essay about coaching

Why Does Coaching Work? An Evidence-Based Perspective

Coaching facilitates psychological capital..

Posted December 27, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• What Is Coaching?
• Take our Burnout Test
• Find a life coach near me
• Leader and executive coaching is a common approach to self-development in the workplace.
• A common question asked by those considering coaching is how exactly it changes one's behavior.
• Evidence across social science research suggests that the reason coaching changes behavior is through what's called psychological capital.

Those of us who believe in the power of coaching sometimes have a hard time explaining why exactly coaching is helpful. Whether we’re the coach or the coachee, we tend to draw from one-off stories of success to explain its utility. This isn’t enough. Those interested in coaching, being coached, or implementing organization-wide coaching programs need to be able to explain what exactly is changing in the minds and hearts of coachees as they spend time interacting with coaches.

Research has finally begun to make this connection clearer. Across several recent studies, findings suggest that coaching facilitates what’s called “ psychological capital ” (PsyCap for short). In what follows, I outline the four dimensions of PsyCap and explain why coaching has the capacity to facilitate this positive development state.

Self-Efficacy

The first dimension of PsyCap is self-efficacy , which is the belief and confidence in one’s capabilities. Self-efficacy increases when individuals set goals as well as when they reflect on successful experiences. Indeed, a key part of the coaching process entails developing goals with coachees, holding them accountable for goal pursuit, and reflecting upon and celebrating successes stemming from goal attainment.

The second dimension is hope, a motivational state characterized by a sense of agency toward achieving goals. Hope manifests as two interrelated components: having a sense of agency and an understanding of how to enact change. Coaches help in both regards. Coaches encourage and promote solution-focused thinking, helping coachees focus on what’s feasible and how to approach and implement change. Coaches are also responsible for ensuring that coachees engage in self-reflection, and in doing so, it ensures that coachees maintain a sense of determination by focusing on possible pathways to success.

The third dimension is optimism , which entails a positive attribution about the future. As stated by PsyCap researchers Youssef and Luthans, optimism entails having a “leniency for the past, appreciation for the present, and opportunity seeking for the future.” Research suggests that coaches unlock this mindset while working with their coachees through interventions that focus on being one’s best possible self. We have a tendency to get discouraged when things get tough, but coaches have the capacity to put things back in perspective.

The last dimension is resilience , which is the ability to bounce back quickly and effectively from adverse circumstances. Resilience is present when one proactively seeks out helpful resources as well as positively manages their circumstances. Coaches facilitate both behaviors in that they act as a consistent and stable sounding board as well as help coachees cope through cognitive reappraisal.

Explaining Why Coaching Works

No longer will coaches or coachees need to resort to anecdotes to explain the value of coaching. The evidence is clear. The reason coaching leads to success is that it facilitates psychological capital, a positive psychological resource that coachees can apply to their day-to-day work experiences. It is this psychological capital that acts as the linking mechanism between coaching interventions and a host of beneficial outcomes, including job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance.

Scott B. Dust, Ph.D., is a management professor at the University of Cincinnati. His writings offer evidence-based perspectives on leading oneself and others.

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Self Tests NEW
• Therapy Center
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

Sticking up for yourself is no easy task. But there are concrete skills you can use to hone your assertiveness and advocate for yourself.

• Emotional Intelligence
• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Coaching for Change

• Richard E. Boyatzis,
• Melvin Smith,
• Ellen Van Oosten

How to help employees reach their potential

Whether you’re a boss, a colleague, or a friend, you can help the people around you make important life-enhancing changes. But the way to do that isn’t by setting targets for them and fixing their problems; it’s by coaching with compassion, an approach that involves focusing on their dreams and how they could achieve them. Instead of doling out advice, a good coach will ask exploratory, open-ended questions and listen with genuine care and concern. The idea is to have coachees envision an ideal self (who they wish to be and what they wish to do), explore the real self (not just the gaps they need to fill but the strengths that will help them do so), set a learning agenda, and then experiment with and practice new behaviors and roles. The coach is there to provide support as they strive to spot their learning opportunities, set the groundwork to achieve change, and then see things through.

Change is hard. Ask anyone who has tried to switch careers, develop a new skill, improve a relationship, or break a bad habit. And yet for most people change will at some point be necessary—a critical step toward fulfilling their potential and achieving their goals, both at work and at home. They will need support with this process. They’ll need a coach.

• RB Richard E. Boyatzis is a professor in the departments of Organizational Behavior, Psychology, and Cognitive Science at the Weatherhead School of Management and Distinguished University Professor at Case Western Reserve University. He is a cofounder of the Coaching Research Lab and coauthor of Helping People Change (Harvard Business Review Press, 2019).
• MS Melvin Smith is a professor of organizational behavior at Case Western. He is a cofounder of the Coaching Research Lab and coauthor of Helping People Change (Harvard Business Review Press, 2019).
• EO Ellen Van Oosten is an associate professor of organizational behavior at Case Western. She is a cofounder of the Coaching Research Lab and coauthor of Helping People Change (Harvard Business Review Press, 2019).

Partner Center

Coaching Philosophy: What It Is and How to Develop Your Own

Fortunately, most coaches get into the business to serve others, and with that heart of service comes a pathway to a personal coaching philosophy.

Personal values and integrity in the field are essential steps in understanding the benefits that coaching brings to the world.

If you’re lucky, your trainer will help to develop this coaching philosophy well during training. Coaches are responsible for how they show up to serve their clients, and being mindful and self-aware is an integral part of that service.

Come along to read more about coaching philosophy and how it can add value to any coaching practice.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is a coaching philosophy, developing your coaching philosophy, 3 examples of coaching philosophies, a look at some examples of life coaching philosophy, inspiring quotes, a take-home message.

Having a well-defined approach for the way each client is served is a crucial part of being a coach. As coaching is used in a wide variety of areas, so too will there be a wide variety of coaching philosophies. The development of a coaching philosophy is a way to set expectations for the coach and the client.

A coaching philosophy is a coaching tool to help guide coaches in their process of coaching. Having a philosophy gives a coach clear guidance on the objectives that should be pursued and how to achieve them. While adhering to values, a coach can make consistent decisions and broader life coaching questions by sticking with their philosophy.

The International Coaching Federation (ICF) has a code of ethics for credentialed coaches, and the coaching philosophy is a part of this code. True coaching involves holding space for a client to allow their personal growth to lead the coaching conversation. Coaches are not advisers, but rather active listeners who are not wedded to the outcome of any coaching conversation.

Becoming well versed in the ICF Code of Ethics will aid coaches in developing the personal standards by which their clients are well served.

A coach’s stand is a great way for a coach to begin effectively determining their coaching philosophy. Through utilizing the commitment portion of the coach’s position, what one stands for clears the way for a well-served client. Unconditional positive regard is a big part of this, but a clear philosophy can be fully developed through a deep understanding of core values.

Download 3 Free Positive Psychology Exercises (PDF)

Enhance wellbeing with these free, science-based exercises that draw on the latest insights from positive psychology.

Download 3 Free Positive Psychology Tools Pack (PDF)

By filling out your name and email address below.

The development of your coaching philosophy should start with core values. Do some self-evaluation with values clarification tools , to discover your core values.

Your coaching philosophy should reflect your values, moral standards as well as your integrity. To show up as your best self for your clients, you should have a deep understanding of why you got into the profession in the first place.

Here are a few questions to ask when discovering that “why.”

• What is my motivation for coaching?
• What type of coach do I want to be?
• Why is coaching the right fit for me?
• What is it that I would like to achieve with my clients?
• What will I achieve for myself?

All coaches tells themselves stories that may bring forth the commitments that will undermine the effectiveness of the coaching. Self-awareness in coaching is vital in delivering effective service to clients.

Here are a few examples of what a coach might unintentionally be committed to that hold them back from their philosophy and power as a coach (Lasley, Kellogg, Michaels, & Brown, 2015).

• The need to be admired
• Ensuring the process is being done “right”
• The need to highlight personal knowledge
• Being consumed with the client’s level of comfort
• Being too polite

To be an effective coach, one must step into the shoes of someone whose focus is not on the self. Most coaching philosophies are “others” focused, which allows for coaching environments where creativity and collaboration can flourish.

Here are a few questions to ask yourself in developing that coaching stand.

• Can my clients expect that I bring my best self to each and every session?
• Do I speak to my client’s excellence and accept nothing less than that?
• Am I problem solving? Or am I tapping into my client’s resourcefulness?
• Are the coaching questions I ask in tune with the client’s agenda?
• Am I actively listening ?
• Am I in tune with my intuition?
• Am I bringing my whole self to each and every coaching conversation?

When a coach chooses the style in which they’ll serve their clients, there are perspectives on growth that must be acknowledged. The model or personal style of coaching can be developed by answering these questions. Expand upon the training you’ve already received to more intensely focus on the personal integration necessary for effective coaching to occur.

• What type of client will you choose to serve?
• What personal view of the process of change do you have?
• What objectives does this personal view require for growth?
• How is accountability established for yourself and your client?
• What personal standards will you bring to each client?

A coaching philosophy will directly impact the coach, their clients, and the world around them. Developing this philosophy allows for a type of “standard of care.” Though each conversation will be creative and unique, having a philosophy for the approach will allow the coach to show up in the same way for each person served.

Coaching conversations can shift and change direction. A coach who deeply understands their coaching philosophy can approach each of these conversations with curiosity and ensure their values are respected in the process. When fully in service, a coach will create space for a client to explore possibilities fully.

Here is a graphic to follow in developing your coaching philosophy.

1. Identify your values.

• List three or more specific values. For example: mutual respect, organization, and integrity.

2. Develop a personal belief system by developing actions for each value.

• Mutual respect — Always approach clients with unconditional positive regard.
• Organization — Always be organized with meeting times, administration, and keeping track of progress and discussions.
• Integrity — Always honor the trust and confidence of your clients.

3. Build a mission statement from the answers to the second part on the path.

To be a source of open-minded support for clients as an organized, safe, and honest coach, providing collaborative and creative space to explore personal growth.

1. Sports coaching

When you say the word ‘coach’ to most people, an image of someone with a clipboard and a whistle often comes to mind.

Though athletic coaches have an alternative role to other types of coaches, many of the philosophies are similar. A coaching philosophy may be developed by acknowledging the objectives of the athletes and the team, followed by the type of coach you want to be, and completed with your personal ideals.

The head football coach of the LSU Tigers, Ed Orgeron, developed his coaching philosophy by channeling Pete Carroll of the NFL (Crewe, 2016). The two are wildly successful leaders of young men in the sport. They are clear about why they are serving their athletes and how they are going to build their team into the best possible versions. They stay true to their values in the process of doing so.

Coach Orgeron’s use of Carroll’s mantra, “ Always Compete,” highlights his mentality toward coaching. He considers himself always improving and learning from mistakes. He brings his whole self to how he coaches, and the results are evident in LSU’s 2019 record. Mr. Orgeron’s coaching philosophy has played a large part in the team’s success.

Prefer Uninterrupted Reading? Go Ad-free.

Get a premium reading experience on our blog and support our mission for $1.99 per month.

✓ Pure, Quality Content

✓ No Ads from Third Parties

✓ Support Our Mission

2. Executive/Business coaching

The relationship between executive coaches and the businesses they serve should be similar to an individual coaching relationship. The personal coaching philosophy can serve as a mission statement for the way a coach approaches coaching in business.

Creating a clear vision of the type of client served and the way they’ll be served will allow the process of coaching to reach exponential growth.

Here are some examples of coaching philosophies from several coaches established in the field:

Coaching is a relationship of equals, where accountability for moving oneself forward lies with the individual being coached, and responsibility for providing the insightful and challenging coaching to support that happening for the client lies with the coach.

Dave McKeon

We exist to make the world a better place – one courageous conversation, one liberating truth, one great leader at a time. We partner with individuals, teams and organizations to help leaders and their teams enjoy the journey.

Greg Salciccioli of Coachwell.com

3. Health coaching

Everyone’s health is important. What health coaches hold true is that nobody is the same. Coaching philosophy in this area of coaching must acknowledge that a “one-size-fits-all” mentality won’t work for improving health or supporting someone going through a health crisis.

Here is an example of a possible health coaching philosophy that could serve clients well.

They recognize that everyone is unique and different, so no one diet, exercise, or way of life will work for everyone. Health coaches tailor recommendations and plans for each individual based on the individual. It’s personalized information for you.

How to create your own coaching philosophy – Coach Ajit x Evercoach

Life coaches are similar to personal trainers. There is an element of motivation that is harnessed within a positive coach–client relationship. A life coach’s philosophy will usually align with the ignition of personal responsibility and action toward desired outcomes.

Life coaching can be seen as an umbrella term for coaching. Beneath this umbrella, life coaches can coach in the following areas: personal growth, career, business, health, and relationships, among others. It is a powerful process through trained, skillful interpersonal interaction.

Motivation is followed by strategic planning, which is generated by the client through open-ended questioning. Once a plan is forged, a life coach will then create space to explore how the client wants to be held accountable. The process can be therapeutic, though it is not therapy. It can also bring clarity and greater illumination of purpose.

The Flourishing Center trains positive psychology coaches who may serve others as life coaches, in addition to other areas of coaching. The philosophy taught in this Applied Positive Psychology Coaching certification is one of “purna.” The word means ‘complete,’ and in this training, it is the understanding that both the coach and the client are whole and resourceful. The philosophy taught in this certification program is as follows:

I have within me all that I need. All that I have, I need. They have within them all that they need. All that they have, they need.

This philosophy allows for trained coaches to view clients as whole and resourceful. It keeps the coach working in an approach that is not advising or mentoring but instead attached to intuitive questioning.

This philosophy enables the coach and client to create a collaborative space for personal growth. It allows coaches to adhere to ICF core competencies and stick to the ICF Code of Ethics with a mindset that can approach each client in the same way.

Each client is seen as the expert in their own life. With mutual respect, integrity, and commitment, coaches can serve their clients in reaching their best selves, as determined by the clients themselves. Not all life coaches are created the same, and a solid coaching philosophy will make all the difference.

This informative article outlines the differences between life coaching and positive psychology coaching .

At Positive Acorn , coaches are offered training in developing a personal coaching philosophy. Though the coaching profession is highly unregulated, training opportunities adhering to ICF standards are creating quality in the profession. Coaches who are taught to develop their personal coaching philosophy will serve their clients with increased self-awareness, confidence, and ethical integrity.

Here are some principles that every coach, in every modality, should hold true for themselves and their practice:

• Living life well is a responsibility to the gift of life itself. Purpose is found in the pursuit of a life well lived. Serving others in this pursuit should be the foundation of every coaching conversation.
• The pursuit of a well-lived life cannot come at the expense of another. The pursuit of our personal best should never deprive another of the pursuit of theirs.
• Coaching does not exist to change or fix others. It is about helping others become fully functional in the pursuit of their higher selves in any arena.
• Life well lived requires interconnection. To achieve it, one must serve others in pursuit toward their best selves. Meaning and purpose are illuminated when this service releases ego in favor of abundance and calling.

Related: Mental Health Coaching Software Solutions

17 Top-Rated Positive Psychology Exercises for Practitioners

Expand your arsenal and impact with these 17 Positive Psychology Exercises [PDF] , scientifically designed to promote human flourishing, meaning, and wellbeing.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

The only place that success comes before work is in the dictionary.

Vince Lombardi

A coach should never be afraid to ask questions of anyone he could learn from.

Bobby Knight

If we were supposed to talk more than we listen we would have two mouths and one ear.

You must expect great things of yourself before you can do them.

Michael Jordan

The first thing successful people do is view failure as a positive signal to success.

Brendon Burchard

A life coach does for the rest of your life what a personal trainer does for your health and fitness.

Elaine MacDonald

If you enjoyed these, we have 54 more inspiring Coaching Quotes for you to enjoy.

When a coach develops and embraces their personal coaching philosophy, fear becomes irrelevant. A coach who embodies the principles of leadership that allow their clients to show up at their best will serve to improve the world around them. A coach who knows and lives with their values will show up for clients at their best for every conversation.

Everyone deserves the gift that is the creative process of coaching. It opens people to their potential and ignites them in that pursuit. When searching for a coach, be sure to ask them about their coaching philosophy.

Thanks for reading!

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

• Crewe, P. (2016, October 30). Building a program in his own image. SBNation . Retrieved from https://www.andthevalleyshook.com/2016/10/30/13401740/building-a-program-in-his-own-image-how-ed-orgeron-is-flexing-pete-carroll-s-philosophies-at-lsu
• Lasley, M., Kellogg, V., Michaels, R., & Brown, S. (2015). Coaching for transformation . Discover Press.

Share this article:

Article feedback

What our readers think.

Thank you so much for this wonderful and insightful article. I have much to think about and consider.

This is an excellent article and I find myself agreeing with a lot of points made by Kelly. I think it is essential for every coach ask WHY when they think of becoming a coach. The drive, motivation and ambition behind those thoughts are key. It could also help to take some assessments and determine if they are on the right track. Another point over coaching philosophy is it helps potential clients realise who are going to interact with and the benefits they will get along with assurance of safe environment they need to learn and grow.

Kelly Miller what is your coaching philosophy? Thank you.

Loved reading this, super helpful! Thanks so much for sharing <3

Let us know your thoughts Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Related articles

How to Become an ADHD Coach: 5 Coaching Organizations

The latest figures suggest that around 1 in 20 people globally has ADHD, although far fewer are actively diagnosed (Asherson et al., 2022). Attention-deficit hyperactivity [...]

Personal Development Goals: Helping Your Clients Succeed

In the realm of personal development, individuals often seek to enhance various aspects of their lives, striving for growth, fulfillment, and self-improvement. As coaches and [...]

How to Perform Somatic Coaching: 9 Best Exercises

Our bodies are truly amazing and hold a wellspring of wisdom which, when tapped into, can provide tremendous benefits. Somatic coaching acknowledges the intricate connection [...]

Read other articles by their category

• Body & Brain (54)
• Coaching & Application (58)
• Compassion (26)
• Counseling (51)
• Emotional Intelligence (24)
• Gratitude (18)
• Grief & Bereavement (21)
• Happiness & SWB (40)
• Meaning & Values (27)
• Meditation (20)
• Mindfulness (44)
• Motivation & Goals (46)
• Optimism & Mindset (35)
• Positive CBT (30)
• Positive Communication (23)
• Positive Education (48)
• Positive Emotions (32)
• Positive Leadership (20)
• Positive Parenting (16)
• Positive Psychology (34)
• Positive Workplace (37)
• Productivity (18)
• Relationships (46)
• Resilience & Coping (40)
• Self Awareness (22)
• Self Esteem (38)
• Strengths & Virtues (33)
• Stress & Burnout Prevention (35)
• Theory & Books (46)
• Therapy Exercises (37)
• Types of Therapy (64)

Coaching Experience in Sport Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

In sports, coaching has been fundamental tool managers use to enhance the development of team members. Each coach has given principles and ethics they utilize to achieve the desired outcome. Before commencing the training practices, the experienced must identify key areas that require improvement. Upon identifying the personal needs of a player, the manager formulates the most appropriate techniques that will enable the respective players to gain the necessary professional development. Since teams consist of many individuals, the coaches usually employ various coaching styles, which include democratic, autocratic, and holistic, based on the objective intended to be achieved. Despite the number of players in the team, sports managers ensure each person is respected and treated with the utmost respect. The aim is to make sure the possible ego of the coach remains invisible and the interest of the players is met. The aspect of coaching is an all-around practice that requires the leaders to have different abilities, including motivating, advising, analyzing, and coordinating relevant training programs to meet the development needs of all players in the team.

My Experience with Rugby Team Coaches

At the age of 15 when I was in grade 10, I developed an interest in playing rugby. The school head coach was one of the educators with whom I interacted frequently during class lessons. Following my physical fitness and the urge to enroll in the team, I applied for the chance to join division three of the rugby team. During this time, I had limited skills and competencies required to be an excellent player. In the category, several other individuals did not have the relevant abilities as well. The school had three coaches responsible for the training and development of each of the teams. After some duration and subsequent tests, I managed to break through to division two and then to the main team where I became one of the recognized players. The success of the processes was significantly influenced by the various head coaches. They undertook different roles and commitments to ensure they impart relevant skills to enhance the professional growth of each player. The managers used various coaching techniques that allowed the development to be easier and more achievable.

Coaching Process

Since coaching entails a series of events, the leaders ensure that the players derive maximum professional development to enhance their practices. Generally, it was the duty of the head coach to ensure all the multi-disciplinary approaches are utilized together to facilitate effective engagement. Before setting the goals and objectives for the team, the frontrunner used to take a close observation of each player, especially during training sessions (Sullivan et al., 2021). Afterward, the individual team member was contacted by the trainers to discuss the possible areas that require immediate adjustments. The coaching process was deeply dependent on the philosophy and coaching ethics used in the team.

Coaching Philosophy

The team’s head coach had an outstanding coaching philosophy that applied to the whole training program. According to the manager’s idea, he believed that knowledge and skills are transferable from one person to the other (Cahill, 2022). Based on this perspective, the frontrunner maintained that through effective coaching practices, using appropriate and reliable approaches each player has the potential to improve their talents in sports. Furthermore, the manager acknowledged that through playing games, there is strong character development and confidence which is essential for the growth of an individual. The key components of the philosophy included the objective, the technique used to coach players, and the principles applied.

Before commencing the training session, the coach used to come up with an already prepared objective that the team must aim towards. The trainer first communicates his purpose and expectations once the practice is over. To warrant that the training program is conducted effectively, the manager ensures the atmosphere is positive and accommodating for all the players and the support staff. The approach proved effective because each team member understood the primary reason for the coaching exercise, and thus they worked accordingly towards achieving them. For instance, when engaging in physical activities, the coach always alerted players before preparing them psychologically. The technique proved vital in developing the required attitude for participating in the game. Therefore, it was important to set a clear objective and make it known to the players to facilitate their concentration and commitment to professional development.

To have an effective coaching process, several principles must be applied to facilitate engagement. By definition, sports coaching is known as the training that focuses on individual improvement and that of the whole team members while considering both specific and general performances. Some key principles the rugby coach applies are an emphasis on behaviors, proper order during the training session, rapid correction and instructions, provision of immediate feedback, and use of questions and clarifications. While relying heavily on the stated values, the manager made it easier to handle any possible challenge that could occur to team members. Players as well adapted to the approach, which further simplified the process and created harmony and deep understanding amongst the trainees and the staff members.

Coaching Ethics

Sports attract the interest of individuals from different cultural backgrounds and have varied perspectives. To coordinate and maintain an effective team, coaching morals is a necessary tool. During my time with the school rugby team, the head coach was always applauded, following the respect he accorded the players and the supporting staff. The manager understood that people have different values and beliefs. Furthermore, he considered role differences, ethnicity, age, language, sexual orientation, origin, and socioeconomic status to ensure each player is not treated differently from the others based on attributes (Sabzi et al., 2022). The team reported no case of prejudice and immoral conduct portrayed by the head coach and the assistant. He valued the rights and dignity of all participants, which made the training environment welcoming and accommodating for the various players. In addition, the management set several rules that guide participants’ behaviors in and out of the training sessions. Most of the time, the team was encouraged to respect and uphold practices that embrace moral conduct. For instance, performers were frequently advised to take responsibility, remain fair and apply integrity in every situation they might encounter.

My Experience as a Sports Coach

I have been involved in coaching activities engaging people from different groups, ages, clubs, and gender. I have been exposed to the practice for a couple of years, leading to significant experience in the field. Currently, I am training girls below the age of 16 years to touch rugby and contact rugby as well. In addition, I am the chief instructor for Kids Outdoor Adventure Company, where I coach boys and girls between the ages of 6 to 12 years. Furthermore, I am a certified personal trainer and a CrossFit coach. The mentioned involvements have given me relevant encounters in coaching practices. Since I have been dealing with different individuals, I opted to use the long-term athlete development model as a tool to enhance the ability to improve specific and general improvements among the groups I train.

Long-Term Athlete Development

The long-term athlete development (LTAD) model is a framework created to enhance the quality of physical activity in sports and to allow the players to fully realize their potential and possible ways of exploring them effectively. Coaching is a dynamic program that requires the coach to constantly keep formulating and implementing new training methods that best suit the needs of the performers being trained (Costa et al., 2021). To ensure all my players in their respective groups attain their potential, I employed the LTAD approach to establish the required solution. By definition, LTAD is a properly planned and progressive system that assists in developing individual players. The tool is essential, especially for coaching juniors who are still undergoing various body developments. I used the LTAD to know what to do at any stage of performers’ advancement to enhance their engagement in healthy physical activities. It further provides solutions for handling the players with the talent and drives to succeed in games.

In general, LTAD aims to provide what seems best for the team throughout the training period. It promotes a positive experience for the participants, limiting possible shortcomings that might hinder the engagement of players in physical activities. I adopted the use of the LTAD model because it is applicable in all stages, right from childhood to adulthood. Being that I am dealing with teenagers and some adults, the system provides a proper approach to handling each group effectively. The LTAD framework has seven critical stages that give the coach a platform to guide the training, participation, and recovery process during the involvement (Costa et al., 2021). LTAD is useful since it recognizes involvement and performance-oriented tracks in sports. In addition, the model encompasses fun-based physical literacy necessary for teams aged between 6 to 12 years. The key phases that are making coaching practices include active start, fundamentals, learn to train, train to train, train to compete, training to win, and active for life.

Before applying the LTAD model, as a coach, I considered several factors to ensure that participation, training, and competition were successful. The aspects include physical literacy, specialization, trainability, age, emotional development, periodization, competition, system alignment, excellent task time, and continuous improvement. Each of the mentioned elements significantly benefits the participants and ensures they advance their specific and general physical, intellectual, and mental development.

Periodization Planning

When conducting training activities, I have depended on periodization planning to ensure I deliver the services on time. Since the coaching process entails different activities, it is important to structure and formulates the right period for each training exercise. In most cases, I break the coaching activities into components to be done in sessions, days, and weeks. The approach enables me to be situation specific whereby I bring the required training to enhance the necessary improvement in the team.

Goal Setting

Generally, the participants have different abilities and potentials in the team. To ensure all the performers are engaged and improve their professional development, I create objectives that cover process, performance, and outcome. This is because coaching is a sequential program geared towards unlocking the potential of each player in the team (Cronin et al., 2022). When making developing the goals, I ensure they are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound. The technique has made it easier to impart new skills to the participants in an effective manner.

Coaching Roles and Responsibilities

Coaching is an involving practice that comes with several responsibilities to be performed. Generally, team managers are responsible for planning, organizing, and providing different sports programs to enhance the physical fitness of the team members (Cho et al., 2021). Some of the key roles I play include teaching performers various relevant skills to enhance their abilities in rugby. Similarly, I train different tactics and techniques that players can use during competition. Apart from focusing on physical development, I frequently monitor and promote the overall performance by encouraging the individual participant and issuing positive feedback. In addition, I evaluate and identify the strengths and weaknesses of team members to plan for needed adjustments. Since health is a concern when it comes to sports, I advise the performers and their parents on ways to maintain a good lifestyle throughout their life. Other activities are creating appropriate training programs that suit the demands of players and other support staff.

Coaching Styles

As a coach, the most fundamental aspect of coaching is the style being used. When the approach is ineffective, the overall outcome of the involvement will be insignificant. It is necessary to apply the style that best tackles various cultures and behaviors that might prevent the development of each player (Samson & Bakinde, 2021). I have been using the democratic style to enhance the training of teams. The technique is aimed at making the athletes contribute to every aspect of the training program (Kim et al., 2021). Since I deal with people from different age groups, I usually apply the method to individuals aged 12 and above because they understand what is appropriate for them. The coaching technique enables performers to focus on the objectives outlined by the training program which is essential for their physical development.

Teaching Skills

Coaching a team focuses on skill development and each performer is required to gain the necessary abilities that improve their talents. I subject the players to six levels of training to enhance their competencies in sports. Initially, the player learns the relevant skill by engaging in the learning process (Newman et al., 2021). It is then followed by the aspect of skill mastery through a continuous repeat of the technique. The third phase encompasses adding speed to the already known skill to enhance faster execution. The next step is adding fatigue to enable the participants to understand the impact of tiredness on their accuracy and quality. The fifth stage involves adding pressure to make sure the player can apply their abilities when under pressure. The last level entails decision-making; the performer must be able to make the right decision fast during the execution process.

Coaching is an effective process that allows coaches to teach the players relevant skills to enhance their professional development. It is fundamental for the trainers to understand the needs of each performer before planning and structuring the required training programs. Coaching philosophies and the whole process is vital in ensuring the expected outcome is achieved. By applying the LTAD model, it is easier for the coach to provide proper training for the participants while considering various factors such as age, trainability, and physical literacy. In addition, the coaching style promotes the ability of trainees to execute the instructions. The democratic approach has proved player-centered thus making them remain active.

Cahill, G. (2022). Coaching philosophy:” Why we do things the way we do?” ITF Coaching & Sport Science Review , 30 (86), 7-9.

Cho, H., Kim, S., & Lee, Y. H. (2021). Sport coaches’ positive emotions, task performance, and well-being: The mediating role of work satisfaction. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching , 16 (6), 1247-1258.

Costa, M. J., Marinho, D. A., Santos, C. C., Quinta-Nova, L., Costa, A. M., Silva, A. J., & Barbosa, T. M. (2021). The coaches’ perceptions and experience implementing a long-term athletic development model in competitive swimming. Frontiers in Psychology , 1626.

Cronin, L., Ellison, P., Allen, J., Huntley, E., Johnson, L., Kosteli, M. C., Hollis, A., & Marchant, D. (2022). A self-determination theory based investigation of life skills development in youth sport. Journal of Sports Sciences , 40 (8), 886-898.

Kim, S., Park, S., Love, A., & Pang, T. C. (2021). Coaching style, sport enjoyment, and intent to continue participation among artistic swimmers. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching , 16 (3), 477-489.

Newman, T., Black, S., Santos, F., Jefka, B., & Brennan, N. (2021). Coaching the development and transfer of life skills: A scoping review of facilitative coaching practices in youth sports. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 1-38.

Sabzi, A. H., Golzadeh, F., Aghazadeh, A., & Heidarian Baei, E. (2022). Explaining of correlational model of organizational ethical culture with professional ethics in sport coaches. Sport Psychology Studies (ie, mutaleat ravanshenasi varzeshi) , 11 (39), 195-218. Web.

Samson, A. B., & Bakinde, S. T. (2021). Relationship between Coaches’ Leadership Style and Athletes’ Performance in Kwara State Sports Council. THE SKY-International Journal of Physical Education and Sports Sciences (IJPESS) , 5 (1), 91-104. Web.

Sullivan, M. O., Woods, C. T., Vaughan, J., & Davids, K. (2021). Towards a contemporary player learning in development framework for sports practitioners. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching , 16 (5), 1214-1222.

• The Principle of Specificity in Sports
• Athlete Development: Early and Late Specialization
• Sports Coaching Philosophy and Types
• Leadership in the "Invictus" Movie
• Main Sports in Australia
• Detrimental Effects of Skateboarding Ban
• Juggling: The 4-Week Motor Learning Intervention
• Personal Leadership Philosophy in the Sports Industry
• The Case of Gregg Popovich Analysis
• The Pandemic Impact on Sport in New Zealand
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, August 19). Coaching Experience in Sport. https://ivypanda.com/essays/coaching-experience-in-sport/

"Coaching Experience in Sport." IvyPanda , 19 Aug. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/coaching-experience-in-sport/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Coaching Experience in Sport'. 19 August.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Coaching Experience in Sport." August 19, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/coaching-experience-in-sport/.

1. IvyPanda . "Coaching Experience in Sport." August 19, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/coaching-experience-in-sport/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Coaching Experience in Sport." August 19, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/coaching-experience-in-sport/.

Becoming An Effective Coach Essay

The athletecoach relationship has an important role in the athlete’s development, both as a performer and as a person (Jowett). As a performer, having a positive relationship with your coach helps build self confidence immensely while performing. Trusting the coach and what they are teaching will have a more positive effect on performers than those who don’t trust their coach. Not only does a positive coach relationship help as a performer, but also as a person. Coaches can teach many important concepts about becoming an incredible athlete, but also an incredible person.

Another essential aspect of a successful team is commitment and communication. Jeanie Molyneux researched a team in Northeast England on how and why their team works so well together. Although there were many brief components to making this team successful, the two main themes that emerged from this study were: commitment of each athlete and communication within the team. Coaches need to inform their athletes of the commitment that is going to be required to be on a team. Before athletes join a team, they need to realize there are many things they need to be willing to sacrifice.

Athletes who fully commit themselves are willing to give up certain things that may seem important at the time, but aren’t as important as what they are trying to accomplish in the long term. Just as it is for athletes, the coach needs to be entirely committed to their team as well. Coaches who aren’t fully committed will not produce a successful team and will eventually just give up coaching. For example, approximately 35 percent of swim coaches discontinue their job because they say coaching is to consuming and demanding. Before coaches commit to their job, they need to consider everything necessary for coaching and fully commit themselves.

To export a reference to this essay please select a referencing style below:

Related essays:

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

The Future of Coaching: A Conceptual Framework for the Coaching Sector From Personal Craft to Scientific Process and the Implications for Practice and Research

Jonathan passmore.

1 CoachHub GmbH, Berlin, Germany

2 Henley Business School, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom

Rosie Evans-Krimme

Associated data.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, and further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

This conceptual paper explores the development of coaching, as an expression of applied positive psychology. It argues that coaching is a positive psychology dialogue which has probably existed since the emergence of sophisticated forms of language, but only in the past few 1000years, has evidence emerged of its use as a deliberate practice to enhance learning. In the past 50years, this dialectic tool has been professionalised, through the emergence of professional bodies, and the introduction of formal training and certification. In considering the development of the coaching industry, we have used Rostow’s model of sector development to reflect on future possible pathways and the changes in the coaching industry with the clothing sector, to understand possible futures. We have offered a five-stage model to conceptualise this pathway of development. Using this insight, we have further reviewed past research and predicted future pathways for coaching research, based on a new ten-phase model of coaching research.

Introduction

Coaching is often considered an applied aspect of positive psychology. Both emerged from humanistic psychology, with its focus on the flourishing of the individual, and how individuals, teams and society can create the right conditions for this to be achieved. In this paper, we explore the nature of coaching, as an applied aspect of positive psychology, the journey so far and where practice and research may be heading over the coming 30years.

It would seem only prudent at the start of this paper that we note the challenges of predicting the future direction of any industry and of research in general. We acknowledge the future is ‘trumpet-shaped’, emerging from the point of singularity (now) to multiple possible futures. Any attempt to accurately ‘predict’ the future is challenged by inevitable unforeseen events, their timing and the interaction between foreseen and unforeseen events. We have tried to improve our predictions by drawing on a previously published framework, which we have adapted. However, we ask the reader to note this is just one possible future.

What Is Coaching?

The clear link between coaching as lived positive psychology has been focused on by many writers ( Lomas et al., 2014 ). However, just how much of a driving force positive psychology was in the maturation of coaching is yet to be discussed. In order to establish the role positive psychology played in the maturation of the coaching sector, this section will review their shared historical roots and focus on the influence positive psychology research had on the evolution of coaching definitions.

Coaching and positive psychology’s histories are dynamic and rooted across multiple disciplines, yet they are both born out of the Human Potential Movement of the 1960s. This led to the popularisation of personal and professional growth and development, through pioneers such as Werber Erhard. Brock’s (2010) review of the development of coaching notes the humanistic tradition and the work of Carl Rogers’ of particular significance. Rogers’ focus on the relation and the needs of the clients’ and the potential to find their own way forward have become central features of coaching. Coaching rise coincided with a shift in the perspective about illness and wellbeing. This was the move from the medical model that focused on pathologies to the wellbeing model, which encouraged greater attention towards what individual’s strengths.

Interestingly, coaching psychology (CP) launched in the same year as positive psychology. Atad and Grant (2021) described how coaching psychology was a ‘grassroots’ movement, led by founders of the Coaching Psychology Unit at the University of Sydney and the Special Interest Group in Coaching Psychology in the British Psychological Society (BPS) including psychologists like Stephen Palmer, Jonathan Passmore and Alison Whybrow.

While positive psychology and coaching psychology both focus on the cultivation of optimal functioning and wellbeing ( Green and Palmer, 2019 ), often through the use of personal strengths development, Atad and Grant (2021) reported key differences. The first is that approaches like solutions-focused cognitive-behavioural coaching also aim to help clients define and attain practical solutions to problems. A second difference is the characteristics of the interventions used in each discipline. In coaching psychology interventions, the coach-coachee relationship is central to the coachees development of self-regulated change, whereas Positive Psychology Interventions (PPI’s) typically apply a self-help format.

Since its foundation, positive psychology (PP), the ‘ scientific study of positive human functioning and flourishing intra-personally (e.g. , biologically, emotionally, cognitively ) , inter-personally (e.g. , relationally ) , and collectively (e.g. , institutionally, culturally, and globally )’ ( Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ; Oades et al., 2017 ), has grown into a field of applied science ( Atad and Grant, 2021 ).

The field covers an array of topics, most commonly focused on life satisfaction, happiness, motivation, achievement, optimism and organisational citizenship and fairness ( Rusk and Water, 2013 ). Gable and Haidt (2005 , p. 103) defined positive psychology as ‘ The study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing ( wellbeing ) or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions ’. A vast number of PPI’s have been developed and validated ( Donaldson et al., 2014 ), with the aim to enhance subjective or psychological wellbeing or to cultivate positive feelings, behaviours, or cognitions ( Sin and Lyubomirsky, 2009 ).

Strength development is viewed as a key process in positive psychology due to the shift from a deficit-based approach towards human functioning: a move from ‘what’s wrong and how can we fix it’, to ‘what’s right and how can we strengthen it’. McQuaid (2017 , p. 285–284) simply describes strengths as, ‘ the things you are good at and enjoy doing ’, which is reflective of Linley and Harrington’s (2006) definition of strengths as ‘ a natural capacity for behaving, thinking, or feeling in a way that allows optimal functioning and performance in the pursuit of valued outcomes ’. Strength-based interventions that aim to promote the awareness, cultivation and application of personal strengths have been reported to have many positive individual and organisational outcomes ( McQuaid, 2017 ). Strengths research is one of the most integrated concepts from positive psychology into coaching psychology.

Interestingly, coaching psychology (CP) also launched in the same year as positive psychology. Atad and Grant (2021) described how coaching psychology was a ‘grassroots’ movement, led by founders of the Coaching Psychology Unit at the University of Sydney and the Special Interest Group in Coaching Psychology in the BPS in the United Kingdom. CP also experienced its own rapid growth in research and practice ( Green and Palmer, 2019 ), which is discussed below.

At the heart of coaching, noted by multiple coaching writers, was its facilitative nature ( Passmore and Lai, 2019 ). Coaching pioneer John Whitmore’s working with Graham Alexander and Alan Fine in the later 1970s and 1980s, and informed by the work of Tim Gallwey (1986) , focused on the self-awareness and personal responsibility which coaching created. This led to Whitmore (1992) defining coaching as having the potential to maximise a person’s performance by adopting a facilitation approach to learning rather than teaching.

This has direct parallels with Deci and Ryan’s (1985) work on self-determination theory (SDT). SDT identifies the conditions that elicit and sustain motivation, focusing on self-regulated intrinsic motivation. These include the needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness ( Deci and Ryan, 1985 ). While Whitmore never formally engaged with SDT Whitmore’s definition of coaching can be seen as a direct application of Deci and Ryan’s (1985) SDT theory and therefore an early indicator of coaching as an applied aspect of positive psychology.

In Brock’s (2010) reflection on the common themes, the facilitative nature of coaching is the strongest similarity across definitions. Brock (2010) also emphasised the interpersonal interactive process that places the coaching relationship at the centre of the facilitation and essential for positive behavioural change. This perspective was maintained in later definitions, which introduced the purpose of coaching to drive positive behavioural changes ( Passmore and Lai, 2019 ) For example, Lai (2014) reported that this was driven by the reflective process between coaches and coachees and continuous dialogue and negotiations that aimed to help coachees’ achieve personal or professional goals.

In summary, in spite of the complementary nature of PP and CP, the fields remain sisters as opposed to fully integrated areas of practice, with coaching psychology drawing from the well of positive psychology, alongside wells of neuroscience and industrial and organisational psychology.

A Conceptual Model for Coaching Development

To date, little has been written about the development of the coaching sector, as a specific industry. This may reflect in part the relative immaturity of the industry, but a wider review of industrial literature reveals the categorisation of sector development is limited. One of the few conceptual models is Rostow’s (1959) generalised model of the six stages of economic growth. This offered a linear model of development, which reviews traditional society; the preconditions for take-off; the take-off; the drive to maturity; the age of high mass consumption; and beyond consumption (the search for quality). The model is summarised in Table 1 .

Rostow’s stages of economic growth.

Rostow argued that these stages captured the dynamic nature of economic growth, reflecting the nature of consumption, saving, investment and the social trends that impact it. Rostow’s framework offered insight into the triggers for change at each stage. However, as a generalised model, it is unlikely that all industries or sectors follow the same pathway. Some may never take-off, and others remain as mass consumption. It is also important to note that Rostow’s model is based on observations from a predominantly Western economic perspective situated within a capitalist economic model of growth.

We believe this model provides a heuristic guide, a map, for those observing the development of coaching, and offers an opportunity to predict, based on trends in other industries, how coaching may develop over the coming few decades. In undertaking an analysis of the model, it may be helpful to explore it through a specific sector. The example we selected was clothing manufacture, as being a process which like language, dates back to the prehistory, but which has also changed and developed over the centuries.

The Clothing Sector

The clothing sector has undergone a transformation over the past 10,000years. We might start by considering ‘the sector’ at the time of the Neolithic Revolution, as humans transitioned from hunter gathers to farmers. In hunter-gatherer societies, clothing was primarily a form of protection: protection from cold, plants, animals and battles with fellow tribes. Although given evidence from modern day hunter-gatherer societies, there are also limited examples of parts of clothing being used for status, for example Native American head-wear ( Grinnell, 2008 ). As humans settled, this too started evolve with the emergence of greater status divisions and the development in manufacturing of items, allowing greater differentiation of objects. In the earliest period, most people will have collected the raw materials, engaging as a group in killing an animal. They will have prepared the materials in small groups, stripping the flesh and processing the hide and finished the item will individuals sewing to weaving items together to form the clothing.

As food surpluses emerged as a result of the shift towards settled farming, specialisms started to also emerge. Clothing production shifted from the collective task for small groups and individuals, to the one or more specialists, such as a tailor. This process of specialisation continued with the emergence of training and the development of trades: where individuals could progress over several years of training form apprentice through journeyman to master craftsman. Alongside, this came trade bodies and guilds in the 12th and 13th centuries, to represent the profession and to protect members rights ( Ogilvie, 2011 ). The industrial revolution brought further change with production moving from cottage industries, small shops or upstairs of building used as part home and part clothing ‘factory’ to formal factory production using mechanisation to increase consistency and reduce costs. This process has continued with continued development of automation and over the past 30 years through the digital revolution, which has witnessed a shift from individual’s controlling machines to machines controlling machines. Table 2 summarises the transformation of the clothing sector and demonstrates how Rostow’s model could be applied.

Model of clothing sector development based on Rostow’s model.

Coaching: The Future of Research and Practice

We argue that coaching can learn from the evolution of these other sectors and from the wider conceptual model proposed by Rostow, to better understand the future direction of the coaching and its implications for practice and research.

We start by suggesting that coaching is likely to have a prehistory past. While some argue that coaching was born in 1974 ( Carter-Scott, 2010 ), we believe it is almost certain hunter gathers will have engaged in the use of listening, questioning and encouraging reflective practice to help fellow members of their tribe to improve their hunting skills or their sewing. There is some evidence from Maori people, in New Zealand, that such questioning styles have been used for centuries to aid learning ( Stewart, 2020 ). However, the spoken word leaves no trace for archaeologists to confirm the development of these practices.

While the clothing sector developed in full sight, leaving traces for archaeologists in graves and wall paintings, coaching remained a hidden communication form, until its emergence in societies where written records documented different forms of learning. At that moment, the Socratic form was born. It is often this moment which until now has been regarded as the birth of the positive psychology practice of coaching. It has taken a further 2,500years for coaching to move from a learning technique used by teachers to a specialisation increasingly concentrated in the hands of the few, which requires training, credentials, supervision and ongoing membership of a professional body. While there is good evidence of individuals using coaching in the 1910s ( Trueblood, 1911 ), 1920’s ( Huston, 1924 ; Griffith, 1926 ) and 1930’s ( Gordy, 1937 ; Bigelow, 1938 ), the journey of professionalisation started during the 1980s and 1990s, with the emergence of formal coach training programmes and the formation of professional bodies, such as the European Mentoring and Coaching Council in 1992 and International Coaching Federation in 1995. The trigger for this change is difficult to exactly identify, but the growth of the human potential movement during the 1960s and 1970s and its focus on self-actualisation, combined with the growing wealth held by organisations and individuals meant a demand for such ‘services’ started to emerge from managers and leaders as part of the wider trends in professional development which started in the 1980’s.

This trend of professionalisation has continued for the last three decade. The number of coaches has grown to exceed some 70,000 individuals who are members of professional bodies and industry, although given data from recent studies which reveal that over 30% of coaches have no affiliations, we estimate over 100,000 people earn some or all of their income from coaching ( Passmore, 2021 ). In terms of scale, the industry is estimated to be worth $2.849 billion U.S. dollars (International Coaching Federation, 2020), but in many respects, it has remained a cottage industry, dominated by sole traders and small collectives, with little consolidation of services by larger providers, with little use of technology and science to drive efficiencies or improve outcomes.

Given model and recent developments in technology and the growth of coaching science over the past 10years is coaching reaching a tipping point? Is coaching about to enter the next phase of sector development? Is coaching about to begin the transition from professional service delivered by a limited number of high-cost specialists to an industrial process capable of being delivering low-cost coaching for the many with higher standards in product (service) consistency?

What makes this change likely? There are three factors in our view propelling coaching towards its next stage in development. Firstly, the growth of online communications platforms, such as Microsoft Teams, Zoom and Google Hangout, are enabling individuals to connect with high-quality audio and video images. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic during 2020–21 has seen the development these platforms now reach almost universal adoption. At the same time, a growing number of employees have switched from ‘always in the office’ modes of working to either working from home or hybrid working, working 2, 3 or 4days a week from home ( Owen, 2021 ). Such models provide lower costs for employers, and evidence suggests many employees favour the flexibility working from home provides.

Secondly, the period 2010–2020 witnessed a growth in the science connected with positive psychology and coaching, proving practitioners with a good understanding of the theory and research. Access to this research has been enhanced by an increasing move to Open Access journals, the emergence of research platforms, such as ResearchGate, sharing published papers and tools such as Sci-Hub, granting access to published science, alongside search tools such as Google Scholar allowing efficient discovery of relevant material by practitioners, as well as academics with access to university library databases. In combination, these online tools are democratising the science of coaching and are stimulating the next phase of development.

The third factor is the growth of investor interest in digital platforms, which have seen significant growth during the 2010–2020 period, enabling start-ups to secure the investment need for the development of products, from online mental health (Headspace) to online learning (Lyra Learning - LinkedIn Learning).

The next phase we predict will be an emergence, growth and ultimately domination of coaching by online large-scale platforms, who offer low-cost and on-demand access to coaching services informed by science, in multiple languages and to a consistently high-quality standard. Echoing the changes in clothing production, with mechanisation using machines like Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, and Arkwright’s spinning machine which revolutionised clothing production.

We have developed Rostow’s model and propose a 5P’s model for the coaching industry development. This is summarised in Table 3 . A journey from unconscious practice used by hunter-gatherer societies, through formal use in learning, to specialisation and professionalisation, to the deployment of technology and onwards towards a more conscious use across society of positive psychology approaches, including coaching as a tool to enhance self-awareness and self-responsibility, embedded in technology.

5P’s model of coaching industry development.

It is worth noting that across sectors the move from one stage to the next created disruption and negative consequences in uncontrolled markets. In agriculture, shifts in production, such as land enclosures, and introduction of mechanisation led to landlessness and starvation, in clothing manufacturing production disruptions lead to low pay and exploitation. These changes also stimulated agricultural revolts and the emergence of Luddites, as workers affected by change pushed back against these change in their daily work patterns, income levels or status.

In coaching, we can see similar push back from some in coaching, who fear the negative impacts of research and technology, as coaching starts to move away from being a cottage industry, where fee rates are unrelated to training, qualifications or other measurable indicators ( Passmore et al., 2017 ) towards providing greater consistency, evidence driven practice. Such push back is likely not only to be from individuals but also guilds (professional bodies) wo see their power being undermined by the rise of large-scale, Google-LinkedIn, providers, who’s income, corporate relationships and global reach will shift the power balance in the industry.

Given this awareness of the risks of change, it is beholden on the new technology firms to be sensitive to the needs of all stakeholders. We advocate a Green Ocean strategy ( Passmore and Mir, 2020 ). Under such a strategy, the focus is on collaboration, seeking sustainable win-win outcomes, which benefit all stakeholders, and take at their heart environmental considerations and ethical management, balancing such needs against the drive for quarterly revenues.

The Implications for Positive Psychology - Coaching Research

In previous papers, we have proposed a model reviewing the journey of positive psychology coaching research ( Passmore and Fillery-Travis, 2011 ). This offered a series of broad phases, noting the journey of published papers from case studies to more scientific methods, such as randomised control trials, between the 1980s and 2010. The past decade, 2011–21, has witnessed a continued development along the scientific pathway, thanks to the work of researchers such as Anthony Grant, Rebecca Jones, Erik de Haan and Carsten Schermuly.

Specifically, the publication of randomised control trials has grown from a handful of papers in 2011 to several dozen by 2021, while still limited in comparison to areas of practice such as motivational interviewing ( Passmore and Leach, 2021 ), the expanded data set has provided evidence for systematic literature reviews and combination studies, such as meta-analysis. These papers have provided evidence that coaching works, with an effect size broadly similar to other organisational interventions, as well as giving insights at to the most important ingredients of the coaching process.

It is this blossoming of higher quality, quantitative studies, which has led us to believe the science in coaching is maturing. While much work still needs to be done over the coming decade, the insights to date can be used to inform practice at a scale leading to Stage 4 in our 5P coaching sector model.

The coming decade may see opportunities for greater collaboration between coach service providers, as these organisations increase in scale and profitability, and university researchers, keen to access large data sets enabled by the greater use of technology and the global scale of the new coach service providers.

Reflecting these industry changes and the proliferation of research, we have also updated the research journey model, reflecting these developments. We suggested the emergence of new phase of research exploring individual, exceptions and negative effects of coaching ( Passmore, 2016 ; Passmore and Theeboom, 2016 ). This has started to happen with work by Schermuly and Grabmann (2018) and De Hann (2021) . We have linked research papers to the model of coach development in Table 4 and have extended it to create 10 phases.

10-phase model of coaching research.

The emergence of large coaching providers, operating on digital platforms, with the ability to collect, hold and analyses large volumes of data, the opportunity exists to significantly step up the quantity and quality of research including RCT’s and exploring exceptions and specific presenting issues, ingredients and tools. Of specific interest will be questions including: How does the coach (or client) personality impact on the relationship and outcomes? What roles does similarity in terms of race, gender or sector background have on outcomes? What factors contribute to client trust? How significant is empathy as a factor and in want types of coaching is it most valued? What role do discovery meetings, contracting, external support networks and ‘homework’ play in successful coaching assignments?

Over the next 20years, we can start to unpick these aspects with the help of big data, and unlike some aspects of technological research, let us argue in favour now of sharing knowledge through Open Access, so everyone can gain, and the quality of each and every coaching conversation can be enhanced.

In this paper, we have explored coaching as an expression of positive psychology. We have offered two conceptual frameworks, one for research and one for practice. We hope these frameworks will stimulate further discussion by coaching and positive psychology communities. Our view is that the coaching has become an ‘industry’ and is following a pathway of development similar to many other industries. Recent technological developments, combined with a quickening pace in coaching research, will move coaching from a ‘cottage industry’ towards a fully mechanised process, enhancing accessibility, consistency and reducing cost. This will start with platforms and is likely to lead towards a growing use of automation. This scale provides opportunities for more data, more research and a deeper understanding of the intervention, creating a virtuous circle of development. This too will stimulate the continued development of coaching research pathways considering the assignment and the wider system.

Data Availability Statement

Author contributions.

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

Authors JP and REK were employed by company CoachHub GmbH.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• Atad O. I., Grant A. M. (2021). How does coach training change coaches in training? Differential effects for novice and experienced skilled helpers . Coach. Int. J. Theory Practice. Res. 14 , 3–19. doi: 10.1080/17521882.2019.1707246 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Athanasopoulou A., Dopson S. (2018). A systematic review of executive coaching outcomes: is it the journey or the destination that matters the most? Leadersh. Q. 29 , 70–88. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.11.004 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bigelow B. (1938). Building an effective training program for field salesmen . Personnel 14 , 142–150. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bozer G., Jones R. J. (2018). Understanding the factors that determine workplace coaching effectiveness: a systematic literature review . Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 27 , 342–361. doi: 10.1080/1359432X.2018.1446946 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brock V. (2010). The secret history of coaching. Available at: http://vikkibrock.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/emcc-2010-secret-of-coaching-history-paper-brock.pdf
• Carter-Scott C. (2010). Transformational Life Coaching. New York: Health Coaching Inc. [ Google Scholar ]
• De Haan E. (2021). What Works in Executive Coaching: Understanding Outcomes Through Quantitative Research and Practice-Based Evidence. London & New York: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
• De Hann E. (2021). The case against coaching . Coach. Psychol. 17 , 7–13. [ Google Scholar ]
• Deci E. L., Ryan R. M. (1985). “ Cognitive Evaluation Theory,” in Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination ” in Human Behavior. Springer, Boston, MA. [ Google Scholar ]
• Diedrich R. C. (1996). An iterative approach to executive coaching . Consult. Psychol. J. 48 , 61–66. doi: 10.1037/1061-4087.48.2.61 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Donaldson S. I., Dollwet M., Rao M. A. (2014). Happiness, excellence, and optimal human functioning revisited: examining the peer-reviewed literature linked to positive psychology . J. Posit. Psychol. 10 , 185–195. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2014.943801 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Duff M., Passmore J. (2010). Ethics in coaching: an ethical decision-making framework for coaching psychologists . Int. Coach. Psychol. Rev. 5 , 140–151. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gable S. L., Haidt J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? Rev. Gen. Psychol. 9 , 103–1110. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gallwey T. (1986). The Inner Game of Tennis. London: Pan Macmillan. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gordy C. (1937). Everyone gets a share of the profits . Fact. Manag. Maintenance 95 , 82–83. [ Google Scholar ]
• Grant A. M., Green S., Rynsaardt J. (2010). Developmental coaching for high school teachers: executive coaching goes to school . Consult. Psychol. J. 62 , 151–168. doi: 10.1037/a0019212 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Green S., Palmer S. (2019). Positive Psychology Coaching in Practice. Hove: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
• Griffith C. R. (1926). Psychology of Coaching: A Study of Coaching Methods From the Point of View of Psychology. New York: Charles Scribner’s and Sons. [ Google Scholar ]
• Grinnell G. B. (2008). The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Lifeways. New York: World Wisdom. [ Google Scholar ]
• Grover S., Furnham A. (2016). Coaching as a developmental intervention in organisations: a systematic review of its effectiveness and the mechanisms underlying it . PLoS One 11 :e0159137. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159137, PMID: [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Huston R. E. (1924). Debate coaching in high school . Q. J. Speech Educ. 10 , 127–143. doi: 10.1080/00335632409379481 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jones R. J., Woods S., Guillaume Y. (2016). The effectiveness of workplace coaching: a meta-analysis of learning and performance outcomes from coaching . J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 89 , 249–277. doi: 10.1111/joop.12119 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lai Y. (2014). Enhancing Evidence-Based Coaching Through the Development of a Coaching Psychology Competency Framework: Focus on the Coaching Relationship. Guildford, U.K.: School of Psychology, University of Surrey [ Google Scholar ]
• Linley P. A., Harrington S. (2006). Playing to your strengths . Psychologist 19 , 86–89. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lomas T., Hefferon K., Ivtzan I. (2014). Applied Positive Psychology. London: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• McQuaid M. (2017). Positive psychology coaching . Organ. Superv. Coach. 24 , 283–296. doi: 10.1007/s11613-017-0510-8 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Oades L. G., Steger M. F., Delle Fave A., Passmore J. (2017). The Psychology of Positivity and Strengths-Based Approaches At Work. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ogilvie S. (2011). Institutions and European Trade: Merchant Guilds 1000–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Owen J. (2021). Smart Working: The Ultimate Handbook for Remote and Hybrid Teams. London: Bloomsbury. [ Google Scholar ]
• Passmore J. (2016). Coaching Research: The Evidence from Qualitative, Quantitative & Mixed Methods Studies. 17th June, 2016. Association for Coaching. London, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry. [ Google Scholar ]
• Passmore J. (2021). The global coaching survey 2021. Henley on thames: henley business school & EMCC. Available at: https://www.henley.ac.uk/business/coaching/research
• Passmore J., Brown H., Csigas Z. (2017). The state of play in European coaching & mentoring. Henley Business School. [ Google Scholar ]
• Passmore J., Fillery-Travis A. (2011). A critical review of executive coaching research: A decade of progress and what’s to come . Coach. Int. J. Theory Practice Res. 4 , 70–88. doi: 10.1080/17521882.2011.596484 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Passmore J., Lai Y.-L. (2019). Coaching psychology: exploring definitions and research contribution to practice? International Coaching Psychology Review. 14 , 69–83. [ Google Scholar ]
• Passmore J., Leach S. (2021). Third Wave Cognitive Behavioural Coaching: Contextual, Behavioural and Neuroscience Approaches for Evidence-Based Coaches Luminate.
• Passmore J., Mir K. (2020). Green Ocean Thinking . Coaching at Work. September Online. September Online .
• Passmore J., Rehman H. (2010). Coaching as a learning methodology – a mixed methods study in driver development using a randomised controlled trial and thematic analysis . Int. Coach. Psychol. Rev. 7 , 166–184. [ Google Scholar ]
• Passmore J., Theeboom T. (2016). “ Coaching psychology: a journey of development in research ,” in Coaching Psychology: Meta-Theoretical Perspectives and Applications in Multi-Cultural Contexts. eds. Van Zyl L. E., Stander M. W., Oodendal A. (New York, NY: Springer; ), 27–46. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rusk R. D., Water L. E. (2013). Tracing the size, reach, impact, and breadth of positive psychology . J. Posit. Psychol. 8 , 207–221. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2013.777766 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schermuly C., Grabmann C. (2018). A literature review on negative effects of coaching – what we know and what we need to know . Coach. Int. J. Theory Prcatice Res. 12 , 39–66. doi: 10.1080/17521882.2018.1528621 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Seligman M. E., Csikszentmihalyi M. (2000). Positive psychology: an introduction . Am. Psychol. 55 , 5–14. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sin N. L., Lyubomirsky S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions a practice-friendly meta-analysis . J. Clin. Psychol. 65 , 467–487. doi: 10.1002/jclp.20593, PMID: [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sonesh S. C., Coultas C. W., Marlow S. L., Lacerenza C. N., Reyes D., Salas E. (2015). Coaching in the wild: identifying factors that lead to success . Consult. Psychol. J. 67 , 189–217. doi: 10.1037/cpb0000042 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stewart C. (2020). Maori Philosophy: Indigenous Thinking for Aotearoa. London: Bloomsbury. [ Google Scholar ]
• Theeboom T., Beersma B., van Vianen A. E. (2014). Does coaching work? A meta-analysis on the effects of coaching on individual level outcomes in an organizational context . J. Posit. Psychol. 9 , 1–18. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2013.837499 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Trueblood T. C. (1911). Coaching a debating team . Public Speak. Rev. 1 , 84–85. [ Google Scholar ]
• Whitmore J. (1992). Coaching for Performance. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. [ Google Scholar ]
• Winum P. C. (2005). Effectiveness of a high-potential African American executive: The anatomy of a coaching engagement . Consult. Psychol. J. 57 , 71–89. doi: 10.1037/1065-9293.57.1.71 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Home — Essay Samples — Education — Pedagogy — Coaching

Essays on Coaching

Application of non-directive coaching in leadership, the factors surrounding the theories of coaching, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

Principles of Coaching in Coaching Girl’s Basketball Successfully by Jill Prudden

Comparison of mentorship and coaching, qualities of an online coach of fitness, analysis of leadership profile – josé mourinho, let us write you an essay from scratch.

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

The Effectiveness of Advancing Employment of Individuals with Autism and Intellectual Disabilities

Michel foucault’s influence on knowledge and power in sports coaching, relevant topics.

• Stem Education
• Standardized Testing
• Service Learning
• Teacher-Student Relationships
• Intelligence Testing
• Achievement Gap
• School Uniform
• Critical Thinking

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

The successful experience of gymnastics world champion coach: an interview analysis.

• 1 Department of Physical Education, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
• 2 School of Psychology, Beijing Sports University, Beijing, China
• 3 Chinese Academy of Fiscal Sciences, Beijing, China
• 4 Gymnastics Center of the General Administration of Sport of China, Beijing, China

Objectives: The role of a coach in enhancing athletes’ performance and achieving success is well-documented across numerous studies. However, the strategies employed by Chinese coaches in developing world champion gymnasts remain under explored.

Methods: This research involved a single case study focusing on a coach from the Chinese National Men’s Gymnastics Team, credited with nurturing eight world champion gymnasts.

Results: The inductive content analysis leads to that 6 subthemes, “international perspective and collaborative ability,” “ability to control and regulate training loads,” “identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation,” “goal setting aligned with athletes’ abilities,” “adopting authoritative democratic coaching style,” and “establishing hierarchical-style friendship”, and 3 themes, “training management and planning,” “motivation and goal setting,” and “interpersonal communication” are manifested. An overarching theme “the successful experience of gymnastics world champion coach,” is derived from the analysis.

Conclusion: This research bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, offering valuable insights into the successful experiences of gymnastics world champion coaches. The findings have the potential to influence coaching methodologies globally, fostering the development of resilient, motivated, and high-performing athletes. Future research should focus on sport-specific studies, longitudinal analyses, and cross-cultural comparisons to further advance the field of sports coaching and validate the effectiveness of these innovative coaching strategies.

1 Introduction

The success of Olympic champion coaches is a testament to their multidimensional, integrated, and individualized approach, with psychological factors playing a paramount role. Interpersonal support, particularly from coaches, is crucial ( Gould et al., 2002 ; Nash and Sproule, 2009 ; Breeman et al., 2014 ; Burns et al., 2018 ). Coaching facilitates the development of cognitive, affective, and learning capabilities, aimed at fulfilling personal and organizational objectives ( Berg, 2006 ). It is essential for coaches to understand the team’s requirements and the motivational preferences of its members, applying suitable coaching methods within a supportive, transparent, and collaborative framework ( Weinberg and Gould, 2015 ).

Effective leadership in coaching, adaptable to varying individual and situational contexts, is vital for motivating athletes toward success. This includes cultivating a productive coach-athlete relationship, enhancing motivation, and facilitating the achievement of team objectives ( Kim and Cruz, 2016 ). Researchers have investigated the influence of coaching on superior athletic performance from two primary theoretical angles: coaching style and the coach-athlete relationship.

At the core, a successful coach assists individuals in achieving their personal and professional goals. By providing insights, tools, and techniques tailored to each person’s unique challenges, success coaches bring clarity and direction. They support athletes at every step, whether it be in business success, relationship success, financial success, or more ( Gilbert and Trudel, 2004 ).

When coaches watch our athletes compete as the best in the world at the Olympics, we are proud of what we as a country cultivate. However, Olympic coaches, though often less visible, play an indispensable role. While defining what it means to be an effective coach is challenging and controversial, most agree that reaching the Olympic coaching level is the pinnacle of one’s sport.

What sets these coaches apart, making them the best in the world and leaders in their fields? There is a notable lack of research on successful coaching experiences in China, highlighting a need for enrichment in coaching theory. This study aims to contribute to the global academic community by examining the experiences of gymnastics Olympic champion coaches within the Chinese context. Additionally, this study employs interview research, based on content spanning 2 years, allowing for a deeper exploration of cultural characteristics.

1.1 The perspective of coaching style

There are two primary coaching styles: democratic and autocratic. The democratic approach focuses on empowering athletes to set their own goals, training objectives, and game strategies, whereas the autocratic style underscores authority and unilateral decision-making. Additionally, the concept of servant leadership has gained attention in recent years. Research has extensively explored the impact of these coaching styles on athlete outcomes.

In individual sports like table tennis, democratic coaching behaviors have been linked to better coping mechanisms and emotional outcomes ( González-García and Martinent, 2020 ). Rune et al. (2008) observed that athletes in adverse situations show a preference for democratic behaviors and social support more than in successful situations, suggesting that challenging scenarios might enhance players’ preference for a coaching style marked by significant task and relationship-oriented behaviors. Specifically, during periods of failure, players lean toward desiring more instructional and training-focused coaching, which directly contributes to task-oriented skill development. This approach has been recognized by elite athletes as crucial for improving performance and increasing the chances of success. Moreover, Rieke et al. (2008) introduced the concept of servant leadership in sports as a new paradigm for effective coaching, providing Christian sports coaches with a practical framework for their duties and responsibilities toward athletes and teams in a competitive environment ( Vinson and Parker, 2021 ). According to Rieke et al. (2008) , coaches who embrace servant leadership tend to foster athletes with healthier psychological profiles who also exhibit strong performance. However, in team sports, González-García et al. (2022) discovered that democratic coaching negatively impacts team task integration, while authoritarian coaching slightly improves social integration during competitions. Furthermore, mature and male athletes often prefer well-organized coaches with decisive decision-making skills, traits typically associated with autocratic coaching, as these athletes usually approach their sport with a higher degree of seriousness and view it as a structured organization ( Breeman et al., 2014 ). Nevertheless, Woods et al. (2022) caution that an authoritative coaching style can lead to athlete burnout and psychological strain. Coaches adapt their leadership styles in response to specific circumstances. Throughout an athletic season, the dynamics of a coach’s role and interactions with athletes evolve, influencing factors such as individual win-loss records, team performance in dual and tournament competitions, practice intensity, the caliber of recent opponents, outcomes against formidable or weaker opponents, coaching tenure, and overall satisfaction with teammates, sport, and coaching. These elements collectively shape the leadership approaches employed by coaches ( Turman, 2001 ).

1.2 The coach-athlete relationship

Both the coach’s and athlete’s behavior will influence each other’s perceptions and motivation levels ( Jackson and Beauchamp, 2010 ; West, 2016 ). So, research involving coaches and athletes across various disciplines, competitive levels, and countries highlights the pivotal role of coach-athlete relationship quality in leadership and performance outcomes. Seiler (2006) identified this relationship as a critical determinant of competitive success. Kuhlin et al. (2019) analyzed 14 years of collaboration in figure skating, underscoring the influence of coach-athlete interactions on personal growth and career development. Drawing from foundational studies by Iso-Abola (1995) and Kelley et al. (1983) , Jowett and colleagues emphasized the significance of these relationships in athletic performance and developed a comprehensive theoretical framework. This included the introduction of the 3C model (complementarity, co-orientation, closeness; Jowett and Meek, 2000 , a coach-athlete relationship scale, and an integrated model linking relationship quality to individual and team performance ( Jowett, 2007 ). Further, Jowett and Palmer (2010) demonstrated through surveys that negative aspects of the coach-athlete relationship, such as conditional or absent respect, can significantly impede athletic development and success by eroding trust, motivation, and performance ( Mchenry et al., 2020 ). Additionally, research by Davis et al. (2021) and Ye et al. (2016) explored the mediating effects of interpersonal relationships on competitive outcomes within dyads. Minjung et al. (2018) advocated for a shift from a directive to a supportive coaching approach to foster these crucial relationships.

1.3 The aim of the current study

This study aims to explore a consistent coaching philosophy and approach of a distinguished Chinese coach through a case study, addressing the following reasons: Firstly, existing literature and theoretical frameworks exhibit limitations in thoroughly explaining the coaching philosophies of Chinese coaches, particularly within the context of China. Previous research has explored the effects of various coaching styles, such as democratic, servant, and authoritative, on athlete success. However, Chinese coaches often face the challenge of melding the seemingly contradictory styles of authority and democracy, a necessity arising from the unique structure of Chinese sports, where coaches are state-funded professionals rather than being privately hired by athletes. This setup mandates coaches to devise training strategies and objectives tailored to team needs, offering limited flexibility for athlete input, especially in areas aiming to improve professional competence and competitive experience. Additionally, the increasing focus on athletes’ physical and mental health in China necessitates a shift toward a more democratic coaching approach. Contrarily, elite athletes with international accolades may enjoy enhanced negotiation leverage, diverging from the predominant servant-style coaching observed in Western contexts. Furthermore, the authoritative 3C model of the coach-athlete relationship ( Jowett and Meek, 2000 ), deeply ingrained in Chinese Confucian values, does not advocate for athlete subservience, suggesting that this model may not fully capture the essence of Chinese coaching philosophies. Previous research has predominantly utilized surveys to investigate the relationships among various factors, yet it has not adequately captured the nuanced experiences of coaches in cultivating world champions. These experiences are distinct and highly individualized. The efficacy of sustaining successful coaching practices over prolonged training periods varies, with coaching approaches often reflecting unique personal attributes. Consequently, interviewing elite coaches is essential to uncovering effective coaching philosophies and methods. While empirical insights derived from structured experiments are invaluable, qualitative insights can significantly complement these findings and deepen our understanding of sports performance ( Greenwood et al., 2012 ). Furthermore, coaches play multifaceted roles, including planning, observing, and providing feedback ( Kidman and Hanrahan, 2011 ). It is noteworthy that most prior studies have focused on specific coaching traits linked to athletic success through singular methodologies or theoretical frameworks, neglecting a comprehensive evaluation of the coaching strategies or qualities of champions. Given the limitations of existing measurement tools in capturing the full spectrum of coaching attributes, conducting interviews with coaches proficient in athlete support can reveal new and critical aspects of coaching effectiveness ( Gould et al., 2002 ).

2.1 Participants

Qualitative research, as Creswell (2014) advocates, prioritizes the careful selection of participants to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the research problem and associated inquiries. The likelihood of success tends to increase with a coach’s experience, successful coaches often maintain their positions longer ( Filho and Rettig, 2018 ). Thus, focusing on experienced and successful coaches is essential for this study. We chose to examine the coaching journey of Wang Guoqing, a distinguished coach at the Gymnastics Center of the General Administration of Sport of China, who boasts 20 years of coaching experience and has secured 8 gold medals in significant international competitions. Wang Guoqing, who holds a Doctorate in Sports Education from Beijing Sport University and is a second-level professor, brings a wealth of insight from his extensive career and demonstrates exceptional communication skills, essential for elucidating complex ideas and capturing critical information for this research.

Given the esteemed standing of our participant in Chinese Competitive Gymnastics and the in-depth nature of this case study, he consented to forego anonymity. This choice aligns with Wang’s philosophy of sharing knowledge, as evidenced in an early exchange of communication: “ I think sharing is the key to progress. Coaches are a philosophy or art of interacting with athletes. If we do not express our opinions, we will not be able to gain support or even doubt, and we will stop moving forward. The Olympic spirit has recently brought up the concept of greater unity, which I believe is also a strengthening of human understanding of competitive sports and the emphasis on communication between people. Coaching also requires a greater emphasis on exploring the best coaching methods with an open attitude toward the outside world (Wang Guoqing, personal communication, 1 January 2022).”

2.2 Interview guide

Through the synergistic collaboration of a seasoned PhD in psychology from Beijing Sport University and an assistant professor with a specialization in sports psychology from Xiamen University’s Department of Physical Education, we have meticulously developed a semi-structured interview guide. This instrument is designed to explore the rich tapestry of world-class coaching success, with a keen focus on the competencies and collaborative dynamics between these coaches and their athletes. The guide is composed of a suite of open-ended questions crafted to elicit comprehensive responses that unveil profound insights. It has been subjected to a stringent review, meticulously examined by two distinguished coaches from the Chinese national team to ensure its pertinence and potency.

Following the execution of preliminary pilot interviews, which served as a trial run to assess the guidelines’ practicality and lucidity, we implemented a series of minor yet impactful refinements to the phrasing of the questions within the guide. These enhancements were made with the intent to sharpen the instrument’s precision and to catalyze a more profound and granular investigation into the lived experiences and viewpoints of our interviewees.

2.3 Data collection techniques

The data collection lasted for 2 years and 2 months. In order to comprehensively understand the interaction and coaching experience between Coach Wang (co-author of this study) and athletes, we continuously collected information through a combination of online and offline methods throughout the entire process. Initially, in order to gain a rough understanding of the interaction between Wang and the athletes, as well as the characteristics of his coaching, we developed an interview outline and the questions to be asked. Written informed consent from the coach has been obtained during the interview. In addition, these work hours span a long time because Coach Wang happens to have high-intensity training tasks, and he is unable to allocate a fixed amount of time, each lasting at least an hour or more, to share his coaching experience with the main author on the national gymnastics team. The information we obtain each time is very limited. It was not until February to March 2024 that Wang had more time to share his successful coaching experience with us. Therefore, we conducted targeted semi-structured interviews with Coach Wang. The main interview content includes: (1) What ability do you think you have to cultivate so many world-class champions? (2) What kind of interpersonal relationship do you think you have established with Olympic champions?

2.4 Data processing and analysis

Data analysis is conducted using the manifest qualitative content analysis approach, as outlined by Robson (2011 , p. 469). The transcribed data is carefully reviewed multiple times to ensure a thorough understanding of its entirety. Using thematic coding techniques, we categorize and label the data to reflect relevant concepts. Codes that are similar or related then combines into distinct themes. The following sections outline the primary themes extract from the qualitative dataset, as originally presented by Currie and Oates-Wilding (2012) . In line with the study’s objectives, theme, subtheme, and codes were inductively abstracted and condensed, focusing on the manifest content. Rigorous measures were taken to ensure that the categories exhibited internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity. The analysis was carefully executed by three of the authors, initially performed independently, followed by a collaborative discussion. The analytical process was iterative, characterized by a continuous oscillation between the data as a whole and its individual components. Notably, the coaches did not provide any feedback on the outcomes of the data analysis. Table 1 presents a representative example of the analytical procedure employed.

Table 1 . The data analysis process.

2.5 Quality and rigor

Based on a previous article published in PSE ( Qin et al., 2023 ), our method selection enhances the research quality within the framework of critical realism. We choose to demonstrate rigor through two main forms: rigorous reflection and rigorous methods. Strict reflection makes the transmission of research transparent, including the knowledge and theoretical foundation of researchers ( Danermark et al., 2019 ). Through reflection, we acknowledge that our explanation is only a perspective, influenced by the participation of the national sports system and cooperation with elite athletes. A rigorous approach is achieved through genuine analysis and critical reflection from friends. In addition, we invited one national team athlete, one national team coach, and one psychology PhD to explain the main viewpoints and the reasons for their emergence in this study. The research results and process have been unanimously agreed upon.

The inductive content analysis leads to that 6 subthemes (“international perspective and collaborative ability,” “ability to control and regulate training loads,” “identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation,” “goal setting aligned with athletes’ abilities,” “adopting authoritative democratic coaching style,” and “establishing hierarchical-style friendship”), and 3 themes (“training management and planning,” “motivation and goal setting,” “interpersonal communication”) are manifested ( Table 1 ). An overarching theme “the successful experience of gymnastics world champion coach,” is derived from the analysis.

3.1 Training management and planning

The successful experience of world champion coaches in gymnastics underscores the critical importance of training management and planning, which can be divided into two sub-themes: international perspective and collaborative ability, and the ability to control and regulate training load.

3.1.1 International perspective and collaborative ability

Our findings suggest that exemplary coaches should possess international perspective and collaborative ability, to be more specific, an international outlook, adopting advanced training methodologies and technologies through global exchanges and collaborations to bolster the team’s international competitiveness. This aligns with the principles of the Olympic Charter and the International Council for Coaching Excellence (ICCE), both dedicated to fostering the growth and global interchange among coaches. These entities underscore the significance of an international perspective and a collaborative ethos among world-class coaches. Lyle (2002) and Gould and Maynard (2009) posit that to thrive in the ever-evolving international sports landscape, outstanding coaches must continually update their knowledge and skills. Thoroughly understand the evolving rules of international competition and ensure that the athletes and coaching teams’ preparation aligns with global standards. Wang mentioned, “ I sometimes communicate changes in competition rules with Arturs Mituls, the chairman of the Men’s Artistic Gymnastics Committee of the International Gymnastics Federation ” “ I also often learn advanced training techniques and concepts, and adjust my own training plan at once .” Wang also stressed, “ Gymnastics is developing, the difficulty is increasing, and the international rules are changing. If we do not keep up with the times, constantly learn, and improve ourselves, we will inevitably be eliminated by the tide of the times!” For it is difficult to make progress without going abroad to exchange and accept more advanced training concepts and methods ( Reade et al., 2008 ). If training methods and philosophies are not updated according to international trends, there is a risk of misunderstanding the rules, which could lead to tactical failures in competitions ( Gould et al., 2002 ).

3.1.2 Ability to control and regulate training loads

Our research indicates that the ability to control and regulate training loads is crucial for world-class coaches. Athletes participating in elite sports face high training loads and increasingly saturated competition schedules. The psychological and physiological fatigue caused by overtraining can lead to long-term poor performance ( Smith, 2003 ). According to the International Olympic Committee, training load broadly includes rapid changes in training and competition loads, congested competition schedules, psychological load, and travel. Poor management of these factors is a major risk factor for injury ( Soligard et al., 2016 ). This is especially true in gymnastics competitions, where inherent risks and fatigue during training pose significant safety concerns.

Our research also emphasizes that coaches should trust athletes’ subjective feelings toward fatigue, even though existing studies have proposed objective methods for quantifying exercise load, for example, the “training impulse” (TRIMP) which is consists of exercise intensity and duration calculated using the heart rate reserve method ( Banister, 1991 ). However, ideally, athletes and coaches should match their perception of training load to achieve optimal adaptation ( Pind and Mäestu, 2018 ). So, we hold Believe in the subjective feelings of athletes, and when they mention that they are tired, believe it, and always monitor the fatigue status of athletes.

3.2 Motivation and goal setting

The successful experience of world champion coaches in gymnastics also underscores the critical importance of motivation and goal setting, which can be divided into two sub-themes: identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation, and setting goals aligned with athletes’ abilities.

3.2.1 Identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation

Our research reveals that adept coaches excel in discerning and linking athletes’ needs with their achievements, a key factor in engaging athletes and driving them toward their peak psychological and physiological states ( Weinberg and Gould, 2015 ). This ability is rooted in the deliberate efforts of individuals to meet their needs ( Cheng et al., 2023 ). Fulfilling athletes’ needs, particularly when it enhances their competitive performance or leads to outstanding results, serves as a significant motivational force in both training and competition ( Vallerand, 2007 ). It should be noted, however, that the aspiration for achievement often operates on a subconscious level ( McClelland et al., 1953 ), which requires coaches to explore and inspire.

Therefore, we believe it is necessary to focus on two key aspects. First, establish high-quality coach-athlete relationships and engage in in-depth conversations with athletes to understand their interests, goals, and concerns ( Jowett and Cockerill, 2003 ). Second, a study of interviews with elite coaches found that, before intervening in performance issues, coaches must establish and maintain trust with athletes and their support networks. This ensures athletes feel safe discussing performance concerns and receive consistent and supportive information ( Williams et al., 2023 ).

Wang Guoqing explained, “Only by establishing a realistic and tangible vision for each athlete can we maximize their inner potential and motivation for training. In the early stages of athletic training, their vision might be at a lower level, such as obtaining material rewards. As they progress and win more competitions, their vision gradually shifts toward higher levels, such as winning respect, proving oneself, and self-actualization. Of course, the pursuit of fame, fortune, and material possessions still exists. In reality, various human needs coexist, but at different times, different needs take precedence, and people prioritize meeting their most pressing needs.”

The concept outlined above is corroborated by Goldthorpe (1987) , whose research into social mobility and class structure in the UK underscores the impact of economic foundations on various social strata, positing that economic standing significantly influences one’s social status and interests.

On the other hand, as a coach, it is important to be a model of passion and commitment, demonstrating how to translate passion and goals into action. This approach is supported by many researchers ( Martens, 2012 ; Whitmore, 2017 ).

3.2.2 Goal setting aligned with athletes’ abilities

We find that skilled coaches can set goals based on the abilities of athletes, which can enable them to impart knowledge on skill development and prepare athletes to achieve optimal performance ( Gould et al., 2002 ; Johnson et al., 2011 ; Kuma, 2019 ). It’s also supported by Gearity and Murray (2011) , they identify five themes from athletes’ self-reports: inadequate coach instruction, indifference, unfairness, inhibition of athletes’ psychological skills, and athlete coping. Two of these themes, inhibition of athletes’ psychological skills and coping, are closely related to psychological structure and are discussed in this article. The theme of inhibiting athletes’ psychological skills includes descriptions of poor coaching practices that can distract attention, generate self-doubt, weaken motivation, and divide the team. The theme of athlete coping describes how athletes manage and respond to poor coaching.

In addition, the present study finds that a great Olympic coach should ensure that the set goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time bound. As scholars emphasize the importance of setting SMART goals to provide direction and focus for athletes ( North et al., 2021 ).

3.3 Interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is vital for world-class coach including the ability adopting authoritative democratic coaching style and establishing hierarchical-style friendship.

3.3.1 Adopting authoritative democratic coaching style

Our research has found that using an authoritative democratic coaching style is an important coaching experience. The authoritative democratic coaching style is a hybrid approach to leadership that combines the assertiveness and clear direction of authoritative coaching with the inclusiveness and participatory nature of democratic coaching. In this style, the coach maintains a strong sense of authority and control, which serves as the foundation for fostering a collaborative and engaging environment.

In this coaching style, the coach sets clear goals and expectations for their team members, but also encourages open communication and feedback. As Jones et al. (2019) note, this approach allows for a more collaborative environment where team members feel heard and valued. The coach listens to the opinions and suggestions of their team members and considers them when making decisions. They also provide guidance and support to help their team members develop their skills and achieve their goals.

This coaching style fosters a positive and collaborative team environment, where team members feel valued and respected. It promotes trust and accountability, as team members are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions and work together toward a common goal. Overall, the authoritative democratic coaching style is effective in creating a high-performing team that is motivated, engaged, and committed to achieving success ( Jones et al., 2019 ).

In response to the question, “what kind of interpersonal relationship do you think you have established with Olympic champions?” Coach Wang in our study once replies: maintain a disciplined and approachable demeanor, similar to a father’s image. To achieve self-reliance without anger. Subsequently, the researchers questioned whether this authority or authority would create a fear that would be detrimental to the success or mental health of athletes? Wang clarified, “Although we embody a father like strictness, it is crucial to remain approachable. The democratic coaching style and friendly dialog allow athletes to openly express their thoughts and feelings.”

3.3.2 Establish hierarchical-style friendship which is a positive coach-athlete relationships

Our research indicates that elite coaches prioritize fostering positive coach-athlete relationships characterized by Obeying the Chinese father hierarchical system, open communication, mutual trust, and encouragement. These relationships are foundational to improved athletic performance ( Weinberg and Gould, 2015 ). Jowett and Cockerill (2003) find that Olympic medalists consistently identified open communication, mutual trust, and encouragement as critical components in building positive coach-athlete relationships.

3.3.2.1 Obey the Chinese father hierarchical system

We find that great coaches need to maintain confidence and authority, otherwise it is difficult for athletes to trust them. The hierarchical structure within the Chinese national sport system significantly influences the behavior and compliance of athletes and coaches. This system, often referred to as the “Whole-Nation system,” is characterized by its centralized structure, medal-oriented focus, and semi-closed environment ( Ge et al., 2016 ). The legitimacy of coaches demanding obedience from athletes can be understood through several key points:

Centralized Structure and Medal Orientation: The centralized structure ensures athletes are trained under a unified methodology, crucial for high performance and winning medals. This system places immense pressure on athletes, with coaches playing a pivotal role in guiding them. The hierarchical nature necessitates a clear chain of command, where athletes follow coaches’ directives to achieve collective goals ( Ge et al., 2016 ).

Psychological Training and Sociocultural Meridians: Psychological training is deeply rooted in sociocultural meridians, including cultural inheritance and traditional beliefs such as “harmony with differences” and the balance between Confucianism and Taoism ( Si et al., 2011 ). These elements emphasize respect for authority and hierarchical relationships, integral to the coach-athlete dynamic in China. Integrating these characteristics into training fosters discipline and respect, legitimizing coaches’ authority.

Cultural and Psychological Integration: Integrating cultural and psychological factors into training is crucial for athletes’ overall development. The hierarchical system, aligning with traditional Chinese values, provides a stable framework for growth. Coaches, by embodying these values and maintaining structure, help athletes navigate elite sports pressures and achieve their potential ( Si et al., 2011 ).

In conclusion, the hierarchical system within the Chinese national sport system is both a cultural norm and a practical necessity for achieving excellence in sports. Coaches’ demands for obedience are legitimized by the need for a centralized, disciplined, and culturally coherent training environment. This system ensures athletes are well-prepared to meet international competition challenges and achieve success on the global stage.

3.3.2.2 Open communication

Open communication is essential for preventing misunderstandings and conflicts due to insufficient communication. It facilitates the timely and effective resolution of issues arising during training and competition, thereby enhancing professional performance and promoting the personal growth of athletes. Moran and Megan (2010) even propose an innovative coaching approach that emphasizes the autonomy and professional development of coaches through four core practices: listening, expressing, designing, and supporting. They advocate for a faultless environment and strengths-based improvement, demonstrating the transformative power of dialog in educational improvement.

In China’s competitive sports culture, even Olympic champions must respect the authority of their coaches, who hold significant dominance during training. However, elite athletes often have a clear understanding of their needs. As Olympic champion Xu Mengtao articulated, athletes can fully follow the coach’s guidance from 0% to 99%, but to achieve the final 1% to reach 100%, athletes must understand their own strengths and weaknesses. They should communicate effectively with their coaches about their training programs, even suggesting amendments based on their insights. This perspective is supported by a comprehensive meta-analysis ( Theeboom et al., 2014 ).

However, the traditional Chinese education system, rooted in Confucianism, emphasizes “respect for teachers and valuing their teachings.” Teachers are seen not only as knowledge transmitters but also as moral guides. Students are expected to treat their teachers with utmost respect and diligently learn from them. In this cultural context, coaches are akin to teachers, enjoying absolute respect and generally holding the view that their authority should not be questioned. Coaches who practice open communication are rare. Most prefer to maintain their positions and perspectives, even when faced with challenges, and expect athletes to reflect on their own shortcomings rather than questioning the coach’s methods.

Coach Wang’s coaching philosophy commands respect and recognition, not only because he genuinely respects his players but also because he embraces their questioning. Wang states, “I will correct what my players say I really did wrong.” His excellent communication skills enable him to address the team’s issues promptly. Wang emphasizes the importance of communication, stating, “I think it’s very important to communicate with the athletes in my group. In addition to teaching them the essentials of movement in training, we often communicate with each player individually, allowing them to speak freely and respecting their opinions. For incorrect ideas and demands, I educate them through persuasion and guidance, and the effect is very good!” This approach has resulted in increased respect and trust from the players. By fostering an open dialog with his players, Wang has cultivated a strong sense of team cohesion and trust, solidifying the Chinese gymnastics team’s status as the ace of China’s sports corps.

3.3.2.3 Mutual trust

Mutual trust is the cornerstone of the coach-athlete relationship. Its supported by Schiemann et al. (2019) and Tiitu (2017) . Trust enables coaches and athletes to collaboratively develop and adapt training programs to achieve optimal performance. For instance, the collaboration between renowned track and field coach Alberto Salazar and Olympic champion Mo Farah exemplifies a high level of mutual trust. During Farah’s training, Salazar continuously adjusted the training intensity and methods based on Farah’s feedback, ultimately contributing to Farah’s outstanding achievements.

Unlike the traditional emphasis on high intensity and large training volumes to produce results, Coach Wang advocates for flexible training methods based on trust. He stated, “I always trust my athletes, and when they tell me they are not in good health and wish to reduce, modify, or even rest, I usually agree. Sometimes they voluntarily increase their training despite fatigue; in such cases, I insist that they rest to prevent injuries from overtraining. It has been proven that each time I support their adjustments and rest, they work harder and often exceed their previous training achievements.”

With Coach Wang’s trust, the athletes feel comfortable expressing themselves honestly, rather than lying to secure more vacation time. They are not only transparent about their rest needs but also proactively seek Coach Wang’s advice on crucial decisions during training and competitions. This relationship of trust allows the players to fully embrace Coach Wang’s guidance, enabling them to commit to their training without resistance.

This coach-athlete relationship, founded on mutual trust, not only enhanced the athletes’ training outcomes but also strengthened team cohesion. Ultimately, this contributed to the improvement of the team’s overall performance.

3.3.2.4 Flexible encouragement

Coach encouragement, as the primary form of social support, plays a critical role in promoting athlete success. The motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship emphasizes the importance of a coach’s encouragement and support in enhancing athletes’ motivation and performance. Encouragement not only boosts an athlete’s confidence but also stimulates their potential ( Gilbert and Trudel, 2004 ). Coaches must recognize even small improvements in their players ( Gould et al., 2002 ). Former USA Gymnastics coach Bella Karolyi is known for his motivational training methods, which inspired athletes to strive for success in international events through constant encouragement and praise.

Coach Wang stated, “In my coaching process, consistent encouragement and praise are given throughout the training. Acknowledgement and affirmation are especially provided when athletes exhibit an indomitable spirit, courage, and resilience in the face of setbacks.” Encouragement from the coach helps athletes to face challenges bravely and make progress. However, when an athlete achieves a major accomplishment and begins to show slackness, the coach should withhold encouragement and instead help the athlete adjust their mindset by motivating them to pursue higher goals. As Coach Wang said, “I usually give them the most praise and encouragement when they are facing challenges, and remind them to refrain from arrogance after they have succeeded.”

This dynamically adapted encouragement strategy not only motivates athletes at critical moments but also keeps them grounded and humble as they achieve success and continue to pursue excellence. By establishing a coach-athlete relationship based on open communication, mutual trust, and continuous encouragement, it is possible to effectively enhance an athlete’s overall performance and mental fitness.

4 Discussion

The study identifies three key themes in the successful experiences of gymnastics world champion coaches: “training management and planning,” “motivation and goal setting,” and “interpersonal communication.” These themes are reflected in the following abilities: (1) “international perspective and collaborative ability,” (2) “ability to control and regulate training loads,” (3) “identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation,” and (4) “goal setting aligned with athletes’ abilities.” These aspects are validated by current research and contribute a new perspective to the existing body of knowledge. Additionally, the study introduces two innovative concepts: (5) “adopting an authoritative democratic coaching style” and (6) “establishing hierarchical-style friendships.” These innovations provide a fresh perspective on the successful experiences of coaches, offering valuable insights into effective coaching practices to the world.

To be more specific,

1. “International perspective and collaborative ability”

Currie and Oates-Wilding (2012) believe that knowledge of Sport and Focus on Needs of Athlete is one of the most vital factors Olympic coaches attribute to their success. So, coach Wang points out that actively participating in international competitions and learning about advanced technologies and their applications are essential experiences for a successful coach. For (1) participating in international competitions and tournaments will gain athletes’ practical experience and improve their technical skills ( Gould and Carson, 2008 ). (2) Stay attuned to the latest developments in international sports technology, including sports biomechanics, data analysis, and psychological training, especially in the era of digital sports transformation driven by AI, VR, AR, and DV ( Gould and Maynard, 2009 ) and apply these technologies to the training of athletes, which is the top priority of future Olympic preparations ( Cossich et al., 2023 ). Some scholars have proposed the trend of intelligent transformation of training methods based on the intelligent data analysis methods currently used in the field of intelligent sports training ( Rajšp and Fister, 2020 ). For example, an increasing number of “sports vision training” practices rely on the idea that practicing high-demand visual perception, cognition, or eye movement tasks can enhance the ability to process and respond to visual stimuli, thereby improving sports performance ( Appelbaum and Erickson, 2016 ).

1. “Ability to control and regulate training loads”

The ability to control and regulate training loads not only aids in preventing fatigue, thereby extending the competitive careers of athletes, but also enhances the efficiency of training sessions. Effective regulation of training loads necessitates that coaches possess a comprehensive understanding of athletes’ perceptions of the imposed workload, the importance of sufficient rest, and the physiological changes stemming from consecutive training sessions ( Impellizzeri et al., 2004 ; Buchheit et al., 2013 ).

As Wang mentioned, “the fatigue of athletes in gymnastics is twofold—physical fatigue and psychological fatigue, which is different from other sports. In fact, most injuries of gymnasts are caused by fatigue, and in situations of abundant physical strength and good physical and mental state, they are less likely to be injured” “Physical fatigue is easy to recover from, while psychological fatigue is more challenging. In severe cases, even top athletes may not dare to perform difficult movements, and improper control of training volume can also lead to this situation.”

“ Now our group has 6 team members, and there are 6 training plans with different training contents, which may be different from group sports. Usually, their training starts at the same time, but the end times often var y. One of my athlete’s training characteristics are high intensity, short duration, and few but precise. And another one entered the training state slowly, so his intensity was arranged to be moderate, relatively long, and lukewarm. he often ended the training class last. ”

1. “Identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation”

High intensity training is full of pressure and frustration, which requires strong mental motivation to complete. Need to be able to motivate and highly connect with personal needs. As Mageau and Vallerand (2003) proposed a motivational model for the coach-athlete relationship, emphasizing the role of communication and understanding in establishing effective relationships. Coaches must observe athletes’ behavior during training and competition to identify their needs and reactions. Understanding the unique needs and motivations of each athlete is crucial. Wang Guoqing stated, “Honors, rewards, and benefits are the most effective motivators. I often ask athletes why they practice gymnastics, what their dreams are, or what they need the most. Then, I help athletes establish a vision map, showing what they can achieve once they succeed or win a championship.” Furthermore, according to the self-determination theory, individuals are more motivated to pursue their goals when their basic needs are met, leading to greater focus and engagement ( Deci and Ryan, 2000 ). This means that the satisfaction of needs and success are mutually reinforcing. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, the satisfaction of different levels of needs corresponds with success at different levels.

1. “Goal setting aligned with athletes’ abilities”

It’s also supported by the scholars, the reason may be that, on the one hand, humans are purposeful agents who act to meet their needs. However, the human soul is a mosaic composed of multiple selves and conflicting needs. Scholars have proposed a psychological mechanism for resolving this conflict and contradiction, namely “goal persistence.” “Goal persistence” refers to persisting in pursuing the original intention despite unexpected changes that may make the intention less ideal ( Cheng et al., 2023 ). In addition, Locke and Latham (2002) summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal setting theory and found that emphasizing the importance of goal setting for individual effort and focus. On the other hand, Set goals based on athletes’ competence is essential, for both self-efficacy theory and self-determination theory believe that when the difficulty of a task exceeds the level that an individual can achieve through effort, it is easy for the individual to lose confidence and motivation ( Bandura et al., 1997 ; Deci and Ryan, 2000 ).

As stated by Wang, “ the setting of goals is very important, and I have divided them into three stages: short-term, medium-term, and long-term. However, tailored plans and goals tailored to each athlete’s characteristics are the most crucial. The goals I set during training are not too high, and through hard work, they can achieve them. When they achieve the established goals, they have more confidence to challenge new goals. If the goal is set too high, it will be difficult for athletes to achieve it through hard work, which indicates that the plan formulated by the coach is wrong and unrealistic, and more importantly, it will undermine the confidence of the athletes. ”

Mastering these skills presents a formidable challenge, necessitating coaches to exhibit two essential qualities:

1. “Adopting authoritative democratic coaching style”

2. “Establishing hierarchical-style friendship”

For the first, the establishment of a hierarchical-style rapport is vital, enabling coaches to assert authority within the context of China’s national structure and traditional values, akin to a paternal figure, contrasting with Western egalitarian norms. Second, implementing an authoritative democratic coaching approach is crucial, where coaches lead with confidence and authority while allowing athletes the liberty to voice their thoughts and feedback. This strategy aims to spur innovation, instill a sense of responsibility in team members, and foster collaborative achievement of shared objectives. As repeatedly highlighted by Wang, a champion coach’s demeanor, while non-confrontational, should exude a natural, commanding presence that commands respect. This dual approach—hierarchical-style rapport and authoritative democratic coaching—enriches the dialog on coaching methodologies and the dynamics of coach-athlete interactions, offering fresh perspectives and strategies for international coaching research. The introduction of two concepts—authoritative democratic coaching and hierarchical-style friendship—is driven by several considerations. Firstly, champion coaches must possess decision-making authority, exhibiting strength and decisiveness, as highlighted by Wang, who emphasized the critical importance and influence of gymnastics in the Olympics. He argued that to secure a team championship, coaches must demonstrate boldness and authoritative leadership ( Rune et al., 2008 ). Wang also noted the psychological dependence of gymnasts on their coaches, underscoring the necessity for a coach who commands respect and trust. He further posited that athletic performance is key to gaining team members’ respect, and that authoritative leadership requires a range of supporting skills. Additionally, the study suggests that the adoption of an authoritative leadership style is shaped by China’s national sports system and Confucian culture. Specifically, the structure of China’s competitive sports, being a state system, differs fundamentally from the market-driven model prevalent in the West. In China, coaches and athletes serve the nation’s interests, with the government covering their salaries and coaches enjoying a status akin to government officials. This establishes a hierarchical dynamic with athletes, contrasting with the Western model where athletes may hire and dismiss coaches based on personal preference, leading to a more egalitarian coach-athlete relationship. Wang remarked that coaches, being employees of the General Administration of Sport of China, cannot adopt a servile approach. This distinction necessitates a balance between authority and rapport in coaching strategies.

Cultural distinctions significantly influence coaching approaches in Western countries and China. Western coaches tend to favor a more democratic style, emphasizing the importance of building relationships, valuing athletes’ participation and autonomy for their motivation and development ( Jowett, 2007 ; Becker, 2009 ), and leveraging personal experiences to derive insights ( Côté and Sedgwick, 2003 ). This perspective views the coach’s role as not merely instructive but as facilitators of athlete independence, decision-making involvement, and critical thinking skills ( Côté and Gilbert, 2009 ). Conversely, Chinese coaching practices, deeply rooted in Confucian traditions, often embody a more paternalistic approach. Yao (2000) notes that Chinese coaches, guided by Confucian ethics, assume a fatherly role, expecting rigorous adherence from athletes, in line with the “Five Virtues” of societal expectations. Reflecting these cultural norms, Wang et al. (2014) adapt the coach-athlete relationship scale to include elements of athlete obedience. Wang further illustrates this dynamic by comparing his longstanding relationships with athletes to that with his own son, emphasizing the duration and depth of these connections. He argues that a top-tier gymnast typically remains with the same coach until retirement, underscoring the rarity of coach changes, except in cases of lesser skilled coaches. Frequent changes in coaching affiliations, Wang suggests, correlate with a higher likelihood of an athlete’s premature exit from the sport, highlighting the stability provided by enduring coach-athlete partnerships in contributing to sustained success in gymnastics.

To make informed decisions and successfully steer athletes toward competitive excellence, coaches must continually gather information about athletes’ physiological, psychological, and competitive conditions through engaging in democratic coaching practices and fostering open communication. Central to this approach is the establishment of positive, cooperative relationships characterized by transparent communication, mutual trust, and support. Specifically, a culture of openness, where individual self-expression leads to reciprocal sharing of personal experiences ( Miller, 1990 ) lays the groundwork for building trust, enhancing understanding, and fostering a deep connection between athletes and coaches. This trust empowers athletes to fully embrace coaching guidance, thereby boosting their commitment and effort. Such relationships and effective communication not only strengthen team unity and collaboration but are also pivotal for the training success and overall performance of Olympic champions. Wang has highlighted the significance of communication, noting that even highly skilled coaches may falter if they seldom engage with their team. A lack of open dialog can deter athletes from sharing vital insights about their physical and mental states, potentially leading to training approaches that ignore individual needs, thereby causing friction and, more critically, increasing the risk of injuries . According to Knudson and Morrison (2002) , a key responsibility for coaches is to clearly articulate necessary adjustments for performance enhancement. Clear communication enables athletes to understand coaching strategies and goals, amplifying their motivation and zeal for training. Moreover, effective communication among coaching staff fosters a collaborative environment, aligning objectives, providing precise feedback, and offering the support needed to navigate challenges and unlock potential ( Fletcher and Arnold, 2011 ). Positive, collaborative relationships also play a crucial role in resolving conflicts, managing psychological challenges ( Kavussanu et al., 2008 ), and addressing career-related concerns between coaches and athletes ( Stambulova and Wylleman, 2019 ).

5 Strengths, limitations, practical application, and possible directions for future research

5.1 strengths.

Innovative Academic Perspectives: We introduced the concepts of “authoritative democratic coaching style” and “hierarchical-style friendship,” enriching the discourse on coaching styles and coach-athlete relationship theories. This contribution offers fresh perspectives and methodologies for the field of international coaching research. In addition, following Hodgson et al.’s (2017) recommendation to concentrate on a singular sport, this study’s exploration of gymnastic coaching offers specific environmental insights, minimizing the potential interference from other sports.

5.2 Limitations

Although the findings might be relevant to other Olympic disciplines, further sport-specific research is warranted. Reliance on Self-Reports: The study’s sole dependence on coaches’ self-reports introduces the risk of self-deception bias, as highlighted by Colbert et al. (2012) . Future research should aim to corroborate and expand upon our results by incorporating observations from athletes, considering the relational and interpersonal nature of coaching.

5.3 Practical application

This study provides significant contributions to the field of sports coaching by identifying three key themes in the successful experiences of gymnastics world champion coaches: “training management and planning,” “motivation and goal setting,” and “interpersonal communication.” These themes are further elucidated through the following abilities: “international perspective and collaborative ability,” “ability to control and regulate training loads,” “identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation,” and “goal setting aligned with athletes’ abilities.” These aspects are validated by current research, thereby enriching the existing body of knowledge with a new perspective.

Moreover, the study introduces two innovative concepts: “adopting an authoritative democratic coaching style” and “establishing hierarchical-style friendships.” These novel insights provide a fresh perspective on the successful experiences of coaches, offering valuable guidance for effective coaching practices. By integrating these innovative approaches, the study not only enhances our understanding of elite coaching strategies but also offers practical applications for coaches aiming to achieve excellence in their respective sports.

In summary, this research bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding and implementing successful coaching practices. The findings have the potential to influence coaching methodologies globally, fostering the development of resilient, motivated, and high-performing athletes.

5.4 Possible directions for future research: future research directions

(1) Building on the strengths and addressing the limitations of this study, future research should focus on several key areas to further advance the field of sports coaching. (2) Sport-Specific Research: While this study provides valuable insights into gymnastics coaching, there is a need for sport-specific research across other Olympic disciplines. (3) Longitudinal Studies: Conducting longitudinal studies will allow researchers to track the long-term impact of coaching strategies on athlete performance and development. This will help in identifying which coaching practices are most effective over time and how they contribute to sustained athletic success. (4) Cross-Cultural Comparisons: Given the global nature of sports, it is essential to explore how different cultural contexts influence coaching practices and athlete responses. Cross-cultural studies can provide insights into the adaptability and effectiveness of the “authoritative democratic coaching style” and “hierarchical-style friendship” in various cultural settings.

6 Conclusion

The inductive content analysis of this study has identified six subthemes and three themes that encapsulate the successful experiences of gymnastics world champion coaches. The subthemes include “international perspective and collaborative ability,” “ability to control and regulate training loads,” “identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation,” “goal setting aligned with athletes’ abilities,” “adopting authoritative democratic coaching style,” and “establishing hierarchical-style friendship.” These subthemes are organized under the main themes of “training management and planning,” “motivation and goal setting,” and “interpersonal communication,” all contributing to the overarching theme of “the successful experience of gymnastics world champion coach.”

6.1 Training management and planning

The study underscores the critical importance of training management and planning, highlighting the need for an international perspective and collaborative ability, as well as the ability to control and regulate training loads. Coaches must stay abreast of global competitive sports trends and adapt advanced training methodologies to enhance their team’s international competitiveness. Effective regulation of training loads is crucial to prevent fatigue and injuries, ensuring athletes’ long-term performance and career longevity.

6.2 Motivation and goal setting

Successful coaches excel in identifying athletes’ needs and transforming them into motivation. They establish high-quality coach-athlete relationships ( Cook, 2019 ), engage in in-depth conversations to understand athletes’ interests and goals, and set specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals aligned with athletes’ abilities. This approach fosters a sense of purpose and direction, enhancing athletes’ focus and engagement.

6.3 Interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is vital for world-class coaches, encompassing the adoption of an authoritative democratic coaching style and the establishment of hierarchical-style friendships. The authoritative democratic coaching style combines assertiveness with inclusiveness, fostering a collaborative and engaging environment. Establishing hierarchical-style friendships, characterized by open communication, mutual trust, and encouragement, is essential for building positive coach-athlete relationships.

The study introduces two innovative concepts: “adopting an authoritative democratic coaching style” and “establishing hierarchical-style friendships.” These concepts provide fresh perspectives on effective coaching practices, emphasizing the importance of balancing authority with collaboration and fostering strong, trust-based relationships with athletes. By integrating these approaches, coaches can create a high-performing team environment that is motivated, engaged, and committed to achieving success.

In conclusion, this research bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, offering valuable insights into the successful experiences of gymnastics world champion coaches. The findings have the potential to influence coaching methodologies globally, fostering the development of resilient, motivated, and high-performing athletes. Future research should focus on sport-specific studies, longitudinal analyses, and cross-cultural comparisons to further advance the field of sports coaching and validate the effectiveness of these innovative coaching strategies.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by the Ethics Committee of the Department of Physical Education, Xiamen University. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardians/next of kin. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

XL: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. XW: Validation, Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis. HQ: Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing. SM: Formal analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Validation, Resources. GW: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This research was funded by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, grant number: 20720241027.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Appelbaum, L. G., and Erickson, G. (2016). elf-efficacy: The exercise of control. Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 11, 160–189. doi: 10.1080/1750984X.2016.1266376

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bandura, A., Freeman, W. H., and Lightsey, R. (1997). Servant leadership in sport: a new paradigm for effective coach behavior. J. Cogn. Psychother. 13, 158–166.

Google Scholar

Banister, E. W. (1991). “Modeling elite athletic performance” in Physiology Test Elite Athletes . eds. D. MacDougall, H. A. Wenger, and H. J. Green. 2nd ed (Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Books), 403–424.

Becker, A. (2009). It’s not what they do, It’s how they do it: athlete experiences of great coaching. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 4, 93–119. doi: 10.1260/1747-9541.4.1.93

Berg, M. E. (2006). Coaching. Norway: Universitetsforlaget.

Breeman, L., Tick, N., Wubbels, T., Maras, A., and Lier, P. A. C. V. (2014). Problem behaviour and the development of the teacher-child relationship in special education. D. Zandvliet, P. Brokden, T. Mainhard, and J. Tartwijk (eds.), Interpersonal relationships in education: From theory to practice (pp. 25–35). America: Sense Publishers.

Buchheit, M., Racinais, S., Bilsborough, J., Bourdon, P. C., Voss, S. C., Hocking, J., et al. (2013). Monitoring fitness, fatigue and running performance during a pre-season training camp in elite football players. J. Sci. Med. Sport 16, 550–555. doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2012.12.003

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Burns, L., Weissensteiner, J. R., and Cohen, M. (2018). Lifestyles and mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and world champions: is an integrated approach the key to elite performance? Br. J. Sports Med. 53, 818–824. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2018-099217

Cheng, S. Z., Zhao, M. L., Tang, N., Zhao, Y., Zhou, J., Shen, M., et al. (2023). Intention beyond desire: spontaneous intentional commitment regulates conflicting desires. Cognition 238, 105513–105531. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105513

Colbert, A. E., Judge, T., Choi, D., and Wang, G. (2012). Assessing the trait theory of leadership using self and observer ratings of personality: the mediating role of contributions to group success. Leadersh. Q. 23, 670–685. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.03.004

Cook, G. M. (2019). Psychosocial aspects of coaching in Olympic sport : Loughborough University. doi: 10.26174/thesis.lboro.9762152.v1

Cossich, V. R. A., Carlgren, D., Holash, R. J., and Katz, L. (2023). Technological breakthroughs in sport: current practice and future potential of artificial intelligence, virtual reality, augmented reality, and modern data visualization in performance analysis. Appl. Sci. 13:12965. doi: 10.3390/app132312965

Côté, J., and Gilbert, W. (2009). An integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 4, 307–323. doi: 10.1260/174795409789623892

Côté, J., and Sedgwick, W. (2003). Effective behaviors of expert rowing coaches: a qualitative investigation of Canadian athletes and coaches. Int. Sports J. 7, 62–77.

Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4ed.) . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Currie, J. L., and Oates-Wilding, S. (2012). Reflections on a dream: towards an understanding of factors Olympic coaches attribute to their success. Reflective Pract. 13, 425–438. doi: 10.1080/14623943.2012.670106

Danermark, B., Ekstrom, M., and Karlsson, J. C. (2019). Explaining society: Critical realism in the social sciences (2nd ed) . London: Routledge.

Davis, L., Brown, D. J., Arnold, R., and Gustafsson, H. (2021). Thriving through relationships in sport: the role of the parent-athlete and coach-athlete attachment relationship. Front. Psychol. 12:694599. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.694599

Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol. Inq. 11, 227–268. doi: 10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

Filho, E., and Rettig, J. (2018). The road to victory in the UEFA Women's champions league: a multi-level analysis of successful coaches, teams, and countries. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 39, 132–146. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.07.012

Fletcher, D., and Arnold, R. (2011). A qualitative study of performance leadership and management in elite sport. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 23, 223–242. doi: 10.1080/10413200.2011.559184

Ge, Y., Schinke, R., Dong, D., Lu, C., Si, G., and Oghene, O. (2016). Working with Chinese Olympic athletes in their national sport system: from the conceptual to a proposed research–practice integration. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 17, 5–17. doi: 10.1080/1612197X.2016.1164227

Gearity, B. T., and Murray, M. A. (2011). Athletes' experiences of the psychological effects of poor coaching. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 12, 213–221. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.11.004

Gilbert, W., and Trudel, P. (2004). The coach-athlete relationship: a motivational model. J. Sports Sci. 22, 885–901. doi: 10.1080/02640410412331280798

Goldthorpe, J. H. (1987). Social mobility and class structure in modern Britain . London: Clarendon Press.

González-García, H., and Martinent, G. (2020). Relationships between perceived coach leadership, athletes' use of coping and emotions among competitive table tennis players. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 20, 1113–1123. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1693633

González-García, H., Martinent, G., and Nicolas, M. (2022). Relationships between coach's leadership, group cohesion, affective states, sport satisfaction and goal attainment in competitive settings. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 17, 244–253. doi: 10.1177/17479541211053229

Gould, D., and Carson, S. (2008). Life skills development through sport: current status and future directions. Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 1, 58–78. doi: 10.1080/17509840701834573

Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., and Moffett, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 14, 172–204. doi: 10.1080/10413200290103482

Gould, D., and Maynard, I. (2009). Psychological preparation for the Olympic games. J. Sports Sci. 27, 1393–1408. doi: 10.1080/02640410903081845

Greenwood, D., Davids, K., and Renshaw, I. (2012). How elite Coaches' experiential knowledge might enhance empirical research on sport performance. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 7, 411–422. doi: 10.1260/1747-9541.7.2.411

Hodgson, L., Butt, J., and Maynard, I. (2017). Maynard exploring the psychological attributes underpinning elite sports coaching. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 12, 439–451. doi: 10.1177/1747954117718017

Impellizzeri, F. M., Rampinini, E., Coutts, A. J., Sassi, A., and Marcora, S. M. (2004). Use of RPE-based training load in soccer. Med. Sci. Sports 36, 1042–1047. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000128199.23901.2f

Iso-Abola, A. (1995). Intrapersonal and interpersonal factors in athletic performance. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 5, 191–199. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.1995.tb00035.x

Jackson, B., and Beauchamp, M. R. (2010). Efficacy beliefs in coach–athlete dyads: prospective relationships using actor–partner interdependence models. Appl. Psychol. 59, 220–242. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00388.x

Johnson, S. R., Wojnar, P. J., Price, W. J., Foley, T. J., Moon, J. R., Esposito, E. N., et al. (2011). A Coach's responsibility: learning how to prepare athletes for peak performance. Sport J. 24, 1–11.

Jones, R. J., Napiersky, U., and Lyubovnikova, J. (2019). Conceptualizing the distinctiveness of team coaching. J. Manag. Psychol. 34, 62–78. doi: 10.1108/JMP-07-2018-0326

Jowett, S. (2007). “Interdependence analysis and the 3+1 C’s in the coach-athlete relationship” in Social psychology in sports . eds. S. Jowett and D. Lavallee (Champaign: Human Kinetics), 15–28.

Jowett, S., and Cockerill, I. M. (2003). Olympic medallists' perspective of the althlete–coach relationship. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 4, 313–331. doi: 10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00011-0

Jowett, S., and Meek, G. A. (2000). The coach-athlete relationship in married couples: an exploratory content analysis. Sport Psychol. 14, 157–175. doi: 10.1123/tsp.14.2.157

Jowett, S., and Ntoumanis, N. (2004). The coach-athlete relationship questionnaire (CART-Q): development and initial validation. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 14, 245–257. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2003.00338.x

Jowett, S., and Palmer, A. (2010). Our understanding the role and significance of a key two-person relationship in sport and executive coaching. Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 6, 19–30. doi: 10.53841/bpssepr.2010.6.2.19

Kavussanu, M., Boardley, I. D., Jutkiewicz, N., Vincent, S., and Ring, C. (2008). Coaching efficacy and coaching effectiveness: examining their predictors and comparing coaches’ and athletes’ reports. Sport Psychol. 22, 383–404. doi: 10.1123/tsp.22.4.383

Kelley, H., Berscheid, E., Christensen, A., Harvey, J., Huston, T., Levinger, G., et al. (1983). Close relationships . New York, NY: Freeman.

Kidman, L., and Hanrahan, S. (2011). The coaching process: A practical guide to becoming an effective sports coach . 3rd Edn. New York: Routledge.

Kim, H. D., and Cruz, A. B. (2016). The influence of coaches’ leadership styles on athletes’ satisfaction and team cohesion: a meta-analytic approach. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 11:6117. doi: 10.1177/1747954116676117

Knudson, D. V., and Morrison, C. S. (2002). Qualitative analysis of human movement . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Kuhlin, F., Barker-Ruchti, N., and Stewart, C. (2019). Long-term impact of the coach-athlete relationship on development, health, and wellbeing: stories from a figure skater. Sports Coach. Rev. 9, 208–230. doi: 10.1080/21640629.2019.1620016

Kuma, V. (2019). Development of a practical model for coaches to use mental skills training to enhance psychological strengths for athletes : Institute of Positive Psychology and Education, Australia: Australian Catholic University.

Locke, E. A., and Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: a 35-year odyssey. Am. Psychol. 57, 705–717. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705

Lyle, J. (2002). Sports coaching concepts: A framework for Coaches' behaviour . London: Routledge.

Mageau, G. A., and Vallerand, R. J. (2003). The coach–athlete relationship: a motivational model. J. Sports Sci. 21, 883–904. doi: 10.1080/0264041031000140374

Martens, R. (2012). Successful coaching . 4th Edn. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

McClelland, D., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., and Lowell, E. L. (1953). The achievement motive . New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

McHenry, L. K., Cochran, J. L., Zakrajsek, R. A., Fisher, L. A., Couch, S. R., and Hill, B. S. (2020). Elite figure Skaters' experiences of thriving in the coach-athlete relationship: a person-centered theory perspective. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 34, 436–456. doi: 10.1080/10413200.2020.1800862

Miller, L. C. (1990). Intimacy and liking: mutual influence and the role of unique relationships. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 59, 50–60. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.59.1.50

Minjung, K., Yukyoum, K., and Doyeon, W. (2018). From commanding to serving athletes: nurturing the coach–athlete relationship. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 5, 1–11. doi: 10.1177/1747954118790810

Moran, B. T., and Megan, T. M. (2010). Evocative coaching: Transforming schools one conversation at a time . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Nash, C. S., and Sproule, J. (2009). Career development of expert coaches. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 4, 121–138. doi: 10.1260/1747-9541.4.1.121

North, E., Gonzales, J. R., and Shipherd, A. M. (2021). Improving your aim: effective goal-setting practices for team sport coaches. J Phys Sport Educ 34, 27–33. doi: 10.1080/08924562.2021.1977748

Pind, R., and Mäestu, J. (2018). Monitoring training load: necessity, methods, and applications. Acta Kinesiologiae Universitatis Tartuensis 23, 7–23. doi: 10.12697/akut.2017.23.01

Qin, H. H., Zhang, L. W., Schinke, R. J., and Giffin, C. E. (2023). Psychological injury rehabilitation lags behind physical rehabilitation: Elite athletes’ experiences and support within Chinese context. Psychol. Sport. Exerc . 69:102465. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102465

Rajšp, A., and Fister, I. (2020). A systematic literature review of intelligent data analysis methods for Smart sport training. Appl Sci 10:3013. doi: 10.3390/app10093013

Reade, I., Rodgers, W., and Hall, N. (2008). Knowledge transfer: how do high performance coaches access the knowledge of sport scientists? Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 3, 319–334. doi: 10.1260/174795408786238470

Rieke, M., Hammermeister, J., and Chase, M. (2008). Servant leadership in sport: a new paradigm for effective coach behavior. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 3, 227–239. doi: 10.1260/174795408785100635

Robson, C. (2011). Real world research. A resource for users of social research methods in applied settings . 3rd Edn. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Rune, H., Jones, G. W., and Peters, D. M. (2008). Preferred coach leadership behaviour in elite soccer in relation to success and failure. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 20, 1113–1123. doi: 10.1260/174795408785100581

Schiemann, S. J., Mühlberger, C., Schoorman, F. D., and Jonas, E. (2019). Trust me, I am a caring coach: the benefits of establishing trustworthiness during coaching by communicating benevolence. J. Trust Res. 9, 164–184. doi: 10.1080/21515581.2019.1650751

Seiler, P. R. (2006). Closeness, co-orientation and complementarity in coach–athlete relationships: what male swimmers say about their male coaches. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 7, 159–171. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.08.004

Si, G., Duan, Y., Li, H. Y., and Jiang, X. (2011). An exploration into socio-cultural meridians of Chinese Athletes' psychological training. J. Clin. Sport Psychol. 5, 325–338. doi: 10.1123/jcsp.5.4.325

Smith, D. J. (2003). A framework for understanding the training process leading to elite performance. Sports Med. 33, 1103–1126. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200333150-00003

Soligard, T., Schwellnus, M., Alonso, J. M., Bahr, R., Clarsen, B., Dijkstra, H. P., et al. (2016). How much is too much? (part 1) International Olympic Committee consensus statement on load in sport and risk of injury. Br. J. Sports Med. 50, 1030–1041. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096581

Stambulova, N. B., and Wylleman, P. (2019). “Athletes' career development and transitions” in Routledge international handbook of sport psychology . eds. R. J. Schinke, K. R. McGannon, and B. Smith (London: Routledge), 379–394.

Theeboom, T., Beersma, B., and Van Vianen, A. E. M. (2014). Does coaching work? A meta-analysis on the effects of coaching on individual level outcomes in an organizational context. J. Posit. Psychol. 9, 1–18. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2013.837499

Tiitu, T. (2017). Finnish teamwork in world-class team sports and what it might imply for interdependent workplace teams. Finland: Aalto University.

Turman, P. D. (2001). Situational coaching styles: the impact of success and athlete maturity level on Coaches' leadership styles over time. Small Group Res. 32, 576–594. doi: 10.1177/104649640103200504

Vallerand, R. J. (2007). “Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport and physical activity: a review and a look at the future” in Handbook of sport psychology eds. Tenenbaum, G. and Eklund, R. C. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 59–83.

Vinson, D., and Parker, A. (2021). Christian sports coaches and servant leadership. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach. 16, 304–316. doi: 10.1177/1747954120951768

Wang, B., Ye, L., Min, W., Tian, F., and Xiu, P. (2014). Effects of gratitude on athlete engagement: mediation of coach-athlete relationship. J Beijing Sport Univ 37, 85–90. doi: 10.19582/j.cnki.11-3785/g8.2014.09.014

Weinberg, R. S., and Gould, D. (2015). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (6th ed) . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

West, L. S. (2016). Coach-athlete communication: Coaching style, leadership characteristics, and psychological outcomes . America: Bowling Green State University.

Whitmore, S. J. (2017). Coaching for performance: Fifth edition—The principles and practice of coaching and leadership , America: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

Williams, A., Butt, J., and Kavanagh, E. (2023). An exploration of coaches’ and sport psychologists’ experiences of managing performance blocks. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 36, 301–319. doi: 10.1080/10413200.2023.2214745

Woods, S., Dunne, S., Gallagher, P., and McNicholl, A. (2022). A systematic review of the factors associated with athlete burnout in team sports. Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 1-41, 1–41. doi: 10.1080/1750984X.2022.2148225

Yao, X. (2000). An introduction to Confucianism. Britain: Cambridge University Press.

Ye, L., Wang, B., Liu, Z., Wu, Y., and Dong, L. (2016). The effect of coach-athlete relationship on sport performance satisfaction-serial multiple mediating effects of hope and athlete engagement. China Sport Sci 36, 40–48. doi: 10.16469/j.css.201607005

Keywords: gymnastic, world champion, Olympic champion, coaching success, coaching methodologies

Citation: Liu X, Weng X, Qin H, Ma S and Wang G (2024) The successful experience of gymnastics world champion coach: an interview analysis. Front. Psychol . 15:1405589. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1405589

Received: 23 March 2024; Accepted: 28 June 2024; Published: 18 July 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Liu, Weng, Qin, Ma and Wang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Shuai Ma, [email protected] , Guoqing Wang, [email protected]

† These authors have contributed equally to this work and share first authorship

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• How to Get Started With a Free Consultation
• College Application Essays
• Grad School Essays, Scholarship Essays and Letters of Continued Interest
• What Distinguishes EssayCoaching.com?
• Writing Coach Experts
• Blog & Events

Stronger Writing for Your College Application Essay

Since 2005, Essay Coaching has been guiding high school students and graduate students to create strong application essays with less family stress.

During a series of individual coaching sessions , students learn to write their story into essays that stand out to colleges as positive and compelling. But that’s not all.

Writing Help for College And Beyond

Through our coaching process, we help people understand their skills and strengths, articulate their study and work interests, and learn writing and editing strategies they’ll use in college and beyond. Learn more about the Essay Coaching difference here .

Get started today with a free 20 minute consultation to tell us about your needs.

Upcoming Events

College Essay Class (Online) 8/7/24

Get help and feedback.

Get Started Today

Read the Latest

ChatGPT and Essay Coaching Differences

Watch debbie merion on abc.

Watch More Videos

College Admissions Puzzle

A Guide for Students and Families About College Selection, Essay Writing and High-Stakes Testing

Endorsements

Multiple family members.

B. from Maryland

Insightful, Fun & Easy Going

Barb Kolling, Ann Arbor, MI.

Brainstorming Ideas

Madeleine L.

Impressive Essays

Free college essay guide.

Quick Answers to Commonly-Asked College Essay Questions

Yes! Send Me the Free Essay Guide

Contact Deb Today

Copyright Essay Coaching

Michigan Website Design

AI-Driven Behavior Change Could Transform Health Care

Huffington is the founder and CEO of Thrive Global

A staggering 129 million Americans have at least one major chronic disease—and 90% of our $4.1 trillion in annual health care spending goes toward treating these physical and mental-health conditions. That financial and personal toll is only projected to grow .

We know this is unsustainable. But there are solutions, because health outcomes are shaped by more than just medical care or genes. Behavior change can be a miracle drug, both for preventing disease and for optimizing the treatment of disease.

Yes, behavior change is hard. But through hyper-personalization, it’s also something that AI is uniquely positioned to solve.

AI is already greatly accelerating the rate of scientific progress in medicine—offering breakthroughs in drug development, diagnoses, and increasing the rate of scientific progress around diseases like cancer. In fact, OpenAI is partnering with Color Health on an AI copilot to assist doctors in cancer screening and in creating treatment plans after a doctor has made a diagnosis.

But humans are more than medical profiles. Every aspect of our health is deeply influenced by the five foundational daily behaviors of sleep, food, movement, stress management, and social connection. And AI, by using the power of hyper-personalization, can significantly improve these behaviors.

These are the ideas behind Thrive AI Health, the company the OpenAI Startup Fund and Thrive Global are jointly funding to build a customized, hyper-personalized AI health coach that will be available as a mobile app and also within Thrive Global’s enterprise products. It will be trained on the best peer-reviewed science as well as Thrive’s behavior change methodology —including Microsteps , which are tiny daily acts that cumulatively lead to healthier habits. And it will also be trained on the personal biometric, lab, and other medical data you’ve chosen to share with it. It will learn your preferences and patterns across the five behaviors: what conditions allow you to get quality sleep; which foods you love and don’t love; how and when you’re most likely to walk, move , and stretch; and the most effective ways you can reduce stress. Combine that with a superhuman long-term memory, and you have a fully integrated personal AI coach that offers real-time nudges and recommendations unique to you that allows you to take action on your daily behaviors to improve your health.

Read More : Long Waits, Short Appointments, Huge Bills: U.S. Health Care Is Causing Patient Burnout

Consider what it’s like to be a busy professional with diabetes. You might be struggling to manage your blood-sugar levels, often missing meals and exercise due to a hectic schedule. A personalized AI health coach, trained on your medical data and daily routines, could provide timely reminders to take your medication, suggest quick and healthy meal options, and encourage you to take short breaks for exercise.

Most health recommendations at the moment, though important, are generic: your patient portal might send you an automated reminder to get a flu shot or mammogram, or your smartwatch may ping you to breathe or stand. The AI health coach will make possible very precise recommendations tailored to each person: swap your third afternoon soda with water and lemon; go on a 10-minute walk with your child after you pick them up from school at 3:15 p.m.; start your wind-down routine at 10 p.m. since you have to get up at 6 a.m. the next morning to make your flight.

Using AI in this way would also scale and democratize the life-saving benefits of improving daily habits and address growing health inequities. Those with more resources are already in on the power of behavior change, with access to trainers, chefs, and life coaches. But since chronic diseases—like diabetes and cardiovascular disease—are distributed unequally across demographics, a hyper-personalized AI health coach would help make healthy behavior changes easier and more accessible. For instance, it might recommend a healthy, inexpensive recipe that can be quickly made with few ingredients to replace a fast-food dinner.

Health is also what happens between doctor visits. In the same way the New Deal built out physical infrastructure to transform the country, AI will serve as part of the critical infrastructure of a much more effective health care system that supports everyday people’s health in an ongoing way.

This would have an impact not just on our physical health, but on our mental and emotional health as well. When we’re depleted and stressed, we’re more likely to choose options like endless scrolling or emotional eating that might give us a quick dopamine hit, but won’t make us healthy or happy in the long run. With personalized nudges and real-time recommendations across all five behaviors—helping us improve our sleep, reduce sugar and ultra-processed foods, get more movement in our day, lower stress, and increase connection—AI could help us be in a stronger position to make better choices that nourish our mental health. It could also use our health information to make recommendations based on what motivates and inspires us.

Read More : Your Brain Doesn't Want You to Exercise

So much of the conversation around AI has been about how much time it will save us and how productive it will make us. But AI could go well beyond efficiency and optimization to something much more fundamental: improving both our health spans and our lifespans .

How our behaviors can be used to nurture our health and our full humanity is a topic that’s long been of interest to both of us. Arianna has written several books on the subject. Throughout his career, and while building OpenAI, Sam learned the value of prioritizing these five foundational behaviors, including getting enough sleep, eating well, exercising, spending time in nature, and meditating. This has helped him deal with his stress and anxiety and be more able to stay in the eye of the hurricane.

AI-driven diagnostics have already reduced error rates and improved patient outcomes . Now, by focusing AI on healthy behavior promotion and taking advantage of its ability to process potentially several billion data points, we put in our hands a powerful tool for positive change, ensuring technology works for our well-being rather than against it. Incentives are superpowers. And so far, they’ve mostly been used to tap into outrage and increase stress. But by creating new incentives, Thrive AI Health can make it possible for the users’ personal data to be used for their own benefit, helping us all make better decisions and lead healthier lives.

With AI-driven personalized behavior change, we have the chance to finally reverse the trend lines on chronic diseases. Achieving this vision requires collaboration. Policymakers need to create a regulatory environment that fosters AI innovation while safeguarding privacy. Health care providers need to integrate AI into their practices while ensuring that these tools meet rigorous standards for safety and efficacy. And individuals need to be fully empowered through AI coaching to better manage their daily health, with assurances that these technologies are reliable and that their personal health data will be handled responsibly. This collective effort, with robust privacy and security safeguards, can transform health care, benefiting millions of people around the world.

OpenAI and TIME have a licensing and technology agreement that allows OpenAI to access TIME's archives.

More Must-Reads from TIME

• Eyewitness Accounts From the Trump Rally Shooting
• From 2022: How the Threat of Political Violence Is Transforming America
• ‘We’re Living in a Nightmare:’ Inside the Health Crisis of a Texas Bitcoin Town
• Why We All Have a Stake in  Twisters’ Success
• 8 Eating Habits That Actually Improve Your Sleep
• Stop Feeling Bad About Sweating
• Welcome to the Noah Lyles Olympics
• Get Our Paris Olympics Newsletter in Your Inbox

Contact us at [email protected]

Legal Studies Research Beyond 50%: Providing contextual and coaching information substantially improves adults' ability to detect children's lies

Psychology, Crime & Law (in press); USC Law Legal Studies Paper 24-28

42 Pages Posted: 12 Jul 2024

Alison O'Connor

Brock University

Thomas D. Lyon

University of Southern California Gould School of Law

Georgia Ellery

Angela d. evans.

Institute of Child Study (Brock University)

Date Written: July 11, 2024

The present research examined how contextual/coaching information and interview format influenced adults’ ability to detect children’s lies. Participants viewed a series of child interview videos where children provided either a truthful report or a deceptive report to conceal a co-transgression; participants reported if they thought each child was lying or telling the truth. In Study 1 (N = 400), participants were assigned to one of the following conditions that varied in the type of interview shown and if context about the event in question was provided: full interview + context, recall questions + context, recognition questions + context, or full interview only (no context). Providing context (information about the potential co-transgression and coaching) significantly enhanced overall and lie accuracy, but this served the greatest benefit when provided with the recall interview, and participants held a lie bias. In Study 2 (N = 100), participants watched the full interview with simplified coaching information. Detection accuracy was reduced slightly but remained well above chance and the lie bias was eliminated. Thus, detection performance is improved when participants are given a child’s free-recall interview along with background information on the event and potential coaching, though providing specific coaching details introduces a lie bias.

Keywords: lie-detection, child witness, context, accuracy, coaching, bias, interview, question type

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Alison O'Connor (Contact Author)

Brock university ( email ).

500 Glenridge Avenue St. Catherines, Ontario L2S 3A1 Canada

University of Southern California Gould School of Law ( email )

699 Exposition Boulevard Los Angeles, CA 90089 United States 213-740-0142 (Phone) 213-740-5502 (Fax)

Institute of Child Study (Brock University) ( email )

Do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on ssrn, paper statistics, related ejournals, university of southern california legal studies research paper series.

Subscribe to this free journal for more curated articles on this topic

Criminal Law eJournal

Subscribe to this fee journal for more curated articles on this topic

Criminal Procedure eJournal

Family & children's law ejournal, law & society: family law, relations & dispute resolution ejournal, law & society: private law - family law ejournal, law & psychology ejournal, evidence & evidentiary procedure ejournal.