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• How to write a rhetorical analysis | Key concepts & examples

How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis | Key Concepts & Examples

Published on August 28, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A rhetorical analysis is a type of essay  that looks at a text in terms of rhetoric. This means it is less concerned with what the author is saying than with how they say it: their goals, techniques, and appeals to the audience.

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Table of contents

Key concepts in rhetoric, analyzing the text, introducing your rhetorical analysis, the body: doing the analysis, concluding a rhetorical analysis, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about rhetorical analysis.

Rhetoric, the art of effective speaking and writing, is a subject that trains you to look at texts, arguments and speeches in terms of how they are designed to persuade the audience. This section introduces a few of the key concepts of this field.

Appeals: Logos, ethos, pathos

Appeals are how the author convinces their audience. Three central appeals are discussed in rhetoric, established by the philosopher Aristotle and sometimes called the rhetorical triangle: logos, ethos, and pathos.

Logos , or the logical appeal, refers to the use of reasoned argument to persuade. This is the dominant approach in academic writing , where arguments are built up using reasoning and evidence.

Ethos , or the ethical appeal, involves the author presenting themselves as an authority on their subject. For example, someone making a moral argument might highlight their own morally admirable behavior; someone speaking about a technical subject might present themselves as an expert by mentioning their qualifications.

Pathos , or the pathetic appeal, evokes the audience’s emotions. This might involve speaking in a passionate way, employing vivid imagery, or trying to provoke anger, sympathy, or any other emotional response in the audience.

These three appeals are all treated as integral parts of rhetoric, and a given author may combine all three of them to convince their audience.

Text and context

In rhetoric, a text is not necessarily a piece of writing (though it may be this). A text is whatever piece of communication you are analyzing. This could be, for example, a speech, an advertisement, or a satirical image.

In these cases, your analysis would focus on more than just language—you might look at visual or sonic elements of the text too.

The context is everything surrounding the text: Who is the author (or speaker, designer, etc.)? Who is their (intended or actual) audience? When and where was the text produced, and for what purpose?

Looking at the context can help to inform your rhetorical analysis. For example, Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech has universal power, but the context of the civil rights movement is an important part of understanding why.

Claims, supports, and warrants

A piece of rhetoric is always making some sort of argument, whether it’s a very clearly defined and logical one (e.g. in a philosophy essay) or one that the reader has to infer (e.g. in a satirical article). These arguments are built up with claims, supports, and warrants.

A claim is the fact or idea the author wants to convince the reader of. An argument might center on a single claim, or be built up out of many. Claims are usually explicitly stated, but they may also just be implied in some kinds of text.

The author uses supports to back up each claim they make. These might range from hard evidence to emotional appeals—anything that is used to convince the reader to accept a claim.

The warrant is the logic or assumption that connects a support with a claim. Outside of quite formal argumentation, the warrant is often unstated—the author assumes their audience will understand the connection without it. But that doesn’t mean you can’t still explore the implicit warrant in these cases.

For example, look at the following statement:

We can see a claim and a support here, but the warrant is implicit. Here, the warrant is the assumption that more likeable candidates would have inspired greater turnout. We might be more or less convinced by the argument depending on whether we think this is a fair assumption.

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Rhetorical analysis isn’t a matter of choosing concepts in advance and applying them to a text. Instead, it starts with looking at the text in detail and asking the appropriate questions about how it works:

• What is the author’s purpose?
• Do they focus closely on their key claims, or do they discuss various topics?
• What tone do they take—angry or sympathetic? Personal or authoritative? Formal or informal?
• Who seems to be the intended audience? Is this audience likely to be successfully reached and convinced?
• What kinds of evidence are presented?

By asking these questions, you’ll discover the various rhetorical devices the text uses. Don’t feel that you have to cram in every rhetorical term you know—focus on those that are most important to the text.

The following sections show how to write the different parts of a rhetorical analysis.

Like all essays, a rhetorical analysis begins with an introduction . The introduction tells readers what text you’ll be discussing, provides relevant background information, and presents your thesis statement .

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how an introduction works.

Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech is widely regarded as one of the most important pieces of oratory in American history. Delivered in 1963 to thousands of civil rights activists outside the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the speech has come to symbolize the spirit of the civil rights movement and even to function as a major part of the American national myth. This rhetorical analysis argues that King’s assumption of the prophetic voice, amplified by the historic size of his audience, creates a powerful sense of ethos that has retained its inspirational power over the years.

The body of your rhetorical analysis is where you’ll tackle the text directly. It’s often divided into three paragraphs, although it may be more in a longer essay.

Each paragraph should focus on a different element of the text, and they should all contribute to your overall argument for your thesis statement.

Hover over the example to explore how a typical body paragraph is constructed.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

The conclusion of a rhetorical analysis wraps up the essay by restating the main argument and showing how it has been developed by your analysis. It may also try to link the text, and your analysis of it, with broader concerns.

Explore the example below to get a sense of the conclusion.

It is clear from this analysis that the effectiveness of King’s rhetoric stems less from the pathetic appeal of his utopian “dream” than it does from the ethos he carefully constructs to give force to his statements. By framing contemporary upheavals as part of a prophecy whose fulfillment will result in the better future he imagines, King ensures not only the effectiveness of his words in the moment but their continuing resonance today. Even if we have not yet achieved King’s dream, we cannot deny the role his words played in setting us on the path toward it.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to explain the effect a piece of writing or oratory has on its audience, how successful it is, and the devices and appeals it uses to achieve its goals.

Unlike a standard argumentative essay , it’s less about taking a position on the arguments presented, and more about exploring how they are constructed.

The term “text” in a rhetorical analysis essay refers to whatever object you’re analyzing. It’s frequently a piece of writing or a speech, but it doesn’t have to be. For example, you could also treat an advertisement or political cartoon as a text.

Logos appeals to the audience’s reason, building up logical arguments . Ethos appeals to the speaker’s status or authority, making the audience more likely to trust them. Pathos appeals to the emotions, trying to make the audience feel angry or sympathetic, for example.

Collectively, these three appeals are sometimes called the rhetorical triangle . They are central to rhetorical analysis , though a piece of rhetoric might not necessarily use all of them.

In rhetorical analysis , a claim is something the author wants the audience to believe. A support is the evidence or appeal they use to convince the reader to believe the claim. A warrant is the (often implicit) assumption that links the support with the claim.

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How to write a rhetorical analysis

What is a rhetorical analysis?

What are the key concepts of a rhetorical analysis, rhetorical situation, claims, supports, and warrants.

• Step 1: Plan and prepare
• Step 2: Write your introduction
• Step 3: Write the body
• Step 4: Write your conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions about rhetorical analysis

Related articles.

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion and aims to study writers’ or speakers' techniques to inform, persuade, or motivate their audience. Thus, a rhetorical analysis aims to explore the goals and motivations of an author, the techniques they’ve used to reach their audience, and how successful these techniques were.

This will generally involve analyzing a specific text and considering the following aspects to connect the rhetorical situation to the text:

• Does the author successfully support the thesis or claims made in the text? Here, you’ll analyze whether the author holds to their argument consistently throughout the text or whether they wander off-topic at some point.
• Does the author use evidence effectively considering the text’s intended audience? Here, you’ll consider the evidence used by the author to support their claims and whether the evidence resonates with the intended audience.
• What rhetorical strategies the author uses to achieve their goals. Here, you’ll consider the word choices by the author and whether these word choices align with their agenda for the text.
• The tone of the piece. Here, you’ll consider the tone used by the author in writing the piece by looking at specific words and aspects that set the tone.
• Whether the author is objective or trying to convince the audience of a particular viewpoint. When it comes to objectivity, you’ll consider whether the author is objective or holds a particular viewpoint they want to convince the audience of. If they are, you’ll also consider whether their persuasion interferes with how the text is read and understood.
• Does the author correctly identify the intended audience? It’s important to consider whether the author correctly writes the text for the intended audience and what assumptions the author makes about the audience.
• Does the text make sense? Here, you’ll consider whether the author effectively reasons, based on the evidence, to arrive at the text’s conclusion.
• Does the author try to appeal to the audience’s emotions? You’ll need to consider whether the author uses any words, ideas, or techniques to appeal to the audience’s emotions.
• Can the author be believed? Finally, you’ll consider whether the audience will accept the arguments and ideas of the author and why.

Summing up, unlike summaries that focus on what an author said, a rhetorical analysis focuses on how it’s said, and it doesn’t rely on an analysis of whether the author was right or wrong but rather how they made their case to arrive at their conclusions.

Although rhetorical analysis is most used by academics as part of scholarly work, it can be used to analyze any text including speeches, novels, television shows or films, advertisements, or cartoons.

Now that we’ve seen what rhetorical analysis is, let’s consider some of its key concepts .

Any rhetorical analysis starts with the rhetorical situation which identifies the relationships between the different elements of the text. These elements include the audience, author or writer, the author’s purpose, the delivery method or medium, and the content:

• Audience: The audience is simply the readers of a specific piece of text or content or printed material. For speeches or other mediums like film and video, the audience would be the listeners or viewers. Depending on the specific piece of text or the author’s perception, the audience might be real, imagined, or invoked. With a real audience, the author writes to the people actually reading or listening to the content while, for an imaginary audience, the author writes to an audience they imagine would read the content. Similarly, for an invoked audience, the author writes explicitly to a specific audience.
• Author or writer: The author or writer, also commonly referred to as the rhetor in the context of rhetorical analysis, is the person or the group of persons who authored the text or content.
• The author’s purpose: The author’s purpose is the author’s reason for communicating to the audience. In other words, the author’s purpose encompasses what the author expects or intends to achieve with the text or content.
• Alphabetic text includes essays, editorials, articles, speeches, and other written pieces.
• Imaging includes website and magazine advertisements, TV commercials, and the like.
• Audio includes speeches, website advertisements, radio or tv commercials, or podcasts.
• Context: The context of the text or content considers the time, place, and circumstances surrounding the delivery of the text to its audience. With respect to context, it might often also be helpful to analyze the text in a different context to determine its impact on a different audience and in different circumstances.

An author will use claims, supports, and warrants to build the case around their argument, irrespective of whether the argument is logical and clearly defined or needs to be inferred by the audience:

• Claim: The claim is the main idea or opinion of an argument that the author must prove to the intended audience. In other words, the claim is the fact or facts the author wants to convince the audience of. Claims are usually explicitly stated but can, depending on the specific piece of content or text, be implied from the content. Although these claims could be anything and an argument may be based on a single or several claims, the key is that these claims should be debatable.
• Support: The supports are used by the author to back up the claims they make in their argument. These supports can include anything from fact-based, objective evidence to subjective emotional appeals and personal experiences used by the author to convince the audience of a specific claim. Either way, the stronger and more reliable the supports, the more likely the audience will be to accept the claim.
• Warrant: The warrants are the logic and assumptions that connect the supports to the claims. In other words, they’re the assumptions that make the initial claim possible. The warrant is often unstated, and the author assumes that the audience will be able to understand the connection between the claims and supports. In turn, this is based on the author’s assumption that they share a set of values and beliefs with the audience that will make them understand the connection mentioned above. Conversely, if the audience doesn’t share these beliefs and values with the author, the argument will not be that effective.

Appeals are used by authors to convince their audience and, as such, are an integral part of the rhetoric and are often referred to as the rhetorical triangle. As a result, an author may combine all three appeals to convince their audience:

• Ethos: Ethos represents the authority or credibility of the author. To be successful, the author needs to convince the audience of their authority or credibility through the language and delivery techniques they use. This will, for example, be the case where an author writing on a technical subject positions themselves as an expert or authority by referring to their qualifications or experience.
• Logos: Logos refers to the reasoned argument the author uses to persuade their audience. In other words, it refers to the reasons or evidence the author proffers in substantiation of their claims and can include facts, statistics, and other forms of evidence. For this reason, logos is also the dominant approach in academic writing where authors present and build up arguments using reasoning and evidence.
• Pathos: Through pathos, also referred to as the pathetic appeal, the author attempts to evoke the audience’s emotions through the use of, for instance, passionate language, vivid imagery, anger, sympathy, or any other emotional response.

To write a rhetorical analysis, you need to follow the steps below:

With a rhetorical analysis, you don’t choose concepts in advance and apply them to a specific text or piece of content. Rather, you’ll have to analyze the text to identify the separate components and plan and prepare your analysis accordingly.

Here, it might be helpful to use the SOAPSTone technique to identify the components of the work. SOAPSTone is a common acronym in analysis and represents the:

• Speaker . Here, you’ll identify the author or the narrator delivering the content to the audience.
• Occasion . With the occasion, you’ll identify when and where the story takes place and what the surrounding context is.
• Audience . Here, you’ll identify who the audience or intended audience is.
• Purpose . With the purpose, you’ll need to identify the reason behind the text or what the author wants to achieve with their writing.
• Subject . You’ll also need to identify the subject matter or topic of the text.
• Tone . The tone identifies the author’s feelings towards the subject matter or topic.

Apart from gathering the information and analyzing the components mentioned above, you’ll also need to examine the appeals the author uses in writing the text and attempting to persuade the audience of their argument. Moreover, you’ll need to identify elements like word choice, word order, repetition, analogies, and imagery the writer uses to get a reaction from the audience.

Once you’ve gathered the information and examined the appeals and strategies used by the author as mentioned above, you’ll need to answer some questions relating to the information you’ve collected from the text. The answers to these questions will help you determine the reasons for the choices the author made and how well these choices support the overall argument.

Here, some of the questions you’ll ask include:

• What was the author’s intention?
• Who was the intended audience?
• What is the author’s argument?
• What strategies does the author use to build their argument and why do they use those strategies?
• What appeals the author uses to convince and persuade the audience?
• What effect the text has on the audience?

Keep in mind that these are just some of the questions you’ll ask, and depending on the specific text, there might be others.

Once you’ve done your preparation, you can start writing the rhetorical analysis. It will start off with an introduction which is a clear and concise paragraph that shows you understand the purpose of the text and gives more information about the author and the relevance of the text.

The introduction also summarizes the text and the main ideas you’ll discuss in your analysis. Most importantly, however, is your thesis statement . This statement should be one sentence at the end of the introduction that summarizes your argument and tempts your audience to read on and find out more about it.

After your introduction, you can proceed with the body of your analysis. Here, you’ll write at least three paragraphs that explain the strategies and techniques used by the author to convince and persuade the audience, the reasons why the writer used this approach, and why it’s either successful or unsuccessful.

You can structure the body of your analysis in several ways. For example, you can deal with every strategy the author uses in a new paragraph, but you can also structure the body around the specific appeals the author used or chronologically.

No matter how you structure the body and your paragraphs, it’s important to remember that you support each one of your arguments with facts, data, examples, or quotes and that, at the end of every paragraph, you tie the topic back to your original thesis.

Finally, you’ll write the conclusion of your rhetorical analysis. Here, you’ll repeat your thesis statement and summarize the points you’ve made in the body of your analysis. Ultimately, the goal of the conclusion is to pull the points of your analysis together so you should be careful to not raise any new issues in your conclusion.

After you’ve finished your conclusion, you’ll end your analysis with a powerful concluding statement of why your argument matters and an invitation to conduct more research if needed.

A rhetorical analysis aims to explore the goals and motivations of an author, the techniques they’ve used to reach their audience, and how successful these techniques were. Although rhetorical analysis is most used by academics as part of scholarly work, it can be used to analyze any text including speeches, novels, television shows or films, advertisements, or cartoons.

The steps to write a rhetorical analysis include:

Your rhetorical analysis introduction is a clear and concise paragraph that shows you understand the purpose of the text and gives more information about the author and the relevance of the text. The introduction also summarizes the text and the main ideas you’ll discuss in your analysis.

Ethos represents the authority or credibility of the author. To be successful, the author needs to convince the audience of their authority or credibility through the language and delivery techniques they use. This will, for example, be the case where an author writing on a technical subject positions themselves as an expert or authority by referring to their qualifications or experience.

Appeals are used by authors to convince their audience and, as such, are an integral part of the rhetoric and are often referred to as the rhetorical triangle. The 3 types of appeals are ethos, logos, and pathos.

Chapter 6: Thinking and Analyzing Rhetorically

6.3 What is Rhetorical Analysis?

Rhetoric: The art of persuasion

Analysis: Breaking down the whole into pieces for the purpose of examination

Unlike summary, a rhetorical analysis does not only require a restatement of ideas; instead, you must recognize rhetorical moves that an author is making in an attempt to persuade his or her audience to do or to think something. In the 21st century’s abundance of information, it can sometimes be difficult to discern what is a rhetorical strategy and what is simple manipulation; however, an understanding of rhetoric and rhetorical moves will help you become more savvy with the information surrounding you on a day-to-day basis. In other words, rhetorical moves can be a form of manipulation, but if one can recognize those moves, then one can be a more critical consumer of information rather than blindly accepting whatever one reads, sees, hears, etc.

The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to explain what is happening in the text,  why the author might have chosen to use a particular move or set of rhetorical moves, and how those choices might affect the audience. The text you analyze might be explanatory, although there will be aspects of argument because you must negotiate with what the author is trying to do and what you think the author is doing. Edward P.J. Corbett observes, rhetorical analysis “is more interested in a literary work for what it does than for what it is”  (qtd. in Nordqvist).

One of the elements of doing a rhetorical analysis is looking at a text’s rhetorical situation. The rhetorical situation is the context out of a which a text is created.

• The questions that you can use to examine a text’s rhetorical situation are in   Chapter 6.2 .

Another element of rhetorical analysis is simply reading and summarizing the text. You have to be able to describe the basics of the author’s thesis and main points before you can begin to analyze it.

• The questions that you can use to summarize a text are in  Chapter 5.1

A third element of rhetorical analysis requires you to connect the rhetorical situation to the text. You need to go beyond summarizing and look at how the author shapes his or her text based on its context. In developing your reading and analytical skills, allow yourself to think about what you’re reading, to question the text and your responses to it, as you read. Use the following questions to help you to take the text apart—dissecting it to see how it works:

• Does the author successfully support the thesis or claim?   Is the point held consistently throughout the text, or does it wander at any point?
• Is the evidence the author used effective for the intended audience? How might the intended audience respond to the types of evidence that the author used to support the thesis/claim?
• What rhetorical moves do you see the author making to help achieve his or her purpose? Are there word choices or content choices that seem to you to be clearly related to the author’s agenda for the text or that might appeal to the intended audience?
• Describe the tone in the piece. Is it friendly? Authoritative? Does it lecture? Is it biting or sarcastic? Does the author use simple language, or is it full of jargon? Does the language feel positive or negative? Point to aspects of the text that create the tone; spend some time examining these and considering how and why they work. (Learn more about tone in Section 4.5 “ Tone, Voice, and Point of View . ”)
• Is the author objective, or does he or she try to convince you to have a certain opinion? Why does the author try to persuade you to adopt this viewpoint? If the author is biased, does this interfere with the way you read and understand the text?
• Do you feel like the author knows who you are? Does the text seem to be aimed at readers like you or at a different audience? What assumptions does the author make about their audience? Would most people find these reasonable, acceptable, or accurate?
• Does the text’s flow make sense? Is the line of reasoning logical? Are there any gaps? Are there any spots where you feel the reasoning is flawed in some way?
• Does the author try to appeal to your emotions? Does the author use any controversial words in the headline or the article? Do these affect your reading or your interest?
• Do you believe the author? Do you accept their thoughts and ideas? Why or why not?

It is also a good idea to revisit Section 2.3 “How to Read Rhetorically.” This chapter will compliment the rhetorical questions listed above and help you clearly determine the text’s rhetorical situation.

Once you have done this basic, rhetorical, critical reading of your text, you are ready to think about how the rhetorical situation ( Section 6.2 ) – the context out of which the text arises –  influences certain rhetorical appeals ( Section 6.4 ) that appear in it.

Attributions

This chapter contains material from “The Word on College Reading and Writing” by Monique Babin, Carol Burnell, Susan Pesznecker, Nicole Rosevear, Jaime Wood , OpenOregon Educational Resources , Higher Education Coordination Commission: Office of Community Colleges and Workforce Development is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0

A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing by Melanie Gagich & Emilie Zickel is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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III. Rhetorical Situation

3.2 What is Rhetorical Analysis?

A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing

Rhetoric: The art of persuasion

Analysis: Breaking down the whole into pieces for the purpose of examination

Unlike summary, a rhetorical analysis does not simply require a restatement of ideas; instead, you must recognize rhetorical moves that an author is making in an attempt to persuade their audience to do or to think something. In the 21st century’s abundance of information, it can sometimes be difficult to discern what is a rhetorical strategy and what is simple manipulation. However, an understanding of rhetoric and rhetorical moves will help you become more savvy with the information surrounding you on a day-to-day basis. In other words, rhetorical moves can be a form of manipulation, but if you can recognize those moves, then you can be a more critical consumer of information rather than blindly accepting whatever you read, see, hear, etc. as indisputable truth.

The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to explain what is happening in the text, why the author might have chosen to use a particular move or set of rhetorical moves, and how those choices might affect the audience . The text you analyze might be explanatory, although there will be aspects of argument because you must negotiate with what the author is trying to do and what you think the author is doing.

One of the elements of doing a rhetorical analysis is looking at a text’s rhetorical situation. The rhetorical situation is the context out of which a text is created. Another element of rhetorical analysis is simply reading and summarizing the text. You have to be able to describe the basics of the author’s thesis and main points before you can begin to analyze it.

To do rhetorical analysis, first connect the rhetorical situation to the text. Move beyond simply summarizing and instead look at how the author shapes their text based on its context . In developing your reading and analytical skills, allow yourself to think about what you’re reading, to question the text and your responses to it as you read. Consider using the following questions to help you to take the text apart—dissecting it or unpacking to see how it works:

• Does the author successfully support the thesis or claim? Is the point held consistently throughout the text or does it wander at any point?
• I s the evidence the author used effective for the intended audience? How might the intended audience respond to the types of evidence that the author used to support the thesis/claim?
• What rhetorical moves do you see the author making to help achieve their purpose? Are there word choices or content choices that seem to you to be clearly related to the author ’s agenda for the text?
• Describe the tone   in the piece. Is it friendly? Authoritative? Does it lecture? Is it biting or sarcastic? Does the author use simple language or is it full of jargon ? Does the language feel positive or negative? Point to aspects of the text that create the tone; spend some time examining these and considering how and why they work.
• Is the author objective, or do they try to convince you to have a certain opinion? Why does the author try to persuade you to adopt this viewpoint? If the author is biased, does this interfere with the way you read and understand the text?
• Do you feel like the author knows who you are? Does the text seem to be aimed at readers like you or at a different audience? What assumptions does the author make about their audience? Would most people find these reasonable, acceptable, or accurate?
• Does the flow of the text make sense? Is the line of reasoning logical? Are there any gaps? Are there any spots where you feel the reasoning is flawed in some way?
• Does the author try to appeal to your emotions? Does the author use any controversial words in the headline or the article? Do these affect your reading or your interest?
• Do you believe the author? Do you accept their thoughts and ideas? Why or why not?

Once you have done this basic, rhetorical, critical reading of your text, you are ready to think about how the rhetorical situation – the context out of which the text arises – influences certain rhetorical appeals that appear in it.

This section contains material from:

“What is Rhetorical Analysis?” In A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing , by Melanie Gagich and Emilie Zickel. Cleveland: MSL Academic Endeavors. Accessed July 2019. https://pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu/csu-fyw-rhetoric/chapter/what-is-rhetorical-analysis/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .

OER credited in the text above includes:

Burnell, Carol, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear. The Word on College Reading and Writing . Open Oregon Educational Resources. Accessed December 18, 2020. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License .

To distinguish, perceive, or figure out usually through intuition, instinct, or inference; to discover information indirectly.

The person or group of people who view and analyze the work of a writer, researcher, or other content creator.

A statement, usually one sentence, that summarizes an argument that will later be explained, expanded upon, and developed in a longer essay or research paper. In undergraduate writing, a thesis statement is often found in the introductory paragraph of an essay. The plural of thesis is theses .

A brief and concise statement or series of statements that outlines the main point(s) of a longer work. To summarize is to create a brief and concise statement or series of statements that outlines the main point(s) of a longer work.

The set of circumstances that frame a particular idea or argument; the background information that is necessary for an audience to know about in order to understand why or how a text was written or produced.

The specialized language and vocabulary associated with a specific profession, trade, or group of people; words not commonly used outside the context in which they are normally found and with whom they are associated.

3.2 What is Rhetorical Analysis? Copyright © 2022 by A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

The Art of the Audio Essay PWR 2 Fall Quarter 2007 Jonah G. Willihnganz Stanford University

Rhetorical Analysis In-Class Presentations Audience: Your Classmates

• traditional rhetorical appeals (logos, pathos, ethos)
• structure and organization of material (introduction, conclusion, arrangements of description, dialogue, etc.)
• evidence (of any kind—examples, analogies, etc. count)
• rhetorical strategies such as establishing common ground, anticipating objections, posing a question, using motifs, creating associations, disarming the audience, etc.

Qualities specific to audio from of the piece might include:

• voice quality (distance, inflection, specific intonations to indicate meaning, etc.)
• voice pacing (rate, variation, use of pauses, etc.)
• language (diction, alliteration, assonance, repeated words, phrases, or syntactical structures, etc.)
• music (kinds, patterns, relation to narration or dialogue)
• sound (kinds, patterns, relation to narration or dialogue)

Group 1: Ward, Yarborough, Taylor, and Lyf, " Oakland Scenes " (in Youth Radio's Violence section) Group 2: Jack Hitt, " Mapping the Ambient World " (Act II of TAL show on Mapping) Group 3: Jonathan Mitchell, " City X " (from prx.org) Group 4: Jeremy Richards, " Behind the Man " (scroll down to find the piece) Group 5: Radio Lab, " One Eye Open " (Part I of episode on Sleep)

Rhetorical Analysis

Introduction Bootcamp

Agenda: August 23/24, 2021

• Open your notebook or take out a piece of paper
• Professional Email
• Review MC Answers
• Question Stems
• Question Types

Follow the Columnist

• SOAPSTone Introduction w/ Article
• Successful SOAPSTone Sample
• Professional Email due Friday
• Annotate & SOAPSTone Article

Professional Email Assignment

Link to Assignment!

Follow the Columnist Handout

FTC #1 → October 1

FTC #2 → December 10

Extra Credit

Extra Credit #1:

• Proposal → September 17
• Due: September 24 (PD Day - No Students)

Extra Credit #2:

• Proposal → November 19
• Due → December 3

“ America Is Guilty of Neglecting Kids: Our Own ”

• Read/Annotate the Article
• Complete SOAPStone handout

Agenda: August 25, 2021

• Intro Rhetoric
• Read Setting Rhetorical Concepts Loose on the World

- Complete Reader's Journal #1 Due Tuesday (11:59pm)

Intro to Rhetoric

Sometimes, rhetoric is obvious

Sometimes our words are without disguise...

Other times our intentions are not as easy to interpret...

Look at the example:

When we start to dissect rhetoric, we always want to consider the relationship between speaker , audience , and subject .

This helps us determine the purpose and the tone .

A Word from the Wise:

"The first thing that students need to know about rhetoric, then, is that it’s all around us in conversation, in movies, in advertisements and books, in body language, and in art. We employ rhetoric whether we’re conscious of it or not, but becoming conscious of how rhetoric works can transform speaking, reading, and writing, making us more successful and able communicators and more discerning audiences. The very ordinariness of rhetoric is the single most important tool for teachers to use to help students understand its dynamics and practice them."

-taken from "What Do Students Need to Know About Rhetoric?" by Hepzibah Roskelly

What is a Rhetorical Situation?

• Rhetoric : Using language effectively to persuade, inform, educate, or entertain
• Rhetorical Situation : The circumstances in which you communicate.

The Rhetorical Situation

• Your culture, personal characteristics, and interests affect what you write about and how you write it.

Writer: Factors which can affect �your writing include:

• Your experiences
• Your gender
• Your location
• Your political beliefs
• Your parents and peers
• Your education

Purpose: Your Reason For Writing

Agenda: August 26/27, 2021

• Finish Rhetoric Quick Intro/Recap Notes

Ethos, Pathos, Logos Review

• Professional Email → Friday
• RRJ 1 → Tuesday

Audience: To Whom are You Writing?

• Many of the same factors which affect the writer also affect the audience
• Social class
• Past experience
• Culture/subculture
• Expectations
• The “situation” which generates the need for writing
• Affected by the
• Time period or timing
• Current events
• Cultural significance
• Types of culture:

What this means…

• You need to be aware that a rhetorical situation exists every time you write.
• You need to adapt your writing depending on your purpose and your audience.

For any rhetorical analysis,you have to be prepared to dive into the text.

At first, it may feel intimidating, but it gets easier with each jump.

The key is to always go below the surface!

These four questions will help you dive deeper:

• WHAT is being said?
• TO WHOM is it being said?
• HOW is it being said?
• WHY is it being said?
• requires learning to read not for just WHAT is said but for HOW and WHY things are said as they are
• requires a careful reader to distinguish between the concrete and the abstract as well as how they are interrelated
• requires examining a situation closely for the subtleties and implications of how things are both said and "unsaid"

Let’s practice with a visual!

Let’s Practice with Prose

“Once a journey is designed, equipped, and put in process, a new factor enters and takes over. A trip, a safari, an exploration, is an entity, different from all other journeys. It has personality, temperament, individuality, uniqueness. A journey is a person in itself; no two are alike. And all plans, safeguards, policing, and coercion are fruitless. We find after years of struggle that we do not take a trip; a trip takes us. Tour masters, schedules, reservations, brass-bound and inevitable, dash themselves to wreckage on the personality of the trip. Only when this is recognized can the blown-in-the glass bum relax and go along with it. Only then do the frustrations fall away. In this a journey is like marriage. The certain way to be wrong is to think you control it.”

-from Travels With Charley: In Search of America by John Steinbeck

Context of Reagan’s State of the Union Address

Reagan’s State of the Union Address date (1/28/86)

Agenda: August 30/31, 2021

• Tone Vocabulary First 4

Tone Vocabulary

• Rhetorical Analysis Resources
• Rhetorical Device and Tone Analysis Practice
• Finish Tone Practice
• Reader Response Journal - Tuesday
• NEED COPY OF 50 ESSAYS FOR Thursday/Friday

Vocabulary Course Assignment

This can be done in your notebooks or in a google doc

These words will come from works that you read in class or on your own.

Aristotle’s Categories of Persuasion

• Ethos ( Credibility ), or ethical appeal, means convincing by the character of the author.
• Pathos ( Emotional ) means persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions.
• Logos ( Logical ) means persuading by the use of reasoning.

Ethos is the way the writer/speaker "appears" to the reader.

Ethos appeals to the credibility or trustworthiness of the person or product.

Ethos also appeals to morality: right or wrong.

How is the credibility appeal used in these two ads?

Pathos is an appeal to the emotions of the audience.

This is where the writer/speaker attempts to make you feel something.

How is the emotional appeal used in these three ads?

Logos is the appeal to logic.

Logos is when a writer/speaker attempts to convince an audience by use of logic or reason.

This is most often achieved using facts, statistics, or organizational patterns.

How is the rational appeal used in these ads?

Writer/Speaker: Ethos

Audience: Pathos

Context: Logos

• Open your notebooks to the “Tone Vocabulary” Section
• Write down the word
• Write down the part of speech
• Write down the definition.
• Explain how the videos relate to the words
• Adjective- ardently active, devoted, or diligent; full of enthusiasm
• Adjective - portending evil or harm; foreboding; threatening
• Adjective- Insolently rude, intrusive or presumptuous
• Adjective- lacking in vigor or vitality; slack or slow

Individually:

• Look through the list and identify words you know.
• Identify words that you have seen/heard but aren’t sure of.
• Identify the words you have never seen/heard before.

With your group:

• Work through the list to identify those with positive (+), negative (-), and neutral (=) tones.
• Begin to group like-words together (i.e. all the words that show happiness)

Rhetorical Tools Handout

Keep this handout in the Rhetorical Analysis section of your Binder

Rhetorical Term Handout

Discussion:

• Look through the terms and mark the ones you know.
• Look through the terms and mark the ones you’ve heard of but don’t fully comprehend.

Tone and Rhetorical Term Practice

With your group, work through the handout .

Have it completed when coming to class Wednesday

Agenda: September 1, 2021

Take out your Rhetorical Device and Tone Analysis Practice Handout

Take out the Rhetorical Triangle Handout

• FTC Columnist Submission
• Tone Vocabulary Next 4
• Tone Analysis Practice
• Precis Writing
• Tone Practice & FTC Columnist Submission Tonight (Canvas)
• FTC & Vocab → Oct.1
• EC Proposal → Sept.17
• Enjoy the videos
• Adjective- the use of irony, sarcasm, ridicule, or the like, in exposing, or denouncing
• Adjective- easily managed or handled
• Adjective- Domineering in a haughty manner; dictatorial, overbearing
• Adjective-extremely bold or daring, recklessly brave; fearless

Agenda: September 2/3, 2021

“This is Water”

• “This is Water” Precis due Sunday 11:59pm (Canvas)
• Adjective - Capricious humor or disposition; erratic, unpredictable

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7PJPJy00514

• Adjective - Sincere remorse; filled with guilt
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6bgSITBrVQ
• Adjective - of, pertaining to, or characterized by sudden or rash action, emotion; impulsive

Ingratiating

• Adjective- Charming, agreeable, pleasing; deliberately meant to gain favor

Rhetorical Précis

the introduction paragraph to a rhetorical analysis essay

• Pronounced pray-see
• The précis is a rhetorical summary, of sorts. It defines the broad ideas an author is attempting to communicate.

Literary vs Rhetorical Analysis

• Literary Analysis - generally Fiction
• Stays within the context of the text/plot
• Focuses on ideas of theme, conflict, characterization, and author commentary
• Answers the questions “What?” and “How?” – What is a characterization? How does the conflict relate to theme? et cetera
• Rhetorical Analysis - generally Non-fiction
• Out of context of the plot
• Focuses on the intent of the writer/speaker
• Answers the questions “How?” and “Why?” – How does the author describe the setting? Why does the author make a contrast between Idea A and Idea B?

Structure of Rhetorical Précis

• Sentence #1 – Factual summary (Who/What?)
• Author name, title, date, statement of claim/thesis
• Sentence #2 – Subject summary and form (How?)
• Brief summary of beginning, middle, and end
• with a reference to an organizational pattern/s
• Sentence #3 – Purpose statement (Why?)
• Identifies WHY the author is making the claim; suggests a rhetorical aim (What larger issue/cause is put into context?)
• Sentence #4 – Tone and audience (To Whom?)
• What is the relationship the author has with the intended audience

The entire rhetorical précis �is only four sentences!

Sentence #1- Factual Summary

• In a single coherent sentence, give the following information:
• the name of the author, the genre (essay, novel, et cetera) and title of the work with the date (in parentheses);
• a concise appropriate verb (such as asserts, argues, denies, refutes, proves, disproves, explains, et cetera);
• followed by a that phrase in which the thesis of the work is stated
• In his/her ______ (type of work), author ______ (name of author) ______ (a rhetorically accurate verb) that ______ (the author’s assertion, argument, position, et cetera).
• In the article “End Homework Now” (2001), Etta Kralovec and John Buell claim that the practice of assigning homework is not an effective teaching method because its detrimental effects outweigh its benefits.
• In her online article “Who Cares if Johnny Can’t Read” (1997), Larissa McFarquhar asserts that Americans are reading more than ever despite claims to the contrary, and it is time to reconsider why we value reading so much, especially certain kinds of “high culture” reading.

Sentence #2 - Subject Summary & Form

• Sentence two provides an explanation of how the author goes about supporting his/her thesis, in chronological order (beginning, middle, end)
• Remember that brevity is important—you will not restate the details from the work, but explain the rhetorical method used by the writer to develop these supports.
• Here you should reference rhetorical devices/strategies the author/speaker used
• Identify organizational patterns

Exemplification; Description; Narration; Comparison and/or Contrast; Classification/Division; Definition; Cause and/or effect

• ______ (the author) develops/supports this ______ (change rhetorical verb to a noun) by ______ (reveal author’s technique(s) in chronological order with reference to organizational pattern/s).
• Baker supports this assertion in the opening of his piece by exemplifying how inappropriate attitudes can make writing unclear, pompous, or boring, concluding that a good writer will be respectful toward his audience, considerate toward his readers, and somehow amiable toward human failings.
• MacFarquhar supports her claims about American reading habits with facts and statistics that compare past and present reading practices, and she challenges common assumptions by raising questions about reading’s intrinsic value.

Sentence #3 – Purpose Statement

• Sentence three states the purpose of the piece
• which may reflect the thesis but should also include the writer’s motive—Why is she/he writing this piece?)
• This is accomplished with an in order to phrase.
• ______’s (author) purpose is to ______ (reveal author’s purpose) in order to (what the author wants audience to react to, feel, and/or do).
• His purpose is to make his readers aware of the dangers of undesirable attitudes in order to help them become better writers.
• Her purpose is to dispel certain myths in order to raise new and more important questions about the value of reading.

Sentence #4 – Tone and Audience

• In a single coherent sentence give a description of the intended audience
• and/or the relationship the author establishes with the audience through a tone reference.
• ______ (author) (strong verb such as establishes, employs) ______ (description of tone) with ______ (describe author’s audience). Us the Verbs to Give “Is” a Break Handout
• He establishes an informal relationship with his audience of college students who are interested in learning to write with conviction.
• She employs a sarcastic tone with a young, hip, somewhat irreverent audience who would agree the ideas she opposes are old-fashioned.

Agenda: September 7/8, 2021

Take out your copy of 50 Essays

• Tone Words (next 4)
• “ Just Walk on By: Black Men and Public Space ”
• Read and Annotate
• Complete Rhetorical Triangle with Partner
• Read “Just Walk on By: Black Man and Public Space” & annotate
• Tone Quiz #1 next class!
• Adjective - unimpressed or indifferent to something because one has experienced or seen it so often before.
• Adjective - causing gloom or dejection; gloomy; dreary; cheerless; melancholy
• Adjective-raised or elevated, as in rank or character; of high station
• Adjective- Irritated; annoyed

Generally, Shrek most instances...

“Just Walk On By:

Black Men and Public Space”

“ Just Walk On By: Black Men and Public Space ”

• Read and Annotate for rhetorical devices and message
• Complete Rhetorical Triangle with a partner

Agenda: September 9/10, 2021

• Tone Quiz 1
• Complete Multiple Choice Questions with Partner
• Write Rhetorical Precis for “ Just Walk on By: Black Men and Public Space ”
• Rhetorical Precis due Sunday night
• Complete Reader’s Response Journal #2 DUE Wednesday!

Agenda: September 13/14, 2021

• Tone (Next 4)

Rhetorical Analysis Baseline (45 mins)

• “Myth of a Latin Woman”
• Read/Annotate
• “Myth of a Latin Woman” Triangle
• Complete Reader’s Response Journal #2 DUE Wednesday
• Adjective- Physically weak, as from age or sickness; frail
• Weak intellectually or morally
• Adjective - To warn, caution, or advise
• Adjective- Frank, outspoken; open and sincere; straightforward
• Adjective - A feeling or attitude of deep respect

“The Myth of the Latin Woman: I Just Met a Girl Named Maria”

PAGE 91-97 (Third Edition)

“The Myth of the Latin Woman...”

• Read/Annotate individually
• Complete Rhetorical Triangle individually

Agenda: September 15, 2021

• Tone (next 4)
• Go over Triangle
• Multiple Choice
• Reader Response Journal 2 Due TODAY
• “Myth of a Latin Woman” Precis by Friday
• Adjective- expressing sorrow or melancholy
• Adjective - Frivolously disrespectful, shallow, or lacking in seriousness
• Adjective - affecting or moving the emotions
• Adjective- Expressing goodwill or kindly feelings; desiring to help others
• Complete Multiple Choice Questions individually
• Complete Rhetorical Précis individually

Agenda: September 16/17, 2021

• Prompt Breakdown
• Grade sample Rhetorical Analysis essay
• RA Reflection

1.Read and Annotate “On Being a Cripple” (pgs. 244-256) for next class

2. Vocab Quiz 2 next Wednesday/Thursday

3. FTC & Vocab → Oct.1

4. EC Proposal → Sept.17

Disheartened

Adj: to cause to lose hope, enthusiasm, or courage: to cause to lose spirit or morale

Adj: using or involving the use of a minimum of words : concise to the point of seeming rude or mysterious

Adj: having death as a subject : comprising or including a personalized representation of death

dwelling on the gruesome

Adj: to treat with contempt or ridicule

Cofer Multiple Choice

Rhetorical Analysis Reflection

• What did you struggle with the most on this essay?
• Were there any differences for you between this essay and your argumentative?
• What can you do next time to fix these areas of concern?
• Anything you would like me to know?

Agenda: September 20/21, 2021

• Tone words (final 4)
• Discussion for “On Being a Cripple” (pg. 244)

MLA Citations

• Embedding Quotes
• Vocab Quiz (Sep 22/23)
• Post your “On Being a Cripple” Précis HERE by Next Class
• EC → FRIDAY

Expressing sorrow or lamentation

• Adjective- Intended for instruction; inclined to teach a moral lesson
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P2neexKvlOM
• Adjective - A sentimental or wistful yearning for the happiness felt in a former place, time, or situation #tbt
• Adjective - Characterized by bitter or scornful derision; mocking; cynical

“On Being a Cripple” Discussion Questions

• Make two lists, one of Mairs’s talents and one of the activities her MS makes difficult or impossible.
• Consult a dictionary for definitions of “cripple,” “handicapped,” and “disabled.” Compare them with how Mairs views the words.
• Find and cite examples where Mairs presents her sense of humor. What do they suggest about her attitude toward her condition?
• How would you identify Mairs’s overall tone?

OWL Purdue Online Writing Lab

Citation Machine (MLA)

MLA Parenthetical Citations

• The in-text citation is a brief reference within your text that indicates the source you consulted. It should properly attribute any ideas, paraphrases, or direct quotations to your source, and should direct readers to the entry in the list of works cited.
• The source information required in a parenthetical citation depends on

(1.) upon the source medium (e.g. Print, Web, DVD)

(2.) upon the source’s entry on the Works Cited (bibliography) page.

• For the most part, an in-text citation is the author’s last name and page number (or just the page number, if the author is named in the sentence) in parentheses:
• Imperialism is “the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory” ( Said 9 ).
• According to Edward W. Said , imperialism is defined by “the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory” ( 9 ).

Definition of Embedding:

• Using a word or phrase from a text and “weaving” it into a sentence of your own explaining or analyzing those words.

Sentence from the text: George lay back on the sand and crossed his hands under his head, and Lennie imitated him, raising his head to see whether he were doing it right.

Embedded quotation: Because George “crossed his hands under his head,” Lennie “imitated him” in an attempt to follow and illustrate his admiration for his more adept friend.

The following are examples of ineffective ways of including textual evidence:

• Dropping quotations
• Introducing quotations

Dropping a Quotation

• Using the word or phrase as a stand alone sentence.
• “George snapped his fingers sharply, and at the sound Lennie laid the mouse in his hand.” George is upset that Lennie did not follow the concise directions given to him; therefore, George angrily demands that the mouse be removed from Lennie’s possession.
• DO NOT DO THIS!

Introducing a Quotation:

• Using signal words like “says” or “said” that act like a flag waving saying “Hey! The following words are from the story!”
• Steinbeck says/said “George snapped his fingers sharply, and at the sound Lennie laid the mouse in his hand.” George is upset that Lennie did not follow the concise directions given to him; therefore, George angrily demands that the mouse be removed from Lennie’s possession.

Embedding a Quotation

• Using a word or phrase from a text and “weaving” it into a sentence of your own and explaining or analyzing those words.
• George “snapped his fingers” at Lennie because he did not follow the concise directions angrily demanding the mouse be removed from Lennie’s possession.

Agenda: September 22/23, 2021

• Vocab Quiz #2
• Precis Discussion & Rating
• Work on FTC/Vocab/EC
• EC → TOMORROW

Rhetorical Précis Rating

• Read through all of the précis posted here .
• Pick the two that you think were the most effective.
• Put a mark (I) next to the two précis you found most effective
• Write down a brief defense/explanation of the effectiveness of your two chosen précis

Rhetorical Précis Recording

In the Rhetorical Analysis section of your notebook, record the one most effective précis (other than your own) that you read and would like to emulate.

Agenda: September 27/28, 2020

• Presentation from Lily/Will (2A)
• “On Being a Cripple” MC

Embedding Practice

• Rhetorical Analysis Handout
• Thesis Statement Handout
• Passive v. Active Verbs
• Label the type of question, and choose 4 that you missed to give reasoning behind correct answer.

Identify if it is �Embedded, Dropped or Introduced:

• Steinbeck said “a few beans slipped out of the side of Lennie’s mouth.” Lennie has adolescent eating habits which annoy George.
• “A few beans slipped out of the side of Lennie’s mouth.” Lennie ate as a child does, in which he crammed ample amounts of food into his stuffed mouth.
• Lennie’s poor eating habits caused “a few beans” to find their way out of his stuffed mouth displaying his childlike nature.

Steps to Embedding a Quotation

• Find the piece of textual evidence that supports what you want to say.
• What is the word or short phrase (about 3 or 4 words, NOT THE ENTIRE SENTENCE!) that is the most important part!
• Take that word or phrase and “weave” it into a sentence of your own words explaining or analyzing what is going on.

Step 1: Choose a Quote

Question: What motivates Huck to stay with the Widow Douglas?

“The Widow Douglas she took me for her son, and allowed she would sivilize me; but it was rough living in the house all the time, considering how dismal regular and decent the widow was in all her ways; and so when I couldn’t stand it no longer I lit out. I got into my old rags and my sugar-hogshead again, and was free and satisfied. But Tom Sawyer he hunted me up and said he was going to start a band of robbers, and I might join if I would go back to the widow and be respectable. So I went back” (Twain).

Step 2: Identify the most important word/phrase in relation to the question

“The Widow Douglas she took me for her son, and allowed she would sivilize me; but it was rough living in the house all the time, considering how dismal regular and decent the widow was in all her ways; and so when I couldn’t stand it no longer I lit out. I got into my old rags and my sugar-hogshead again, and was free and satisfied. But Tom Sawyer he hunted me up and said he was going to start a band of robbers, and I might join if I would go back to the widow and be respectable. So I went back.”

Step 3: Weave phrase into your own sentence

Because Huck wants to join Tom’s “band of robbers,” he agrees to live the civilized life with the Widow Douglas (Twain ___).

“I hadn’t had a bite to eat since yesterday, so Jim he got out some corn-dodgers and buttermilk, and pork and cabbage and greens—there ain’t nothing in the world so good when it’s cooked right—and whilst I eat my supper we talked and had a good time. . . .We said there warn’t no home like a raft, after all. Other places do seem so cramped up and smothery, but a raft don’t. You feel mighty free and easy and comfortable on a raft.”

1. What makes the raft a suitable home in Huck’s perspective?

“Unlike other “cramped up and smotherly” homes he has been in, on a raft he feels “free and easy and comfortable” (Twain ___).

2. Why does Huck agree to adopt Tom’s plan to free Jim over his own?

“Tom told me what his plan was, and I see in a minute it was worth fifteen of mine for style, and would make Jim just as free a man as mine would, and maybe get us all killed besides. So I was satisfied, and said we would waltz in on it.”

(Twain ___)

Huck realized that Tom’s plan was “worth fifteen” of his and was excited at the idea that they might be “killed besides” (Twain ___).

3. Why does Huck have to leave before everyone else?

“But I reckon I got to light out for the territory ahead of the rest, because Aunt Sally she’s going to adopt me and sivilize me, and I can’t stand it. I been there before.”

Huck felt it necessary to “light out for the territory” before everyone else because he “can’t stand” that Aunt Sally is going to “adopt [him] and sivilize [him]” (Twain ___).

Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a short statement, usually one sentence, that summarizes the main point or claim of an essay and is developed, supported, and explained in the text by means of examples, evidence, and analysis.

* This is the second (2nd) sentence of your rhetorical précis.

“To Be” Verbs

Voice of Verbs - Active/Passive Voice Practice

Agenda: September 29, 2020

• Analysis Body Paragraphs
• Go over Passive v. Active Verbs
• Watch Growth Mindset Video and complete Reading Journal #3 by next Wednesday (10/6)

Structure for Analysis Paragraph

• First = Introduce the topic of the body paragraph (usually the rhetorical strategy you noticed)
• Second = Introduce the quote’s context – what’s going on in the text ? ( Imagine your reader is unfamiliar with the text)
• Third = Embed a meaningful quote - or use a signal phrase - and the MLA in-text citation.
• Fourth = Provide a few sentences of commentary or analysis. Explain how your quote supports and furthers your argument .
• Fifth = Conclude and transition. Provide a “so what?” to tie this to a relevant real world idea.

E : Evidence/

A : Analysis

S : So What?

T: Topic Sentence - Shows the main focus of this paragraph.

E: Evidence/Example - The support you will use to prove your thesis

A: Analysis - Explanation of how your evidence proves your thesis

S: So What? - How/why is this relevant outside of this particular text

Step 1: Identify and Organize your quotes.

• Chronological – Sequentially in the plot – beginning to end (the order in the text)
• Devices – Organize by common devices (imagery, diction, and allusion) and how each device adds complexity to the idea of survival.
• Topics within a thematic idea – Organize by different areas of focus with the theme. (surviving the enemies, surviving friendships, surviving own decisions)
• Broad to specific – Organize by the broad area of survival in the world to the specific area of survival of self.

Step 2: Write a topic sentence that combines the evidence you plan to use.

Thesis: In her nursery rhyme, “Humpty Dumpty,” Mother Goose uses diction, imagery, and details to emphasize that some actions have negative consequences.

CHRONOLOGICAL (beginning to end)

In order to understand the consequences, we must first see that Mother Goose demonstrates that we have the ability to make choices.

Step 3: Provide a sentence or two of background/context leading up to the quote

• As our speech begins, _________
• After _______ meets _______, he struggles with _______.
• ________ tend to believe that____________
• Conventional wisdom has it that___________
• Society often thinks that ______________
• __________ celebrates the fact that ______________
• ___________emphasizes that ______________

In her nursery rhyme, “Humpty Dumpty,” Mother Goose uses diction, imagery, and details to emphasize that some actions have negative consequences.

In order to understand the consequences, we must first see that Mother Goose demonstrates that we have the ability to make choices. In the beginning of this short nursery rhyme, she emphasizes that Humpty actively decides to engage in dangerous behavior by using precise diction.

Step 4: Choose a meaningful quote and embed it -- if out of time, use a signal phrase -- and beginning your commentary.

A signal phrase is group of words that signals that a quote will be introduced.

According to Mother Goose, “________________” (50).

Mother Goose argues, “____________________” (35).

Mother Goose complicates matters further when “__________” (56).

The author demonstrates this concept “________” (4).

Choose different signal phrases to add variety

In order to understand the consequences, we must first see that Mother Goose demonstrates that we have the ability to make choices. In the beginning of this short nursery rhyme, she emphasizes that Humpty actively decides to engage in dangerous behavior by using precise diction. When Mother Goose explains that Humpty “sat on the wall,” the word “sat” suggests an active choice (Goose 1).

Step 5: Provide additional commentary/analysis after the quote. (They Say, Chapter 3, p. 46)

In other words, _________________

To put it another way,_________________

_______ is important because__________

Although ______________ may seem trivial, it is in fact crucial in terms of today’s concern over____________.

Ultimately, what is at stake here is___________

In order to understand the consequences, we must first see that Mother Goose demonstrates that we have the ability to make choices. In the beginning of this short nursery rhyme, she emphasizes that Humpty actively decides to engage in dangerous behavior by using precise diction. When Mother Goose explains that Humpty “sat on the wall,” the word “sat” suggests an active choice (Goose 1). Despite being fragile, Humpty has decided to place himself on a wall suggesting a daring spirit.

Step 6: Repeat with your 2 nd example and explanation (red/yellow)

In order to understand the consequences, we must first see that Mother Goose demonstrates that we have the ability to make choices. In the beginning of this short nursery rhyme, she emphasizes that Humpty actively decides to engage in dangerous behavior by using precise diction. Mother Goose states that Humpty “sat on the wall” (Goose 1). The word “sat” suggests an active action. Despite being fragile, Humpty has decided to place himself on a wall. It seems to suggest a daring spirit. This poor decision results in negative consequences as “Humpty Dumpty had a great fall” (2). Again, the author shows that this action has a result he cannot control; his “great” disaster.

Step 7: Conclude/Transition. So What? (blue)

In order to understand the consequences, we must first see that Mother Goose demonstrates that we have the ability to make choices. In the beginning of this short nursery rhyme, she emphasizes that Humpty actively decides to engage in dangerous behavior by using precise diction. Mother Goose states that Humpty “sat on the wall” (Goose 1). The word “sat” suggests an active action. Despite being fragile, Humpty has decided to place himself on a wall. It seems to suggest a daring spirit. This poor decision results in negative consequences as “Humpty Dumpty had a great fall” (2). Again, the author shows that this action has a result he cannot control; his “great” disaster. Clearly, we have the ability to make choices, but those choices have consequences; sometimes devastating ones.

Agenda: September 20/October 1, 2021

• Documentary
• Read the JFK prompt (page 10 in the pdf) and break it down for strategies. Try to time yourself to just 5-10 mins
• Rhetorical Analysis Wednesday/Thursday
• FTC & Vocab due TONIGHT

Agenda: October 4/5, 2021

• Breakout Session w/ JFK precis & body paragraph
• Watch Growth Mindset Video and complete Reading Journal #3 by this Wednesday (10/6)

Let’s Practice!

Agenda: October 6/7, 2021

• Peer Edit JFK Precis/Paragraph
• Rhetorical Analysis (40 mins)
• Reflect on separate piece of paper (turn in with RA)
• None! See ya in Term 2

On the back of your essay / or a new piece of paper:

• Was this RA essay writing experience better than the first? Why or why not?
• What do you still think is an issue for you while writing RA? What can we do to address this?

Agenda: November 30 / December 1, 2020

• “Before Reading” Journal
• “Before Reading” Discussion
• “ Me Talk Pretty One Day ” by David Sedaris
• - Term 2 Project due Dec 17
• - Term 2 Extra Credit due Dec 4

“ Me Talk Pretty One Day ”

Journal - Before We Read

Brianstorm a list of texts you find funny. You can name a TV show or webcast, a movie, a book, another print source, a comedian (or Twitter feed), or a personal acquaintance.

Now, use your list as evidence in a short argument that defines your sense of humor.

In your groups, compare your responses.

• Did you have any in common?
• Were any surprising or different?
• What makes something funny?
• Is there such a thing as universal humor?

During Reading (still part of Journal)

Read/annotate the text and analyze

With a PARTNER:

• Read/annotate the text “Me Talk Pretty One Day” AND….
• Make a 3 column chart where you keep track of the different types/moments of humor you find. (see chart).
• THEN...Identify the PURPOSE of the piece of humor.

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Rhetorical Analysis

Almost every text makes an argument. Rhetorical analysis is the process of evaluating elements of a text and determining how those elements impact the success or failure of that argument. Often rhetorical analyses address written arguments, but visual, oral, or other kinds of “texts” can also be analyzed. 

Rhetorical Features—What to Analyze

Asking the right questions about how a text is constructed will help you determine the focus of your rhetorical analysis. A good rhetorical analysis does not try to address every element of a text; discuss just those aspects with the greatest [positive or negative] impact on the text’s effectiveness. 

The Rhetorical Situation

Remember that no text exists in a vacuum. The rhetorical situation of a text refers to the context in which it is written and read, the audience to whom it is directed, and the purpose of the writer. 

The Rhetorical Appeals

A writer makes many strategic decisions when attempting to persuade an audience. Considering the following rhetorical appeals will help you understand some of these strategies and their effect on an argument. Generally, writers should incorporate a variety of different rhetorical appeals rather than relying on only one kind. 

Ethos (appeal to the writer’s credibility)

• What is the writer’s purpose (to argue, explain, teach, defend, call to action, etc.)?
• Do you trust the writer? Why?
• Is the writer an authority on the subject? What credentials does the writer have?
• Does the writer address other viewpoints?
• How does the writer’s word choice or tone affect how you view the writer?

Pathos (appeal to emotion or to an audience’s values or beliefs)

• Who is the target audience for the argument?
• How is the writer trying to make the audience feel (i.e., sad, happy, angry, guilty)?
• Is the writer making any assumptions about the background, knowledge, values, etc. of the audience?

Logos (appeal to logic)

• Is the writer’s evidence relevant to the purpose of the argument? Is the evidence current (if applicable)? Does the writer use a variety of sources to support the argument?
• What kind of evidence is used (i.e., expert testimony, statistics, proven facts)?
• Do the writer’s points build logically upon each other?
• Where in the text is the main argument stated? How does that placement affect the success of the argument?
• Does the writer’s thesis make that purpose clear?

Kairos (appeal to timeliness)

• When was the argument originally presented?
• Where was the argument originally presented?
• What circumstances may have motivated the argument?
• Does the particular time or situation in which this text is written make it more compelling or persuasive?
• What would an audience at this particular time understand about this argument?

Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Essay

No matter the kind of text you are analyzing, remember that the text’s subject matter is never the focus of a rhetorical analysis. The most common error writers make when writing rhetorical analyses is to address the topic or opinion expressed by an author instead of focusing on how that author constructs an argument.

You must read and study a text critically in order to distinguish its rhetorical elements and strategies from its content or message. By identifying and understanding how audiences are persuaded, you become more proficient at constructing your own arguments and in resisting faulty arguments made by others.

A thesis for a rhetorical analysis does not address the content of the writer’s argument. Instead, the thesis should be a statement about specific rhetorical strategies the writer uses and whether or not they make a convincing argument.

Incorrect: Smith’s editorial promotes the establishment of more green space in the Atlanta area through the planting of more trees along major roads.

This statement is summarizing the meaning and purpose of Smith’s writing rather than making an argument about how – and how effectively – Smith presents and defends his position.

Correct: Through the use of vivid description and testimony from affected citizens, Smith makes a powerful argument for establishing more green space in the Atlanta area.

Correct: Although Smith’s editorial includes vivid descriptions of the destruction of green space in the Atlanta area, his argument will not convince his readers because his claim is not backed up with factual evidence.

These statements are both focused on how Smith argues, and both make a claim about the effectiveness of his argument that can be defended throughout the paper with examples from Smith’s text.

Introduction

The introduction should name the author and the title of the work you are analyzing. Providing any relevant background information about the text and state your thesis (see above). Resist the urge to delve into the topic of the text and stay focused on the rhetorical strategies being used.

Summary of argument

Include a short summary of the argument you are analyzing so readers not familiar with the text can understand your claims and have context for the examples you provide.

The body of your essay discusses and evaluates the rhetorical strategies (elements of the rhetorical situation and rhetorical appeals – see above) that make the argument effective or not. Be certain to provide specific examples from the text for each strategy you discuss and focus on those strategies that are most important to the text you are analyzing. Your essay should follow a logical organization plan that your reader can easily follow.

Go beyond restating your thesis; comment on the effect or significance of the entire essay. Make a statement about how important rhetorical strategies are in determining the effectiveness of an argument or text.

Analyzing Visual Arguments

The same rhetorical elements and appeals used to analyze written texts also apply to visual arguments. Additionally, analyzing a visual text requires an understanding of how design elements work together to create certain persuasive effects (or not). Consider how elements such as image selection, color, use of space, graphics, layout, or typeface influence an audience’s reaction to the argument that the visual was designed to convey.

This material was developed by the KSU Writing Center and is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . All materials created by the KSU Writing Center are free to use and can be adopted, remixed, and shared at will as long as the materials are attributed. Please keep this information on materials you adapt or adopt for attribution purposes. 

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Rhetorical Analyses

A rhetorical analysis considers all elements of the rhetorical situation--the audience, purpose, medium, and context--within which a communication was generated and delivered in order to make an argument about that communication. A strong rhetorical analysis will not only describe and analyze the text, but will also evaluate it; that evaluation represents your argument.

• Description: What does this text look like? Where did you find the text? Who sponsored it? What are the rhetorical appeals? (i.e. calm music in the background of a commercial establishes pathos) When was it written?
• Analysis: Why does the author incorporate these rhetorical appeals? (For example, why does the author incorporate calm music? What is the point of the pathos?) How would the reception of this text change if it were written today, as opposed to twenty years ago? What is left out of this text and why? Should there be more logos in the ad? Why?
• Evaluation: Is the text effective? Is the text ethical? What might you change about this text to make it more persuasive?

Rhetoric Defined

• Classically, "the art of persuasion".
• "About using language purposefully, in order to get something done in the world" ("What is Rhetoric").
• "Something that allows you to formulate ethical reading strategies [...] but also to invent your own responses to the world" ("What is Rhetoric").

Keywords and Concepts

Following are some basic terms and concepts (far from inclusive) that you should consider and use in a rhetorical analysis.

Rhetorical Situation

The rhetorical situation identifies the relationship among the elements of any communication--audience, author (rhetor), purpose, medium, context, and content.

Spectator, listeners, and/or readers of a performance, a speech, a reading, or printed material. Depending on the author's/writer's perception, an audience may be real (actually listening or reading), invoked (those to whom the writer explicitly writes) or imagined(those who the writer believes will read/hear her work) (Dept. of English)

Author/Rhetor/Speaker/Writer

The person or group of people who composed the text.

Purpose of the Author

The reason for communicating; the expected or intended outcome.

The delivery method, which varies by type of text:

• Alphabetic Text (for example, written speech, newspaper editorial, essay, passage out of a novel, poetry)
• Images (for example, TV commercials, advertisements in magazines or on websites)
• Sound (for example, radio or TV commercials, a website advertisement, speeches)
• Multimodal texts (YouTube videos, performances, digital stories)

The time, place, public conversations surrounding the text during its original generation and delivery; the text may also be analyzed within a different context such as how an historical text would be received by its audience today.

The main idea, thesis, opinion, or belief of an argument that the author must prove. The claim should be debatable and answer the question, "What's the point?"

The statements given to back up the claim. These can take the form of facts, data, personal experience, expert opinion, evidence from other texts or sources, emotional appeals, or other means. The more reliable and comprehensive the support, the more likely the audience is to accept the claim.

The connection, often unstated and assumed, between the claim and the supporting reason(s), or support. The warrant is the assumption that makes the claim seem plausible. More specifically, warrants are the beliefs, values, inferences and/or experiences that the writers/speakers assume they share with the audience. If the audience doesn't share the writers'/speakers' assumptions within the text, the argument will not be effective.

Rhetorical Triangle

The elements of the rhetorical situation interact with and influence one another. In learning to write an analysis, it is thus helpful to think about the relationship among these elements within the rhetorical triangle. By doing this, writers will be able to better understand how the elements of each text come together (often overlap) to make an argument or persuade an audience.

The authority or credibility of the author. Can refer to any of the following: the actual character of the speaker/writer, the character of the writer as it is presented in a text, or as a series of ground rules/customs, which are negotiated between speaker, audience, and specific traditions or locations. The speaker must convince the audience of their credibility through the language they use and through the delivery, or embodied performance, of their speech.

Did you analyze ethos enough in your essay?

• Have you looked at what experiences or claims to authority qualify this author to speak or write?
• Have you considered the credibility and moral character of the writer/speaker?
• Have you considered the design or appearance of the text you are analyzing? Does it look professional? What can you say about the author based on the appearance of the text alone?

Emotional appeals to the audience to evoke feelings of pity, sympathy, tenderness, or sorrow. The speaker may also want the audience to feel anger, fear, courage, love, happiness, sadness, etc.

Have you analyzed pathos enough in your essay?

• Have you considered how the author appeals to the emotions of the reader/viewer?
• How does the author establish a bond with his audience?
• How might the author change his strategy if he was trying to establish a bond with a different audience?
• Have you considered your own personal reaction to the background music of this advertisement?
• What kinds of feelings do the colors that the author uses provoke?
• What other images in the text provoke an emotional response? Why would the author include these images?

In classical rhetoric, logos is the means of persuasion by demonstration of the truth, real or apparent, the reasons or supporting information used to support a claim, the use of logic or reason to make an argument. Logos can include citing facts and statistics, historical events, and other forms of fact based evidence.

Do you analyze logos enough in your essay?

• How does the author back up his argument in this text? Does he incorporate facts, statistics, or numbers?
• Have you considered how logical the author's argument is?
• Are the claims this author is making realistic?
• Does the author consider alternative arguments?

The right time to speak or write; advantageous, exact, or critical time; a window of time during which action is most effective. (Ex. Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a dream speech was delivered at the right moment in history—in the heat of civil rights debates.)

Literally, stasis is "a stand" or a "resting place" in an argument where opponents agree on what the issue is but disagree on what to do about it. The skilled rhetor is able to move the argument away from stasis. (Ex. Rhetor A asserts that abortion is murder. Rhetor B asserts that abortion is not murder. This is the point of stasis. The argument cannot rest here indefinitely. One of these rhetors must get the argument beyond the issue of murder.)

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Rhetorical Situations

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Understanding and being able to analyze rhetorical situations can help contribute to strong, audience-focused, and organized writing. The PowerPoint presentation in the Media box above is suitable for any classroom and any writing task. The resource below explains in more detail how to analyze rhetorical situations.

Understanding Rhetoric

Writing instructors and many other professionals who study language use the phrase “rhetorical situation.” This term refers to any set of circumstances that involves at least one person using some sort of communication to modify the perspective of at least one other person. But many people are unfamiliar with the word “rhetoric.” For many people, “rhetoric” may imply speech that is simply persuasive. For others, “rhetoric” may imply something more negative like “trickery” or even “lying.” So to appreciate the benefits of understanding what rhetorical situations are, we must first have a more complete understanding of what rhetoric itself is.

In brief, “rhetoric” is any communication used to modify the perspectives of others. But this is a very broad definition that calls for more explanation.

The OWL’s “ Introduction to Rhetoric ” vidcast explains more what rhetoric is and how rhetoric relates to writing. This vidcast defines rhetoric as “primarily an awareness of the language choices we make.” It gives a brief history of the origins of rhetoric in ancient Greece. And it briefly discusses the benefits of how understanding rhetoric can help people write more convincingly. The vidcast provides an excellent primer to some basic ideas of rhetoric.

A more in-depth primer to rhetoric can be found in the online video “In Defense of Rhetoric: No Longer Just for Liars.” This video dispels some widely held misconceptions about rhetoric and emphasizes that, “An education of rhetoric enables communicators in any facet of any field to create and assess messages effectively.” This video should be particularly helpful to anyone who is unaware of how crucial rhetoric is to effective communication.

“ In Defense of Rhetoric: No Longer Just for Liars ” is a 14-minunte video created by graduate students in the MA in Professional Communication program at Clemson University, and you are free to copy, distribute, and transmit the video with the understanding: 1) that you will attribute the work to its authors; 2) that you will not use the work for commercial purposes; and 3) that you may not alter, transform, or build upon this work.

Listening to the above podcast and watching the above video should help anyone using this resource to better understand the basics of rhetoric and rhetorical situations.

A Review of Rhetoric: From “Persuasion” to “Identification”

Just as the vidcast and video above imply, rhetoric can refer to just the persuasive qualities of language. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle strongly influenced how people have traditionally viewed rhetoric. Aristotle defined rhetoric as “an ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion” (Aristotle Rhetoric I.1.2, Kennedy 37). Since then, Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric has been reduced in many situations to mean simply “persuasion.” At its best, this simplification of rhetoric has led to a long tradition of people associating rhetoric with politicians, lawyers, or other occupations noted for persuasive speaking. At its worst, the simplification of rhetoric has led people to assume that rhetoric is merely something that manipulative people use to get what they want (usually regardless of moral or ethical concerns).

However, over the last century or so, the academic definition and use of “rhetoric” has evolved to include any situation in which people consciously communicate with each other. In brief, individual people tend to perceive and understand just about everything differently from one another (this difference varies to a lesser or greater degree depending on the situation, of course). This expanded perception has led a number of more contemporary rhetorical philosophers to suggest that rhetoric deals with more than just persuasion. Instead of just persuasion, rhetoric is the set of methods people use to identify with each other—to encourage each other to understand things from one another’s perspectives (see Burke 25). From interpersonal relationships to international peace treaties, the capacity to understand or modify another’s perspective is one of the most vital abilities that humans have. Hence, understanding rhetoric in terms of “identification” helps us better communicate and evaluate all such situations.

Works Cited

Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse . 2nd ed. Trans. George A. Kennedy. New York: Oxford UP, 2007.

Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives . Berkeley: U of California P, 1969.

Johnson-Sheehan, Richard and Charles Paine. Writing Today . New York: Pearson Education, 2010.

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8.10: Rhetorical Analysis

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Learning Objectives

• Describe rhetorical analysis
• Analyze an argument using rhetorical analysis

Sometimes, the best way to learn how to write a good argument is to start by analyzing other arguments. When you do this, you get to see what works, what doesn’t, what strategies another author uses, what structures seem to work well and why, and more.

When we understand the decisions other writers make and why, it helps us make more informed decisions as writers. We can move from being the “accidental” writer, where we might do well but are not sure why, to being a “purposeful” writer, where we have an awareness of the impact our writing has on our audience at all levels.

The Importance of Rhetoric

Rhetoric is the art of effective and persuasive communication that is appropriate to a given situation. Although a thorough understanding of effective oral, written, and visual communication can take years of study, the foundation of such communication begins with rhetoric. With this foundation, even if you are just starting out, you can become a more powerful, more flexible writer. Rhetoric is key to being able to write effectively and persuasively in a variety of situations.

Every time you write or speak, you’re faced with a different rhetorical situation. Each rhetorical situation requires thoughtful consideration on your part if you want to be as effective and impactful as possible. Often, a successful essay or presentation is one that manages to persuade an audience to understand a question or issue in a particular way, or to respond to a question or issue by taking a particular action. Urging one’s reader to think or act in response to an important question or issue is one way of addressing the “so what?” element of analysis.

Many times, when students are given a writing assignment, they have an urge to skim the assignment instructions and then just start writing as soon as the ideas pop into their minds. But writing rhetorically and with intention requires that you thoroughly investigate your writing assignment (or rhetorical situation) before you begin to write the actual paper.

Thinking about concepts like purpose, audience, and voice will help you make good decisions as you begin your research and writing process.

Rhetorical Analysis

Take a look at the following definition of rhetorical analysis:

Rhetorical analysis shows how the words, phrases, images, gestures, performances, texts, films, etc. that people use to communicate work, how well they work, and how the artifacts, as discourse, inform and instruct, entertain and arouse, and convince and persuade the audience; as such, discourse includes the possibility of morally improving the reader, the viewer, and the listener. [1]

Basically, when you conduct a rhetorical analysis, you’re examining the way authors (or speakers) communicate their message. This means you can conduct a rhetorical analysis of any act of communication. Naturally, this makes rhetorical analysis one of the most common types of analysis you will perform at the college level.

Read the following short article by Richard Stallman about “open” educational resources (which, incidentally, you are using right now), and think about how Stallman makes his argument (not what he is arguing).

Online Education Is Using a Flawed Creative Commons License

By Richard Stallman

September 2012

Prominent universities are using a nonfree license for their digital educational works. That is bad already, but even worse, the license they are using has a serious inherent problem.

When a work is made for doing a practical job, the users must have control over the job, so they need to have control over the work. This applies to software, and to educational works too. For the users to have this control, they need certain freedoms (see gnu.org ), and we say the work is “free” (or “libre,” to emphasize we are not talking about price). For works that might be useful in commercial contexts, the requisite freedom includes commercial use, redistribution and modification.

Creative Commons publishes six principal licenses. Two are free/libre licenses: the Sharealike license CC-BY-SA is a free/libre license with copyleft , and the Attribution license (CC-BY) is a free/libre license without copyleft. The other four are nonfree, either because they don’t allow modification (ND, Noderivs) or because they don’t allow commercial use (NC, Noncommercial).

In my view, nonfree licenses that permit sharing are OK for works of art/entertainment, or that present some party’s viewpoint (such as this article itself). Those works aren’t meant for doing a practical job, so the argument about the users’ control does not apply. Thus, I do not object if they are published with the CC-BY-NC-ND license, which allows only noncommercial redistribution of exact copies.

Use of this license for a work does not mean that you can’t possibly publish that work commercially or with modifications. The license doesn’t give permission for that, but you could ask the copyright holder for permission, perhaps offering a quid pro quo, and you might get it. It isn’t automatic, but it isn’t impossible.

However, two of the nonfree CC licenses lead to the creation of works that can’t in practice be published commercially, because there is no feasible way to ask for permission. These are CC-BY-NC and CC-BY-NC-SA, the two CC licenses that permit modification but not commercial use.

The problem arises because, with the internet, people can easily (and lawfully) pile one noncommercial modification on another. Over decades this will result in works with contributions from hundreds or even thousands of people.

What happens if you would like to use one of those works commercially? How could you get permission? You’d have to ask all the substantial copyright holders. Some of them might have contributed years before and be impossible to find. Some might have contributed decades before, and might well be dead, but their copyrights won’t have died with them. You’d have to find and ask their heirs, supposing it is possible to identify those. In general, it will be impossible to clear copyright on the works that these licenses invite people to make.

This is a form of the well-known “orphan works” problem, except exponentially worse; when combining works that had many contributors, the resulting work can be orphaned many times over before it is born.

To eliminate this problem would require a mechanism that involves asking someone for permission (otherwise the NC condition turns into a nullity), but doesn’t require asking all the contributors for permission. It is easy to imagine such mechanisms; the hard part is to convince the community that one such mechanisms is fair and reach a consensus to accept it.

I hope that can be done, but the CC-BY-NC and CC-BY-NC-SA licenses, as they are today, should be avoided.

Unfortunately, one of them is used quite a lot. CC-BY-NC-SA, which allows noncommercial publication of modified versions under the same license, has become the fashion for online educational works. MIT’s “Open Courseware” got it stared, and many other schools followed MIT down the wrong path. Whereas in software “open source” means “probably free, but I don’t dare talk about it so you’ll have to check for yourself,” in many online education projects “open” means “nonfree for sure”.

Even if the problem with CC-BY-NC-SA and CC-BY-NC is fixed, they still won’t be the right way to release educational works meant for doing practical jobs. The users of these works, teachers and students, must have control over the works, and that requires making them free. I urge Creative Commons to state that works meant for practical jobs, including educational resources and reference works as well as software, should be released under free/libre licenses only.

Educators, and all those who wish to contribute to on-line educational works: please do not to let your work be made non-free. Offer your assistance and text to educational works that carry free/libre licenses, preferably copyleft licenses so that all versions of the work must respect teachers’ and students’ freedom. Then invite educational activities to use and redistribute these works on that freedom-respecting basis, if they will. Together we can make education a domain of freedom.

A copyleft license has the advantage that modified versions must be free also. That means either CC-BY-SA or the GNU Free Documentation License, or a dual license offering the two of them as options.

Copyright 2012 Richard Stallman Released under the Creative Commons Attribution Noderivs 3.0 license.

https://assessments.lumenlearning.co...sessments/5608

How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis

As a part of thinking rhetorically about an argument, your professor may ask you to write a formal or informal rhetorical analysis essay. Rhetorical analysis is about “digging in” and exploring the strategies and writing style of a particular piece. Rhetorical analysis can be tricky because, chances are, you haven’t done a lot of rhetorical analysis in the past.

To add to this trickiness, you can write a rhetorical analysis of any piece of information, not just an essay. You may be asked to write a rhetorical analysis of an ad, an image, or a commercial.

When you analyze a work rhetorically, you explore the following concepts in a piece:

• Style or Tone
• Ethos – an appeal to ethical considerations. Is the author credible and knowledgeable? Are the actions or understandings that they are calling for ethical?
• Pathos – an appeal to emotions. Is the author trying to evoke strong feelings for or against something?
• Logos – an appeal to rational, logical understanding. Is the author using facts and “hard” research to present a case? Is the argument coherent and cohesive?
• Note that these three rhetorical modes are closely interrelated. Consider that a strong logical appeal will often convince us that a writer is ethical and diligent in his analysis, whereas an emotional appeal that seems manipulative or a weak substitute for a substantive argument may undermine a writer’s ethos, that is, his credibility.

In a rhetorical analysis, you will think about the decisions that author has made regarding the supporting appeals, the styple, tone, purpose, and audience, considering whether these decisions are effective or ineffective.

https://assessments.lumenlearning.co...essments/20273

Part of understanding the rhetorical context of a situation includes understanding an author’s intent. This video walks you through the process of thinking critically about why, how, and to whom the author is speaking.

When analyzing an author’s intent, you will consider their point of view, their purpose in writing, the audience, and their tone. Taking all of this into consideration is part of understanding the broader context in which a person is writing.

https://lumenlearning.h5p.com/content/1290922675810696988/embed

You can view the transcript for “Evaluating an Author’s Intent” here (opens in new window) .

Sample Rhetorical Analysis

Here you can see a sample rhetorical analysis with some notes to help you better understand your goals when writing a formal rhetorical analysis.

rhetoric : the art of effective and persuasive communication that is appropriate to a given situation

ethos : a rhetorical appeal to ethical considerations, whether regarding the author or the topic at hand

pathos : a rhetorical appeal to emotion

logos : a rhetorical appeal to logic, often utilizing facts and figures in a strong organizational structure

• https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorical_criticism ↵

Contributors and Attributions

• Rhetorical Analysis. Authored by : Andrew Davis. Provided by : University of Mississippi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Thinking Rhetorically. Provided by : Excelsior College Online Writing Lab. Located at : https://owl.excelsior.edu/argument-and-critical-thinking/argument-analysis/argument-analysis-sample-rhetorical-analysis/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Evaluating an Author's Intent. Provided by : Excelsior Online Reading Lab. Located at : https://owl.excelsior.edu/orc/what-to-do-after-reading/analyzing/evaluating-an-authors-intent/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Assignment Analysis. Provided by : Excelsior OWL. Located at : https://owl.excelsior.edu/research/assignment-analysis/ . License : CC BY: Attribution

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Rhetorical analysis. What is the purpose of rhetorical analysis?. The purpose of rhetorical analysis is to determine how an author uses language to create meaning , develop his or her purpose(s) and/or produce particular effects . Step 1: Deconstruct the prompt. What is the context?

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• particular effects
• clincher sentence
• abstract noun
• sentence variety
• universal subject present

Presentation Transcript

What is the purpose of rhetorical analysis? The purpose of rhetorical analysis is to determine how an author uses language to create meaning, develop his or her purpose(s) and/or produce particular effects.

Step 1: Deconstruct the prompt • What is the context? • What is the time period? • What is the topic? • Who is the author? • What is my purpose for analysis? • What is the mode of writing? • Is there a universal subject present?

Writing modes and Rhetorical Strategies Narrative • Point of view • Structure • Figurative devices • Diction Expository • Organization • Development • Diction • Figurative language • Syntax

Writing modes and Rhetorical Strategies Argument • Appeals • Logic • Opposing View • Syntax • Diction Satire • Irony • Purpose • Hyperbole • Understatement • Incongruence

Step 2: read (with a pen) • What am I looking for as I read? • Author’s purpose(s) and overall meaning(s) • Use of rhetoric • Repetition/parallelism/juxtaposition • Shifts (tone, organization, idea, focus) • Noteworthy diction • Figurative language, symbolism • Allusions

CAUTION! • Understanding the author’s meaning/purpose is ESSENTIAL and the fundamental goal! • Who cares if you can find rhetorical “stuff” but do not know how it contributes to the meaning of the piece?

Step 3: articulate meaning • What is the purpose of the piece? • What is the universal subject? • What is this piece really about? What is the abstract noun—the bigger idea—on which this piece is touching? • What is the answer to what the prompt is asking me to analyze? • What in this passage is affecting this universal subject?

Step 4: review the rhetorical strategies you annotated • What is the mode of writing? • The mode of writing hints to the rhetorical strategies used.

Step 5: analyze • If you are talking about what the text says, you are summarizing. • If you are talking about how the text makes meaning, you are analyzing.

analysis: purpose • When discussing purpose, consider the following questions: • Why does this writer choose this particular strategy to create his or her message? • How does the writer use this strategy to make meaning? • Why does the writer use this particular strategy and this particular example?

analysis: effect • When discussing effect, consider the following: Because the writer used this rhetorical strategy, how/why does the use influence one or more of the following: • Speaker • Reader • Message • Tone • Purpose

Step 6: Identify shifts/contrasts Signals of a shift: • Transitions (e.g., but, yet, nevertheless, however, although, therefore.) • Punctuation (dashes, periods, colons) • Paragraph divisions • Changes in sentence length/structure

Writing a thesis statement

PARTS OF THE THESIS STATEMENT • TOPIC • CLAIM (VERB) • DIRECTION • QUALIFIER • UNIVERSAL IDEA

TOPIC • The TOPIC reveals the context of the thesis—the text(s) analyzed. • Example Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay

CLAIM (VERB) • The CLAIM explains the text’s connection to the rhetorical strategies. • For practice, uses is a good place to start. • Try synonyms and substitutes for uses • Example Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay uses

DIRECTION • The DIRECTION tells howthe text arrives at the universal idea. • DIRECTION = rhetorical strategies • Example Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay uses diction, allusions, and imagery

QUALIFIER • The QUALIFIER links the directions to the purpose of analysis and universal truth. • “to prove that” • Try to choose an academic verb that best describes the what the directions are doing to the purpose of analysis and universal truth. • Example: Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay uses diction, allusions, and imagery to prove that

UNIVERSAL TRUTH • The UNIVERSAL TRUTH is the larger idea, message, or purpose at work in the text. • The UNIVERSAL TRUTH should reveal meaning about the UNIVERSAL SUBJECT (abstract noun). • Example: Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay uses diction, allusions, and imagery to prove that guilt seems to haunt those who sin.

GOING TO THE NEXT LEVEL Adding Variety and Complexity to a Thesis Statement

STEP 1: MODIFIED DIRECTIONS • For each direction, add an adjective that best describes the text’s use of that direction. • Example Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay uses simplistic diction, Biblical allusions, and contrasting imagery to prove that guilt seems to haunt those who sin.

STEP 2: ADD THE SHIFT/CONTRAST • Reveal the shift/contrast that occurs within the text (especially the shift/contrast in the universal idea. • Example Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay, in which the focus shifts from innocence to experience, uses simplistic diction, Biblical allusions, and contrasting imagery to prove that guilt seems to haunt those who sin.

STEP 3: ADDING text words/PHRASES FOR INTEREST • Choose a few words or phrases from the text that allude to or somehow reinforce the universal idea. • Add these words/phrases to the thesis statement for effect.

STEP 3: ADDING text words/PHRASES FOR INTEREST • Example Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay, in which he shifts from innocence to experience, uses simplistic diction, Biblical allusions, and contrasting imagery to prove that “sweet, gold-colored, sticky” guilt seems to haunt those who sin with “faraway messages” of blame.

STEP 4: RE-ARRANGE THE PIECES! • Take all the thesis statement parts, and re-arrange them to create sentence variety. • Example: To prove that “sweet, gold-colored, sticky” guilt seems to haunt those who sin with “faraway messages” of blame, Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay uses simplistic diction, Biblical allusions, and contrasting imagery while shifting the focus from Soto’s innocence to experience.

Creating Topic Sentences

The Elements of the Topic Sentence • Topic • Direction • Claim • Universal Idea * These elements should seem similar to the thesis components (but now with a twist)!

Step 1: Begin with a solid thesis. Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay, in which he shifts from innocence to experience, uses simplistic diction, Biblical allusions, and contrasting imagery to prove that “sweet, gold-colored, sticky” guilt seems to haunt those who sin with “faraway messages” of blame.

Step 2: Borrow the “Topics” from the Thesis’s Directions Thesis Gary Soto’s autobiographical essay, in which he shifts from innocence to experience, uses simplistic diction, Biblical allusions, and contrasting imagery to prove that “sweet, gold-colored, sticky” guilt seems to haunt those who sin with “faraway messages” of blame. Topic Sentence Topic: Biblical allusions (This is the first direction.)

Step 3: Add the Direction(s) The “directions” of the topic sentence are the examplesyou will use as evidence. Soto’s Biblical allusions, such as the squirrel nailing itself to the tree and Adam and Eve and the apple,. . . *Use two directions.

Step 4: Add the Claim Choose an appropriate verb that links what the directions do in relation to the universal idea. Soto’s Biblical allusions, such as the squirrel nailing itself to the tree and Adam and Eve and the apple, underscore

Step 5: Add the Universal Idea (Again) Add the universal idea to the topic sentence. CAUTION: To keep the universal idea from becoming redundant throughout the essay, develop synonyms. Soto’s Biblical allusions, such as the squirrel nailing itself to the tree and Adam and Eve sinning because of the apple, underscore the disgrace associated with sin. .

Step 6: Write the body paragraph • Topic Sentence • Evidence (Example) #1 • Commentary • Purpose • Effect • Evidence (Example) #2 • Commentary • Purpose • Effect • Clincher Sentence

A note about commentary • If you are talking about what the text says, you are summarizing. • If you are talking about how the text makes meaning, you are analyzing.

Commentary: purpose • When discussing purpose, consider the following questions: • Why does this writer choose this particular strategy to create his or her message? • How does the writer use this strategy to make meaning? • Why does the writer use this particular strategy and this particular example?

Commentary: effect • When discussing effect, consider the following: Because the writer used this rhetorical strategy, how/why does the use influence one or more of the following: • Speaker • Reader • Message • Tone • Purpose

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Printing a New Age of Design: A Rhetorical Analysis of Neri Oxman’s TED Talk: “Design at the Intersection of Technology and Biology”

By Jason Piechota

Published: June 06, 2024

Could scientists 3D print a human? What about a finger? As the ability to additively manufacture and 3D print components became easier and cheaper with the 2000s, designers looked to additive manufacturing as a potential way to approach new design problems. One designer, Neri Oxaman, details her work with additive manufacturing within a biological framework in her 2015 TED Talk, “Design at the Intersection of Technology and Biology.” In the talk, Neri Oxman’s use of comparison between current design and her work establishes a base for her argument that her technology is more sustainable than current design. Oxman then utilizes different rhetorical devices to create a presentation that focuses on appeals to the audience’s values and involvement in design, which aid in creating a persuasive argument for the implementation of her technology.

Neri Oxman employs a harsh juxtaposition between manmade and natural language to appeal to the world’s rising belief that design should shift to more sustainable, environmentally friendly methods. In 2015, the same year as the TED Talk, the United Nations launched their sustainable development agenda to address the growing movement towards creating a more sustainable future. Part of the plan of action is the 2030 Agenda, which calls for creating “sustainable cities and communities” alongside “responsible production and consumption” (“Support Sustainable Development”). In the linguistic mode of the talk, Oxman “focuses on [her] language use and specific word choice” to appeal to the growing call for sustainable design (Carroll 55). Oxman highlights the difference between parts and continuous material, noting that a steel dome is “made of thousands of steel parts,” while the silk dome is made “of a single silk thread” (Oxman 00:01-00:26). The comparison between “thousands” and “single” emphasizes the difference in the large quantities of the world’s common assemblies to her new work. “Steel parts” and “silk thread” also illuminates that while her technology is still developed by man, it is entirely made of a component that has already existed in nature and was not manufactured by man. The manufacturing of “thousands” of man made steel parts can create environmentally harmful byproducts when being produced, while the cultivating the “silk thread” from a caterpillar creates no negative effect. Oxman continues that the steel dome is “synthetic,” and “the other [dome] organic” (Oxman 00:01-00:26). Directly pitting “synthetic” with “organic” suggests that Oxman’s work is produced in a more sustainable method than current design. “Organic” gives the impression that Oxman’s design can be decomposed in a safe manner, while “synthetic” brings connotations of materials that will either fail to decay, or will harm the environment. Through her careful language choice, Oxman creates an image of her work that emphasizes a new sustainable way of design in order to produce materials that do not generate negative environmental effects through their production or decomposition.

Oxman builds off of the juxtaposition to illuminate the similarities in overall function between her work and current design through the use of visual aids. The start of Oxman’s presentation immediately shows two different domes, side by side (See fig. 1), as she uses the visual aids to “position the spectator as an active participant in the making of meaning” (Benson 197). She places a manufactured dome on the left side of the visual, and her silk designed dome on the right side. As the viewer progresses from the left to right, they are invited to interpret the connection between the two domes. Oxman’s visual of her designed dome having a similar shape, structure, and background lighting pushes the audience to “make meaning” of the direct comparison between the two domes. The similarities in the visuals allows the audience to imply that the new design has an analogous function to the one of the currently accepted dome. Oxman continues by using a technique of reframing the photographs in order to “provide close-ups of [things] barely noticeable in the original photograph, thus inviting viewers to question why this is so” (Lancioni 398). She drastically zooms in on the two domes to show their structures (See fig. 2). The clear similarity in color and web-like appearance pushes the audience to draw the conclusion that the function and structure of the newly designed dome follows the current approach, but takes a new approach. Oxman then looks to influence the connotation the audience has with her new design by placing visuals of models wearing her work on modeling runways (See fig. 3). The visual of the technology in a modeling show encourages the audience to associate runway fashion qualities of luxury, high quality, and innovation with Oxman’s work. Oxman’s use of visual aids helps her subtly promote the message that her new technology has a proven function and is a higher quality product in comparison to current design.

After using visual aids to cement the logistical appeal of her design, Oxman seeks to appeal to the emotional response of the audience through the use of religious values within a biblical allusion. According to a Pew Research Center demographic analysis in 2015, Christians made up about 31% of the world’s population, the largest religious group in the world (Hackett and McClendon). Knowing that her talk will reach a large global audience due to TED’s prominence, Oxman “tailor[s] it to a particular audience” through the use of a biblical story (Herrick 19). Oxman recalls a biblical story where there was a fruit tree, but “there was to be no differentiation between trunk, branches, leaves and fruit. The whole tree was a fruit” (Oxman 5:40-6:42). She uses the story to emphasize that the tree is made of a single part, similar to the production of her own work. Immediately after introducing the story, Oxman claims that her team “looked for that biblical material,” and “found it” (Oxman 6:42-7:15). The description of finding biblical material creates an implicit comment on the material of Oxman’s design. Oxman attempts to “alter the symbolic framework [her audience employs] to organize their thinking” so that a religious audience immediately associates their predisposed, positive, biblical qualities with her work (Herrick 19). Oxman’s awareness of the audience and her talk’s outreach allows her to effectively persuade a portion of the audience by connecting her work to their deeper, unwavering personal values.

Oxman expands on her emotional appeal by establishing a personal bond between the audience and her work. She utilizes displaying human emotion and using collective pronouns in order to construct a personal bias for the audience’s view of her technology. Oxman introduces her team with a photo board of their headshots, and a picture of their hands next to them. Suddenly, the students begin to laugh and smile, while their hands begin working on different tasks next to each other (Oxman 2:29-3:27). The emotion that is displayed in the video allows Oxman to effectively “persuade through the character” of her team by showing the audience that they are not a distant group of scientists, but resemble the people sitting besides them (Selzer 287). The audience having a more grounded connection to the team enables Oxman to directly include the audience in her work, telling them that “[w]e live in a very special time in history, a rare time” (Oxman 2:29-3:27). The use of the collective “we” immediately places the audience within a context of Oxman’s work. They are not just observers of a creation, they are active participants in the change her work is bringing. Oxman also focuses on describing the time period as “special” and “rare” to give the audience a unique sense of relation to the project; they are the first ones throughout their genealogy who can experience Oxman’s work. Oxman’s ability to give the audience an interpersonal relation to her work puts them at a disposition to be more accepting of new views and potentially have a subtle bias towards the work they are connected to. Oxman’s progression from a logical comparison of her work and current design to an emotional appeal towards her audience’s values signals a focus on the connection between her technology and the audience.

A critical analysis of Oxman’s talk suggests that she uses a deliberative styled approach in her claims in order to achieve a single goal of having her work adopted by society. Selzer characterizes deliberative rhetoric as being “organized around the kinds of decisions a civic or social organization must make (about a future course of action)” (Selzer 284). Oxman describes her collection of wearable technology as “the future of our race on our planet and beyond,” which will help society “move away from the age of the machine” (Oxman 11:39-12:37). Oxman gives the audience a blueprint for the future of technology with her work, and proposes that the audience must choose to adopt the new technology over the current systems in place. The use of deliberative rhetoric establishes a forceful tone, suggesting that Oxman’s main goal is to push her technology for its own success.

While Oxman’s use of deliberative rhetoric may underline an ultimate goal to have her work adopted by the current world, her focus on incorporating epideictic rhetoric creates a more persuasive argument for adopting her work. By focusing on the community the audience is a part of, Oxman articulates an overall goal of improving society through reevaluating design beliefs, something that is more inclusive of the audience’s interests. Selzer claims that “in epideictic discourse, the audience is asked to reconsider beliefs and values” (Selzer 284). Oxman challenges the audience’s views on design by asking multiple questions, such as “[w]hat would design be like if objects were made of a single part?” (Oxman 5:40-6:42). Oxman specifically questions the current assemblies that are made up of thousands of parts, and are integrated into daily life. While her technology fits the criteria of being a single part, Oxman aims to question how the current world could view design in new lenses in order to improve. After asking the audience to reconsider the current state, she then asks, “[w]ould we return to a better state of creation?” (Oxman 5:40-6:42). Oxman asking if adopting new beliefs would not only change the current system of design, but “return” to a “better state” suggests that the present design process is flawed, but she does not immediately follow that her work is the solution. Oxman’s deliberative rhetoric tells the audience that they must accept her work, but the epideictic rhetoric gives the audience agency. The audience feels as though they are tasked in assessing how their community adopts design standards because Oxman makes them feel as though they have a choice in what the standards are. Owing to Oxman's strategic framing of her argument, the audience has the agency in deciding to adopt Oxman’s design and is able to enthusiastically drive the direction of the future.

Neri Oxman’s use of rhetorical strategies helps her create a persuasive argument for the audience to reconsider the design values that are currently being deployed. Oxman pushes her own technology, but also raises the question of how the world can adapt to more sustainable design through additive manufacturing. Can whole buildings be 3D printed with organic materials? Can a building be composed of a single component? By reconsidering how to design, the world can investigate new sustainable approaches to old and arising problems alike. With additive manufacturing, the future of human design may lead not only to new technological breakthroughs, but also a more symbiotic relationship between the Earth and its inhabitants.

Works Cited

Benson, Thomas J. “Respecting the Reader.” Quarterly Journal of Speech , vol. 72, no. 2, 1986, pp. 197-204.

Carroll, Laura Bolin. “Backpacks vs. Briefcases: Steps Towards Rhetorical Analysis.” Writing Spaces: Readings on Writings, Vol. 1., edited by Charles Lowe and Pavel Zemliansky, Parlor Press, 2010, pp. 55.

Hackett, Conrad, and David McClendon. “Christians Remain World's Largest Religious Group, but They Are Declining in Europe.” Pew Research Center , Pew Research Center, 31 May 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ .

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Jason Piechota

Jason Piechota is a sophomore at the University of Notre Dame studying Mechanical Engineering. Interested in design, Jason analyzed Neri Oxman’s TED Talk, “Design at the Intersection of Technology and Biology,” where Oxman outlines a new approach to design. His essay investigates the different rhetorical techniques employed by Oxman in order to promote biological additive manufacturing, which may prove to be a viable solution to many design problems. In the future, Jason hopes to find a job within the automotive industry, specifically focusing on design. He would like to thank his family and friends for their support, and Dr. McLaughlin for her help in forming his analysis.