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My Social Identity: Analysis and Reflection

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Social Identity Theory: I, You, Us & We. Why Groups Matter

Cooley (1902/2022) discussed the concept of our social selves as a looking-glass self-concept:

“Each to each a looking-glass Reflects the other that doth pass.”

Our personal identities are shaped from the moment we are born. Our family, upbringing, environment, genetic makeup (psychological and physical), and social interactions all play a role in identity formation.

Research on individuals and groups contributed to the social identity theory, which has provided information and insight into this concept of identity. Let’s investigate the basis of this theory below.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Self-Compassion Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you increase the compassion and kindness you show yourself and give you the tools to help your clients, students, or employees show more compassion to themselves.

This Article Contains

What is social identity a definition, understanding social identity theory, social identity theory in life, understanding in-group vs. out-group, what are threats to social identities, 3 fascinating research findings on social identity theory, the intersectionality of social identity theory, how social identity shapes personal behavior, 4 interesting books on the topic, resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

Social identity is the aspect of an individual’s self-concept that comes from membership in a specific social group (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). It is the “we” categorization that can either be something someone is born into, such as gender and ethnic identity, or something assigned, such as a sports team.

A range of identity categorizations have been proposed. Some scholars argue there are six, and some have listed up to 12. To provide an example of these identification categories, Elon University has identified “ the big eight ” (Zeno, 2023), which include:

• Religious affiliation
• Socioeconomic status
• Sexual orientation

Social identity can provide a sense of belonging, purpose, self-worth , and identity (Turner & Reynolds, 2010). Being part of a group can help individuals feel connected and unified. Groups also tend to have shared goals and meaning. They create a framework to understand ourselves within the context of society, defining values, attributes, and beliefs.

Social identity theory was created to explore intergroup behavior and the phenomenon of an in-group and an out-group (Turner & Oakes, 1986).

Individuals change their own behavior to conform to the norms of a group, feel accepted, and find a sense of belonging. This includes modifying self-identity, or the part of self-concept that is psychologically and emotionally attached to the group.

Historical background

Henri Tajfel (1970) and colleagues conducted a series of studies known as minimal-group studies (more on that below) that gave rise to social identity theory. After World War II, psychologists wanted to understand intergroup relationships and how the horrors of the Holocaust could have happened.

Minimal-group studies assigned participants into groups designed to be arbitrary and meaningless and then asked them to assign points to each other. Participants systematically awarded more points to in-group members than to out-group members.

This demonstrates that the simple act of arbitrarily categorizing people into groups can be enough to create a sense of group membership rather than as individuals. Social identity theory was developed based on the conviction that group membership provides people with meaning in social situations (Tajfel, 1970).

In other words, group membership helps people define who they are and how they relate to others.

Building on these foundational ideas, a student of Tajfel, John Turner, explored cognitive factors involved in social identification. Turner looked at how people interpret their position in different social contexts and how it affects perception and behavior (Turner & Oakes, 1986). Stereotyping and ideas of social influence create self-categorization theory, or the social identity theory of a group (Turner & Oakes, 1986).

Cognitive processes

According to social identity theory, there are three cognitive processes central to creating and defining an individual’s place in society.

These include (Tajfel, 1981):

• social categorization,
• social comparison and
• social identification.

Social categorization is how people perceive themselves and others in terms of particular social categories (Tajfel, 1981). It is a way of labeling group members rather than thinking of them as unique individuals. For example, categorizing John as a football coach and father.

Social comparison is how people determine their social standing or value based on a particular group (Festinger, 1954). This can be seen in career fields and socioeconomic circles in society today. For example, doctors may be given a higher social standing than fast food workers.

Social identification is the idea that people perceive social situations based on who they are and how they relate to others (Tajfel, 1981). How people view a situation is influenced by the groups around them and how they view other people inside and outside of these groups.

These three cognitive processes are grounded in an individual’s knowledge of what social group they belong to. Social identity gains power through this knowledge, and the level of emotional attachment and value membership in the group holds.

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Social identity theory determines much of a person’s behavior as it plays out in everyday life.

Identification with a specific group is heavily influenced by social media, social contacts or members of your social network, television, and life experiences on a daily basis. Once an individual finds ideas, beliefs, and other people they relate to or feel they can offer status or power to, they begin to align their identity with that particular group (Turner, 1975).

Individuals are motivated to improve their social status, both within these groups and the group as a whole. Motivation to improve social status can be organized into three strategies demonstrated in day-to-day life (Van Bezouw, van der Toorn, & Becker, 2018). These include individual mobility, social competition, and social creativity.

Individual mobility

Bullying in school is an example of an attempt at individual mobility. In order to improve social status within a group, members will often bully, demean, or put down “lesser” members in order to feel more powerful.

Hazing in fraternity is another example. Incoming members generally must go through an “initiation” phase to prove their worth and membership in the group.

Social competition

Team sports offer a great example of the social competition aspect of social identity theory, for example, claiming to be the most devoted follower of the best football team.

Social competition is a group-level strategy where members come together to improve performance and succeed at a common goal. Teams share training sessions and tactical plans and work in harmony to win a game or achieve a championship. Teams show unity through uniforms, team chants, team songs, mascots, and other rituals that help them bond for a more successful outcome.

Political parties also demonstrate social competition during election cycles by promoting their own belief systems publicly and attacking opposing viewpoints in order to win favor and votes.

Social creativity

Social creativity is the component of social identity theory that suggests people modify their perceptions of the group in order to create distinctiveness from other groups (Van Bezouw, van der Toorn, & Becker, 2018).

An example would be if rich people declared how “friendly” people in the working class are. People in this economic group might adopt the characteristics of “we are not rich, but we are friendly” in order to maintain a positive social identity.

When an individual decides which group(s) could be considered the “in-group,” they tend to define themselves less as an individual and more as a member of a shared category (Turner, 1975).

Identifying with a group creates emotional significance that leads to comparisons between the “in-group” and the “out-group.” This helps build self-esteem and self-image and has important consequences for both individuals and the groups they belong to.

In-groups are a critical source of pride and self-esteem, and therefore beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of the in-group are favored, while out-group members are negatively judged (Turner, 1975). In many cases, “in-group” favoritism is followed by negative “out-group” derogation, bias, hostility, stereotypes, and prejudice.

Social identity theory posits that group members may receive threats to their identity. These occur anytime a group’s status is devalued or their perceived competence and ability is questioned (Hackel et al., 2017).

Types of threats may include:

• Questioning moral values (often seen in political groups and different cultures)
• Being treated or labeled as a member of a different group (such as a woman addressed by her gender rather than her profession as a pilot)
• Threats to group distinctiveness (workers in a small organization taken over by a larger company and losing their small business identity)

Individuals will respond differently to threats based on how strongly they identify with the group and how the threat was personally perceived.

Minimal-group studies

Tajfel (1970) assigned 14–15-year-old boys into two random groups and asked them to assign points (or “money”) to other groups.

The assumption was that it would be fair to assign points evenly to groups, but the participants allocated more points to members of their own group than to others. This study was one of the first to demonstrate in-group favoritism.

COVID-19 and discrimination

More recently, a study examined personal and group discrimination as it relates to identity and social support among Chinese Canadians during COVID-19 (Mantou et al., 2023).

The study found that Chinese Canadians who identified more strongly as Chinese experienced less adverse group discrimination than those who identified more strongly as Canadians. The long-lasting racism that continued after the pandemic among these Chinese Canadians can be attributed to the same in-group and out-group mentality that social identity theory is based upon (Mantou et al., 2023).

Long-term health and wellness identification

A longitudinal study on the role of social identity and mental health examined Australian workers who transitioned into retirement (Haslam et al., 2023).

Researchers looked at preretirement group membership and postretirement membership, as well as measures of health and wellbeing. Social group memberships before retirement, which valued physical health and wellbeing, led to retirees maintaining these values after retirement.

This demonstrates the adoption and maintenance of shared values based on group membership.

Part of social identity theory includes the concept of intersectionality. As individuals identify with specific groups as part of social identity theory, some of these identities intersect and influence how life is experienced (Crenshaw, 1991).

Intersectionality was first conceptualized by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1991), a social theorist, civil rights activist, and scholar of critical race theory. Intersectionality is a framework to understand a person, group of people, or social problem affected by multiple discriminations and disadvantages. It helps account for overlapping identities and experiences to paint a more accurate picture of the complexity of prejudices and privileges faced.

For example, an individual may identify as a woman, Black, an academic, and a mother. These multiple group memberships and identities create conflicting experiences that cause challenges that a single group membership or identity would miss. It may be more difficult for a Black woman in academia than a white man, or to balance being a mother with work.

All people identify with more than one group, and throughout their lifespan, they will experience multiple identities.

This video further explains the concept of intersectionality:

Social identity shapes personal values, beliefs, and behaviors. Some of the main ways this happens are through in-group favoritism, stereotypes and prejudice, intergroup conflict, and a sense of belonging (Hackel et al., 2017).

In-group favoritism occurs when individuals seek positive self-esteem and therefore promote their own groups rather than members of other groups. This may manifest in making choices that benefit one particular group over another, such as providing resources (time, money, and energy) to one’s own group at the expense of others.

As individuals categorize people into groups, they are more likely to overemphasize similarities within groups and differences between them, which leads to stereotypes and prejudice.

Personal behavior can become hostile, aggressive, and violent when competition or perceived threats exist between groups. Intergroup conflict can also occur when resources are scarce, leading to behavior that is manipulative or harsh.

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Books discussing social identity provide a deeper understanding of the theory, its applications, and the importance it has for individuals, groups, and society at large.

1. Social Identity and Intergroup Relations – Henri Tajfel

Based on empirical research and theoretical guidance, it provides readers with insight into the psychological processes of group affiliation and how conflicts arise from them.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. Identity Theory  – Peter J. Burke and Jan E. Stets

The book helps the reader understand the emotional, behavioral, and psychological processes that work together to form identity and how being members of groups can shape these identities.

With a wealth of information, it is written in a way that all readers can understand and relate to.

3. The Impact of Identity: The Power of Knowing Who You Are – Irina Nevzlin

Understanding identity and who we are can help individuals as they examine their relationship to others in society, including membership in organizations and groups.

4. After Identity: Rethinking Race, Sex and Gender – Georgia Warnke

It expands to political theories that discuss the implications of getting stuck in social identity and focusing only on group membership.

PositivePsychology.com offers several resources for examining identity and self-concept.

Our self-concept article further explores self-concept and the labels, categories, and groups that people may identify with. Looking at self-concept is another avenue for exploring social identity theory.

The Who Am I worksheet explores internal and external self-awareness to help clients gain a better understanding of who they are. Through a series of questions, clients are encouraged to reflect, journal, and share their thoughts, beliefs, desires, passions, and values while exploring their identity.

Core beliefs are central to personal identity and how we relate to the world. This Core Beliefs worksheet  examines the deeply held beliefs that clients have about themselves and how they relate to others in the world. These foundational beliefs play a large role in the groups that individuals identify with.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others develop self-compassion, check out this collection of 17 validated self-compassion tools for practitioners. Use them to help others create a kinder and more nurturing relationship with the self.

Social identity theory helps to explain much of human behavior. Group membership and affiliation can play a role in defining personal identity and have both positive and negative consequences.

While many characteristics and traits shape our social identity, they are not fixed, and our identity has the capacity to change with time and experience.

Knowing that values, beliefs, and behaviors are shaped by the social groups we align ourselves with can help each of us make more informed choices about who we connect with.

Group membership matters and has a lasting impact on both individuals and society at large.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Self Compassion Exercises for free .

• Cooley, C. H. (2022). Looking glass self. In J. O’Brien (Ed.), The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction (vol. 7). Sage. (Original work published 1902)
• Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review , 43 (6), 1241–1299.
• Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations , 7 , 117–140.
• Hackel, J., Zaki, B., & Bavel, S. (2017). Social identity shapes social valuation: Evidence from prosocial behavior and vicarious reward. Social Cognitive Affective Neuroscience , 12 (8), 1219–1228.
• Haslam, C., Lam, B., Ghafoori, E., Steffens, N., Haslam, A., Bently, S., Cruwys, T., & La Rue, C. (2023). A longitudinal examination of the role of social identity in supporting health and well-being in retirement. Psychology and Aging , 38 (7), 615–626.
• Mantou, L., Kimberly, N., Shachi, K., Doris, Z., & Young, H. (2023). COVID discrimination experience: Chinese Canadians social identities moderate the effect of personal and group discrimination on well-being. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology , 29 (2), 132–144.
• Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in intergroup discrimination. Scientific American , 223 (5), 93–103.
• Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology . Cambridge University Press.
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.
• Turner, J. (1975). Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology , 5 , 5–34.
• Turner, J., & Oakes, P. (1986). The significance of the social identity concept for social psychology with reference to individualism, interactionism and social influence. British Journal of Social Psychology , 25 (3), 237–252.
• Turner, J. C., & Reynolds, K. J. (2010). The story of social identity. In T. Postmes & N. R. Branscombe (Eds), Rediscovering social identity: Core sources (pp. 13–32). Psychology Press.
• Van Bezouw, M. J., van der Toorn, J., & Becker, J. C. (2018). Social creativity: Reviving a social identity approach to social stability. European Journal of Social Psychology , 51 , 409–422.
• Zeno, M. (2023, September 27). Big 8 identities workshops offer an introduction to social identities . Elon University. https://www.elon.edu/u/news/2023/09/27/big-8-identities-workshops-offer-an-introduction-to-social-identities/

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Personal and Social Identity: Who Are You Through Others’ Eyes

There’s a reason folks judge others by the company they keep..

Posted October 15, 2021 | Reviewed by Davia Sills

• Personal identity is about how you see yourself as “different” from those around you.
• Social identities tell how you are like others—they connote similarity rather than difference.
• Some identities carry a different “privilege valance” or “oppression valance” than others.

Let’s talk about identity —the pieces of ourselves that tell us who we are and what we like and the pieces of ourselves that others use to decide who they think we are and what we are actually like. There are basically two types of identities that we possess: a personal identity and our social identity.

Personal identities

Let’s focus first on personal identities. Take a few moments and think about who you are and your personal traits. Personal identity is about how you see yourself as “different” from those around you. Hobbies, education , interests, personality traits, and so on. Favorite foods, the roles you hold—“I’m the oldest in my family.” These are the things that make you unique from other people.

We might dislike a quality of one of our friends, perhaps, but that might not keep us from enjoying their company and valuing the friendship . For instance, If someone doesn’t like piano music, and you’re a pianist, they might not ever care to hear you play, but they may look beyond that one trait to appreciate you as a whole person.

Social identities

Social identities are the identities that you share with similar group members. They tell how you are like others—they connote similarity rather than difference. Our social identities, though, are the categories that create entities such as “ingroups” and “outgroups,” those “us” versus “them” groups.

These include categories such as social class, race, gender identity , political affinity, and of course, religion and sexual orientation . Not only does falling into a specific category give you a feeling of “belongingness” and “community,” but it also sets up the possibility of being seen as “one of those,” which can lead to a sense of internalized stigmatization or shame for openly claiming membership in a particular group.

Social identities may bestow or withdraw power and privilege

While personal identities are how we see our own unique individuality, our social identities are internally constructed but also externally applied—simultaneously. Social identities have three important characteristics that describe their role in how others are perceived:

• Social identities are designed to award power and its benefits or to disadvantage others through the lack of access to power.
• These group identities are often used to justify the differences in outcomes, abilities, or the endeavors taken to achieve particular goals .
• Once categorized into a particular group, social identities are nearly impossible to shift due to the difficulty, the cost, or the danger involved in transforming self and others’ perceptions.

The “Big 8” social identities: Where outcomes are decided

What are your social identities? Take a few moments and think about who you are and the groups to which you feel you belong. Social identity is about how you see yourself as “alike” with those with whom you identify: “fathers,” “French Canadians,” “Gen Zers,” “Republicans,” “Northsiders,” etc. If someone doesn’t like Southerners, and you’re from NC, they won’t like you because of what you represent.

There are a group of social identities that are considered “The Big 8.” These include age, race, gender, ability, religion, class, immigration status, and sexual orientation. Each of these represents a value metric in that power is awarded to those who represent the majority groups in a space. Oppression is exerted upon those who represent a marginalized identity group, such as women, non-Christians, or older or younger persons.

Thinking about your own social identities, which of these identities is most salient to you? Your race? Your sexual orientation? Your religion or faith?

Now, think about what that identity means to you—what does it say to others about you? Often, it is the ones that you do not think about that represent the privileges you hold. It is also the social identities that carry a significant weight that often represent the identities that have less privilege or carry a sense of oppression with them.

All of us are equal, but...

Some identities carry a different “privilege valance” or “oppression valance” than others. What are the identities in your neighborhood, community, social groups, workplaces that carry privilege? What are the identities that we might be slower to acknowledge with others in order to avoid risking the loss of some amount of privilege? It is those identities and alliances that we fear others might “see” and make judgments about who we are, as individuals, based on group membership. Being straight, white, and Catholic when all of your friends are straight, white, and Catholic is probably not a social identity that you think about much—it carries privilege that being Hispanic, trans, and Buddhist might not. If you’re the only Jewish person in the room, you may be much more aware of your religious beliefs than you are of your race, education, or gender.

It is essential that we look inside ourselves and see which social identities we may be implicitly biased against. Who are the people that we give less credence or respect than others? Think long and hard about the implicit biases you may hold and the damage you may be doing to others based on your own limited experiences and perspective. Then do the inner work to combat this often automatic thinking that limits your ability to grow as a person and be a part of an expanding array of relational networks that would bring depth and diversity to your world.

Suzanne Degges-White, Ph.D. , is a licensed counselor and professor at Northern Illinois University.

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Social Identity Theory (Examples, Strengths & Weaknesses)

Kamalpreet Gill Singh (PhD)

This article was co-authored by Kamalpreet Gill Singh, PhD. Dr. Gill has a PhD in Sociology and has published academic articles in reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He holds a Master’s degree in Politics and International Relations and a Bachelor’s in Computer Science.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

The social identity theory explains how people develop their identities. Its main argument is that people develop their identity through interaction with society.

Examples of social identity theory include religion, sport, nation, and ethnicity affiliations that help you to construct your identity.

The social identity theory was developed by the social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s. 

Key Concepts in the Social Identity Theory

1. the interpersonal-intergroup continuum.

Tajfel and Turner proposed that an individual’s identity, or sense of the self is influenced both through:

• Interpersonal Interaction – One-to-one interactions with other individuals
• Intergroup Interaction – Identification with a large grouping of people, and the interaction of their grouping in turn with other groups.  

The Interpersonal-intergroup continuum refers to the degree to which interpersonal or intergroup interaction has a stronger effect on your social identity .

For some individuals, interpersonal interaction may play a dominant role in constructing their idea of the self (i.e. their identification with groups might be weak). For others, intergroup interaction might be dominant ( i.e. they may strongly identify with social groupings).

The social identity theory helps to determine where on this interpersonal-intergroup continuum would an individual’s socially constructed self lie, given specific structural factors.  (Tajfel & Turner, 1986)

2. Positive Distinctiveness (3 Ways People Construct Identities)

The group that an individual identifies with is called an in-group. Everyone outside the in-group constitutes the outgroup. 

Social identity theory works on the assumption that individuals attempt to create a positive idea of their selves. This is known as positive distinctiveness .

Thus, the association with one in-group, and distinction from the out–group, is a strategy deployed by individuals to achieve positive distinctiveness.

This pursuit of positive distinctiveness while being part of a group usually leads to 3 outcomes: 

1. Mobility

Mobility is a strategy adopted by individuals in cases where boundaries of the group they identify with are permeable. They may perceive that they can achieve greater status by identifying with a different group.

For instance, a child at middle school may perceive another group of friends to be more popular than their elementary school friends. They may therefore decide to stop associating with their old friends and spend time with their newer friends who give them higher perceived social status .

2. Creativity

Creativity is a strategy deployed by individuals when the boundaries of the in-group are more rigid and the members feel that their status is lower compared to those of the out-group.

An example is the Black is Beautiful movement that began in the USA in the 1960s, seeking to counter the deeply entrenched notion that black skin, and the black color in general, is devoid of beauty. 

Through creativity, people stay within the group but create counter-narratives as an attempt to claim higher social status for their group.

3. Competition

Competition results when the boundaries of the ingroup are relatively rigid, and the individuals feel they have the same or higher status than that of similarly located groups. An example is two competing political parties. The two groups compete to have the dominant and more powerful social identity.

Examples of Social Identity Theory

We can see examples of social identity theory in nationalism, religion, race and ethnicity, and fraternities and sororities. By studying these social groups, we can see how people use in-groups and out-groups to develop their social identities.

1. Nationalism

For most of us, our national identity is one of the most prominent strands in our construction of the self.

When we ask ourselves the question – “who am I”?  – our belonging to a nation – state is likely to be an important part of the answer.

Being and identifying as American, Chinese, British, Canadian, Indian and so on becomes so entrenched into our idea of the self that we often tend to overlook that nations and nationalism are social constructs .

Benedict Anderson called the nation an “ imagined community ” as its members imagine themselves to belong to the same in-group, even if no real ties holding them together might exist (Anderson, 1983).

At the same time, not everyone identifies equally strongly with the nation of their birth or with the idea of loyalty and patriotism to any nation state at all. 

For many people, loyalty to their immediate kinship or clan network (interpersonal interaction) may be more significant than a sense of belonging to the larger, more abstract nation (intergroup interaction).

2. Race and Ethnicity

Like nationalism, ethnicity and race is another grouping that commands allegiance from individuals. 

Unlike social constructs such as nation and religion, ethnicity and race have strong biological elements. They are thus examples of groups with rigid boundaries.

People cannot change their race or ethnicity the way nationality can be changed by migrating to a different country.

In multiracial, multiethnic societies, the members of a particular race or ethnic group may feel an affinity towards each other on account of their shared history, customs, traditions, and experiences. Their identification with their race or ethnicity may also influence their preference for marrying within the racial or ethnic community.

Sometimes, the pursuit of greater positive distinctiveness while identifying strongly with a race or ethnic identity can lead to competition called ethnic conflict . For example, there is currently ethnic conflict in Myanmar between Buddhists and Muslims. 

3. Fraternities and Sororities

Fraternities are all-male clubs of graduate students in the US, while sororities are their female counterparts.

Members of fraternities and sororities often find themselves bound in close social and professional relationships as a result of socializing together during their formative years in college. 

Another feature of fraternities and sororities that makes association with them desirable is their elite nature.

Most fraternities and sororities are named after Greek letters (such as Psi Sigma Kappa). Since Greek is a classical language associated in popular imagination with high scholarly and aesthetic achievement, such groups are perceived by individuals as stepping-stones to achieving greater positive distinctiveness. 

4. Religion

Like nationalism, religious identity is also a fundamental constituent of most peoples’ idea of self.

For a large number of people across the globe, their identity as a Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, or Jew is an aspect of identity that comes before their identification with a nation-state, race, or ethnicity.

Pros and Cons of Social Identity Theory

Strengths (Pros)

1. Explains Group Philanthropy

A core assumption of the social identity theory is that individuals identify with groups in order to maximize positive distinctiveness. 

This helps explain philanthropic acts undertaken by social groups such as food drives, charity, etc.

Since the primary drive behind associating with groups positive distinctiveness, it follows that individuals would want their own group to be perceived in a more positive light than others. 

2. Explains In-Group Bias

Social identity theory helps explain the formation of in-groups and out-groups , and the bias that accompanies their formation. 

An in-group is a social grouping that an individual identifies with. An out-group is all those who are not part of the in-group.

In-group bias is the natural tendency of humans to favor those within the same in-group.

For instance, members of the stonemasons, elite schools, or even secret fraternity societies might favor those belonging to their in-group when networking for business or hiring for jobs. 

Weaknesses (Cons)

1. Poor Predictive Power

Social identity theory has been criticized as being more explanatory than predictive in nature.

This means that while the theory can explain existing phenomena, it is not always very accurate in predicting future behavior (Brown, 2000).

2. Fails to Explain Affiliation Between Similar Groups

According to social identity theory, when groups have rigid boundaries and similar social status, they are likely to engage in conflict and competition.

However, this is not always true. In several cases, groups that are situated similarly in terms of social status, and which have rigid boundaries, are engaged in mutual cooperation and symbiotic behavior.

For instance, in several multi-ethnic, multi-racial societies, peaceful coexistence, rather than ethnic conflict, is the norm. 

Related Theory: Self-Categorization Theory

The self-categorization theory is closely related to, but different from social identity theory (SIT).

Proposed by John Turner, one of founding theorists of social identity theory, the self-categorization theory attempts to delineate the conditions under which an individual may begin to perceive themselves as well as others as belonging to a group. 

As opposed to this, the social identity theory focuses on the different kinds of intergroup interactions are possible once group formation has occurred 

Good to Know Information : A fundamental assumption of the social identity theory is the idea of the social construction of the self.

In sociology, the idea of the  social construction of the self is built upon the work of Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929), George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) and Erving Goffman (1922-1982). 

Cooley gave the concept of the “ looking glass self ”, i.e. we build our self-image based upon what we believe other people think of us.

Developing Cooley’s ideas further, Mead built the theory of symbolic interactions (one of three core sociological paradigms ), according to which individuals develop their understanding of the world, including their idea of the self by interacting with others around them.

Finally, Erving Goffman, in his influential book The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life compared human interactions to the theatrical performances, in which construct and present different selves for different situations. 

Social identity theory states that individuals construct at least a part of their identity through membership within social groups.

Social groups can include groupings as large as the nation, or a religion, or as small as a local hobby club. 

This can include developing an identity that is consistent with groups that they’re part of (e.g. “I’m a Christians) as well as in opposition to groups they’re not part of (“I’m not a liberal therefore I’m a conservative”).

Key concepts within the theory include: the interpersonal-intergroup continuum (which tells you the degree to which you develop your identity through group membership or personal relationships with individuals) and positive distinctiveness (3 ways people create their identities).

Anderson, B. (1983)   Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism . Verso. 

Brown, R. (2000), Social identity theory: past achievements, current problems and future challenges. European  Journal of  Social  Psychology , 30, 745-778. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0992(200011/12)30:6%3C745::AID-EJSP24%3E3.0.CO;2-O

Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel and W. G. Austin (eds.). Psychology of Intergroup Relations . (pp. 7–24). Nelson-Hall

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Understanding Social Identity Theory and Its Impact on Behavior

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• Archaeology

• Ph.D., Psychology, Fielding Graduate University
• M.A., Psychology, Fielding Graduate University
• B.A., Film Studies, Cornell University

Social identity is the part of the self that is defined by one’s group memberships . Social identity theory, which was formulated by social psychologist Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, describes the conditions under which social identity becomes more important than one’s identity as an individual. The theory also specifies the ways in which social identity can influence intergroup behavior.

Key Takeaways: Social Identity Theory

• Social identity theory, introduced by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, describes the cognitive processes related to social identity and how social identity impacts intergroup behavior.
• Social identity theory is built on three key cognitive components: social categorization, social identification, and social comparison.
• Generally, individuals wish to maintain a positive social identity by maintaining their group’s favorable social standing over that of relevant out-groups.
• In-group favoritism can result in negative and discriminatory outcomes, but research demonstrates that in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination are distinct phenomena, and one does not necessarily predict the other.

Origins: Studies of In-Group Favoritism

Social identity theory arose from Henri Tajfel’s early work, which examined the way perceptual processes resulted in social stereotypes and prejudice. This led to a series of studies that Tajfel and his colleagues conducted in the early 1970s that are referred to as minimal-group studies.

In these studies, participants were arbitrarily assigned to different groups. Despite the fact that their group membership was meaningless, however, the research showed that participants favored the group they were assigned to — their in-group — over the out-group, even if they received no personal benefits from their group membership and had no history with members of either group.

The studies demonstrated that group membership was so powerful that simply classifying people into groups is enough to make people think of themselves in terms of that group membership. Furthermore, this categorization led to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination, indicating that intergroup conflict could exist in the absence of any direct competition between groups.

On the basis of this research, Tajfel first defined the concept of social identity in 1972. The concept of social identity was created as a means to consider the way one conceptualizes the self-based on the social groups to which one belongs.

Then, Tajfel and his student John Turner introduced social identity theory in 1979. The theory aimed to illuminate both the cognitive processes that lead people to define their group memberships and the motivational processes that enable people to maintain positive social identity by favorably comparing their social group to other groups.

Cognitive Processes of Social Identity

Social identity theory specifies three mental processes individuals go through to make in-group/out-group classifications.

The first process, social categorization , is the process by which we organize individuals into social groups in order to understand our social world. This process enables us to define people, including ourselves, on the basis of the groups to which we belong. We tend to define people based on their social categories more often than their individual characteristics.

Social categorization generally results in an emphasis on the similarities of people in the same group and the differences between people in separate groups. One can belong to a variety of social categories, but different categories will be more or less important depending on social circumstances. For example, a person can define themselves as a business executive, an animal lover, and a devoted aunt, but those identities will only come up if they are relevant to the social situation.

The second process, social identification , is the process of identifying as a group member. Socially identifying with a group leads individuals to behave in the way that they believe members of that group should behave. For instance, if an individual defines herself as an environmentalist, she may try to conserve water, recycle whenever possible, and march in rallies for climate change awareness. Through this process, people become emotionally invested in their group memberships. Consequently, their self-esteem is impacted by the status of their groups.

The third process, social comparison , is the process by which people compare their group with other groups in terms of prestige and social standing. In order to maintain self-esteem, one must perceive his or her in-group as having a higher social standing than an out-group. For example, a movie star might judge himself favorably in comparison to a reality TV show star. Yet, he may see himself as having a lower social standing in comparison to a famous classically-trained Shakespearean actor. It’s important to remember that an in-group member won’t compare themselves with just any out-group — the comparison must be pertinent to the situation.

Maintenance of Positive Social Identity

As a general rule, people are motivated to feel positive about themselves and maintain their self-esteem . The emotional investments people make in their group memberships results in their self-esteem being tied to the social standing of their in-groups. Consequently, a positive evaluation of one's in-group in comparison to relevant out-groups results in a positive social identity. If a positive evaluation of one's in-group isn’t possible, however, individuals will generally employ one of three strategies:

• Individual mobility . When an individual does not view her group favorably, she can attempt to leave the current group and join one with a higher social standing. Of course, this won’t alter the status of the group, but it can alter the status of the individual.
• Social creativity . In-group members can enhance the social standing of their existing group by adjusting some element of the between-group comparison. This can be accomplished by choosing a different dimension on which to compare the two groups, or by adjusting value judgments so that what was once thought to be negative is now considered positive. Another option is to compare the in-group to a different out-group—specifically, an out-group that has a lower social status.
• Social competition . In-group members can attempt to enhance the group's social status by collectively working to improve their situation. In this case, the in-group competes directly with an out-group with the objective of reversing the group's social positions on one or more dimensions.

Discrimination Against Out-Groups

In-group favoritism and out-group discrimination are often viewed as two sides of the same coin. However, research has shown that this is not necessarily the case. There is not a systematic relationship between the positive perception of one’s in-group and the negative perception of out-groups. Helping in-group members while withholding such help from out-group members differs significantly from actively working to harm out-group members.

In-group favoritism can result in negative outcomes, from prejudice and stereotypes to institutional racism and sexism . However, such favoritism does not always lead to hostility towards out-groups. Research demonstrates that in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination are distinct phenomena, and one does not necessarily predict the other.

• Brewer, Marilynn B. “Intergroup Relations.” Advanced Social Psychology: The State of the Science , edited by Roy F. Baumeister and Eli J. Finkel, Oxford University Press, 2010, pp. 535-571.
• Ellemers, Naomi. “ Social Identity Theory .” Encyclopedia Britannica, 2017.
• McLeod, Saul. “ Social Identity Theory .” Simply Psychology , 2008.
• Hogg, Michael A., and Kipling D. Williams. “ From I to We: Social Identity and the Collective Self .” Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice , vol. 4, no. 1, 2000, pp. 81-97.
• Tajfel, Henri, and John Turner. “ An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict. ” The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations , edited by William G. August and Stephen Worchel, Brooks/Cole, 1979, pp. 33-47.
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