(Paper concludes with a bibliography)
Sally’s focused revision (right) makes specific reference to a particular source , and uses a quote to introduce a point. Sally still injects her own opinion, but she is offering specific comments on complex issues, not bumper-sticker slogans and sweeping generalizations, such as those given on the left.
Back up your claims by quoting reputable sources . If you write”Recent research shows that…” or “Many scholars believe that…”, you are making a claim. You will have to back it up with authoritative evidence. This means that the body of your paper must include references to the specific page numbers where you got your outside information. (If your document is an online source that does not provide page numbers, ask your instructor what you should do. There might be a section title or paragraph number that you could cite, or you might print out the article and count the pages in your printout.)
Avoid using words like “always” or “never,” since all it takes is a single example to the contrary to disprove your claim. Likewise, be careful with words of causation and proof. For example, consider the claim that television causes violence in kids. The evidence might be that kids who commit crimes typically watch more television than kids who don’t. But… maybe the reason kids watch more television is that they’ve dropped out of school, and are unsupervised at home. An unsupervised kid might watch more television, and also commit more crimes — but that doesn’t mean that the television is the cause of those crimes.
You don’t need to cite common facts or observations, such as “a circle has 360 degrees” or “8-tracks and vinyl records are out of date,” but you would need to cite claims such as “circles have religious and philosophical significance in many cultures” or “the sales of 8-track tapes never approached those of vinyl records.”
If you use words like “in the book My Big Boring Academic Study , by Professor H. Pompous Windbag III, it says” or “the following quote by a government study shows that…” you are wasting words that would be better spent developing your ideas.
In the book Gramophone, Film, Typewriter , by Fredrich A. Kittler, it talks about writing and gender, and says on page 186, “an omnipresent metaphor equated women with the white sheet of nature or virginity onto which a very male stylus could inscribe the glory of its authorship.” As you can see from this quote, all this would change when women started working as professional typists.
The “it talks about” and “As you can see from this quote” are weak attempts to engage with the ideas presented by Kittler. “In the book… it talks” is wordy and nonsensical (books don’t talk).
MLA style encourages you to expend fewer words introducing your sources , and more words developing your own ideas. MLA style involves just the author’s last name, a space ( not a comma), and then the page number. Leave the author’s full name and the the title of the source for the Works Cited list at the end of your paper. Using about the same space as the original, see how MLA style helps an author devote more words to developing the idea more fully:
Before the invention of the typewriter, “an omnipresent metaphor” among professional writers concerned “a very male stylus” writing upon the passive, feminized “white sheet of nature or virginity” (Kittler 186). By contrast, the word “typewriter” referred to the machine as well as the female typist who used it (183).
See “ Quotations: Integrating them in MLA-Style Papers. ”
It’s fairly normal to sit and stare at the computer screen for a while until you come up with a title, then pick your way through your topic, offering an extremely broad introduction (see glittering generalities , below)..
Hooray, you’ve finished your paper! Well, not quite…
See: Sally Slacker Writes a Paper , and Sally’s Professor Responds
Throughout the ages, mankind has found many uses for salt. Ancient tribes used it to preserve meat; around the world it adds flavor to food; the Bible uses it as a symbol of zest for life. Salt became such an important part of people’s diet that a way was needed to allow early nomads to carry salt with them on their perilous travels; such a device ideally also helped ancient gormandizers to distribute portions of the precious flavor enhancer onto their foods. Thus was born the salt shaker. (Some writers appear to believe that the introduction should provide a sort of cosmic overview; however, you are not required to stun and amaze your professors. Just do the assignment.) | |
Broad, sweeping statements (“In our society today” or “It is a growing problem that…”) may make a short paper seem grander and more substantial, but the flashy words won’t fool your instructor. In a similar vein, resist the urge to call the Great Depression the “saddest chapter in American history,” or T.S. Eliot “the most famous modern poet.” If your paper does not actually examine all chapters in American history, or all famous modern poets, such a vague claim adds nothing to your argument. |
Another factor that should be considered is the fact that in most cases, utilizing an excessive amount of words creates multiple negative outcomes. | |
Explanation | |
Wordiness stinks. | |
My phrasing is too informal, but you get the idea. | |
In the 1992 book, Cooking Disasters of the 20th Century, by Fred Smith, page 102 talks about why an important state dinner in England was ruined, resulting in a social calamity that caused the host to lose nearly all of his social status and prestige: “Lord Alfred’s infamous celebration in honor of the Treaty of Ulm was marred when an assistant chef failed to notice that the cheese was was spoiled. As a result, Alfred’s impending marriage to the Duchess of Eberdeen was called off.” This example demonstrates how small, seemingly unimportant details can have large effects. | |
Explanation | |
At Lord Alfred’s infamous Treaty of Ulm Banquet, a junior chef ruined the cheese, creating a scandal that also ruined Lord Alfred (Smith 102). | |
In high school, you may have been praised for If the Duchess of Eberdeen is important to the point you want to make, then by all means keep her in the story. | |
It is clear that… | |
This is a weak attempt at manipulating the reader into seeing structure that isn’t there. Just present the evidence and let the reader decide whether the argument is clear. | |
Some people may say… | |
Who are these people, what are their names, and why are they worth quoting in a college research paper? | |
In other words… | |
If your first try at making a point didn’t work out, cut it. Only keep the version that works. | |
I think… In my opinion… A quote that supports the opposing view would be… | |
This is “showing your work,” which is a good thing to do in math, but a distraction in writing. |
Key: Research Paper Topics
1) Environmentalism in America (too general) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(much better) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2) Immigration Trends in Wisconsin’s Chippewa Valley | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Probably okay for a research topic, since it focuses on a specific region. A stronger paper would take and defend a stand, rather than just present information that describes something. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
3) Drinking and Driving (too general) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(much more focused) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
4) Local TV News | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(much more focused) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
5) 10 Ways that Advertisers Lie to the Public (sounds like schlocky clickbait journalism) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(much more specific) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
6) Athletes on College Campuses (too general) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
15 thoughts on “ Short Research Papers: How to Write Academic Essays ”Hi, I was searching for some information on how to write quality academic paper when I came across your awesome article on Short Research Papers: How to Writer Academic Essays ( https://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/academic1/short-research-papers/ ) Great stuff!!! I especially like the way you recommend sticking to the 4 basics of writing academic essays. Very few students have mastered how to avoid distractions and focus on a single topic. Many students think that the broad, sweeping statements could give them better grades but they are wrong. However, I came across a few links that didn’t seem to be working for you. Want me to forward you the short list I jotted down? Cheers Elias I see some broken links in the comments, but otherwise I’m not sure what you mean. I found the part about not using my personal opinion or generalities to be very helpful. I am currently writing a 2 page paper and was having a hard time keeping it short. Now I know why. Thanks. Stick to the facts. This seem to be old but very relevant. Most of what you have stated are things my professor has stated during class trying to prepare us to write a short thesis reading this information verses hearing it was very helpful. You have done an awesome job! I just hope I can take this and apply it to my papers! Great Post! Thank u! Thank you for all your effort and help. You´ve taught me a number of things, especially on what college professors´ look for in assigning students short research papers. I am bookmarking your page, and using it as a reference. Thank you kindly. YOU´VE HELPED A LOST STUDENT FIND HER WAY! I appreaciate all the help your web site has given to me. I have referred to it many times. I think there may be a typo under the headline of AVOID GLITTERING GENERALITIES: “Throughout the ages, mankind has found many uses for salt. Ancient tribes used it preserve meat;” This is in no way a slight – I thought you might want to know. Please forgive me if I am incorrect. Thank you again – you rock! You are right — I’ll fix it the next time I’m at my desktop. Thank you! i would like to say thank you for your detailed information even though it takes time to read as well as we’ve got learnings out from it . even though it’s holiday next week our teacher assigned us to make a short research paper in accordance of our selected topic ! I’m hoping that we can make it cause if we can’t make it, right away, for sure we will get a grade’s that can drop our jaws ! :) ♥ tnx ! keep it up ! ♪♪ Sorry I have not done this for years Hello I am the mother of a high school student that needs help doing a paper proposal for her senior project. Her topic is Photography. To be honest I have done this for years and I am trying to help, but i am completely lost. What can you recommend since she told me a little late and the paper is due tomorrow 11/11/11. This page is designed for college students, but I am sure your daughter’s teacher has assigned readings that will guide your daughter through her homework. Any paper that your daughter writes herself, even if it is late, will be a valuable learning experience — showing her the value of managing her time better for the next time, and preparing her for the day when she will have to tackle grown-up problems on her own. I am having a hard time with my government essay. I am 55 taking a college course for the first time, and I barely passed high school. Last year I took this course wrote the essay, and did many things wrong. It was all in the typing. I had good story line, excellent site words, and good points of arguments. It wasn’t right on paper. My format is off. Where can I find and print a format. also I need to learn site words. Most teachers will provide a model to follow. If it’s not already part of the assignment instructions, you could ask your prof. Better yet, bring a near-complete draft to your prof’s office hours, a few days before the due date, and ask for feedback. Your school probably has a writing center or tutoring center, too. I would like to thank you for such detailed information. I am not a native speaker and I am doing a research paper;so, as you may think, it is really a hard job for me. A friend of mine who saw my draft of Lit. Rev asked me what type of citation format i was using, MLA or APA and I was puzzeled; then I decided to check the net and came across to this! It is being such a help Elsa Leave a Reply Cancel replyYour email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.
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![]() Home Market Research Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them![]() Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies. Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively. What are Research Reports?Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods . A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research. The various sections of a research report are:
Learn more: Quantitative Research Components of Research ReportsResearch is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands. The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:
Learn more: Quantitative Data
Learn more: Qualitative Observation 15 Tips for Writing Research ReportsWriting research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports:
Learn more: Quantitative Observation
Learn more: Qualitative Data
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Uncomplicated Reviews of Educational Research Methods
.pdf version of this page This review covers the basic elements of a research report. This is a general guide for what you will see in journal articles or dissertations. This format assumes a mixed methods study, but you can leave out either quantitative or qualitative sections if you only used a single methodology. This review is divided into sections for easy reference. There are five MAJOR parts of a Research Report: 1. Introduction 2. Review of Literature 3. Methods 4. Results 5. Discussion As a general guide, the Introduction, Review of Literature, and Methods should be about 1/3 of your paper, Discussion 1/3, then Results 1/3. Section 1 : Cover Sheet (APA format cover sheet) optional, if required. Section 2: Abstract (a basic summary of the report, including sample, treatment, design, results, and implications) (≤ 150 words) optional, if required. Section 3 : Introduction (1-3 paragraphs) • Basic introduction • Supportive statistics (can be from periodicals) • Statement of Purpose • Statement of Significance Section 4 : Research question(s) or hypotheses • An overall research question (optional) • A quantitative-based (hypotheses) • A qualitative-based (research questions) Note: You will generally have more than one, especially if using hypotheses. Section 5: Review of Literature ▪ Should be organized by subheadings ▪ Should adequately support your study using supporting, related, and/or refuting evidence ▪ Is a synthesis, not a collection of individual summaries Section 6: Methods ▪ Procedure: Describe data gathering or participant recruitment, including IRB approval ▪ Sample: Describe the sample or dataset, including basic demographics ▪ Setting: Describe the setting, if applicable (generally only in qualitative designs) ▪ Treatment: If applicable, describe, in detail, how you implemented the treatment ▪ Instrument: Describe, in detail, how you implemented the instrument; Describe the reliability and validity associated with the instrument ▪ Data Analysis: Describe type of procedure (t-test, interviews, etc.) and software (if used) Section 7: Results ▪ Restate Research Question 1 (Quantitative) ▪ Describe results ▪ Restate Research Question 2 (Qualitative) ▪ Describe results Section 8: Discussion ▪ Restate Overall Research Question ▪ Describe how the results, when taken together, answer the overall question ▪ ***Describe how the results confirm or contrast the literature you reviewed Section 9: Recommendations (if applicable, generally related to practice) Section 10: Limitations ▪ Discuss, in several sentences, the limitations of this study. ▪ Research Design (overall, then info about the limitations of each separately) ▪ Sample ▪ Instrument/s ▪ Other limitations Section 11: Conclusion (A brief closing summary) Section 12: References (APA format) Share this:About research rundowns. Research Rundowns was made possible by support from the Dewar College of Education at Valdosta State University .
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![]() One of the reasons for carrying out research is to add to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, when conducting research, you need to document your processes and findings in a research report. With a research report, it is easy to outline the findings of your systematic investigation and any gaps needing further inquiry. Knowing how to create a detailed research report will prove useful when you need to conduct research. What is a Research Report?A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information. In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process. Features of a Research ReportSo how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report.
Types of Research ReportThe research report is classified based on two things; nature of research and target audience. Nature of Research
This is the type of report written for qualitative research . It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research projects. A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.
A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions. In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. Target AudienceAlso, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report.
A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study. In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon. Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports.
A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone. It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines. Importance of a Research Report
Guide to Writing a Research ReportA lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information. Structure and Example of a Research ReportThis is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report.
This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report. An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner. An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How.
Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work. In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.
A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation. It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study.
This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and analysis procedures. In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups. In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation. This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.
This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study.
This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources. Tips for Writing a Research Report
As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on anything.
Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you’re writing for a general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms.
The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings.
Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.
A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title.
Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software. How to Gather Research Data for Your Report
Every research aims at solving a specific problem or set of problems, and this should be at the back of your mind when writing your research report. Understanding the problem would help you to filter the information you have and include only important data in your report.
This is somewhat similar to the point above because, in some way, the aim of your research report is intertwined with the objectives of your systematic investigation. Identifying the primary purpose of writing a research report would help you to identify and present the required information accordingly.
Knowing your target audience plays a crucial role in data collection for a research report. If your research report is specifically for an organization, you would want to present industry-specific information or show how the research findings are relevant to the work that the company does.
A survey is a research method that is used to gather data from a specific group of people through a set of questions. It can be either quantitative or qualitative. A survey is usually made up of structured questions, and it can be administered online or offline. However, an online survey is a more effective method of research data collection because it helps you save time and gather data with ease. You can seamlessly create an online questionnaire for your research on Formplus . With the multiple sharing options available in the builder, you would be able to administer your survey to respondents in little or no time. Formplus also has a report summary too l that you can use to create custom visual reports for your research. Step-by-step guide on how to create an online questionnaire using Formplus
In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different online questionnaires for your research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on Create new form to begin.
ConclusionAlways remember that a research report is just as important as the actual systematic investigation because it plays a vital role in communicating research findings to everyone else. This is why you must take care to create a concise document summarizing the process of conducting any research. In this article, we’ve outlined essential tips to help you create a research report. When writing your report, you should always have the audience at the back of your mind, as this would set the tone for the document. ![]() Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!
![]() You may also like: Ethnographic Research: Types, Methods + [Question Examples]Simple guide on ethnographic research, it types, methods, examples and advantages. Also highlights how to conduct an ethnographic... ![]() 21 Chrome Extensions for Academic Researchers in 2022In this article, we will discuss a number of chrome extensions you can use to make your research process even seamless How to Write a Problem Statement for your ResearchLearn how to write problem statements before commencing any research effort. Learn about its structure and explore examples ![]() Assessment Tools: Types, Examples & ImportanceIn this article, you’ll learn about different assessment tools to help you evaluate performance in various contexts Formplus - For Seamless Data CollectionCollect data the right way with a versatile data collection tool. try formplus and transform your work productivity today.. Short reportShort reports are suitable for the presentation of research that extends previously published research, including the reporting of additional controls and confirmatory results in other settings, as well as negative results. Authors must clearly acknowledge any work upon which they are building, both published and unpublished. Short reports should be no longer than 2500 words*. Implementation Science strongly encourages that all datasets on which the conclusions of the paper rely should be available to readers. We encourage authors to ensure that their datasets are either deposited in publicly available repositories (where available and appropriate) or presented in the main manuscript or additional supporting files whenever possible. Please see Springer Nature’s information on recommended repositories . We are advocates for theoretically informed research. When deploying specific theories and frameworks in studies the rationale for use needs to be convincingly presented. We also expect that authors should ensure that these are not applied in a superficial, tokenistic fashion. Instead, we recommend an in-depth engagement with selected theories and frameworks throughout the manuscript. Implementation Science and Implementation Science Communications are both increasingly reluctant to publish studies that categorize data according to a framework without offering interpretations that relate to the underlying theory. Theories and frameworks should explicitly inform research aims and objectives, guide data collection and data analysis, shape the presentation of findings, and provide a basis for articulating the study’s contribution in the discussion section. *The word count includes the words from the main text, ie “Introduction” to the end of “Conclusions”. It doesn’t include abstracts, tables, figures, etc. 'Contributions to the literature' sectionAll manuscripts submitted to Implementation Science must include a bulleted statement describing what the paper, if published, would add to the literature in implementation science. The statement should consist of three to five bullet points of no more than 100 words in total. Authors should not simply restate their findings or conclusions; the statement must contextualize the paper in the full implementation science literature and provide a succinct statement about what it adds. The statement will be useful in assessing priority for publication and, once having undergone peer review and acceptance with the manuscript, will be included at the beginning of the published article both in the HTML and PDF formats. The statement should be in lay language and understandable to all readers, written for readers of moderate English literacy. The statement should be inserted immediately after the abstract within the manuscript file under the heading 'Contributions to the literature.' To view a published example, please see here . Reporting standardsImplementation Science supports the complete and transparent reporting of research. The Editors require the submission of a populated checklist from the relevant reporting guideline(s) for all manuscripts submitted to the journal. Every manuscript submitted should include a checklist appropriate for the study design or type of report, and note that in some cases it may be appropriate to include more than one checklist. For example, manuscripts reporting testing of an implementation intervention should include either the TIDIeR or STARi checklists for the intervention, as well as a checklist appropriate to the evaluation study design (for example, CONSORT for randomized controlled trials). A library of reporting guidelines can be found via the EQUATOR Network . The completed checklist(s) should be provided as an Additional file and referenced in the text. Authors should use their discretion in selecting the appropriate checklist(s) from the EQUATOR Network website. During the submission process, authors will be requested to briefly indicate the reason for their decision to select the checklist(s) used. Submissions received without these elements will be returned to the authors as incomplete. If the Editors deem the submitted checklist insufficient, they may request completion of an additional checklist before sending the manuscript out for review. It is understood that for some studies certain aspects of the report may not comply fully with the pre-specified checklist. The checklist will not be used as a tool for judging the suitability of manuscripts for publication in Implementation Science , but is intended as an aid to authors to clearly, completely, and transparently let reviewers and readers know what authors did and found. Using these guidelines in writing the report, completing the checklist, and constructing a flow diagram are likely to optimize the quality of reporting and make the peer review process more efficient. Preparing your manuscriptThe information below details the section headings that you should include in your manuscript and what information should be within each section. Please note that your manuscript must include a 'Declarations' section including all of the subheadings (please see below for more information). The title page should:
The Abstract should not exceed 350 words. Please minimize the use of abbreviations and do not cite references in the abstract. Reports of randomized controlled trials should follow the CONSORT extension for abstracts. The abstract must include the following separate sections:
Three to ten keywords representing the main content of the article. The Background section should explain the background to the study, its aims, a summary of the existing literature and why this study was necessary or its contribution to the field. The methods section should include:
This should include the findings of the study including, if appropriate, results of statistical analysis which must be included either in the text or as tables and figures. This section should discuss the implications of the findings in context of existing research and highlight limitations of the study. ConclusionsThis should state clearly the main conclusions and provide an explanation of the importance and relevance of the study reported. List of abbreviationsIf abbreviations are used in the text they should be defined in the text at first use, and a list of abbreviations should be provided. DeclarationsAll manuscripts must contain the following sections under the heading 'Declarations': Ethics approval and consent to participateConsent for publication, availability of data and materials, competing interests, authors' contributions, acknowledgements.
Please see below for details on the information to be included in these sections. If any of the sections are not relevant to your manuscript, please include the heading and write 'Not applicable' for that section. Manuscripts reporting studies involving human participants, human data or human tissue must:
Studies involving animals must include a statement on ethics approval and for experimental studies involving client-owned animals, authors must also include a statement on informed consent from the client or owner. See our editorial policies for more information. If your manuscript does not report on or involve the use of any animal or human data or tissue, please state “Not applicable” in this section. If your manuscript contains any individual person’s data in any form (including any individual details, images or videos), consent for publication must be obtained from that person, or in the case of children, their parent or legal guardian. All presentations of case reports must have consent for publication. You can use your institutional consent form or our consent form if you prefer. You should not send the form to us on submission, but we may request to see a copy at any stage (including after publication). See our editorial policies for more information on consent for publication. If your manuscript does not contain data from any individual person, please state “Not applicable” in this section. All manuscripts must include an ‘Availability of data and materials’ statement. Data availability statements should include information on where data supporting the results reported in the article can be found including, where applicable, hyperlinks to publicly archived datasets analysed or generated during the study. By data we mean the minimal dataset that would be necessary to interpret, replicate and build upon the findings reported in the article. We recognise it is not always possible to share research data publicly, for instance when individual privacy could be compromised, and in such instances data availability should still be stated in the manuscript along with any conditions for access. Authors are also encouraged to preserve search strings on searchRxiv https://searchrxiv.org/ , an archive to support researchers to report, store and share their searches consistently and to enable them to review and re-use existing searches. searchRxiv enables researchers to obtain a digital object identifier (DOI) for their search, allowing it to be cited. Data availability statements can take one of the following forms (or a combination of more than one if required for multiple datasets):
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Article within a journal (no page numbers) Rohrmann S, Overvad K, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Jakobsen MU, Egeberg R, Tjønneland A, et al. Meat consumption and mortality - results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. BMC Medicine. 2013;11:63. Article within a journal by DOI Slifka MK, Whitton JL. Clinical implications of dysregulated cytokine production. Dig J Mol Med. 2000; doi:10.1007/s801090000086. Article within a journal supplement Frumin AM, Nussbaum J, Esposito M. Functional asplenia: demonstration of splenic activity by bone marrow scan. Blood 1979;59 Suppl 1:26-32. Book chapter, or an article within a book Wyllie AH, Kerr JFR, Currie AR. Cell death: the significance of apoptosis. In: Bourne GH, Danielli JF, Jeon KW, editors. International review of cytology. London: Academic; 1980. p. 251-306. OnlineFirst chapter in a series (without a volume designation but with a DOI) Saito Y, Hyuga H. Rate equation approaches to amplification of enantiomeric excess and chiral symmetry breaking. Top Curr Chem. 2007. doi:10.1007/128_2006_108. Complete book, authored Blenkinsopp A, Paxton P. Symptoms in the pharmacy: a guide to the management of common illness. 3rd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science; 1998. Online document Doe J. Title of subordinate document. In: The dictionary of substances and their effects. Royal Society of Chemistry. 1999. http://www.rsc.org/dose/title of subordinate document. Accessed 15 Jan 1999. Online database Healthwise Knowledgebase. US Pharmacopeia, Rockville. 1998. http://www.healthwise.org. Accessed 21 Sept 1998. Supplementary material/private homepage Doe J. Title of supplementary material. 2000. http://www.privatehomepage.com. Accessed 22 Feb 2000. University site Doe, J: Title of preprint. http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/mydata.html (1999). Accessed 25 Dec 1999. Doe, J: Trivial HTTP, RFC2169. ftp://ftp.isi.edu/in-notes/rfc2169.txt (1999). Accessed 12 Nov 1999. 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Synapsin E-domain is essential for α-synuclein functionEarly recovery of proteasome activity in cells pulse-treated with proteasome inhibitors is independent of ddi2, be the first to read new articles from elife. ![]() ![]() What Is Short Report & How To Write Short Report With Examples Table of Contents What is a Short Report?A short report is a concise and focused document that presents information, findings, or recommendations about a specific topic or issue. Short reports are usually limited in length and scope, aiming to deliver essential details clearly and straightforwardly. They are commonly used in business, academic, and professional settings to communicate key insights or updates efficiently. In the business environment, short reports are used to update stakeholders on project progress, summarize market research, or present financial data. In academic settings, short reports are used to summarize research findings, provide a quick overview of a study or give updates on ongoing research. Overall the primary goal of a short report writing is to present information in a manner that is both easy to understand for its intended audience. Characteristics of a Short ReportTheir key characteristics include: 1/ Brevity : Short reports are relatively brief, typically ranging from one to a few pages. They avoid unnecessary details and get straight to the point. 2/ Purposeful : Short reports have a clear purpose, which could be to inform, summarize, analyze, or propose actions. The content should align with this purpose and avoid unrelated information. 3/ Specific Scope : These reports focus on a single topic or a specific aspect of a larger subject. They do not cover multiple unrelated subjects in a single document. 4/ Structure : A typical short report structure includes an introduction, main body, and conclusion. The introduction outlines the purpose and scope, the main body presents the information or analysis, and the conclusion summarizes the key findings or recommendations. 5/ Formality : Depending on the context, short reports may have a more formal or informal tone. In business settings, they are often more formal, while in academic environments, they might lean toward a formal style. 6/ No or Minimal Appendices : Short reports do not usually contain lengthy appendices, as their purpose is to provide a concise overview. 7/ Audience-oriented : The content of a short report is tailored to the needs of its intended audience. It presents information in a way that is understandable and relevant to the readers. 8/ Visual elements : Depending on the content, short reports may incorporate charts, graphs, or other visual aids to enhance understanding and clarity. Related Reading: Characteristics And Features of a Good Business Report Examples of Short Reports Used By Businesses![]() Format of a Short ReportThe short report writing format may vary depending on the organization, purpose, and specific guidelines, but generally, it follows a structured layout. Here’s a detailed outline of the typical format of a short report: 1/ Title Page : The title page is the first page of the report and contains essential information about the report, such as the title, the name of the author or authors, and any other relevant identification details. The title should be clear and concise, reflecting the main focus of the report. 2/ Table of Contents (optional): For longer short reports, you may include a table of contents to help readers navigate through the sections and subsections. However, for very brief reports, a table of contents may not be necessary. 3/ Executive Summary (or Abstract) : This section provides a concise summary of the entire report, highlighting its key points, findings, and recommendations. The executive summary allows readers to grasp the main content without reading the entire report. 4/ Introduction : The introduction sets the context for the report, explains its purpose, and outlines what readers can expect to find. It provides a brief background of the subject and explains the significance of the report. 5/ Body of the Report : The body of the report is where you present the main content and findings. It is organized into sections with clear headings and subheadings. Common sections may include:
5/ References (or Bibliography) : If external sources were used, proper citation and referencing should be provided in a separate section at the end of the report. This ensures that readers can verify the sources and explore further if needed. It is important to note that the length and depth of each section can vary based on the specific requirements and the complexity of the report. For instance, a short business report may include a specific section for recommendations and appendices for more detailed information. However, the overall objective of a short report is to convey the necessary information in a clear, concise, and organized manner, tailored to the audience’s needs. The Six-Step Formula of How To Write A Short Report Planning Researching Drafting Editing Concluding Recommending Types of Short ReportsShort reports can be categorized into different types based on their purpose, content, and the information they convey. Here are some common types of short reports: 1/ Progress Report : A progress report provides an update on an ongoing project or task status. It outlines the achievements made, the challenges faced, and the remaining work to be done. Progress reports are often used in business and academic settings to inform stakeholders about the project’s development. 2/ Meeting Minutes : Meeting minutes are a type of short report that records the discussions, decisions, and action items from a business meeting. They act as an authoritative record of the proceedings during the meeting. and are essential for tracking progress and accountability. 3/ Trip Report: A trip report outlines the details of a business trip or visit to a specific location. It includes information about the purpose of the trip, the places visited, meetings attended, and any notable observations or insights gathered during the trip. 4/ Sales Report : A sales report presents data related to sales performance over a specific period. It may include information on revenue generated, sales volume, customer demographics, and analysis of sales trends. Sales reports help businesses monitor their sales activities and make informed decisions. 5/ Feasibility Report : A feasibility report assesses the viability and practicality of a proposed project or initiative. It examines various factors such as technical, financial, legal, and operational aspects to determine if the project is feasible and worth pursuing. These are just a few examples of the types of short reports that are commonly used in various fields. Each type of report serves a specific purpose, and its content and format will vary accordingly. Regardless of the type, the key to writing a short report is to present information clearly and in a format suitable for the intended audience. Related Reading : Types of Business Reports in business communication What is a long report?A long report is a formal and comprehensive document that provides a detailed analysis, in-depth information, and extensive findings on a particular subject or topic. Unlike a short report, which is concise and focuses on essential information, a long report delves deeper into the subject matter, offering a more thorough examination of the issues at hand. Long reports are commonly used in academic, business, government, and research settings when extensive analysis and detailed information are required. Types of a long report1/ Business Report : Business reports offer in-depth insights and comprehensive analysis covering diverse aspects of a company’s operations. They can cover market research, financial analysis, performance evaluations, feasibility studies, and more. Business reports help stakeholders make informed decisions and develop strategies for improvement. The structured presentation in a business report format ensures that information is organized logically, allowing for easier comprehension and data-driven decision-making. 2/ Financial Report : Financial reports present comprehensive financial information about a company or organization. Within these reports, you will find balance sheets, income statements, positive and negative cash flow statements, and other crucial financial data. All of this wealth of information offers valuable insights into the financial well-being and performance of the entity. 3/ Annual Report : An annual report offers a comprehensive overview of a company’s activities, achievements, financial performance, and future plans during the previous year. It is typically prepared for shareholders and stakeholders to provide transparency about the company’s operations. 4/ Technical Report : Technical reports are thorough documents that emphasize technical information concerning a particular subject or project. They are commonly used in engineering, technology, and scientific fields to communicate complex data, designs, experiments, and analyses. Differences Between a Long and Short ReportA long report is generally referred to as a formal report. It contains a wider range of information which requires a lot of research and documentation of in-depth details. On the other hand, a short report is generally considered an informal kind of report. It is usually written in the form of a letter or memo. The information presented is concise and to the point. Six key differences between short and long reports: It is important to note that the specific characteristics of short and long reports may vary based on the context and requirements of individual reports. Frequently Asked QuestionsQ1) what is short report writing . Ans: Short report writing refers to the process of creating concise, formal documents that present specific information or findings on a particular topic. These reports are typically brief and to the point, focusing on essential details without excessive elaboration. Q2) How long should a report be?Ans: The length of a report can vary significantly depending on its purpose, the subject matter, and the specific requirements of the organization or institution requesting it. There is no fixed rule for the exact length of a report, but it should be long enough to effectively convey the necessary information while also being concise and avoiding unnecessary details. Q3) A shorter report is considered to be?Share your read share this content.
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Types of journal articlesIt is helpful to familiarise yourself with the different types of articles published by journals. Although it may appear there are a large number of types of articles published due to the wide variety of names they are published under, most articles published are one of the following types; Original Research, Review Articles, Short reports or Letters, Case Studies, Methodologies. Original Research: This is the most common type of journal manuscript used to publish full reports of data from research. It may be called an Original Article, Research Article, Research, or just Article, depending on the journal. The Original Research format is suitable for many different fields and different types of studies. It includes full Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections. Short reports or Letters: These papers communicate brief reports of data from original research that editors believe will be interesting to many researchers, and that will likely stimulate further research in the field. As they are relatively short the format is useful for scientists with results that are time sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines). This format often has strict length limits, so some experimental details may not be published until the authors write a full Original Research manuscript. These papers are also sometimes called Brief communications . Review Articles: Review Articles provide a comprehensive summary of research on a certain topic, and a perspective on the state of the field and where it is heading. They are often written by leaders in a particular discipline after invitation from the editors of a journal. Reviews are often widely read (for example, by researchers looking for a full introduction to a field) and highly cited. Reviews commonly cite approximately 100 primary research articles. TIP: If you would like to write a Review but have not been invited by a journal, be sure to check the journal website as some journals to not consider unsolicited Reviews. If the website does not mention whether Reviews are commissioned it is wise to send a pre-submission enquiry letter to the journal editor to propose your Review manuscript before you spend time writing it. Case Studies: These articles report specific instances of interesting phenomena. A goal of Case Studies is to make other researchers aware of the possibility that a specific phenomenon might occur. This type of study is often used in medicine to report the occurrence of previously unknown or emerging pathologies. Methodologies or Methods These articles present a new experimental method, test or procedure. The method described may either be completely new, or may offer a better version of an existing method. The article should describe a demonstrable advance on what is currently available. Back │ Next ![]() Scientific ReportsWhat this handout is about. This handout provides a general guide to writing reports about scientific research you’ve performed. In addition to describing the conventional rules about the format and content of a lab report, we’ll also attempt to convey why these rules exist, so you’ll get a clearer, more dependable idea of how to approach this writing situation. Readers of this handout may also find our handout on writing in the sciences useful. Background and pre-writingWhy do we write research reports. You did an experiment or study for your science class, and now you have to write it up for your teacher to review. You feel that you understood the background sufficiently, designed and completed the study effectively, obtained useful data, and can use those data to draw conclusions about a scientific process or principle. But how exactly do you write all that? What is your teacher expecting to see? To take some of the guesswork out of answering these questions, try to think beyond the classroom setting. In fact, you and your teacher are both part of a scientific community, and the people who participate in this community tend to share the same values. As long as you understand and respect these values, your writing will likely meet the expectations of your audience—including your teacher. So why are you writing this research report? The practical answer is “Because the teacher assigned it,” but that’s classroom thinking. Generally speaking, people investigating some scientific hypothesis have a responsibility to the rest of the scientific world to report their findings, particularly if these findings add to or contradict previous ideas. The people reading such reports have two primary goals:
Your job as a writer, then, is to fulfill these two goals. How do I do that?Good question. Here is the basic format scientists have designed for research reports:
Methods and MaterialsThis format, sometimes called “IMRAD,” may take slightly different shapes depending on the discipline or audience; some ask you to include an abstract or separate section for the hypothesis, or call the Discussion section “Conclusions,” or change the order of the sections (some professional and academic journals require the Methods section to appear last). Overall, however, the IMRAD format was devised to represent a textual version of the scientific method. The scientific method, you’ll probably recall, involves developing a hypothesis, testing it, and deciding whether your findings support the hypothesis. In essence, the format for a research report in the sciences mirrors the scientific method but fleshes out the process a little. Below, you’ll find a table that shows how each written section fits into the scientific method and what additional information it offers the reader.
Thinking of your research report as based on the scientific method, but elaborated in the ways described above, may help you to meet your audience’s expectations successfully. We’re going to proceed by explicitly connecting each section of the lab report to the scientific method, then explaining why and how you need to elaborate that section. Although this handout takes each section in the order in which it should be presented in the final report, you may for practical reasons decide to compose sections in another order. For example, many writers find that composing their Methods and Results before the other sections helps to clarify their idea of the experiment or study as a whole. You might consider using each assignment to practice different approaches to drafting the report, to find the order that works best for you. What should I do before drafting the lab report?The best way to prepare to write the lab report is to make sure that you fully understand everything you need to about the experiment. Obviously, if you don’t quite know what went on during the lab, you’re going to find it difficult to explain the lab satisfactorily to someone else. To make sure you know enough to write the report, complete the following steps:
Once you’ve completed these steps as you perform the experiment, you’ll be in a good position to draft an effective lab report. IntroductionsHow do i write a strong introduction. For the purposes of this handout, we’ll consider the Introduction to contain four basic elements: the purpose, the scientific literature relevant to the subject, the hypothesis, and the reasons you believed your hypothesis viable. Let’s start by going through each element of the Introduction to clarify what it covers and why it’s important. Then we can formulate a logical organizational strategy for the section. The inclusion of the purpose (sometimes called the objective) of the experiment often confuses writers. The biggest misconception is that the purpose is the same as the hypothesis. Not quite. We’ll get to hypotheses in a minute, but basically they provide some indication of what you expect the experiment to show. The purpose is broader, and deals more with what you expect to gain through the experiment. In a professional setting, the hypothesis might have something to do with how cells react to a certain kind of genetic manipulation, but the purpose of the experiment is to learn more about potential cancer treatments. Undergraduate reports don’t often have this wide-ranging a goal, but you should still try to maintain the distinction between your hypothesis and your purpose. In a solubility experiment, for example, your hypothesis might talk about the relationship between temperature and the rate of solubility, but the purpose is probably to learn more about some specific scientific principle underlying the process of solubility. For starters, most people say that you should write out your working hypothesis before you perform the experiment or study. Many beginning science students neglect to do so and find themselves struggling to remember precisely which variables were involved in the process or in what way the researchers felt that they were related. Write your hypothesis down as you develop it—you’ll be glad you did. As for the form a hypothesis should take, it’s best not to be too fancy or complicated; an inventive style isn’t nearly so important as clarity here. There’s nothing wrong with beginning your hypothesis with the phrase, “It was hypothesized that . . .” Be as specific as you can about the relationship between the different objects of your study. In other words, explain that when term A changes, term B changes in this particular way. Readers of scientific writing are rarely content with the idea that a relationship between two terms exists—they want to know what that relationship entails. Not a hypothesis: “It was hypothesized that there is a significant relationship between the temperature of a solvent and the rate at which a solute dissolves.” Hypothesis: “It was hypothesized that as the temperature of a solvent increases, the rate at which a solute will dissolve in that solvent increases.” Put more technically, most hypotheses contain both an independent and a dependent variable. The independent variable is what you manipulate to test the reaction; the dependent variable is what changes as a result of your manipulation. In the example above, the independent variable is the temperature of the solvent, and the dependent variable is the rate of solubility. Be sure that your hypothesis includes both variables. Justify your hypothesisYou need to do more than tell your readers what your hypothesis is; you also need to assure them that this hypothesis was reasonable, given the circumstances. In other words, use the Introduction to explain that you didn’t just pluck your hypothesis out of thin air. (If you did pluck it out of thin air, your problems with your report will probably extend beyond using the appropriate format.) If you posit that a particular relationship exists between the independent and the dependent variable, what led you to believe your “guess” might be supported by evidence? Scientists often refer to this type of justification as “motivating” the hypothesis, in the sense that something propelled them to make that prediction. Often, motivation includes what we already know—or rather, what scientists generally accept as true (see “Background/previous research” below). But you can also motivate your hypothesis by relying on logic or on your own observations. If you’re trying to decide which solutes will dissolve more rapidly in a solvent at increased temperatures, you might remember that some solids are meant to dissolve in hot water (e.g., bouillon cubes) and some are used for a function precisely because they withstand higher temperatures (they make saucepans out of something). Or you can think about whether you’ve noticed sugar dissolving more rapidly in your glass of iced tea or in your cup of coffee. Even such basic, outside-the-lab observations can help you justify your hypothesis as reasonable. Background/previous researchThis part of the Introduction demonstrates to the reader your awareness of how you’re building on other scientists’ work. If you think of the scientific community as engaging in a series of conversations about various topics, then you’ll recognize that the relevant background material will alert the reader to which conversation you want to enter. Generally speaking, authors writing journal articles use the background for slightly different purposes than do students completing assignments. Because readers of academic journals tend to be professionals in the field, authors explain the background in order to permit readers to evaluate the study’s pertinence for their own work. You, on the other hand, write toward a much narrower audience—your peers in the course or your lab instructor—and so you must demonstrate that you understand the context for the (presumably assigned) experiment or study you’ve completed. For example, if your professor has been talking about polarity during lectures, and you’re doing a solubility experiment, you might try to connect the polarity of a solid to its relative solubility in certain solvents. In any event, both professional researchers and undergraduates need to connect the background material overtly to their own work. Organization of this sectionMost of the time, writers begin by stating the purpose or objectives of their own work, which establishes for the reader’s benefit the “nature and scope of the problem investigated” (Day 1994). Once you have expressed your purpose, you should then find it easier to move from the general purpose, to relevant material on the subject, to your hypothesis. In abbreviated form, an Introduction section might look like this: “The purpose of the experiment was to test conventional ideas about solubility in the laboratory [purpose] . . . According to Whitecoat and Labrat (1999), at higher temperatures the molecules of solvents move more quickly . . . We know from the class lecture that molecules moving at higher rates of speed collide with one another more often and thus break down more easily [background material/motivation] . . . Thus, it was hypothesized that as the temperature of a solvent increases, the rate at which a solute will dissolve in that solvent increases [hypothesis].” Again—these are guidelines, not commandments. Some writers and readers prefer different structures for the Introduction. The one above merely illustrates a common approach to organizing material. How do I write a strong Materials and Methods section?As with any piece of writing, your Methods section will succeed only if it fulfills its readers’ expectations, so you need to be clear in your own mind about the purpose of this section. Let’s review the purpose as we described it above: in this section, you want to describe in detail how you tested the hypothesis you developed and also to clarify the rationale for your procedure. In science, it’s not sufficient merely to design and carry out an experiment. Ultimately, others must be able to verify your findings, so your experiment must be reproducible, to the extent that other researchers can follow the same procedure and obtain the same (or similar) results. Here’s a real-world example of the importance of reproducibility. In 1989, physicists Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischman announced that they had discovered “cold fusion,” a way of producing excess heat and power without the nuclear radiation that accompanies “hot fusion.” Such a discovery could have great ramifications for the industrial production of energy, so these findings created a great deal of interest. When other scientists tried to duplicate the experiment, however, they didn’t achieve the same results, and as a result many wrote off the conclusions as unjustified (or worse, a hoax). To this day, the viability of cold fusion is debated within the scientific community, even though an increasing number of researchers believe it possible. So when you write your Methods section, keep in mind that you need to describe your experiment well enough to allow others to replicate it exactly. With these goals in mind, let’s consider how to write an effective Methods section in terms of content, structure, and style. Sometimes the hardest thing about writing this section isn’t what you should talk about, but what you shouldn’t talk about. Writers often want to include the results of their experiment, because they measured and recorded the results during the course of the experiment. But such data should be reserved for the Results section. In the Methods section, you can write that you recorded the results, or how you recorded the results (e.g., in a table), but you shouldn’t write what the results were—not yet. Here, you’re merely stating exactly how you went about testing your hypothesis. As you draft your Methods section, ask yourself the following questions:
Describe the control in the Methods section. Two things are especially important in writing about the control: identify the control as a control, and explain what you’re controlling for. Here is an example: “As a control for the temperature change, we placed the same amount of solute in the same amount of solvent, and let the solution stand for five minutes without heating it.” Structure and styleOrganization is especially important in the Methods section of a lab report because readers must understand your experimental procedure completely. Many writers are surprised by the difficulty of conveying what they did during the experiment, since after all they’re only reporting an event, but it’s often tricky to present this information in a coherent way. There’s a fairly standard structure you can use to guide you, and following the conventions for style can help clarify your points.
Increasingly, especially in the social sciences, using first person and active voice is acceptable in scientific reports. Most readers find that this style of writing conveys information more clearly and concisely. This rhetorical choice thus brings two scientific values into conflict: objectivity versus clarity. Since the scientific community hasn’t reached a consensus about which style it prefers, you may want to ask your lab instructor. How do I write a strong Results section?Here’s a paradox for you. The Results section is often both the shortest (yay!) and most important (uh-oh!) part of your report. Your Materials and Methods section shows how you obtained the results, and your Discussion section explores the significance of the results, so clearly the Results section forms the backbone of the lab report. This section provides the most critical information about your experiment: the data that allow you to discuss how your hypothesis was or wasn’t supported. But it doesn’t provide anything else, which explains why this section is generally shorter than the others. Before you write this section, look at all the data you collected to figure out what relates significantly to your hypothesis. You’ll want to highlight this material in your Results section. Resist the urge to include every bit of data you collected, since perhaps not all are relevant. Also, don’t try to draw conclusions about the results—save them for the Discussion section. In this section, you’re reporting facts. Nothing your readers can dispute should appear in the Results section. Most Results sections feature three distinct parts: text, tables, and figures. Let’s consider each part one at a time. This should be a short paragraph, generally just a few lines, that describes the results you obtained from your experiment. In a relatively simple experiment, one that doesn’t produce a lot of data for you to repeat, the text can represent the entire Results section. Don’t feel that you need to include lots of extraneous detail to compensate for a short (but effective) text; your readers appreciate discrimination more than your ability to recite facts. In a more complex experiment, you may want to use tables and/or figures to help guide your readers toward the most important information you gathered. In that event, you’ll need to refer to each table or figure directly, where appropriate: “Table 1 lists the rates of solubility for each substance” “Solubility increased as the temperature of the solution increased (see Figure 1).” If you do use tables or figures, make sure that you don’t present the same material in both the text and the tables/figures, since in essence you’ll just repeat yourself, probably annoying your readers with the redundancy of your statements. Feel free to describe trends that emerge as you examine the data. Although identifying trends requires some judgment on your part and so may not feel like factual reporting, no one can deny that these trends do exist, and so they properly belong in the Results section. Example: “Heating the solution increased the rate of solubility of polar solids by 45% but had no effect on the rate of solubility in solutions containing non-polar solids.” This point isn’t debatable—you’re just pointing out what the data show. As in the Materials and Methods section, you want to refer to your data in the past tense, because the events you recorded have already occurred and have finished occurring. In the example above, note the use of “increased” and “had,” rather than “increases” and “has.” (You don’t know from your experiment that heating always increases the solubility of polar solids, but it did that time.) You shouldn’t put information in the table that also appears in the text. You also shouldn’t use a table to present irrelevant data, just to show you did collect these data during the experiment. Tables are good for some purposes and situations, but not others, so whether and how you’ll use tables depends upon what you need them to accomplish. Tables are useful ways to show variation in data, but not to present a great deal of unchanging measurements. If you’re dealing with a scientific phenomenon that occurs only within a certain range of temperatures, for example, you don’t need to use a table to show that the phenomenon didn’t occur at any of the other temperatures. How useful is this table? ![]() As you can probably see, no solubility was observed until the trial temperature reached 50°C, a fact that the text part of the Results section could easily convey. The table could then be limited to what happened at 50°C and higher, thus better illustrating the differences in solubility rates when solubility did occur. As a rule, try not to use a table to describe any experimental event you can cover in one sentence of text. Here’s an example of an unnecessary table from How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper , by Robert A. Day: ![]() As Day notes, all the information in this table can be summarized in one sentence: “S. griseus, S. coelicolor, S. everycolor, and S. rainbowenski grew under aerobic conditions, whereas S. nocolor and S. greenicus required anaerobic conditions.” Most readers won’t find the table clearer than that one sentence. When you do have reason to tabulate material, pay attention to the clarity and readability of the format you use. Here are a few tips:
![]() It’s a little tough to see the trends that the author presumably wants to present in this table. Compare this table, in which the data appear vertically: ![]() The second table shows how putting like elements in a vertical column makes for easier reading. In this case, the like elements are the measurements of length and height, over five trials–not, as in the first table, the length and height measurements for each trial.
How do I include figures in my report?Although tables can be useful ways of showing trends in the results you obtained, figures (i.e., illustrations) can do an even better job of emphasizing such trends. Lab report writers often use graphic representations of the data they collected to provide their readers with a literal picture of how the experiment went. When should you use a figure?Remember the circumstances under which you don’t need a table: when you don’t have a great deal of data or when the data you have don’t vary a lot. Under the same conditions, you would probably forgo the figure as well, since the figure would be unlikely to provide your readers with an additional perspective. Scientists really don’t like their time wasted, so they tend not to respond favorably to redundancy. If you’re trying to decide between using a table and creating a figure to present your material, consider the following a rule of thumb. The strength of a table lies in its ability to supply large amounts of exact data, whereas the strength of a figure is its dramatic illustration of important trends within the experiment. If you feel that your readers won’t get the full impact of the results you obtained just by looking at the numbers, then a figure might be appropriate. Of course, an undergraduate class may expect you to create a figure for your lab experiment, if only to make sure that you can do so effectively. If this is the case, then don’t worry about whether to use figures or not—concentrate instead on how best to accomplish your task. Figures can include maps, photographs, pen-and-ink drawings, flow charts, bar graphs, and section graphs (“pie charts”). But the most common figure by far, especially for undergraduates, is the line graph, so we’ll focus on that type in this handout. At the undergraduate level, you can often draw and label your graphs by hand, provided that the result is clear, legible, and drawn to scale. Computer technology has, however, made creating line graphs a lot easier. Most word-processing software has a number of functions for transferring data into graph form; many scientists have found Microsoft Excel, for example, a helpful tool in graphing results. If you plan on pursuing a career in the sciences, it may be well worth your while to learn to use a similar program. Computers can’t, however, decide for you how your graph really works; you have to know how to design your graph to meet your readers’ expectations. Here are some of these expectations:
How do I write a strong Discussion section?The discussion section is probably the least formalized part of the report, in that you can’t really apply the same structure to every type of experiment. In simple terms, here you tell your readers what to make of the Results you obtained. If you have done the Results part well, your readers should already recognize the trends in the data and have a fairly clear idea of whether your hypothesis was supported. Because the Results can seem so self-explanatory, many students find it difficult to know what material to add in this last section. Basically, the Discussion contains several parts, in no particular order, but roughly moving from specific (i.e., related to your experiment only) to general (how your findings fit in the larger scientific community). In this section, you will, as a rule, need to: Explain whether the data support your hypothesis
Derive conclusions, based on your findings, about the process you’re studying
Explore the theoretical and/or practical implications of your findingsLet’s look at some dos and don’ts for each of these objectives. This statement is usually a good way to begin the Discussion, since you can’t effectively speak about the larger scientific value of your study until you’ve figured out the particulars of this experiment. You might begin this part of the Discussion by explicitly stating the relationships or correlations your data indicate between the independent and dependent variables. Then you can show more clearly why you believe your hypothesis was or was not supported. For example, if you tested solubility at various temperatures, you could start this section by noting that the rates of solubility increased as the temperature increased. If your initial hypothesis surmised that temperature change would not affect solubility, you would then say something like, “The hypothesis that temperature change would not affect solubility was not supported by the data.” Note: Students tend to view labs as practical tests of undeniable scientific truths. As a result, you may want to say that the hypothesis was “proved” or “disproved” or that it was “correct” or “incorrect.” These terms, however, reflect a degree of certainty that you as a scientist aren’t supposed to have. Remember, you’re testing a theory with a procedure that lasts only a few hours and relies on only a few trials, which severely compromises your ability to be sure about the “truth” you see. Words like “supported,” “indicated,” and “suggested” are more acceptable ways to evaluate your hypothesis. Also, recognize that saying whether the data supported your hypothesis or not involves making a claim to be defended. As such, you need to show the readers that this claim is warranted by the evidence. Make sure that you’re very explicit about the relationship between the evidence and the conclusions you draw from it. This process is difficult for many writers because we don’t often justify conclusions in our regular lives. For example, you might nudge your friend at a party and whisper, “That guy’s drunk,” and once your friend lays eyes on the person in question, she might readily agree. In a scientific paper, by contrast, you would need to defend your claim more thoroughly by pointing to data such as slurred words, unsteady gait, and the lampshade-as-hat. In addition to pointing out these details, you would also need to show how (according to previous studies) these signs are consistent with inebriation, especially if they occur in conjunction with one another. To put it another way, tell your readers exactly how you got from point A (was the hypothesis supported?) to point B (yes/no). Acknowledge any anomalous data, or deviations from what you expectedYou need to take these exceptions and divergences into account, so that you qualify your conclusions sufficiently. For obvious reasons, your readers will doubt your authority if you (deliberately or inadvertently) overlook a key piece of data that doesn’t square with your perspective on what occurred. In a more philosophical sense, once you’ve ignored evidence that contradicts your claims, you’ve departed from the scientific method. The urge to “tidy up” the experiment is often strong, but if you give in to it you’re no longer performing good science. Sometimes after you’ve performed a study or experiment, you realize that some part of the methods you used to test your hypothesis was flawed. In that case, it’s OK to suggest that if you had the chance to conduct your test again, you might change the design in this or that specific way in order to avoid such and such a problem. The key to making this approach work, though, is to be very precise about the weakness in your experiment, why and how you think that weakness might have affected your data, and how you would alter your protocol to eliminate—or limit the effects of—that weakness. Often, inexperienced researchers and writers feel the need to account for “wrong” data (remember, there’s no such animal), and so they speculate wildly about what might have screwed things up. These speculations include such factors as the unusually hot temperature in the room, or the possibility that their lab partners read the meters wrong, or the potentially defective equipment. These explanations are what scientists call “cop-outs,” or “lame”; don’t indicate that the experiment had a weakness unless you’re fairly certain that a) it really occurred and b) you can explain reasonably well how that weakness affected your results. If, for example, your hypothesis dealt with the changes in solubility at different temperatures, then try to figure out what you can rationally say about the process of solubility more generally. If you’re doing an undergraduate lab, chances are that the lab will connect in some way to the material you’ve been covering either in lecture or in your reading, so you might choose to return to these resources as a way to help you think clearly about the process as a whole. This part of the Discussion section is another place where you need to make sure that you’re not overreaching. Again, nothing you’ve found in one study would remotely allow you to claim that you now “know” something, or that something isn’t “true,” or that your experiment “confirmed” some principle or other. Hesitate before you go out on a limb—it’s dangerous! Use less absolutely conclusive language, including such words as “suggest,” “indicate,” “correspond,” “possibly,” “challenge,” etc. Relate your findings to previous work in the field (if possible)We’ve been talking about how to show that you belong in a particular community (such as biologists or anthropologists) by writing within conventions that they recognize and accept. Another is to try to identify a conversation going on among members of that community, and use your work to contribute to that conversation. In a larger philosophical sense, scientists can’t fully understand the value of their research unless they have some sense of the context that provoked and nourished it. That is, you have to recognize what’s new about your project (potentially, anyway) and how it benefits the wider body of scientific knowledge. On a more pragmatic level, especially for undergraduates, connecting your lab work to previous research will demonstrate to the TA that you see the big picture. You have an opportunity, in the Discussion section, to distinguish yourself from the students in your class who aren’t thinking beyond the barest facts of the study. Capitalize on this opportunity by putting your own work in context. If you’re just beginning to work in the natural sciences (as a first-year biology or chemistry student, say), most likely the work you’ll be doing has already been performed and re-performed to a satisfactory degree. Hence, you could probably point to a similar experiment or study and compare/contrast your results and conclusions. More advanced work may deal with an issue that is somewhat less “resolved,” and so previous research may take the form of an ongoing debate, and you can use your own work to weigh in on that debate. If, for example, researchers are hotly disputing the value of herbal remedies for the common cold, and the results of your study suggest that Echinacea diminishes the symptoms but not the actual presence of the cold, then you might want to take some time in the Discussion section to recapitulate the specifics of the dispute as it relates to Echinacea as an herbal remedy. (Consider that you have probably already written in the Introduction about this debate as background research.) This information is often the best way to end your Discussion (and, for all intents and purposes, the report). In argumentative writing generally, you want to use your closing words to convey the main point of your writing. This main point can be primarily theoretical (“Now that you understand this information, you’re in a better position to understand this larger issue”) or primarily practical (“You can use this information to take such and such an action”). In either case, the concluding statements help the reader to comprehend the significance of your project and your decision to write about it. Since a lab report is argumentative—after all, you’re investigating a claim, and judging the legitimacy of that claim by generating and collecting evidence—it’s often a good idea to end your report with the same technique for establishing your main point. If you want to go the theoretical route, you might talk about the consequences your study has for the field or phenomenon you’re investigating. To return to the examples regarding solubility, you could end by reflecting on what your work on solubility as a function of temperature tells us (potentially) about solubility in general. (Some folks consider this type of exploration “pure” as opposed to “applied” science, although these labels can be problematic.) If you want to go the practical route, you could end by speculating about the medical, institutional, or commercial implications of your findings—in other words, answer the question, “What can this study help people to do?” In either case, you’re going to make your readers’ experience more satisfying, by helping them see why they spent their time learning what you had to teach them. Works consultedWe consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback. American Psychological Association. 2010. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Beall, Herbert, and John Trimbur. 2001. A Short Guide to Writing About Chemistry , 2nd ed. New York: Longman. Blum, Deborah, and Mary Knudson. 1997. A Field Guide for Science Writers: The Official Guide of the National Association of Science Writers . New York: Oxford University Press. Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, Joseph Bizup, and William T. FitzGerald. 2016. The Craft of Research , 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Briscoe, Mary Helen. 1996. Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A Guide to Better Posters, Presentations, and Publications , 2nd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag. Council of Science Editors. 2014. Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers , 8th ed. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. Davis, Martha. 2012. Scientific Papers and Presentations , 3rd ed. London: Academic Press. Day, Robert A. 1994. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper , 4th ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press. Porush, David. 1995. A Short Guide to Writing About Science . New York: Longman. Williams, Joseph, and Joseph Bizup. 2017. Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace , 12th ed. Boston: Pearson. You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Make a Gift ![]() Short Research Papers![]() The goal of the Short Research Papers track is to encourage the iConference community to present new, provocative, and cross-cutting themes in a short paper submission. Short research papers might include, but are not limited to, critical literature reviews of an emerging topic, theory building that is in the early stages of development, or new analysis / methods applied to existing data. Short papers are more focused and succinct contributions to the research program and are likely to have a smaller scope of contribution than Full Research Papers . For example, short papers on applications design may not cover the entire iterative design cycle (observation, design, implementation, evaluation, etc.) but may instead go into depth in specific areas. iConference Short Research Papers undergo a rigorous double-blind review process, managed by the Short Research Papers Chairs . Confidentiality of submissions is maintained during the review process. Papers will be scored on innovation, contribution and quality of thought and writing. Submitted papers must be original work, not published elsewhere. PresentationAll accepted papers will be presented virtually during iConference 2025 on the SCOOCS platform with a 20-minutes presentation followed by a 10 minutes Q&A; presentation instruction will be provided with acceptance notifications. All authors who presented online will also have the opportunity to present at the on-site program. Publication Accepted Short Research Papers will be published. The venue of the publication will be announced soon. Authors are also allowed and encouraged to deposit their work into the IDEALS open repository or their school's institutional repository if they so choose. Best Paper Award The best Short Paper will be awarded with a sum of USD 500. ![]() All papers must adhere to the complete guidelines. Submissions that do not conform to the lengths defined are subject to desk rejection by the chairs. All papers must be original work, not published elsewhere. All submissions will be made using the secure ConfTool submission system. Length : Up to 3,000 words (excluding captions and references) Language : English Template : Springer LNCS template Pre-Recorded Presentations (optional): Presenters can hand in a pre-record of their paper presentation additionally to their live presentation during the virtual iConference. This recording will be available in the media library of the virtual conference platform for all participants 24/7. Pre-recorded paper presentations are due Feb. 09, 2025 following the guidelines . Conditions : At least one author of each accepted submission has to register during the Early Bird registration period to present their work at iConference 2025. The organizers reserve the right to withhold publication if these conditions are not met. First SubmissionFirst submissions can be uploaded to the ConfTool submission site starting in early summer. The deadline for the first submissions is Sept. 15, 2024 . Format : PDF Template : Please follow the Springer LNCS author guidelines Keywords : All submissions must include at least three keywords Anonymization : Author-identifying elements must be excluded from first submissions to facilitate double-blind review. Authors are encouraged to cite their own work in the third person, e.g., avoid “As described in our previous work [10], …” and instead use “As described by [10], …”. File Naming : Please use all or part of your paper title as the file name Final SubmissionAuthors of accepted papers will submit a final version containing author-identifying information. Final versions of accepted papers should be uploaded to ConfTool by Jan. 08, 2025 . Format : doc, docx or LaTex Template : will be provided soon A signed Consent-To-Publish form is required for all accepted papers and must be uploaded with the final submission. Failure to do so may result in the paper not being published. Authors are responsible for the accuracy of all substantive content, including numeric and bibliographic data. Manuscripts will not be copy edited by iConference organizers . Acceptance of a submission is conditional on the completion of changes that were identified during review. In making these changes, authors must adhere to the word limit of 3,000 words in the interest of fairness. If necessary, we suggest having a professional editor help identify redundant words and thoughts. Papers authors will also provide details of these changes with their final submission. These details will be entered into ConfTool using the open field titled Remarks on This Contribution Section . Papers that do not comply with the final submission requirements will be removed from the proceedings and not be published. All accepted papers will be presented virtually on the SCOOCS platform with a 20-minutes presentation followed by a 10 minutes Q&A; presentation instruction will be provided with acceptance notifications. Presenters can request to present their poster onsite in addition to the virtual presentation. If the author has requested an additional paper presentation slot on-site in Bloomington, at least one author of each accepted submission has to register for the onsite part of the iConference 2025 during the Early Bird registration period to present their work onsite in Bloomington, Indiana, USA. The organizers reserve the right to withhold the presentation slot if these conditions are not met. As with the virtual presentation, onsite presentations will take 20 minutes followed by a 10 minutes Q&A. Submission portal opens : June, 2024 Submission deadline : Sept. 15, 2024 Decision notification date : mid Nov., 2024 Final camera-ready versions due : Jan. 08, 2025 Video presentations submission due : Feb. 05, 2025 All deadlines are in GMT-11 23:59. Short Research Paper Chairs![]() Short Research Papers Chair ![]() Contact staff regarding iConference 2025 in general. How a New York short-seller took on one of the world's richest people, wiped out $150 billion in market value, and barely made any money
![]() Nate Anderson, the chief mind behind activist short-seller Hindenburg Research, has had an eventful past 18 months. In January 2023, he accused the Indian conglomerate owned by Gautam Adani — one of the world's richest people — of fraud, subsequently wiping out $153 billion in market value from its associated companies. This led Indian regulators to his doorstep and forced him into defensive mode. A war of words has persisted ever since. A year and a half later, the battle continues. And based on new information released by Hindenburg, one might wonder whether it was all worth it. The firm — which describes itself as specializing in " forensic financial research " — recently disclosed that it's made just $4 million from its considerable efforts. Compared to the nine figures of market value it helped erase, and the $80 billion wiped from Adani's personal fortune, that's a drop in the bucket. Detailed below is the considerable back-and-forth that's taken place since Hindenburg's initial shot across the bow of Adani Group. The tale that follows highlights the lengths a global conglomerate — and the regulatory body with a vested interest in keeping it afloat — will go to defend itself. It also shows the resolute nature of Anderson as he continues fighting back. The initial reportHindenburg accused Indian business magnate Gautam Adani in 2023 of pulling off the "largest con in corporate history." It was the result of a two-year-long investigation, which found a number of financial and accounting irregularities in Adani's empire, the firm said in its 106-page report. "Indian conglomerate Adani Group has engaged in a brazen stock manipulation and accounting fraud scheme over the course of decades," the report said. "We believe the Adani Group has been able to operate a large, flagrant fraud in broad daylight in large part because investors, journalists, citizens and even politicians have been afraid to speak out for fear of reprisal," it later added. Hindenburg identified at least 38 shell companies closely related to Adani Group, which it said appeared to engage in stock manipulation and money laundering. It cited "numerous examples"of those companies funneling money through private companies owned by Adani, before cash was set to Adani's listed public companies. The short-seller's investigation also found Adani's private and public companies to have "numerous" undisclosed transactions with other parties, the researchers found, which violates regulatory laws in India. The "labyrinthian network of shells appears to serve several functions, including shuffling losses into private entities to boost reported earnings, and surreptitiously moving money to prop up entities in the group," Hindenburg said. Adani Group was also affiliated with a number of funds that displayed "flagrant irregularities," the research firm said, such as being offshore entities, having concealed ownership information, and having portfolios being "almost exclusively" invested in Adani's firms. One such fund, Elara, controlled another fund that was around 99% concentrated in Adani shares. That suggested to the researchers it was "obvious Adani controls the shares," the report said. Hindenburg attached a list of 88 questions for Adani to answer, which included inquiries into the billionaire's close contacts, Adani Group executives, and investigations into the company by regulators. "If Gautam Adani embraces transparency, as he claims, they should be easy questions to answer," the report said. The responseNursing deep stock losses, Adani Group hit back with its own 413-page response , calling Hindenburg's original report "nothing but a lie." "We are shocked and deeply disturbed to read the report published by the 'Madoffs of Manhattan,'" the reply said, referring to Hindenburg. "The document is a malicious combination of selective misinformation and concealed facts relating to baseless and discredited allegations to drive an ulterior motive," it added. The firm disclosed information on its accounting practices and professional relationships, while disputing many of the claims in the Hindenburg report. Transactions that were identified as suspicious by Hindenburg's team were in compliance with local laws and accounting standards, it said. Offshore companies and funds mentioned in Hindenburg's report were merely public shareholders in Adani-listed companies, the retort added. Related stories "A listed entity does not have control over who buys/sells/owns the publicly traded shares or how much volume is traded, or the source of funds for such public shareholders nor it is required to have such information for its public shareholders under the laws of India. Hence we cannot comment on trading pattern or behavior of public shareholders," Adani's report said. The firm also criticized Hindenburg for its financial stake in releasing the report, calling the firm an "unethical short seller" and guilty of a "flagrant breach of applicable securities and foreign exchange laws." "This is rife with conflict of interest and intended only to create a false market in securities to enable Hindenburg, an admitted short seller, to book massive financial gain through wrongful means at the cost of countless investors," it said. Hindenburg issued a reply to Adani on the same day, denying any wrongdoing from its original report. They argued that Adani Group's reply failed to answer most of their questions. The conglomerate also didn't dispute the existence of certain "suspect" transactions, nor did it explain "their obvious irregularities," researchers added. "We also believe that fraud is fraud, even when it's perpetrated by one of the wealthiest individuals in the world," Hindenburg Research said in its reply. Adani Group eventually lawyered up and readied for a fight, though the damage had already been done. In less than a week, Adani, known as the world's third richest man, saw his personal wealth plummet by $52 billion. Conflict over Hindenburg's short-selling arrangementIndian regulators have raised specific questions about the structure of Hindenburg's short bet on Adani Group. The Securities and Exchange Board of India — the country's version of the SEC — sent a notice to Hindenberg in June 2024, raising questions about the nature of the report and the firm's relationship with Kingdon Capital Management, a New York hedge-fund involved in building a short position against Adani Group. Hindenburg's initial report was described to be "misleading" and have contained "inaccurate statements." "These misrepresentations built a convenient narrative through selective disclosures, reckless statements, and catchy headlines, in order to mislead readers of the report and cause panic in Adani Group stocks, thereby deflating prices to the maximum extent possible and profit from the same," the notice read. Regulators also revealed that Hindenburg had shared its research with Kingdon prior to publication. The two companies had a profit-sharing agreement, the notice says, with Hindenburg set to get 25% of Kingdon's profits for the short bet. Kingdon ended up making $22.3 million on the bet, $5.5 million of which is owed Hindenburg. $4.1 million of that had been paid as of the start of June, the document shows. Hindenburg shrugged off the letter as "nonsense," and an attempt to ward off whistleblowers who expose corruption among the country's most powerful people and companies. "One might think that a securities regulator would be interested in meaningfully pursuing the parties that ran a secret offshore shell empire engaging in billions of dollars of undisclosed related party transactions through public companies while propping up its stocks through undisclosed share ownership via a network of sham investment entities," Hindenburg said in its reply. It added: "Instead, SEBI seems more interested in pursuing those who expose such practices." A passion for 'finding scams'Backlash is nothing new to Anderson, who's targeted other high-profile financiers and began sniffing out wrongdoers on Wall Street long before he launched Hindenburg Research in 2017. This decade alone he's been instrumental in weeding out companies in the electric-vehicle industry. His work on Nikola led to fraud charges against its founder, and he also called out now-defunct Lordstown Motors for hyping up commercial interest in its product. More recently he took aim at activist investor Carl Icahn and his famed operation, Icahn Enterprises. "Find[ing] scams" has been a life-long passion, he told the New York Times in a 2021 interview , adding that he had spent hours off-the-clock looking into potential schemes, to the chagrin of some of his former bosses. "I didn't plan it this way," he told the Times. "It was a side hobby that my employers were sometimes annoyed by." Fraud-finding is one of his top goals of 2024, he wrote in a post on X in January. "My 2023 New Years professional resolution is to work with our @HindenburgRes team to expose some of the biggest frauds and financial charlatans in the world," Anderson wrote. "I am very confident we will achieve this goal." What emotions did you feel while reading this article?Select all that apply Thanks for your input! Watch: Why Sam Bankman-Fried is facing up to 110 years in prison
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Methodology
How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & TemplatesPublished on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023. What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic . There are five key steps to writing a literature review:
A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject. Instantly correct all language mistakes in your textUpload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes ![]() Table of contentsWhat is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.
When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:
Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below. ![]() Receive feedback on language, structure, and formattingProfessional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:
See an example ![]() Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.
You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below. Download Word doc Download Google doc Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic . If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions . Make a list of keywordsStart by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.
Search for relevant sourcesUse your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:
You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search. Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources. You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question. For each publication, ask yourself:
Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research. You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download. Take notes and cite your sourcesAs you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review. It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process. Don't submit your assignments before you do thisThe academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students. Free citation check included. ![]() Try for free To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:
This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.
There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically). ChronologicalThe simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred. If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access. MethodologicalIf you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:
TheoreticalA literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research. Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review. The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach. As you write, you can follow these tips:
In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance. When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services ! This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review. Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes. Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
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Research bias
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question . It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge. There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:
Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute. The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology . A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . An annotated bibliography is a list of source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a paper . Cite this Scribbr articleIf you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator. McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved July 13, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/ Is this article helpful?Shona McCombesOther students also liked, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is a research methodology | steps & tips, how to write a research proposal | examples & templates, get unlimited documents corrected. ✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World Read our research on: Full Topic List Regions & Countries
Read Our Research On: Amid Doubts About Biden’s Mental Sharpness, Trump Leads Presidential RaceMethodology, table of contents.
Data in this report comes from Wave 149 of the American Trends Panel (ATP), Pew Research Center’s nationally representative panel of randomly selected U.S. adults. The survey was conducted from July 1 to July 7, 2024. A total of 9,424 panelists responded out of 12,207 who were sampled, for a survey-level response rate of 77%. The cumulative response rate accounting for nonresponse to the recruitment surveys and attrition is 3%. The break-off rate among panelists who logged on to the survey and completed at least one item is 1%. The margin of sampling error for the full sample of 9,424 respondents is plus or minus 1.3 percentage points. SSRS conducted the survey for Pew Research Center via online (n=9,106) and live telephone (n=318) interviewing. Interviews were conducted in both English and Spanish. To learn more about the ATP, read “ About the American Trends Panel .” Panel recruitmentSince 2018, the ATP has used address-based sampling (ABS) for recruitment. A study cover letter and a pre-incentive are mailed to a stratified, random sample of households selected from the U.S. Postal Service’s Computerized Delivery Sequence File. This Postal Service file has been estimated to cover 90% to 98% of the population. 1 Within each sampled household, the adult with the next birthday is selected to participate. Other details of the ABS recruitment protocol have changed over time but are available upon request. 2 Prior to 2018, the ATP was recruited using landline and cellphone random-digit-dial surveys administered in English and Spanish. A national sample of U.S. adults has been recruited to the ATP approximately once per year since 2014. In some years, the recruitment has included additional efforts (known as an “oversample”) to improve the accuracy of data for underrepresented groups. For example, Hispanic adults, Black adults and Asian adults were oversampled in 2019, 2022 and 2023, respectively. Sample designThe overall target population for this survey was noninstitutionalized persons ages 18 and older living in the United States. All active panel members were invited to participate in this wave. Questionnaire development and testingThe questionnaire was developed by Pew Research Center in consultation with SSRS. The web program used for online respondents was rigorously tested on both PC and mobile devices by the SSRS project team and Pew Research Center researchers. The SSRS project team also populated test data that was analyzed in SPSS to ensure the logic and randomizations were working as intended before launching the survey. All respondents were offered a post-paid incentive for their participation. Respondents could choose to receive the post-paid incentive in the form of a check or gift code to Amazon.com. Incentive amounts ranged from $5 to $20 depending on whether the respondent belongs to a part of the population that is harder or easier to reach. Differential incentive amounts were designed to increase panel survey participation among groups that traditionally have low survey response propensities. Data collection protocolThe data collection field period for this survey was July 1 to July 7, 2024. Surveys were conducted via self-administered web survey or by live telephone interviewing. For panelists who take surveys online: 3 Postcard notifications were mailed to a subset on July 1. 4 Survey invitations were sent out in two separate launches: soft launch and full launch. Sixty online panelists were included in the soft launch, which began with an initial invitation sent on July 1. All remaining English- and Spanish-speaking online panelists were included in the full launch and were sent an invitation on July 2. ![]() Panelists participating online were sent an email invitation and up to two email reminders if they did not respond to the survey. ATP panelists who consented to SMS messages were sent an SMS invitation with a link to the survey and up to two SMS reminders. For panelists who take surveys over the phone with a live interviewer: Prenotification postcards were mailed on June 26, and reminder postcards were mailed on July 1. Ten randomly selected panelists responding by phone were included in the soft launch, which began with an initial invitation sent on July 1. All remaining English- and Spanish-speaking panelists responding by phone were included in the full launch. Panelists responding by phone receive up to six calls from trained SSRS interviewers. Data quality checksTo ensure high-quality data, Center researchers performed data quality checks to identify any respondents showing patterns of satisficing. This includes checking for whether respondents left questions blank at very high rates or always selected the first or last answer presented. As a result of this checking, eight ATP respondents were removed from the survey dataset prior to weighting and analysis. The ATP data is weighted in a process that accounts for multiple stages of sampling and nonresponse that occur at different points in the panel survey process. First, each panelist begins with a base weight that reflects their probability of recruitment into the panel. These weights are then calibrated to align with the population benchmarks in the accompanying table to correct for nonresponse to recruitment surveys and panel attrition. If only a subsample of panelists was invited to participate in the wave, this weight is adjusted to account for any differential probabilities of selection. Among the panelists who completed the survey, this weight is then calibrated again to align with the population benchmarks identified in the accompanying table. The weight is then trimmed at approximately the 1st and 99th percentiles to reduce the loss in precision stemming from variance in the weights. This trimming is performed separately among non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Asian, Hispanic and all other respondents. Sampling errors and tests of statistical significance take into account the effect of weighting. ![]() The following table shows the unweighted sample sizes and the error attributable to sampling that would be expected at the 95% level of confidence for different groups in the survey. ![]() Sample sizes and sampling errors for other subgroups are available upon request. In addition to sampling error, one should bear in mind that question wording and practical difficulties in conducting surveys can introduce error or bias into the findings of opinion polls. Dispositions and response rates![]() Validated votersMembers of Pew Research Center’s nationally representative American Trends Panel were matched to public voting records from national commercial voter files in an attempt to find records for voting in the 2016 and 2020 general elections. Validated voters are citizens who told us in a post-election survey that they voted in a given election and have a record for voting in that election in a commercial voter file. Nonvoters are citizens who were not found to have a record of voting in any of the voter files or told us they did not vote. In an effort to accurately locate official voting records, up to three commercial voter files were searched for each panelist. The number of commercial files consulted varied by when a panelist was recruited to the ATP. Three files were used for panelists recruited in 2022 or before, while one file was used for panelists recruited in 2023. Altogether, files from four different vendors were used, including two that serve conservative and Republican organizations and campaigns, one that serves progressive and Democratic organizations and campaigns, and one that is nonpartisan. Additional details and caveats about the validation of votes in 2016 and 2020 can be found in these methodological reports:
© Pew Research Center 2024
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What Is a Short Research Report? A Research Report is a written document that presents study findings in a methodical, clear, and organized manner. Formal inquiries of the characteristics, behavior, structures, and principles of material and conceptual things are presented in research reports. A short report is a thorough document that summarizes all aspects of the study's subject matter. It ...
Short Research Report Definition A research report is a type of document that gives you an outline of the processes, data and findings based on an investigation.
Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.
Learn how to write a high-quality research paper in three straightforward steps. Includes loads of practical examples and a free template.
This document focuses on the kind of short, narrowly-focused research papers that might be the final project in a freshman writing class or 200-level literature survey course.
A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process, providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.
Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing information gather by conducting organized research. Learn all about research reports definition, components, and tips on writing research reports.
A research report is one type that is often used in the sciences, engineering and psychology. Here your aim is to write clearly and concisely about your research topic so that the reader can easily understand the purpose and results of your research.
Short research report template | Creative Victoria. Before you use this template, check out the analyse your data tool and the results workshop agenda template, which contains guidance on how to interpret your data and identify the most important findings. Short research template. [Organisation/activity] Research Report.
This review covers the basic elements of a research report. This is a general guide for what you will see in journal articles or dissertations. This format assumes a mixed methods study, but you can leave out either quantitative or qualitative sections if you only used a single methodology.
How to Write a Research Paper | A Beginner's Guide A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research.
The introduction to a research paper presents your topic, provides background, and details your research problem.
A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.
Short reports are suitable for the presentation of research that extends previously published research, including the reporting of additional controls and confirmatory results in other settings, as well as negative results. Authors must clearly acknowledge any work upon which they are building, both published and unpublished.
Abstract. This guide for writers of research reports consists of practical suggestions for writing a report that is clear, concise, readable, and understandable. It includes suggestions for terminology and notation and for writing each section of the report—introduction, method, results, and discussion. Much of the guide consists of ...
A Short Report allows authors to publish the results of a small number of experiments, provided the conclusion is clear and justified, and the findings are novel and judged to be of high importance.
In the business environment, short reports are used to update stakeholders on project progress, summarize market research, or present financial data. In academic settings, short reports are used to summarize research findings, provide a quick overview of a study or give updates on ongoing research.
Learn about the different types of journal articles, such as original research, review articles, case reports, and more, from Springer, a leading international publisher.
This handout provides a general guide to writing reports about scientific research you've performed. In addition to describing the conventional rules about the format and content of a lab report, we'll also attempt to convey why these rules exist, so you'll get a clearer, more dependable idea of how to approach this writing situation ...
Short Research Papers The goal of the Short Research Papers track is to encourage the iConference community to present new, provocative, and cross-cutting themes in a short paper submission. Short research papers might include, but are not limited to, critical literature reviews of an emerging topic, theory building that is in the early stages of development, or new analysis / methods applied ...
The formatting of a research paper is different depending on which style guide you're following. In addition to citations, APA, MLA, and Chicago provide format guidelines for things like font choices, page layout, format of headings and the format of the reference page.
The amount Hindenburg Research made from its short-seller report on Adani Group pales in comparison to the market value it erased.
Iris Energy's shares fell the most since January after Culper Research questioned the Bitcoin mining company's ability to serve the high performance computers which make generative AI possible.
Arbor Realty Trust is being probed by federal prosecutors and the Federal Bureau of Investigation in New York months after short sellers attacked the lender's practices and disclosures, Bloomberg ...
A literature review is a survey of scholarly knowledge on a topic. Our guide with examples, video, and templates can help you write yours.
The American Trends Panel survey methodology Overview. Data in this report comes from Wave 149 of the American Trends Panel (ATP), Pew Research Center's nationally representative panel of randomly selected U.S. adults.