that Jesus had excellent credentials to represent the house of David by virtue of his royal lineage, acquired through his parents, Mary and Joseph. This much is, of course, well known and widely accepted.

However, Tabor goes a step farther, arguing that Jesus would have been viewed by many at that time as a more legitimate contender for the throne than the son of Herod the Great (c. 72–c. 1 BC)—Herod Antipas (before 20 BC–after 39 AD)—the king familiar from the passion narratives of the gospels.

In short, Tabor maintains that the events recounted in the gospels, and the New Testament more generally, are best understood in the light of the dynastic rivalry between the houses of David and Herod.

25. The Essence of Christianity

By: Ludwig Feuerbach , 1841

Feuerbach (1804–1872) was an influential German philosopher who is often seen as a bridge between Hegel and a host of famous materialist philosophers who appeared later in the nineteenth century, including Charles Darwin (1809–1882), Karl Marx (1818–1883), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).

Feuerbach originally studied at the University of Heidelberg with a view to a career in the Lutheran clergy. However, he transferred to the University of Berlin in 1824 in order to study with G.W.F. Hegel (see #9 above).

Eventually, Feuerbach transferred his allegiance to a group of radical young philosophers known collectively as the “Young Hegelians.” They interpreted Hegel’s “dialectical” march of Geist [Spirit] through cosmic and human history as the “overcoming” of existing Western cultural institutions, above all, the Lutheran church and the Prussian state.

Feuerbach was prolific, with some 15 dense academic tomes to his credit, including the one under consideration here. His career was capped with all the highest marks of mainstream German academic recognition, including an edition of his collected works in ten volumes published between 1846 and 1866 and several volumes of his correspondence published during the 1870s. However, this book—originally published as Das Wesen des Christenthums —is undoubtedly the work for which he is best known.

In it, the author argues that the concept of God represents mankind’s consciousness of the infinite and is a projection of the human mind intended to fulfill human psychological needs, with each aspect of the divine nature corresponding to some feature or need of human nature.

The book was translated into English in 1854 by Mary Ann Evans (1818–1880), better known under her pen name, “George Eliot,” which she adopted upon the publication of her first great novel, Adam Bede , in 1859.

Interested in truly diving into the religious studies discipline? Start by checking out the Most Influential Schools in the Field of Religious Studies over the last 20 years!

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Three Essays on Religion

John Stuart Mill, Three Essays on Religion , Louis J. Matz (ed.), Broadview Press, 2009, 302pp., $18.95 (pbk), ISBN 9781551117683.

Reviewed by Julie C. Van Camp, California State University

This splendid volume brings together three intriguing essays on religion by John Stuart Mill, “Nature”, “Utility of Religion”, and “Theism”. First published by his stepdaughter Helen Taylor in 1874, the year after his death, they will be as surprising to many readers as they reportedly were to his contemporaries. His earlier works had led many to conclude that he was dismissive of religion, while the essays here confound those presumptions.

The three essays have been available in print for many years in other editions. The special value of this collection for both scholarship and teaching comes from the extensive supplementary material so helpful in carefully interpreting the essays today. This material includes sixteen earlier statements by Mill in other writings, both published essays and letters. Excerpts from three contemporary reviews of the three essays sharpen the issues. The volume also includes excerpts from Jeremy Bentham and Mill’s father, James Mill, who apparently exerted early influence on Mill on these matters. There are also excerpts from Charles Darwin and T. H. Huxley that address related issues in religion and science.

A detailed bibliography with suggestions for further reading enhances the volume, as does the chronology of Mill’s life, and numerous portraits of Mill, his wife Harriet Taylor, and other influential persons in his life. Although, regrettably, it has no index, this is an unusually comprehensive, worthwhile, and usable volume.

The volume’s editor, Louis J. Matz, argues convincingly in his invaluable introduction that the posthumous essays are at least consistent with views in Mill’s published and unpublished writings. The best known of those views is Mill’s observation that he did not need theistic beliefs, since he was brought up imbued with the importance of morality.

Matz also hints at a variety of motivations for Mill to keep quiet about his religious views during his lifetime. As a member of Parliament, he did not want people to be able to use his religious views, regardless of what they were, against him in his bid for election (p. 36). Private correspondence hints that Mill was also concerned that an appearance of sympathy for religion might interfere with his public reputation as a reformer based on moral principles independent of religion. Mill’s apparent conflicts between his public profile and private morality anticipates dilemmas of progressive politicians today. It is inconceivable that a politician who is openly atheist or even agnostic could get elected to high public office, at least in the U.S., but excessive commitment to a rigid theology can be equally damning in some quarters.

Mill lived in an era when rapidly developing scientific explanations for natural phenomena were increasingly challenging traditional religious explanations. Matz suspects Mill judged that religion might still be useful for promoting morality, even if the intellectual underpinnings of theism were increasingly implausible, a dilemma shared in heightened relief today, given the advancement of scientific explanation.

In the essay “Nature”, Mill meticulously presents detailed arguments against Natural Law as the basis for ethics. He concludes that either of the two main senses of “nature” (“the entire system of things” or “things as they would be, apart from human intervention”) result in models for action that are “irrational and immoral” (p. 103). He distinguishes religion in the traditional supernatural sense of theism from what he calls a Religion of Humanity (p. 130). The latter idealizes goods in this world, specifically, the promotion of happiness for all beings, consistently with his utilitarianism and also with what we might today call secular humanism.

In the second essay, “Utility of Religion”, Mill acknowledges one advantage of supernatural religion over his proposed Religion of Humanity, namely, the hope of “a life after death” (p. 135). Nevertheless Mill is suspicious of “legislators and moralists” exploiting this quest for an afterlife to coerce people to do certain things in this life. He hopes that as the quality of life in the here and now improves, this dream of an afterlife will become less important. As the editor points out, a contemporary critic of this essay anticipates William James’ “Will to Believe” (p. 46), arguing that religious experience can open up “new realities”, much as Mill’s ideas of personal love can open up such realities.

In “Theism”, Mill considers a range of arguments for the existence of God, using a methodology consistent with his lifelong insistence on evidence. He believes it to be “indispensable” that

religion should from time to time be reviewed as a strictly scientific question, and that its evidences should be tested by the same scientific methods, and on the same principles as those of any of the speculative conclusions drawn by physical science (p. 141).

Given that evidentiary emphasis, he concludes that monotheism is superior to polytheism, as the latter cannot be reconciled to any theory of governance of the universe, although this alone hardly proves the truth of monotheism (p. 143).

Mill acknowledges that he cannot disprove the existence of a sovereign will, and proceeds to examine a variety of arguments, both a priori and a posteriori , for such an existence. The argument for a first cause, he concludes, would be of no value for the proof of theism (p. 154). He then considers the argument “from the general consent of mankind”, viz ., that as all persons have recognized some form of god, there must be a god. Mill argues that the diverse conceptions of such a god and the universal need to address unknowns in life account for this universality, not necessarily the existence of any actual god. He also rejects arguments from consciousness and pure reason, appealing to Kant’s distinctions between speculative reason and a corresponding reality outside the mind (pp. 158-161).

Mill finds the argument from design far more significant, in part because it lends itself to testing by the scientific method he holds paramount (p. 161). Surprisingly perhaps, given his rejection of so many other claimed proofs of the existence of god, he admits that “the adaptations in Nature afford a large balance of probability in favour of creation of intelligence” (p. 166). Lest any contemporary proponents of Intelligent Design rush to cite Mill for support, however, note that he qualifies this conclusion by pointing to the limits of “the present state of our knowledge”. In other words, although he was familiar with Darwin’s The Origin of Species (1859), Mill acknowledged that, in the mid-nineteenth century, we did not yet know enough about the natural world to account for all the then-current conditions of the species. Concluding that he could not rule out the argument from design is a far cry from concluding that it proved the existence of a deity. Further, his critics at the time thought he had not sufficiently understood the power of Darwin’s work (p. 49).

Even granting the possibility of an Intelligent Designer, Mill wonders what sort of god that would be. He questions why human beings were not designed “to last longer, and not to get so easily and frequently out of order” (p. 170). Here he anticipates recent challenges to the contemporary intelligent design movement. If god is omnipotent, could he not have come up with a better design for our aching backs and fragile knees? Mill also notes that there is no evidence in the world we inhabit of divine benevolence or divine justice (p. 177).

In this final essay, he again considers the promise of an afterlife (p. 179ff). Mill concludes that there is no way to prove or disprove its existence, but he concedes that it might be of comfort to many people. He also dismisses claims that revelation received by persons proves anything about the existence of god or anything else.

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Horst Jürgen Helle is professor of sociology and co-director of the Institute for Sociology at Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich and is the author or editor of more than ten previous books. Ludwig Nieder is assistant professor of sociology at Ludwig Maximilian University.

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C. S. Lewis Essay Collection: Faith, Christianity and the Church

By C. S. Lewis

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The definitive collection of religious essays by C.S. Lewis, plus a selection of letters, brought together in a substantial paperback volume

As well as his many books, letters and poems, C.S. Lewis also wrote a great number of essays and shorter pieces on various subjects. He wrote extensively on Christian theology and the defence of faith, but also on various ethical issues and on the nature of literature and story-telling.

This second volume (of two) collects together all Lewis’s religious essays. Grouped together by topic, there are over 50 essays covering The Search for God, Aspects of Faith, The Christian in the World, The Church, and also a selection of his Letters on the subject of Christianity.

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Essays on Religion and the Ancient World, Volume 1

Arthur Darby Nock

Edited by Zeph Stewart

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Publication date: 01/01/1972

Throughout his career Arthur Darby Nock (1902-1963) made unique and lasting contributions to classical scholarship and the history of religion, especially to the study of ancient religion, magic, and the relation of paganism to early Christianity and Judaism. Nock's genius showed itself early: endowed with a prodigious memory and an unerring linguistic skill, he combined speed and accuracy in reading and a delight in the discovery, ordering and establishment of facts. At the age of twenty he was made annual reviewer of Latin literature for The Year's Work in Classical Studies ; and at twenty-four he produced an important edition of a fourth-century Greek text, Sallustius On the Gods and the Universe , which included a translation and a masterly introduction.

At twenty-seven, having come to the United States from England the year before, Nock was appointed Frothingham Professor of the History of Religion at Harvard University. In his early thirties he wrote two books, Conversion --an imaginative and exacting study of religious currents in the Hellenistic and Roman world--and St. Paul .

Mainly, however, A. D. Nock poured his immense learning into articles and reviews, which heretofore have been scattered through many different journals. Representing a formidable range of learning, these essays deal for the most part with historical evidence (from all sources, including papyri, inscriptions, and coins) of the beliefs, superstitions, and religious practices of ordinary people. Nock saw the essence of religion not only in philosophy ortheology, but in piety and cult, in the practices and the expressions of the common man. His unusual combination of genius and common sense allowed him to treat the actual manifestations of religious sentiment without condescension.

For this edition of Arthur Darby Nock's writings, Zeph Stewart has garnered a substantial selection of Nock's most important essays and has indexed and cross-referenced them as well.

• Zeph Stewart is the Andrew W. Mellon Professor of the Humanities, Emeritus, at Harvard University.

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Essays on religion and the ancient world, volume 2, recommendations.

The Scriptural Universe of Ancient Christianity

Our Divine Double

Ancient Mystery Cults

Heroicus. Gymnasticus. Discourses 1 and 2

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Protestant--Catholic--Jew

An essay in american religious sociology.

Will Herberg

326 pages | 5.25 x 8 | © 1983

Religion: American Religions

Sociology: Social Institutions

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Huxley and God: Essays on Religious Experience

Aldous huxley , huston smith  ( introduction ) , jacqueline hazard bridgeman  ( editor ).

320 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1992

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Religion - Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

A research on religion.

On the surface, the book of Ruth appears to be the story of a young girl who thought she had it all, and then one day, had nothing, but then once again, is saved by Prince Charming. Every girl's dream right? But when we dig a little deeper, it becomes evident that this book is more than just a love story between a man and a woman, but a picture of redemption. Ruth the Moabite marries, loses her husband, and […]

My Personal Attitude to Religion

Growing up in a family who saw religion as not only priority, but a way of life is something I will always cherish. Ever since I can remember, my family and I had the same routine Sunday, after Sunday, after Sunday. Even though my parents were constantly busy with their jobs, I was always running around to attend my different sporting events while my brother and sister were vigorously training to improve their sound on the instruments they played in […]

Biblical Interpretation Paper

For my biblical interpretation paper, I chose to focus on the story of Jesus and the women at the well (John 4:7). In this story, Jesus finds himself passing through the town of Sychar. Jesus had been travelling long and far and stopped at some land that Jacob had given to his son Joseph. Jacob had a well on this land, and Jesus, tired from his long journey, sat down by the well. A Samaritan woman came to the well […]

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Representation of Religion in Asian Buddha Statues

Artistic concepts are broad. Art may be interpreted either literally or symbolically depending on a person's insights. It goes a long way in the depiction of reality or imaginary insinuation, be it a person or a place. However, the study of artistic features gives more profound meaning and relates each work of art to the subjects under study for example religion. Eliade Mircea once said that the Buddha's iconography had been changed to spiritual existence from human nature[1]. Considering the […]

Existence in the Buddhist Religion

Existence consists of three characteristics: suffering, impermanence, and the concept of no-self. Ideas of these three characteristics make up much of the Buddhist religion. The three characteristics of existence constitute much of the Buddhist world view, from views toward pain to ideas about rebirth. Suffering, or dukkha, is a central focus in the Dhammapada. Suffering can be caused by physical pain, from pleasure changing to pain, or from the perpetual state of change that all things exist in. The Buddha […]

The Bible and the Power of the Mind

The Bible often talks about the power of the mind and the thoughts that come from it. Moses, Paul and Samuel talk about the powerfulness of the mind; Solomon, Matthew and Moses talk about how it can be deceived really easily; and David, Luke and Paul talk about God's blessings that come with opening your minds to Christ. Minds and thoughts are powerful and worthy of protection; one's thoughts are able to change their reality and the circumstances they live […]

The Religion of Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama was numerous things. He was a ruler, an educator, the Buddha and later a divine being. He showed the religion of Buddhism. Moreover, he even affected Indian history until the end of time. Buddhism has spread to numerous nations including Thailand and Mongolia. The Buddha was conceived in sixth Century BCE. He was fundamentally secured up a castle for a large portion of his initial life in light of the fact that a prescience told that his family […]

Humanity Religions

Introduction Christianity is one of the widely practised religion in the world, and one of the oldest religious practices. The religious groups that practice Christianity under strict guidelines from the bible are known as Christians. Coming in at number one as the current world statistics show is Islam. Another world-renowned religion is Islam and is considered the most widely practised religion in the world. These old practices were considered part of humanity because they gave guidelines on morals on how […]

The Different Types of Punishments that were Used in the Bible

The death penalty has been, and continues to be an ongoing, controversial debate in today's society. In fact, capital punishment was extremely prevalent, especially during the time of Christ. In the Bible, mainly the Old Testament, capital punishment was ultimately the primary consequence to any crime that was committed. This may come as a surprise for some when in today's world, God is commonly known to be all powerful and forgiving. "For if you forgive other people when they sin […]

The Relationship between Religion and Politics in the United States

The relationship between religion and politics continues to be an important topic in modern American society. In a radical act, the Constitution not only guaranteed religious freedom; it also stated that the United States would not have a national church and would not have religious tests for national office[1]. However, in American political life, some factors enhance the role of religion in a way that is not observed in other developed countries. In the article "How Politics Affects Religion: Partisanship, […]

Role of Religion in Marco Polo’s Travels

"The state and foundations of western civilization were breaking at the seams during the 13th century. The primary indicator of this was the destruction of Constantinople by crusaders because of its orthodox roots in 1204. In addition, western culture was facing its own obstacles since the Great Schism wreaked havoc on the power struggle between church and state. Through his travel memoir, Marco Polo highlighted the Mongol’s model of religious unity that was lacking in affluent western societies, and gave […]

Extroversion Vs Introversions Within the Bible

McCrae and Costa's model presents five factors of personality. When inspecting this model of personality, it is very fascinating to line up some of the characters within the Bible and how they fit into one of the factors. Looking at the component of extroversion the individual that fits best in scripture is the Apostle Paul, and the person who I would consider to be the opposite is Moses. It is very interesting how these two can be so distinct on […]

Religion Impact on Many Civilizations

Throughout the course of human history, many civilizations have risen to prominence as well as having collapsed into nothingness. One commonality that each civilization has had, regardless of the respective outcome, was the impact that religion had on them. Democracies such as Greece, empires and kingdoms like Rome and Egypt, and even the many great dynasties of China all had religious beliefs in some form or another that greatly impacted their ways of life. Religion played an essential role in […]

Religion in the Scarlet Letter

Everyone has sinned at some point in their lives and it has ruined relationships. Sinning however can be redeemable but it takes hard work and dedication in order to achieve that goal. In the novel, The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne we follow Hester Prynne our female protagonist and her journey along the aftermath of sin and the change it brings in each character along the way. In seventeenth century Boston, the protagonist Hester Prynne does a horrible thing and […]

The Difference between a Cult and Religion

Images of strange symbols, massacres, and dark woods may come to mind when you hear the word “cult” - a term that has grown to have a lot of negative connotations in our society. It would be strange to even try to compare what we know as a cult to mainstream religions, a conventional part of our everyday lives. But in reality, the two terms are polysemous, there are many possible meanings and depending on the way they are being […]

Homosexuality in Religion

When considering religion, you'd never come to assume that any faith is okay with homosexuality. homosexuality is something that is not a preferred topic that is talked about in church. Some churches can perhaps come upon that topic very briefly however can never have a full series like they do with a series concerning family, your walk with Christ, prayer,etc.. homosexuality is a great topic because the percentage of the LGBQT population rises within the U.S. in this essay you […]

Mind According to Bible

The word,"mind" is used in a variety of ways throughout the Bible. God tells believers and unbelievers alike what to do with their minds. These are some of the things God says to do with their minds. God calls everyone to listen to and remember what He says. One example of this is in Deuteronomy 11:18, New International Version, "Fix these words of mine in your hearts and minds; tie them as symbols on your hands and bind them on […]

Religion’s Role in Gender Equality

In today’s society and looking back, gender equality is something that the human race, in general, has struggled with since the beginning of our existence. Modern society likes to blame certain groups more for the gender inequalities we are facing than others. More often than not the finger pointing ends up turning to religion. In the Western World individuals often accuse Muslims of oppressing women, when Christianity, historically speaking has not been leading the way in gender equality. That being […]

Religion and the Renaissance

Religion is not easy to define. Many people have their own definitions of religion based on how they perform their religious beliefs. Religion can be a specific underlying set of beliefs and practices generally agreed upon by a number of persons or faith community. In the dictionaries religion is defined as “the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods.” The Florence Cathedral depicts religion through the artifacts inside that have a religious […]

Religion as a Means to Bring People Together

Throughout the book, we see various religions, working for the good and bad of several empires and peoples. While often serving as a means of unification or an arm of government, it also has a tendency to marginalize other people groups living within a region. When state mandated, religion can cause social and political unrest from the hierarchy of certain religious positions such as bishops. Religion can often cause divisions even within itself, resulting in all the more fragmentation. In […]

The Love/Hate Relationship between Religion and the LBGTQIA Community

Abstract This research will analyze the ever complicated relationship between members who identify as Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, Transsexual, Queer, Intersex and Asexual and various religious groups. The LGBTQIA acceptance movement is quite new to say the least, and there are still many barriers keeping them from reaching total acceptance. It is highly doubtable that any demographic will ever be completely accepted by another, however the lengths that many religious groups go to shun those who identify as anything other than […]

Religious Discrimination Throughout Cultures and the Workplace

Religious discrimination refers to the treating of an individual unfairly because of his or her religious beliefs (Kerner). P. Smith (2017) defines religious discrimination as the adverse treatment of an individual who is either an employee or any other person considering the religious beliefs of the person rather than the merit of the employee. Additionally, religious discrimination can refer to the unjust, or the prejudicial treatment of a group of people or just an individual because of his or chosen […]

Sexuality and Gender Within the Religions of Judaism and Christianity

In my term paper, I will be writing about sexuality and gender within the religions of Judaism and Christianity. I chose this topic because in recent years, it has become a topic of controversy. Christianity is largest religion; therefore, many people believe they know what Christians advocate on such topics. As for Judaism, I never really had knowledge of gender/sexuality in this religion because of ignorance. There was never really an interest for other religions on my part, but after […]

Mexican Culture – Religion, Family, Language, and Mexican Arts

"In this article, everything is important to the Mexican culture such as religion, family, language, and Mexican arts. Most of Mexico is dependent on church. About 82% of Mexicans consider themselves as catholic. Unlike other countries, parents are treated with respect. The largest event that a Mexican family celebrate is the quinceanera. A quinceanera is the celebration of a girl’s 15th birthday and is followed by a party. Mexican arts usually consist of clay pottery and colorful baskets. The style […]

Religion in Renaissance and Elizabethan Age

"The Renaissance also known as the age of “Rebirth” began in the 14th century. As the Renaissance occurred so did the Elizabethan era, also known as the Golden Age in English history, which began in the 16th century. The highly advanced drama during the time lead to dramas inspiring other and proposing several different readings such as the Holy Scriptures, pamphlets, and literary criticism to some of the first English novels. The sudden darkening change of literature connected to the […]

Feminism and Islam Religion

Throughout the Muslim world, a popular front of feminist belief is growing among women who are looking forward to reclaim Islam and the Quran for themselves. For ten years, many women trusted that they had to choose between their Muslim personality, their identity, and also their belief in gender egalitarianism. It was beyond the bounds of possibility of their choice that, the person that involved betraying either their faith or their feminist knowledge. About few years ago, a global movement […]

Importance of Bible

The mind should be very important to everyone, for it is the gateway for either good or bad to enter through. What enters the mind lurks in the mind. God wants what is paramount for everyone, and for believers to stay true. God wants what is paramount for everyone. Luke 21:14 says, "But make up your mind not to worry beforehand how you will defend yourselves." (Luke 21:14 NIV) This passage means do not worry what one will say to […]

All Religion View LGBTQ Life Styles Negatively

The Relationship between religion and LGBTQ community is different from time and place, and different religions. Countless religions in the world view LGBTQ negatively. This Negativity can range from explicitly forbidding to discouraging same sex sexual practices, and sexual reassignment, but liberals and progressive voices actively push social acceptance of the LGBTQ Identities. Most of the LGBTQ have been raised in many different organized religions many cherish their community’s faith but many are being forced to leave those communities’ behind […]

Comparative Religion Life of Buddha

Buddha which means enlightened one or the awakened is the titled conferred to Siddhartha Gautama. It is believed that he lived in Nepal between the sixth and fourth centuries. During that time, he tried different teachings but could not find any that was acceptable to him. One night while in meditation, he found the answers he was seeking thereby achieving awareness. This is what made him become Buddha. His life serves as the foundation of the Buddhist religion. Enlightenment, personal […]

Reformation was Mostly about Religion

I would say that the Reformation was mostly about religion. The majority of the documents shown to us pertained to the religious problems with the Church officials. Document 7 is a painting that depicts the bad things the church officials are doing. They are shown indulging in wealth and glory. Some men are also depicted with concubines and illegitimate children. In document 11, John Calvin writes “Nothing therefore can be more absurd than the fiction, that the power of judging […]

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Essays in the Philosophy of Religion

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This volume presents a selection of essays by the late Philip Quinn, one of the world's leading philosophers of religion. Quinn left behind an influential body of work on a wide variety of topics. He was the author of Divine Commands and Moral Requirements (1978) and of more than two hundred papers in philosophy. Fourteen of his best and most influential contributions to the philosophy of religion are gathered here. The papers have been organized around the following topics: religious epistemology, religious ethics, religion and tragic dilemmas, religion and political liberalism, topics in Christian philosophy, and religious diversity.

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Free Religion Essay Examples

1595 samples of this type

Wondering how to write a paper on religion? Don’t know how to approach this controversial and debatable topic? We are here to help you! Here you’ll find religion essay topics, useful writing prompts, and a list of religion essay examples at the end of the article!

Religion Essay: What Is It about?

A religion essay is a paper that explores beliefs and traditions as well as their influence on cultures and nations. In a religion essay, you can also analyze the parallels and differences between various religious branches.

Religion studies are connected to philosophy and social science. That is why essays on the topic are often written in these disciplines.

Below are three primary approaches to compose the essay. You need to choose the one that stays in line with your assignment.

• Religion argumentative essay
• Religion persuasive essay
• Religion comparative essay

Make sure you state in your religion essay introduction that all religions are equal and have the right to exist. Now we may explore these types of papers in depth. Choose the one that applies to your task and write an excellent article with our tips!

Argumentative Essay on Religion

An argumentative essay on religion explores faith and its aspects. You prove right or claim wrong a specific concept you work on. You can discover the approaches of different schools of thought to some ideas. This is a reflection on questions that can be raised but cannot be answered.

These are the possible essays:

• Science and religion essay is on the relationship and contradictions between the two fields. Are they contested? Does creationism exclude evolution? At what point does religion become science and the other way round? Here you may explore the treatment of science among different religions. Compare traditions of the state where the research is approved and where it is not. There is a theory on atheism as a religion as well. Describe scientists’ views on this topic.
• Religion and morality essay is part of the debate on ethics and moral development. What is the difference between religion and morality? What is their connection to each other? What does a dignified life mean? You can argue on what is good and what is evil. Explain the roots of moral values. How have they developed out of religious traditions?
• Religion and politics essay puts questions on the role of religion in politics. Do these institutes have to be separated? How do religious states function? How has the bond of faith and state changed? Study the role religion played in various historical periods. You may try to defend the times when religion was the cause of wars. Or analyze the way religion has influenced the government’s programs.

Persuasive Essay on Religion

Religion persuasive essay sets a goal to reshape one’s mind on faith. There is no need to write about a wide-ranging concept or analyze a concrete notion. You aim to make others consider or even adopt the beliefs you promote. To achieve that, do not force your values, but use logic and strong arguments. Note pros and cons, so the reader knows your position from both sides.

The topics can be:

• Same-sex marriage persuasive essay on religion. It has to prove the need to legalize or prohibit this relationship. You are to give evidence about the benefits or drawbacks of such a law. Refer to the religious tradition of your culture and state. Explain the way morals change if you implement your beliefs.
• Persuasive essay: should religion be taught? In this paper, you need to define if there has to be a religious class or not. Do we have to explain to children world religions? American society is multicultural. So it is best to know more about the existing beliefs. Or are you sure that religion belongs to the past? Is there a place for it in the modern world?
• Freedom of religion essay is about one’s right to practice a religion or not. The first amendment to the US Constitution protects this right. Still, not everyone agrees with it. They believe religious unity is crucial to a society. You may try to adopt this point of view to prove these claims right or wrong.

Compare & Contrast Essay on Religion

Comparative essay on religion contrasts beliefs and traditions. What kind of relationships are among these faiths? What is their influence on each other? The goal is to define the similarities and contradictions. It is better to choose a concrete notion or practice. Then describe two or three religious scholars’ ideas on this topic. You may speculate on the future cooperation of this and that faith.

The titles are as follows:

• Compare and contrast: Buddhism and Christianity essay. Study the principle ideas and morals of these beliefs. Here you can describe the contacts of the Catholic Church with the Dalai Lama. Consider writing about Christ and Buddha’s teachings on the afterlife. What are their parallels? Do they have the same concept of the divine or not?
• Compare and contrast: Christianity and Islam essay. This paper can take as a topic the common roots of these faiths. How have they changed, and why are they so distinct? What are their principal similarities? Discuss the reasons for religious persecutions of the Middle Ages. You may explore Islam’s remains in the Iberian Peninsula.
• Compare and contrast: Hinduism and Buddhism essay. You may confuse these religions with one another, but they should not be mixed. They have many similar principles, but there are some distinctions as well. Compare Hinduism and Buddhism cosmology. How do these religions define karma and dharma? How do they represent gods and spirits?

How to Write an Essay about Religion?

These are some pieces of advice we recommend you to follow:

• Study your tutor’s instructions and ask him if something is unclear
• Think about an argumentative title
• Prepare a detailed outline
• Give a thesis in the introduction
• Make your arguments solid and valid
• Prove your evidence with reliable sources
• Do not make new points in the conclusion
• Place the best arguments at the beginning and at the end of a body part
• Reread the final essay and correct any incoherence
• Check the spelling and grammar mistakes

Hope our article is useful to you, and you will get an A+ essay. We also prepared some high-quality religion essay examples. Make sure to check them out!

The Impact of Religion in Society

Have you ever wondered how different religions influence society? In this impact of religion on society essay sample, you’ll find an answer to this and other questions about impact of religion on society. Keep reading to gain some inspiration for your paper! Impact of Religion on Society: Essay Introduction Let...

The Scribes and the Pharisees After Crucifixion of Christ

Jesus and the scribes and the Pharisees were always at crossroads and the latter believed that Jesus was neither the son of God nor did he have that he had the capabilities he talked about when addressing the multitudes. One of the things that Jesus said when he was alive...

Saint Augustine vs Aquinas: Theological Approaches Comparison

If you need to give an example to differentiate Augustine’s views on the self from Aquinas’, this essay sample is for you. Here, you will find an explanation of the similarities and difference between Augustine and Aquinas regarding their philosophies and theological approaches. Augustine vs Aquinas: Introduction The views of...

Qur’an, Sunnah, and Hadith in Islam

Introduction Qur’an, Sunnah, and the Hadith are the three sacred texts that Muslims value and use for assessing the ethical behavior to be embraced in their societies. The Quran is the supreme of the three sacred texts. It is taken to be literal word of God and is believed to...

An Introduction to Christian Values and Decision-Making in Health Care

Introduction In terms of spirituality, human nature is a vast, complex, largely unknown world. The inner world of a person is shaky, as it is vulnerable to the influence of other people and circumstances. At the same time, it can become a support in difficult times and lead a person...

The Second Coming of Christ

The Second Coming of Jesus Christ in Christian doctrine is reflected in the Nicene Creed. It is the return from Heaven to Earth of the Lord Jesus Christ in divine glory and power, which, according to the promise of God, will occur at the end of time. This is the...

The Main Characteristics of Hinduism

Hinduism is a religious practice that originated and is practiced in India. It is one of the oldest religious practices in the world. It is mainly practiced in India and it’s the world’s 3rd most popular religion with over 900 million followers. It is a complex religion, but it is...

Similarities and Differences Between Islam and Hinduism

The two religions; Hinduism and Islam are considered poles apart from each other for many reasons, though one fails to consider their similarities as well. Being humans, no matter what religion or sect one belongs to, they think that their knowledge of the religion is best. For instance, all human...

Christianity, Islam and Judaism Similarities

Introduction Christianity, Islam and Judaism are all religions. Religion can be defined as a set of beliefs and a way of life. Though, there are different religions with different practices and beliefs in the world, there exists some clear similarities. Christianity is defined as the religion that is based on...

The Relationship between Religion and Politics

Abstract Religion and politics are regarded as very unlikely bedfellows in the contemporary world. This is contrary to previous civilizations where religion took a center stage in the day-to-day running of politics. This paper will look at the various stages of the relationship between religion and politics through various ages...

• Christianity

Christianity in Malaysia: The Spread and Development

The spread of Christianity began in the first century. It continued steadily as different missionaries traversed various continents globally. Activities such as crusades and campaigns significantly influenced the success of the spread of the religion which started in Northern Europe before proceeding to other continents. Among the earliest regions to...

Christianity Beliefs and Practices

Christian beliefs and practices are connected with the history and origin of Christianity. Beliefs and practices of worship are studied in this essay. Introduction Christianity is one of the most popular religions in the world. Beliefs and practices of Christianity are generally the same across the world. Christianity beliefs include...

Eastern vs. Western Religions: What’s the Difference?

The Eastern religions are typically described as those faiths which originated and were practiced in countries such as India, Japan, Southern Asia, and China. There are regular arguments and conflicts between the Eastern and Western religions, whereby the latter dwells on the idea that a distinct type of worshipping only...

Major Themes of The 13 Letters of Paul

Introduction The basis of Paul’s thirteen letters is the theme of truthfulness and the appearance of Christ for the salvation of people. In addition, another topic is the redemption of the human soul and God’s grace. The famous missionary Paul of Tarsus is credited with writing fourteen of the twenty-seven...

The Ministry of the Prophet: Meanings and Goals

The Calling, The Prophetic Voice, Character, New Covenant Prophets The ministry of the prophet is referred to as any ministry that depends on the gift of prophecy and revelations from God to guide the church to maturity or a specific direction. The prophetic ministry is seen most often in the...

The Development of the New Testament Canon

Canon of the New Testament: Essay Introduction In contemporary times, researchers and scholars have raised differing opinions and discussions about the development of the New Testament canon. Consequently, different individuals have come up with disparate approaches and sentiments in a bid to solve this controversy. Different individuals raise opposing points...

Life and Ministry of John the Baptist

Introduction The life and ministry of John the Baptist started several years before his birth. His coming is prophesied in the Old Testament, even before his parents were in existence. His life is well mapped out and planned by God since He foretells his role in his plan for salvation....

Leadership Styles Used by the Church

Introduction Effective church leadership is important in the numerical growth of congregants. As such, the management strategy adopted by a church minister will have a bearing on the growth of membership. Poor administrative practices can lead to a drop in the followership of churches which even started with a large...

Narrow Road to the Interior. Analysis

“Narrow Road to the Interior,” written by Matsuo Basho is a set of haiku and prose depicting Basho’s journeys across Japan. In this work, Basho describes how he traveled, describing the places and references to other poems. Additionally, the topic of spirituality, mainly on the basis of the religious tradition...

Deontological Ethics of Christianity

Deontology is derived from two Greek words, “Deon,” which means duty, and “logos,” meaning science. It is an ethical term that applies the laid down rules to determine whether a thing is right or wrong. The theory argues that rules should be followed without establishing the consequences of the actions...

• Jesus Christ

The Impact of Apostle Paul Leadership Style

Introduction Apostle Paul is considered the most important person after the death of Jesus due to his influence on Christian theology. He used a transformational leadership approach to inspire change in the followers. This is a leadership style where a leader collaborates with employees to identify the desired change, develops...

The Concept of Education and Religion

Introduction Education and religion are major social institution that impacts the lives of many people. They play an integral role in shaping values and beliefs as well as comparing various religious and educational practices across the globe. Education is a formal system of teaching knowledge, skills, and values (Henslin 495)....

Old Testament Lessons for National Security Council

Abstract The purpose of the paper is to offer a set of applicable recommendations regarding the National Security Council (NSC) membership and operations based on the examination of the Old Testament kings’ advisors. The Scripture offers a number of invaluable lessons related to political leadership and a ruler’s need for...

The Book of Ephesians: Literary Analysis of Passage

The book of Ephesians consists of two major parts, one of which is Doctrine, which explains who the people in Christ are (1:1 – 3:21), and the second one is about Duty, or how people live in Christ (4:1 – 6:24). These are two blocks of thoughts, the ideas of...

Role of Religion in Functionalism and Conflict Perspectives

Introduction Religion is a basic social institution that affects an individual’s life from childhood to adulthood. Religion can be defined as a set of beliefs and practices which govern society, religion varies in different societies and also differs in the degree to which it is integrated into the society. It...

The Old Testament’ Importance for the Modern Believer

Introduction Today, many Christians neglect the Old Testament, considering that it only contains bedtime stories and is not relevant for the modern believers. However, this approach is not correct. Studying the Old Testament gives a modern believer knowledge on the relationship between God and people, explains certain universal principles, helps...

Similarities and Differences Between Jainism and Sikhism

Introduction Jainism came about as a result of efforts to transform Hindu religion 2000 years ago. This religion was established almost same time as Buddhism. It was founded by Vardhamana, a prominent person who live in East India. The founder became very famous in 420 BCE when he was around...

Critical Evaluation of Talal Asad’s Critique of Geertz’s Model

Introduction Religion is an integral part of the life of society, performing a number of important functions, one of which is cultural. Despite the fact that this area is ancient, there are still disputes among researchers about the significance of this institution for the individual and the state. Clifford Geertz...

Decline of Christianity in Europe

Christianity is the largest religion in the world, with more than two billion adherents. Christian faith includes numerous branches, the most popular of which are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and Protestantism. Even though all the branches are diverse in terms of canons and rituals, all of them...

Comparison of the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John

The Bible is the book of eternal wisdom and experience; it is the source that can provide answers to all questions if one is faithful enough and if he/she takes a deep look at the endless wisdom embodied in words. It is impossible for one person to convey this eternal...

• Spirituality
• Old Testament
• Relationship

Joseph and Yusuf in the Qur’an and the Bible

Introduction Prophet Yusuf is a character in the Holy Book of the Koran, the Bible, and Jews. He lived, preached, and died in Egypt in the sixteenth century BC, living for nearly one hundred and ten years. His name is mentioned twenty-six times in the Qur’an, and there is also...

The Observance of Prayer in Christianity Compared to Islam

Introduction Religious organizations provide familiar institutions of social cohesion and control in an environment. In the city of Los Angeles, many religions are being practiced due to the freedom of worship. Talking about how Christianity and Islam are prevalent in the city of Los Angeles today, these two religions have...

Concept of Human Being in Islam

Background Humans are considered the most important beings among all the animals created as they can distinguish between right and wrong. Muslims believe humans are born in a state of purity, and as they grow, they make decisions that are by and against Islam teachings. The creator sent his prophets...

A Belief in Helping Strangers

The collision of the two vehicles startled me. I swerved to the side of the road to ensure that I did not become a victim. My husband jumped out of the car before it had even stopped and rushed towards one of the cars that had been involved in the...

Phenomenology Approach in Studying Religion

Introduction Many disciplines have attempted to define the field of religion to give it a substantive and universal grounding. However, some of these definitions have been found to be compartmentalized and narrow. The different methods used to define religion include phenomenology, comparative religion, historical approach, sociology of religion, and philosophy...

Ministry of the Prophets, Bible Prophets and Their Prophecies

Prophetic ministry at its core is the act of leading and guiding the church based on revelations from God and gift of the prophesy. The Scriptures present multiple examples of prophetic ministry. The Old Testament has a significant number of prophets. There are the central ones who directly communicated with...

Abortion in Hanafi and Maliki Schools of Islamic Thought

Introduction It is a well-known fact that the Quran outlines the ethical and practical principles that were designed to be followed in 7th-century Arabia. At the same time, Islam as a global religion aims to translate a universally applicable worldview that, at least theoretically, should work in every situation and...

Exegesis of Jeremiah 1:4-10

Biblical Text The Call of Jeremiah The word of the Lord came to me, saying, “Before I formed you in the womb I knew[a] you, before you were born I set you apart; I appointed you as a prophet to the nations.” “Alas, Sovereign Lord,” I said, “I do not...

Judaism and Buddhism: Similarities and Differences

Abstract The term religion is used to refer to the approach that human beings give to their spirituality as provided by their beliefs, symbols, narratives, and practices on a supernatural figure. Human beings express religious inclination through several ways; some of which include prayers, rituals, and music. There are different...

Comparing of Judaism and Taoism

The purpose of this essay is to compare the two religions, their main characteristics, beliefs, and conceptual and ethical attitudes. Judaism and Taoism are chosen as examples for comparison. Judaism is one of the oldest Western monotheistic religions, distinguished by belief in the one true God. Judaism is based on...

• Interpretation

Judaism, Christianity and Islam: Comparative Analysis

Introduction Global events and attitudes have to a large extent been shaped by religion. The history of humanity have been encompassed by a number of events such as wars, the building of new cities and the introduction of new laws with the central of aim of promulgating or protecting one...

The Christian Worldview: Gospel Essentials Essay

Introduction Gospel Essentials and the Christian Worldview Gospel essentials are the subject matter of the gospel books, whose theme is forgiveness of sin and redemption, qualified by Jesus’ atonement (1 Cor. 15: 1-4 New International Version). On the other hand, Valk describes the Christian worldview as the underlying philosophical structure...

Fruits of the Holy Spirit and Its Nine Attributes

Introduction Holy Spirit can be considered as one fruit with nine parts as developing all the nine attributes makes the soul holistic and establishes a connection with God. The fruit of the Spirit is “love, joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-control (Howard). Letting the listed attributes into life...

Pastoral Ministry’s Goals Accomplishment

Introduction The work of a pastor, a shepherd for people in both trying and peaceful times, is noble but difficult. Some describe it as the highest of callings in life, while others add that it is very taxing (Tan, 2019). To provide for people in a God-honoring way, one must...

The Watch and the Watchmaker Summary & William Paley Watchmaker

Curious to find the answer to the question, “Who is a watchmaker according to William Palley?” You’re in the right place! This essay contains The Watch and the Watchmaker summary of the theory and analysis of William Palley watchmaker argument in support of the existence of God. Sounds interesting? Keep...

Importance of the New Testament for Christianity

Christianity is the world’s major religion with around 2 billion followers. Its central figure is Jesus Christ who through his birth, ministry life, trials, crucifixion, death, and, resurrection is believed to have offered the salvation and atonement needed by His followers from their sins. His nature and personality have been...

“Wonders of the Invisible World” by Cotton Mather

Wonders of the Invisible World is a book written by Cotton Mather, published in 1693, right after the Salem Witch trials. The objective of the book was to defend the role Cotton Mather played in the trials and is based on the man’s belief of witchcraft being real and perpetrated...

The Book of Job From the Bible

Background The Book of Job in the Bible informs why God allows evil in people’s lives through Job’s experiences. Job was a man who feared the Lord and was prosperous in all ways; he lived a comfortable life, was wealthy, had a big family and possessions. After God boasted to...

The Foundation of Christianity: Greek, Jews, Roman, and Heathen Traits

Christianity has always been a cross-cultural and diverse religion with no single dominant expression. Historically, Christians lived in diverse cultural contexts enabling Christianity to gain a multicultural and polytonal context globally. The Greek, Roman, Jewish, and Heathen ancient cultural traits influenced the development and spread of Christianity. Christianity started with...

Ten Commandments in My Life and the World Today

The Ten Commandments hold a very special place in the hearts of all Christians, these commandments are believed to be written by God, and every person is expected to adhere to these Ten Commandments. It can be said that in order to have a good life one must follow all...

• Western Civilization
• Confucianism

Analysis of “Surah al-Ikhlas” in Qur’an

This paper targets to analyze Surah 112 of the Qur’an, which consists of 4 verses. It is relatively short, yet considered to be one of the most significant. It goes under the name “Surah al-Ikhlas,” which in translation from Arabic means “The Purification” or “The Unity”. It contains many fundamental...

Psychology and Theology: Worldview Issues, and Models of Integration

Psychology and theology are often viewed as two opposing forces with no common ground and the proponents of which deny the merits of each other’s disciplines. Nevertheless, the two fields of studies have a long-standing history, although the relationship between the two can be described as problematic. Many people who...

Reflection on the Book of Psalms

Introduction The Bible does not provide all the religious answers that believers may have; only the passages and translations open to interpretation. God’s figure is mysterious, fearsome, and impossible to fully understand; thus, some readers can feel confused or intimidated. However, the Bible touches on the Lord’s nature and provides...

Analysis of Exegesis of Numbers 21: 4-9

“If it does not kill you, it will make you well” (Barlett and Brown Thaylor, 2008, 101). This well-known statement that is used now as a saying is given in the presentation of the exegetical perspective of the analyzed pericope. It has its roots in the Scripture, mainly in the...

Jesus’s Teaching Methods and Messages

Introduction Jesus Christ is the most prominent figure in Christianity. The New Testament fully portrays his life, actions, teachings, and the legacy that remained. The teachings, specifically, have become a pillar of religious studies and illustrate the moral and ethical values Christians have nowadays in regard to having a righteous...

Global Challenges of The Muslims in the Modern Society

The presented research outlined and examined some of the issues facing Muslims in modern society, taking into account knowledge acquisition and global Muslim representation as the core aims in the study. One of the significant problems identified in the research faced by Muslims was the mass media misrepresentation and Western...

Comparison Between Buddhism and Christianity

Buddhism and Christianity are the religions that have many believers from different parts of the world. The two religions may be seen as distinct, but they still share some beliefs and teachings. Buddhism entails teachings about Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as Buddha, while Christianity is based on the belief in...

Phenomenological and Experiential Approaches to Religious Education

Introduction Religion is an integral part of most societies. In the history of humanity, religions have influenced major parts of the way of life of most societies. In many societies, passing religious beliefs to the other members of the society is taken as major duty for existence. In accordance with...

Gregory the Great Life and Teachings

Introduction Pope Gregory the Great became a pope when the Italian province was in crisis, and the state appeared lawless, crumbling, and semi-abandoned by visitors to Rome. A statement by the future pope had indicated that barbarians had full control of the religion. The city’s state had made the Romans...

The Holy Spirit: Characteristics and Activity

Introduction The Holy Spirit is an inherent part of Christian theology representing an integral element of the Holy Trinity and a means by which people are both empowered and become messengers of God. In Scriptures, the Holy Spirit takes on numerous forms and has appeared to influence major events in...

“The Making of a Leader” by Dr. J. Robert Clinton

Abstract The Making of a Leader by Dr. J. Robert Clinton explores the complicated nature of spiritual dynamics. The book provides readers with numerous accounts of leadership stories that are meant to serve as guidance for emerging leaders. In the first chapter of the book, Dr. Clinton describes five main...

The Connection of Spirituality and Mental Health

Nowadays, spirituality plays a huge role for many people around the world, and the connection between the inner feelings of every person with the outside world is a crucial part. According to Brown, et al (2013), spirituality has a strong relation to mental health, and while working on the religion...

Importance of Having Faith for People

Faith, the concept of having confidence in something regardless of whether it is grounded in facts, is often the only thing that offers consolation to people. However, it is beneficial during hard times and can inspire people to be and do better when they are already living well. This concept...

Safeguarding and the Bible Perspective

The term ‘safeguarding tendencies’ implies a range of structured actions of an individual determined to protect himself or herself from public criticism or other threats from other people, including both phycological and physical ones. These behavioral patterns are usually referred to as revealing a neurotic nature and lifestyle. There are...

Theology: Virgin Mary as a Goddess

Goddesses have always been part of various pantheons during the various stages of human history. Their role is inseparable from the role of women in ancient, medieval, and modern societies, as religion was used as a blueprint for morality, proper behavior, and the establishment of societal and gender roles. Ancient...

Religion Role in the Society

Introduction God is the originator of religion. He created the world and the people in it and established some general principles and laws which they were instructed to follow. God spoke through selected prophets who heard him speak and recorded his words (Johnstone 21). He revealed to the people through...

The Kingdom of God in Christianity

The Kingdom of God portrays the rightful society ruled by God, where each member dedicates to their moral and spiritual development, and the principle of righteousness and virtue is dominant. According to Christian beliefs, people fell from God’s grace thousands of years ago, being seduced to disobey His orders, after...

Critical Introduction to the Book of Matthew

Introduction The book of Matthew is the first in the New Testament and was written by Saint Matthew, the evangelist. The book primarily discusses the accounts of the life and death of Jesus Christ. The gospel was initially written in Greek sometimes after 69 CE and depended on the earlier...

China Buddhism vs. Japan Buddhism and Shintoism

Buddhism is a religion that uses Buddha’s perspective, such as the traditions and beliefs attributed to the religious faith. It is believed that Buddha lived and taught in some parts of India during the fourth century BCE (Miura, 2018). Buddhism has been getting popular in many countries, for example, Japan...

Afterlife in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

Introduction A basic belief that varies from faith to faith is that there is life after death. According to several religions, including Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, where followers of a common religion have diverse afterlife concepts, life takes multiple forms when a person dies (Kippenberg 110). Afterlife, immortality as a...

• Discrimination
• Civilization

Eternal Life in John’s Gospel: Theological Perspective

Every human, at least once in their life, thought about receiving the gift of eternal life. Such a desire is quite reasonable because any person is afraid of the unknown; they have no idea about what will happen when they die. This is a part of human nature; being scared...

How Do Religions Both Unite and Divide Humanity?

Introduction Even in the age of secularity and diversity, religion permeates essential aspects of human society, such as law, morality, ethics, and economy. The power of faith can either unite or cause severe divisions. Examples of unifying potential can be found in universal values upheld by the followers of different...

The Positive and Negative Aspects of Judaism

Judaism is a Jewish religion where members believe in a single deity who is the creator and redeemer of human beings, all forms of life on earth, and everything in the Universe. It is one of the oldest monotheistic religions in history, said to have begun with Abraham in Canaan....

Sermon on the Mount, Buddha’s Sermon at Benares, and Buddha’s Sermon on Abuse

Both Buddha and Christianity figures can be analyzed to determine their assertions compared to Aristotle’s Doctrine of the Mean. Ethics has been encouraged by many religions and philosophers to enable people to interact with ease. For example, Christians focus on the experiences of Jesus, where he taught his followers the...

The Importance of Studying and Understanding Different Religions

In my opinion, the study of different approaches to the study and comprehension of religions is indeed an exciting and important topic. The realities of the modern world significantly contribute to communication between representatives of different cultures. This can often lead to conflicts, including those that arise on religious grounds....

How I Apply the Principles from Anderson’s Gracism

Humility is at the heart of Christianity, and every person who has faith must strive to adhere to this virtue. Being humble means valuing diversity in all of its manifestations, and to do it, one can rely on the principles outlined by David A. Anderson in his book Gracism. The...

Leadership Development Plan Based on the Bible Principles

Introduction Leadership advancement is the practice of cultivating governance abilities and proficiencies through various undertakings. During the process, individuals are taught vital management competencies that enable them to lead, encourage and direct their teams to success properly. Training is essential to cultivate a culture of headship throughout an establishment appropriately....

Biblical Allusions in Of Plymouth Plantation

The Puritans have played an enormous role in American literature, and their ideas still influence moral judgment and some religious beliefs in the United States. Puritan writing has been used to glorify God and to relate God more directly to people’s world. Puritan literature was straightforward and focused on teaching...

“Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling” Book by McMinn

Summary Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling by Mark McMinn is a book that reflects the professional experience and the wisdom of the author as both a teacher and practitioner. Combining the Scripture with the context within which counseling takes place in a rather complicated assignment that requires a...

The Tale of Kieu: The Value of Confucianism

Introduction The Tale of Kieu by Nguyen Du is one of the most prominent Vietnamese poems, depicting the life of a woman who had to save her family by sacrificing her own life. This poem presents the social and political challenges of the 18th century, when two dynasties, Nguyen and...

• Ancient History
• Ancient Civilizations

Steward Versus Servant Leadership in Christianity

Introduction Leadership style is the method or approach employed by a person while managing or heading a team. The leadership style is determined by factors such as an individual’s personal characteristics or traits, behaviors, and goals. Christian leadership styles have been in existence for a long time, and different people...

Servant Leadership in the Church and Its Purpose

Introduction Leadership is a quality that people can be endowed with if they can manage other groups for development. In addition, leadership qualities are formed over a long period, thus becoming the result of a person’s experience. Among leadership types, there is Servant Leadership, the essence of which is the...

Exegesis of Job 23: 1-17, The Book of Job

Introduction The Book of Job can be considered as one of the most philosophical works of the Old Testament. The uniqueness of the Book of Job is in its “depth and thoroughness in dealing with the relationship of human suffering to divine justice” (Gaebelein, 1979-1992, 843). The commonly accepted notion...

The Protestant Reformation in Europe

The protestant reformation contributed greatly to social, political, and religious revolutions in Europe. Protestant reformation was initiated by the European Christian Reform Movement. The movement aimed at reforming the doctrine of the Catholic Church which was at that moment dominant in Europe. However, the reformation did not come easy, a...

Hinduism and Buddhism: Similarities and Differences

Many religions take similar paths and steps to help their followers or believers reach enlightenment. Other religions require their followers or believers to accept one idea or creed. Some believe in God and others do not. Whether they believe in gods or not, each religion has its followers who believe...

The Theme of Justice in the Old and the New Testament

Introduction: Tracing the Discrepancies between the Testaments God’s decisions differ. This statement is often used to describe the content of two Testaments. The scholars of all times have been investigating the sources and the logical explanations of some discrepancies that put a strong line of demarcation between the Old and...

Explaining James’s Statement “Faith Without Works Is Dead”

The Book of James and the epistle to the Galatians are two writings that represent the New Testament Law. In the first one, James wrote: “Faith Without Works is Dead,” claiming that believers need to support their faith with good actions made as a result of changed lives. In the...

Obedience in Faith in the Story of Abraham

Among the examples of steadiness and firmness in faith, few parts of the Holy Scripture are as impactful in this respect as the story of Abraham. The hardship he endured and the challenges he faced were colossal by any standard, yet his stalwart faith in God never wavered even in...

Importance of Speaking in Tongues in Christianity

Introduction Speaking in tongues is a term that is common especially when referring to the Pentecostal churches. It is a supernatural language that is believed to be imparted to Christian believers when they have been baptized in the Holy Spirit. The issue of speaking in tongues has raised a lot...

Western and Eastern Religions and Their History

Introduction Religion has played an important responsibility in the traditional world as well as in the modern world. In order to complement religion, a number of societies for example Chinese, Romans and Greeks emulated rationalism. Modern world is the historic period when the European countries began to expand spreading imperialism...

• Women's Rights
• Communication
• Architecture

The Healing Ministry of Jesus

Introduction This paper looks at the healing ministry of Jesus. This ministry is one of the most acknowledged yet controversial parts of His work on earth. However, He is the most recognized healer because of His expertise and compassion, as the paper will illustrate. This research is based on historical...

Jesus Role in Fulfilling God’s Plan to Save the World

The bible as a religious book was written many years ago. It’s a religious book for Christians. Christians believe in God, the son and the Holy Spirit. Christianity acknowledges that Jesus Christ was the Son of God. The bible teaches about the history of the world in a religious perspective....

Message of the Prophets: Background and Interpretation

Introduction The Bible described many situations when people got to know God’s words from other people among them. Being chosen individually, prophets were expected to pass God’s message to others. These messages were aimed to communicate God’s will, while the predictions in them happened to be inevitable. Background and Interpretation...

Buddhism and the Life Teaching of Siddhartha

Buddhism Essay Introduction Buddhism is believed to have been in existence, way before Siddhartha existed (United Press International, 2007, p. 1). Most scholars observe that the roots of Buddhism are very deep, and though Siddhartha contributed a lot to the development of the religion, many Buddhists believe that he was...

Effective Leadership: The Biblical Perspective

Effective leadership from a biblical perspective is a God manifested character to influence and serve others through Christ’s interests to accomplish God’s purposes. In a Christian community, leaders should be guided by the Holy Spirit to collaborate and adopt good attributes to execute their duties without fear. Jesus demonstrated effective...

Socio-Historical Context of the Book of Romans

Paul wrote to the church in Rome when Jews were coming back to the city after their expulsion. A new emperor had assumed control of the empire, replacing the one who had dismissed the Jewish leaders. Besides, the Gentiles became in charge of the church’s leadership and changed the practices,...

Charles Manson and the Family as a Destructive Cult

Introduction There is freedom of worship in the US and one can join any religion she/he feels like. Everyone has control of his/her life and is responsible for the actions he takes. One can do everything that pleases him as long as his actions do not hurt another person. However,...

Revival as the Impetus for Church Growth

Summary A long time ago, a famous novelist wrote the immortal lines: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of time, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity.”1 Charles Dickens’...

The First Three Kings of Israel in the Bible

Introduction The history of the establishment of monarchy and the reign of the first Israeli kings is described in the books of Samuel and the books of Kings. The first king, Saul, was appointed due to the fact that people turned away from God’s will; even though his successor, David,...

Making Friends With People of Different Religions

Being educated and respectful of other religions Education of other religions is undoubtedly one of the most crucial parts of a dialogue with a representative of a different faith. Ignorance in such a matter might lead to misunderstanding and unwanted conflict. Besides, respecting other beliefs should prove to be very...

• Native American
• Nationalism

God and Humans Relate

Introduction In the well-known passage in Genesis, “God said, ‘Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness…’” (New King James Version Bible Genesis 1.26). It is a powerful and fundamental statement that came define humanity for millennia, that humans are a likeness of the Divine. However, we are...

Jesus Christ’s Ministries and Chaplain Behaviors

Introduction Parallels can be drawn between Jesus Christ and military chaplains, as both were sent to minister to secular and religiously diverse communities. As such, His example should serve as the inspiration for members of the profession, with His words and actions deserving emulation in the course of one’s work....

Buddha as a Leader of a Buddhism Religion

Introduction Buddha, meaning the enlightened one, started Buddhism as a religion. He was born Prince Siddhartha Gautama around the fifth century BCE and died at the age of 80 around 400 BCE after a long time of traveling and preaching (Kleiner 447). After his death, his followers collected, organized, and...

“Viderunt Omnes” by Leonin

Viderunt Omnes is an old Georgian chant based on a biblical Psalm XCVII. It is sung as a gradual, which is a liturgical celebration of the Eucharist, mostly in the Catholic religion. The hymn is usually performed at the masses on such catholic and Christian holidays as Christmas and, historically,...

Science and Religion: Historical Relationship

Introduction The historical relation between science and religion is long and has not been that cozy throughout history. The main area of contention is the view that both hold on the world whereby, as science tends to base all its explanations through empirical observations, religion on the other hand makes...

Christian Spirituality in History and Today

The question of spirituality and relationship of a man and God should be topical today taking into consideration the present cultural and ethical situation in contemporary society. Nowadays mankind is lead by and inspired by material values, the main characteristic of our life and lifestyle is their being mercenary. The...

Developing a Personal Philosophy of Ministry

What I Believe About God What people believe about God can both be universal and personal since at the end of the day it is upon a particular believer to make his or her personal choice whether to believe in God or not to believe in Him. As to the...

“In His Steps” by Charles Sheldon

Since its publication in 1896, “In His Steps” by Charles Sheldon became widely popular in Christian circles. Part of the success of this religious fiction novel lies in its focus on timeless concepts of love and compassion and the responsibility we share to care for those in need. In his...

The Catholic Church and Western Classical Music

The middle ages were characterized by the dominance of the Roman Catholic Church in many religious and social aspects of the community and society. Therefore, many secular elements of culture like the creation and composition of music had their origins in the Roman Catholic Church or were at least influenced...

The Role of Gothic Cathedrals in the Popularization of the Catholic Church

When Gothic architecture first emerged in the 12th century, it made an immense impact on the popularization of faith and the attraction of new followers. Derived from the religious buildings of the Romanesque era, Gothic cathedrals were constructed specifically to represent the divine nature of God (Zhekova p. 18). For...

• Biomedicine
• Colonialism

African Christianity vs. Western Rationalism

Introduction Christianity has spread to all parts of the world since its early days, and the cultural differences of those who adopted this religion shaped their religious beliefs, practices, as well as spirituality. African Christianity is characterized by spiritual and holistic nature, which encompasses the acceptance of the empirical and...

Karma and Rebirth in Hinduism and Buddhism Religions

Introduction In many cases people face difficulties trying to differentiate between Hinduism and Buddhism religions. The two share many similarities though they are not identical but only have Indian origin. Besides, each religion teaches its followers to separate doctrines and values. According to Romero (n.d.), Buddhism is one of the...

Modern Interpretations of the Bible

I am one of Jesus Christ’s disciples. I spent all my life discovering the truth to the people. Jesus Christ came to the Earth to put the people in a straight and narrow way. All his life, he preached God’s Word to the people but his sermons written in the...

Hinduism Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: Comparison

Introduction Religion is an integral part of the modern world. First, religious institutes carry out spiritual registration of believers which is shown in the human-God communication. Secondly, the religious organizations are engaged in religious and special secular education, charity, and philanthropy. Thirdly, representatives of religious institutes actively participate in public...

Christianity in Rome During the 1st to 5th Centuries

Introduction One of the most astounding developments in world history was that within five centuries after its inception, Christianity had won adherents throughout the Roman Empire, including the backing of the Roman state. Christianity started as an apparently unknown sect of Judaism. It survived persecution to become an important part...

Theological Translatability, Inspiration, and Authority in Religious Traditions

Global South and Theological Translatability The field of global politics is in constant change and adaptation to new realities and contexts. Because of it, various political terms and concepts have outdated, modified, novel, or deceptive meanings. A striking example of such descriptive and interpretive inconsistencies and contradictions is the “first-world...

The Difference between the Qur’an and Other Religious Texts

The Qur’an is a central divine book of Islam, written in the sacred language – Arabic. Many scholars believe that the message written within the passages of the Qur’an cannot be imitated since the Book is unique and contains universal knowledge. However, despite the initial beliefs, the Book can be...

Relation Between the Transcendentalism and God

Transcendentalists believed in knowing God on a personal level, watering down the idea that there was no need for an intermediary in understanding God and the spiritual world. To cement their beliefs, transcendentalists embraced idealism, where they focused on nature and opposed materialism. Transcendentalists were inspired by many sources, including...

Debates About Burkini Ban in France

Society has always associated clothes with a person’s identity and personality. Every culture has its own unique customs, traditions, and beliefs. Despite clothes allowing people to self-express, they sometimes act as mediums for spreading ideology. Most people spend much time trying to find the perfect attire. They try to identify...

The Suffering of Joseph

The story of Joseph, son of Jacob, is told in the book of Genesis from chapters 37 to 50. As a young man, Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son because of many reasons. He was born when Joseph was advanced in age and did not expect another child. He was obedient...

• Social Work
• Martin Luther King
• Human Nature

Why Is It Important to Study Bible?

Introduction The Bible as the repository of wisdom and God’s written word is often taken for granted. However, it needs to be examined as the source of essential insights into the nature of human relationships and the use of ethical and moral standards based on which one should build relationships...

The Gospels of Mark and Luke

The Gospels of Mark and Luke contain many of the same stories, often in similar sequences and comparable wording when describing the events. However, distinct similarities in the way the events are expressed can be seen when comparing Mark 14:3-9 with Luke 7:36-50 and Mark 3:31-35 with Luke 8:19-21. This...

The Interconnection Between Goddess Mythology and Ecofeminism

Introduction Most contemporary religions represent a man as the only deity. However, Goddess mythology serves as knowledge of how goddesses and, specifically, the Great Goddess were worshipped in ancient times. The evidence found all over the world lets the humanity suppose that there were times when the Goddess was the...

Why a Christian Environment Appeals to Me

Introduction The world today is full of different types of faiths. Christianity happens to be one of them. Others include Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Judaism. Debating on which of these is better than the other is a continuing issue with each side determined to win. I have however taken a...

Synoptic Gospel: The Books of Mathew, Luke and Mark

Introduction Synoptic gospel is the term used in reference to the books in the bible whose content and explanations are almost similar. In this case, the four books of the New Testament that constitute the synoptic gospel are those written by Mathew, Luke, and Mark. The book of Mark is...

Cherubim Angels: Attributes and Meaning

Introduction It is common knowledge that angelic beings play a significant role in mythology and religion across the world. They are particularly renowned in the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) as the creatures who serve God and execute His will. However, researchers note that there is a tradition of...

Religious Impact on Children’s Future Success

Introduction Religion is integral to the socialization and development of children. It shapes their conception of the future and determines their willingness to work toward achieving specific goals. Religion can help children believe they have a future, as will be demonstrated in the presented argument. Religion can influence a child’s...

The Ten Commandments for Christians

Introduction The Ten Commandments were given to humanity by God as a teaching on duties to God and guidelines on the relationship with each other. The law teaches Christians to honor God, live with respect for each other, observe the Sabbath day, obey their parents and live an honest and...

The Reflection of Shinto in Spirited Away by Hayao Miyazaki

The animated film Spirited away, produced by Japanese animator Hayao Miyazaki, contains many sacred Shinto motives and folklore reflections. The film’s plot follows the story of a 10-year-old girl named Chihiro Ogino, who finds herself in a world inhabited by ghosts and spirits. Although Hayao Miyazaki, being a big admirer...

The Biography of Maramoas, Priest of Zeus

Maramoas was the priest of Zeus in Lystra, a city in the Roman Empire, which was situated on the territory of modern Turkey. He was mentioned in the New Testament in verses describing the idolatry in Lystra: “Then the priest of Zeus, whose temple was in front of their city,...

• Moral Values
• Mental Health
• Ancient Egypt

The Uniqueness of Christianity in Comparison With Islam

Introduction Few religions are as interconnected socially, historically, and culturally as Christianity and Islam. Both faiths have similar origins, historical roots, with Islam recognizing some Christian elements and figures. Both Islam and Christianity represent monotheistic religions with one supreme entity. Each religion incorporates the divine message and prophets who spread...

Christology: Development of Christology

Introduction In no doubt, one will never understand Theology, the idea about God, without mentioning the character of Jesus. Christology then comes in, as among the many branches of Christian theology that purely addresses the mystery behind Jesus Christ: his nature, actions, and person, as it appears in the New...

Symbols and Rituals in Religion

Introduction The word symbol is derived from a Greek word which is related to the word compare whereas rituals can be defined as actions which have a deeper implication than what we perceive at first instant. Rituals can be as simple as a blinking of an eye or as complex...

Religion as a Belief System: What Is It?

Introduction A belief system, as is generally understood, contains high values, moral ideas and thoughts which provide a moral lesson. An overview identifies different types of belief systems that have been prevailing in the modern world. One can regard “belief system is the actual set of precepts from which you...

The Christian Worldview: Fundamental Elements

The number of Christians has steadily been growing in the recent past. However, there is a constant gap between the believers of Christian faith and the non-Christians (Cosgrove 34). The perception of the world sometimes does not reflect the exact representation of Christians leading to misunderstanding and conflict in addressing...

The Epistle of Paul to Philemon: Interpretation

Introduction The Epistle of Paul to Philemon (otherwise known as Philemon) is a book included in the Christian New Testament. The most common interpretation of the book was that Paul wrote a letter to Philemon on behalf of Onesimus, who was a runaway slave that had wronged his owner. Throughout...

Nature and Status of the Human Soul – St. Bonaventure

St. Bonaventure was a philosopher, author, and theologian who lived between 1217 and 1274 AD. During his philosophical works, he developed a human soul model that was a perspective from a person’s knowledge of God with the world being presented as a side effect. The paper presents a brief description...

Impact of Religion on Individuals, Society, and the World

Religion plays an essential role in the growth of an individual, society, and the whole world. Religion acts as a guidebook on how people should live, driven by their faith and principles of life (Primal Religions, n.d.). Moreover, religious leaders are expected to teach people the virtue of love and...

Discipleship in a Healthy Church

A Healthy Church defines a church that resembles and functions simply as a healthy body, namely the Body of Christ. It is the same desire that Jesus has for his body. The Body of Christ is in it, which doesn’t need to be defined, but it’s important to include, The...

The Gospel of John vs. Other Synoptic Gospels

The Gospel of John uniquely differs from the three Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew, Luke) in terms of its literary style, setting and time sequence, portrayal of Jesus, dualistic imagery, and theological concepts. A deviation is observed between John’s Gospel and the Synoptic Gospel because John takes readers back to Genesis...

• Functionalism
• Historical Figures

“The New Christian Counselor: A Fresh Biblical and Transformational Approach”

Introduction In their book The New Christian Counselor: A Fresh Biblical and Transformational Approach, Hawkins and Clinton seek to explain counseling from a Christian perspective. They consider what it means to be a new Christian counselor. Additionally, the book makes a distinction between old Christian counselors and new ones. In...

The Crucifixion of Jesus in Old and New Testament

The Old Testament includes a range of themes and concepts later referenced and reinterpreted in the New Testament. For example, Luke’s descriptions of Jesus’ death are thoroughly connected to Zechariah’s prophecy presented in the Old Testament. Chapter 23 of the Gospel of Luke highlights the fulfillment of predictions about the...

The Concept of God in Christian, Islamic and Hindu Religions

Muslim concept of God Muslims are monotheistic, they believe in one God whom they refer to as Allah. Allah is an Arabic name for God; he is One and unique in everything he had created. Allah has no gender. He is self-sufficient as His existence is not determined by anything....

The Idea of Leadership: “Servants of the Servant” by Don N. Howell, Jr.

Introduction «Servants of the Servant: A biblical theology of leadership» is a 2003 book by Don N. Howell, Jr. that tries to evaluate the titular concept from an unusual perspective. The trait is seen as essential for any manager and is useful for a variety of other professions, and therefore,...

The Problem of Evil and Suffering

The nature of evil No matter what an optimist a person may be, the surrounding reality is not always the merriest place for living. No matter what religious beliefs an individual has, everyone during his life bears the burden of suffering and faces evil. It is useless to deny the...

Theology: Discipleship and a Healthy Church

Introduction Being a believer requires a great deal of sacrifice and dedication but it is mainly synonymous with disciple-making. The church is expected to play a significant role in spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ. Consequently, the task of making disciples is a core element of the church and it...

Salvation Concept in Religion

What do (or should) Christians mean by the word “Salvation”? The Christian definition for salvation is deliverance from wrath of God brought about by the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Salvation is a process which Witherington describes as: “one believe in ones heart that Jesus Christ is Lord, He...

Modernism and Postmodernism: Which World View Is More Conducive to Christian Beliefs

Introduction Modernism and postmodernism belong to the same movement. Both are based on changes in cultural, economic, and social movements. However, the two movements differ when it comes to the way of thinking. This essay will explore which world view, the modernity or the postmodernity, is more conducive to Christian...

How Religion Affects Our Lives

Religion can significantly impact an individual’s daily life by influencing their values, beliefs, and practices. Many people find that their religious faith provides them with a sense of purpose, direction, and meaning in life. However, the impact of religion on daily life can vary widely depending on an individual’s religion,...

Cross-Cultural Evangelism Strategies

Cross-cultural evangelism is the sharing of the gospel with people from other cultures. It involves getting to know people from other cultures, learning about their customs and beliefs, and then sharing the gospel with them in a culturally relevant way. An example of cross-cultural evangelism would be a missionary who...

Religion Essay

Religion, Religion And Religion

When discussing religion, many people have different perspectives about religion beliefs and how to approach it. Religion is grouped in different sections such as, religion and spirituality, religion and philosophy, and religion and politics. Religion has many different views from different cultures because everyone approaches it differently with different beliefs also. To make something religion, is to have some type of belief in God, but everyone’s belief is different depending on the culture someone

Religion : Religion And Religion

discussing the overall religion of what is typically traditional to be called religion. Religion which is commonly known as the belief in the supernatural naturally produces a influence of the making of society throughout what is known as history. Commonly as we know it from day to day many people of different cultures, races are largely structured by religion. Religion affects more than culture it effects law and politics as well as education and behavioral norms. Religion started during the secular

hundred different religions in the world, all proclaiming different things, it can getting a little frustrating to decide on one to call home. However, every Religion claims to be the one true religion. Is it the fact that one has a large following, or even a large building erected in the manifestation of the words they proclaim? Or is it a minute group of disciples focused on solving the ever frightening problems that the world faces every day? Mirriam Webster Dictionary defines a Religion as “the belief

through history, religion and what God someone follows has drastically affected their lifestyle by affecting their political statuses. The way someone lived was determined by what religion they followed politically,economically and socially. Most colonies official religion was Anglican/Church of England or Christianity but some did not have an official religion which created problems. The slaves that were forcefully immigrated to the colonies were not able to practice their own religion because some

Religion is a very difficult topic for me to navigate, and a rather personal one. While on the surface I might seem very atheistic and anti-religion, this is very far from the truth. I have had quite a complicated relationship with religion over the years, and it is still something I am struggling to figure out. When I was in primary school we were taught quite a lot about religion. It was something that was constantly there in the school’s agenda, with assemblies every Monday morning in which our

Religion And Religion : Religion

One of the most difficult topics to discuss in society today is religion. Religion is a very complex notion to describe. There is in fact, no sound definition because it is so subjective. Religion is what the individual makes of it. It is a belief system that integrates culture, teachings, practices, personal experience, and artistic expressions which relate people to what they perceive to be transcendent (Brodd et. al. 9). Religion has shaped humanity into what it really is today as much of human

Religion And Religion

The incorporation of religion into a person’s life displays how a belief in gods can impact every facet of someone’s life. The entirety of religion is based solely on faith and the willpower of someone’s belief in what has been taught to them. In these teachings, through sacred texts, manuscripts, or orally transmitted; the basis of many religions is the idea of an object, person, or building being sacred. The reason something becomes sacred and is then believed to be sacred is because the sacred

Religion : Religion And Religion Essay

Today our world is brimming with diverse cultures, religions, and languages. Being diverse make each individual unique from others. According to the Isaak Sevensson article “religion has come to play an increasingly important role in shaping today’s world”. In general religion, conflicts are more about human nature than religion itself. People usually create problems and blame the God, saying my religion said it or it 's written in the holy book. God is not the one who created different among human

Religion : The Importance Of Religion And Religions

The other common feature in many religions is the distinction of sacred places, time, events or people from ordinary ways of life (Steinicke and Volkhard 17). Muslims, for instance, have set up Fridays as their holy day of worshipping Allah. Every member of the Muslim faith are expected to present themselves to the Mosques on Fridays in order to thank God for almost everything that had been done to them. Friday, therefore, is not like any other day in Muslim’s calendar. The Buddhists have built temples

Religion : Religion And Spirituality

The definition of religion is very complex and very contentious within society, despite the agelessness of the idea. Religion is the belief and worship of a higher being or god. Religion is a system of faith and worship. Religion plays a crucial part in society, and often has been utilized as a basis for and integrated into societal morals and ideals. Religion, however, is often confused with spirituality. Spirituality, a broad concept, is an individual connection to a higher being. Spirituality

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Book Review: Religious Literacy

More by trevin.

First, Prothero exposes American ignorance of religion, showing just how little we actually know about the world’s religions. The statistics are embarrassing. Americans actually know very little about their own religious traditions, not to mention the traditions of their neighbors.

But the problem of religious illiteracy does not simply affect our view of ourselves; religion matters because it stands at the center of the world’s great debates, wars, and life-perspectives. We are naïve to think we can understand the battles of our day with only the most superficial knowledge of religion and its role.

Next, Prothero shows how little we know of religion compared to the earliest Americans. He trots out the McGuffey readers, Webster’s dictionary and other classic works of American education in order to show today’s reader how religious information was once inculcated into American youth. He then shows how this devotion to religious knowledge was lost. Interestingly enough, Prothero believes that the responsibility of religious illiteracy belongs primarily to the Church and the anti-intellectual attitude that prevailed after the Second Great Awakening.

Finally, Prothero makes a proposal for public education, in which every student must pass a course on the Bible and on world religions before finishing high school. Prothero is not advocating a return to the Protestantism of early America. He believes students need to be taught about the Bible, not taught the Bible devotionally. He also believes that a course on world religions should be taught, so that students have an awareness of today’s world. The amount of time spent on different religions should vary depending on local context and the importance of a religion for each location. Prothero’s book ends with a Dictionary of Religious Literacy, a remarkably helpful introduction to the major beliefs of the world’s religions.

Prothero’s Religious Literacy is unique in that it avoids two extremes. First, he seeks to avoid the danger of relativizing the religions, so that the distinctions are muted. He forcefully argues against making it seem like religions don’t really matter and that all are equally valid. At the same time, Prothero does not want to see the Bible taught devotionally in the public schools (nor the Koran for that matter). His proposal is purely academic. Americans need a rudimentary knowledge of religious history and belief in order to be well-educated, effective citizens. Prothero also shows how his proposal stays within constitutional boundaries.

I hope that policy-makers will read this book. We are religiously ignorant to our own peril. It’s time we woke up from our secularist slumber and began realizing that religion is still vitally important in world affairs.

written by Trevin Wax © 2008 Kingdom People blog

Trevin Wax is vice president of research and resource development at the North American Mission Board and a visiting professor at Cedarville University. A former missionary to Romania, Trevin is a regular columnist at The Gospel Coalition and has contributed to The Washington Post , Religion News Service , World , and Christianity Today . He has taught courses on mission and ministry at Wheaton College and has lectured on Christianity and culture at Oxford University. He is a founding editor of The Gospel Project, has served as publisher for the Christian Standard Bible, and is currently a fellow for The Keller Center for Cultural Apologetics. He is the author of multiple books, including The Thrill of Orthodoxy , The Multi-Directional Leader , Rethink Your Self , This Is Our Time , and Gospel Centered Teaching . His podcast is Reconstructing Faith . He and his wife, Corina, have three children. You can follow him on Twitter or Facebook , or receive his columns via email .

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Essay on What is Religion for Students and Children

500+ words essay on what is religion.

Religion refers to a belief in a divine entity or deity. Moreover, religion is about the presence of God who is controlling the entire world. Different people have different beliefs. And due to this belief, many different cultures exist.

Further, there are a series of rituals performed by each religion. This is done to please Gods of their particular religion. Religion creates an emotional factor in our country. The Constitution of our country is secular . This means that we have the freedom of following any religion. As our country is the most diverse in religions, religion has two main sub broad categories:

Monotheistic Religion

Monotheistic religions believe in the existence of one God. Some of the monotheistic religions are:

Islam: The people who follow are Muslims . Moreover, Islam means to ‘ surrender’ and the people who follow this religion surrender themselves to ‘Allah’.

Furthermore, the holy book of Islam is ‘ QURAN’, Muslims believe that Allah revealed this book to Muhammad. Muhammad was the last prophet. Above all, Islam has the second most popular religion in the entire world. The most important festivals in this religion are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha.

Christianity: Christian also believes in the existence of only one God. Moreover, the Christians believe that God sent his only Jesus Christ for our Salvation. The Holy book of Christians is the Bible .

Furthermore, the bible is subdivided into the Old Testament and the New Testament. Most Importantly, Jesus Christ died on the cross to free us from our sins. The people celebrate Easter on the third day. Because Jesus Christ resurrected on the third day of his death.

However, the celebration of Christmas signifies the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ. Above all Christianity has the most following in the entire world.

Judaism: Judaism also believes in the existence of one God. Who revealed himself to Abraham, Moses and the Hebrew prophets. Furthermore, Abraham is the father of the Jewish Faith. Most Noteworthy the holy book of the Jewish people is Torah.

Above all, some of the festivals that Jewish celebrate are Passover, Rosh Hashanah – Jewish New Year, Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement, Hanukkah, etc.

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Polytheistic Religion

Polytheistic religions are those that believe in the worship of many gods. One of the most believed polytheistic religion is:

Hinduism: Hinduism has the most popularity in India and South-east Asian sub-continent. Moreover, Hindus believe that our rewards in the present life are the result of our deeds in previous lives. This signifies their belief in Karma. Above all the holy book of Hindus is ‘Geeta’. Also, Hindus celebrate many festivals. Some of the important ones are Holi-The festival of colors and Diwali- the festival of lights.

Last, there is one religion that is neither monotheistic nor polytheistic.

Buddhism: Buddhism religion followers do not believe in the existence of God. However, that does not mean that they are an atheist. Moreover, Buddhism believes that God is not at all the one who controls the masses. Also, Buddhism is much different from many other religions. Above all, Gautam Buddha founded Buddhism.

Some FAQs for You

Q1. How many types of religions are there in the entire world?

A1. There are two types of religion in the entire world. And they are Monotheistic religions and Polytheistic religions.

Q2. What is a Polytheistic religion? Give an example

A2. Polytheistic religion area those that follow and worship any Gods. Hinduism is one of the examples of polytheistic religion. Hindus believe in almost 330 million Gods. Furthermore, they have great faith in all and perform many rituals to please them.

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