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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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WCU » WCU Student Resources » Research and Writing » Writing a Case Study Analysis

Guidelines for Writing a Case Study Analysis

A case study analysis requires an investigation to a problem. Then, examine the alternative solutions. Next, propose the most effective solution using supporting evidence.

Preparing the Case

Before you begin writing, follow these guidelines to help you prepare and understand the case study:

• Read and examine the case thoroughly Take notes, highlight relevant facts, and underline key problems.
• Focus your analysis Identify key issues. Who or what are responsible?
• Detect solutions Review: course readings, discussions, outside research, and your experience.
• Select solution[s] Consider all supporting evidence, pros, and cons: is this solution genuine?

Drafting the Case

A draft of your analysis should include these sections:

• Introduction Identify the key problems and issues in the case study. • Formulate and include a thesis statement, summarizing the outcome of your analysis in 1–2 sentences.
• Background Set the scene: background information, relevant facts, and the most important issues. Demonstrate that you have researched the problems in this case study.
• Choices Explain why alternatives were rejected or not possible at this time.
• Solution[s] Provide one specific and realistic solution. Explain why this solution was chosen. Support this solution with solid evidence.
• Recommendations Determine and discuss specific strategies for accomplishing the proposed solution. What should be done and who should do it?

Finalizing the Case

Read through your work to check for any gaps or inconsistencies in content. I suggest reading it out loud. It can bring the inconsistencies or gaps to light much faster than reading it in silence to yourself.

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The Ultimate Guide to Case Study Analysis

Welcome to a comprehensive exploration of the realm where real-world scenarios meet analytical prowess. In academia and business, the art of dissecting situations, identifying key issues, and formulating strategic recommendations is paramount. This guide is designed to equip you with the skills needed to navigate the complexities of case study analysis effectively. Whether you are a student honing your problem-solving abilities or a professional seeking to enhance your decision-making skills, this resource is tailored to meet your requirements. Through practical advice, real-life examples, and expert perspectives, you will gain the expertise to extract valuable insights from cases and apply them in various contexts. Prepare to embark on a journey that will elevate your analytical thinking and empower you to make informed decisions. Let’s delve into the world of analytical exploration together!

Key Steps in Conducting a Case Study Analysis

Case studies are an integral part of various academic and professional fields, providing a detailed examination of a particular subject. Conducting a case study analysis involves several key steps that help in understanding the complexities of the case and deriving meaningful insights. Here are the essential steps to effectively conduct a case study analysis:.

Preparing for Analysis: The first step in conducting a case study analysis is to thoroughly read and understand the case study. Identify the key stakeholders, relevant facts, and any other pertinent information that will aid in the analysis. It is essential to create a timeline of events and gather all necessary data to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the case.

Identifying Key Problems and Issues: Once you have a good grasp of the case study, identify the main problems or issues that the subject is facing. This step involves critically analyzing the information presented and determining the root causes of the problems. Conduct interviews, surveys, or additional research to delve deeper into the identified issues and gain multiple perspectives.

Formulating a Thesis Statement: Based on the identified problems, formulate a clear and concise thesis statement that summarizes the main issue or challenge faced by the subject of the case study. The thesis statement will guide the rest of your analysis. Ensure that your thesis statement is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) to effectively address the problem.

Recommendations and Further Actions: After analyzing the case study and developing a thesis statement, it is crucial to provide recommendations and suggest further actions that can address the identified problems. These recommendations should be practical, feasible, and supported by evidence from the case study. Consider the implications of your recommendations and propose a detailed action plan with clear steps and responsibilities.

Implementation and Evaluation: Once recommendations are made, focus on the implementation phase. Develop a monitoring and evaluation plan to track the progress of the proposed solutions. Regularly assess the outcomes and make adjustments as needed to ensure the effectiveness of the implemented strategies.

By following these key steps in conducting a case study analysis, you can effectively analyze complex cases, draw meaningful conclusions, and propose actionable recommendations for addressing the issues at hand. Remember, a well-executed case study analysis can provide valuable insights and contribute to informed decision-making processes.

Writing a Comprehensive Case Study Analysis

Case studies are an essential tool for understanding real-world scenarios and applying theoretical knowledge to practical situations. A well-crafted case study analysis can provide valuable insights and recommendations for businesses, organizations, and individuals. To ensure that your case study analysis is thorough and effective, consider the following points:.

Structuring Your Analysis: Begin by outlining the key issues or problems presented in the case study. Identify the main stakeholders involved and their interests. Then, develop a logical structure for your analysis, including an introduction, background information, analysis of key issues, recommendations, and a conclusion.

Incorporating Supporting Evidence: Back up your analysis with relevant data, facts, and examples from the case study. Use charts, graphs, and other visual aids to illustrate your points. Make sure to cite your sources properly and provide a clear rationale for your conclusions.

Proofreading and Editing: Before finalizing your case study analysis, review it carefully for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and free of jargon. Consider seeking feedback from peers or mentors to improve the quality of your analysis.

In addition to the above points, it is crucial to delve deeper into the case study context. Understand the industry trends, competitive landscape, and any external factors that may influence the situation. Conduct a SWOT analysis to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats relevant to the case. This strategic analysis can provide a holistic view and help in formulating more robust recommendations.

Furthermore, consider the ethical implications of the decisions proposed in your analysis. Evaluate the potential impact on various stakeholders, including employees, customers, and the community. Addressing ethical considerations demonstrates a comprehensive understanding of the case study and showcases your commitment to responsible decision-making.

Lastly, consider the implementation aspects of your recommendations. Outline a detailed action plan with clear steps, responsibilities, and timelines. Discuss potential challenges that may arise during implementation and propose mitigation strategies to ensure successful execution.

By incorporating these additional elements into your case study analysis, you can elevate the depth and quality of your insights, making your analysis a valuable resource for strategic planning and problem-solving.

Enhancing Your Case Study Analysis

When it comes to conducting a case study analysis, there are various strategies that can be employed to enhance the quality and effectiveness of the study. Two key approaches that can significantly improve your case study analysis are utilizing templates for structuring your case studies and incorporating visual elements to increase reader engagement.

Utilizing Templates for Effective Case Studies:

Templates can serve as a valuable tool in organizing and presenting your case study in a clear and structured manner. By using a template, you can ensure that all essential components of the case study are included, such as the background information, problem statement, methodology, results, and conclusions. Templates can also help maintain consistency across multiple case studies, making it easier for readers to navigate and understand the content.

Incorporating Visual Elements for Engagement:

In addition to well-structured content, incorporating visual elements can greatly enhance the engagement level of your case study. Visual elements such as charts, graphs, images, and infographics can help break down complex information into more digestible formats, making it easier for readers to grasp key insights and findings. Visuals can also make your case study more visually appealing and memorable, increasing the likelihood of reader retention and understanding.

Moreover, when incorporating visual elements, it is essential to ensure that they are relevant and complement the textual content. Visual aids should not only enhance understanding but also add value by providing additional context or highlighting critical points within the case study.

Furthermore, consider the target audience when selecting visual elements. Different types of visuals may resonate better with specific audiences. For instance, a business-oriented audience might prefer data-driven charts and graphs, while a more general audience might respond better to illustrative images or real-life examples.

Additionally, interactive elements such as clickable graphics or embedded multimedia can further enhance reader engagement and interactivity with the case study content. These interactive features can create a more immersive experience for the audience, allowing them to explore the information in a more dynamic and personalized way.

By incorporating a combination of well-structured templates, relevant visual elements, and interactive features, you can not only improve the overall quality of your case study analysis but also create a more engaging and impactful experience for your audience.

Citing Sources and Appendices

When writing any academic or research-based content, it is crucial to properly cite all external sources used in your work. This not only gives credit to the original authors but also helps readers locate the sources for further reference. There are various citation styles that one can follow, such as APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or Harvard style. Each style has its own set of rules regarding how to cite different types of sources like books, journals, websites, etc. It is essential to be consistent in applying the chosen citation style throughout the document.

In addition to citing external sources, including appendices can also enhance the quality and credibility of your work

Appendices are used to provide supplementary information that is not essential to the main text but can offer valuable context or data. This could include raw data, detailed technical information, questionnaires used in research, or any additional material that supports the main content of the document. When including appendices, it is important to clearly label each one and refer to them within the main text when necessary. This ensures that readers can easily navigate through the document and access the supplementary information as needed.

Referencing External Sources

When citing external sources, it is important to follow the guidelines of the chosen citation style. In addition to the basic information like author name, publication year, and title, some citation styles may require additional details such as page numbers, URLs, or DOI (Digital Object Identifier). It is crucial to accurately record these details to provide a complete and accurate reference.

Using Citation Styles like APA, MLA, or Harvard

Each citation style has its own unique format for citing sources. For example, in APA style, in-text citations typically include the author’s last name and the publication year, while MLA style uses the author’s last name and page number. Understanding the specific requirements of each style is essential to ensure proper citation throughout the document.

Including Appendices for Original Data

Appendices are a valuable tool for including supplementary information that supports the main content of your work. When including original data in an appendix, it is important to present the information in a clear and organized manner. This could involve creating tables, charts, or graphs to present the data visually, along with a brief explanation to help readers interpret the information effectively.

Overall, citing external sources and including appendices are essential components of academic and research writing. By following the guidelines of the chosen citation style and providing relevant supplementary information in the appendices, you can enhance the credibility and clarity of your work.

Mastering the art of case study analysis is a valuable skill that can greatly benefit students and professionals alike. By following the steps outlined in this guide, individuals can enhance their critical thinking abilities and problem-solving skills. Additionally, honing the ability to dissect and analyze case studies effectively can lead to improved decision-making and strategic planning in various fields. For further guidance on crafting concise and engaging summaries of research studies, check out the detailed tips provided in the article ‘How to Write a Scientific Abstract’ at Avidnote . Strengthen your academic writing skills and enhance your research capabilities today!.

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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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Writing a Case Study

What is a case study?

A Case study is: 

• An in-depth research design that primarily uses a qualitative methodology but sometimes​​ includes quantitative methodology.
• Used to examine an identifiable problem confirmed through research.
• Used to investigate an individual, group of people, organization, or event.
• Used to mostly answer "how" and "why" questions.

What are the different types of case studies?

Note: These are the primary case studies. As you continue to research and learn

about case studies you will begin to find a robust list of different types. 

Who are your case study participants?

What is triangulation ? 

Validity and credibility are an essential part of the case study. Therefore, the researcher should include triangulation to ensure trustworthiness while accurately reflecting what the researcher seeks to investigate.

How to write a Case Study?

When developing a case study, there are different ways you could present the information, but remember to include the five parts for your case study.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What is Case Study Analysis? (Explained With Examples)

Oct 11, 2023

Case Study Analysis is a widely used research method that examines in-depth information about a particular individual, group, organization, or event. It is a comprehensive investigative approach that aims to understand the intricacies and complexities of the subject under study. Through the analysis of real-life scenarios and inquiry into various data sources, Case Study Analysis provides valuable insights and knowledge that can be used to inform decision-making and problem-solving strategies.

1°) What is Case Study Analysis?

Case Study Analysis is a research methodology that involves the systematic investigation of a specific case or cases to gain a deep understanding of the subject matter. This analysis encompasses collecting and analyzing various types of data, including qualitative and quantitative information. By examining multiple aspects of the case, such as its context, background, influences, and outcomes, researchers can draw meaningful conclusions and provide valuable insights for various fields of study.

When conducting a Case Study Analysis, researchers typically begin by selecting a case or multiple cases that are relevant to their research question or area of interest. This can involve choosing a specific organization, individual, event, or phenomenon to study. Once the case is selected, researchers gather relevant data through various methods, such as interviews, observations, document analysis, and artifact examination.

The data collected during a Case Study Analysis is then carefully analyzed and interpreted. Researchers use different analytical frameworks and techniques to make sense of the information and identify patterns, themes, and relationships within the data. This process involves coding and categorizing the data, conducting comparative analysis, and drawing conclusions based on the findings.

One of the key strengths of Case Study Analysis is its ability to provide a rich and detailed understanding of a specific case. This method allows researchers to delve deep into the complexities and nuances of the subject matter, uncovering insights that may not be captured through other research methods. By examining the case in its natural context, researchers can gain a holistic perspective and explore the various factors and variables that contribute to the case.

1.1 - Definition of Case Study Analysis

Case Study Analysis can be defined as an in-depth examination and exploration of a particular case or cases to unravel relevant details and complexities associated with the subject being studied. It involves a comprehensive and detailed analysis of various factors and variables that contribute to the case, aiming to answer research questions and uncover insights that can be applied in real-world scenarios.

When conducting a Case Study Analysis, researchers employ a range of research methods and techniques to collect and analyze data. These methods can include interviews, surveys, observations, document analysis, and experiments, among others. By using multiple sources of data, researchers can triangulate their findings and ensure the validity and reliability of their analysis.

Furthermore, Case Study Analysis often involves the use of theoretical frameworks and models to guide the research process. These frameworks provide a structured approach to analyzing the case and help researchers make sense of the data collected. By applying relevant theories and concepts, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the underlying factors and dynamics at play in the case.

1.2 - Advantages of Case Study Analysis

Case Study Analysis offers numerous advantages that make it a popular research method across different disciplines. One significant advantage is its ability to provide rich and detailed information about a specific case, allowing researchers to gain a holistic understanding of the subject matter. Additionally, Case Study Analysis enables researchers to explore complex issues and phenomena in their natural context, capturing the intricacies and nuances that may not be captured through other research methods.

Moreover, Case Study Analysis allows researchers to investigate rare or unique cases that may not be easily replicated or studied through experimental methods. This method is particularly useful when studying phenomena that are complex, multifaceted, or involve multiple variables. By examining real-world cases, researchers can gain insights that can be applied to similar situations or inform future research and practice.

Furthermore, this research method allows for the analysis of multiple sources of data, such as interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which can contribute to a comprehensive and well-rounded examination of the case. Case Study Analysis also facilitates the exploration and identification of patterns, trends, and relationships within the data, generating valuable insights and knowledge for future reference and application.

1.3 - Disadvantages of Case Study Analysis

While Case Study Analysis offers various advantages, it also comes with certain limitations and challenges. One major limitation is the potential for researcher bias, as the interpretation of data and findings can be influenced by preconceived notions and personal perspectives. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and take steps to minimize their impact on the analysis.

Additionally, Case Study Analysis may suffer from limited generalizability, as it focuses on specific cases and contexts, which might not be applicable or representative of broader populations or situations. The findings of a case study may not be easily generalized to other settings or individuals, and caution should be exercised when applying the results to different contexts.

Moreover, Case Study Analysis can require significant time and resources due to its in-depth nature and the need for meticulous data collection and analysis. This can pose challenges for researchers working with limited budgets or tight deadlines. However, the thoroughness and depth of the analysis often outweigh the resource constraints, as the insights gained from a well-conducted case study can be highly valuable.

Finally, ethical considerations also play a crucial role in Case Study Analysis, as researchers must ensure the protection of participant confidentiality and privacy. Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants and take measures to safeguard their identities and personal information. Ethical guidelines and protocols should be followed to ensure the rights and well-being of the individuals involved in the case study.

2°) Examples of Case Study Analysis

Real-world examples of Case Study Analysis demonstrate the method's practical application and showcase its usefulness across various fields. The following examples provide insights into different scenarios where Case Study Analysis has been employed successfully.

2.1 - Example in a Startup Context

In a startup context, a Case Study Analysis might explore the factors that contributed to the success of a particular startup company. It would involve examining the organization's background, strategies, market conditions, and key decision-making processes. This analysis could reveal valuable lessons and insights for aspiring entrepreneurs and those interested in understanding the intricacies of startup success.

2.2 - Example in a Consulting Context

In the consulting industry, Case Study Analysis is often utilized to understand and develop solutions for complex business problems. For instance, a consulting firm might conduct a Case Study Analysis on a company facing challenges in its supply chain management. This analysis would involve identifying the underlying issues, evaluating different options, and proposing recommendations based on the findings. This approach enables consultants to apply their expertise and provide practical solutions to their clients.

2.3 - Example in a Digital Marketing Agency Context

Within a digital marketing agency, Case Study Analysis can be used to examine successful marketing campaigns. By analyzing various factors such as target audience, message effectiveness, channel selection, and campaign metrics, this analysis can provide valuable insights into the strategies and tactics that contribute to successful marketing initiatives. Digital marketers can then apply these insights to optimize future campaigns and drive better results for their clients.

2.4 - Example with Analogies

Case Study Analysis can also be utilized with analogies to investigate specific scenarios and draw parallels to similar situations. For instance, a Case Study Analysis could explore the response of different countries to natural disasters and draw analogies to inform disaster management strategies in other regions. These analogies can help policymakers and researchers develop more effective approaches to mitigate the impact of disasters and protect vulnerable populations.

In conclusion, Case Study Analysis is a powerful research method that provides a comprehensive understanding of a particular individual, group, organization, or event. By analyzing real-life cases and exploring various data sources, researchers can unravel complexities, generate valuable insights, and inform decision-making processes. With its advantages and limitations, Case Study Analysis offers a unique approach to gaining in-depth knowledge and practical application across numerous fields.

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The Ultimate Guide on Writing an A+ Case Study Analysis + 15 Examples

Struggle with writing a case study analysis? You are in the right place! Below, we will show you nuts and bolts of this type of paper, how to write it, and share 15 distinct essay examples. Plus, you will find the case study checklist to keep your writing on track.

What is a Case Study Analysis?

Case study analysis topics.

• Important Aspects

You might ask, what is a case study analysis ? With this type of work, you take an actual situation from a specific discipline, such as business or education. The goal is to find a solution, analyze the outcomes of the situation, or evaluate it.

Case study analysis does not target one specific theory or piece of knowledge. It requires a universal application of several theories and methods for research and review. Hence, it can be helpful for many disciplines at once. If you need to look at some examples, head over to our essay database .

There are several steps you need to take for a successful analysis depending on the type of your case study. Here are the most critical universal points:

• Analyze the problem from different perspectives. Use the theories and methods you have learned about in the classroom.
• Devise a series of solutions or outcomes. You need to analyze their advantages and weaknesses.
• Provide the best solution according to your analysis. You must present solid arguments for why you have suggested it.
• Demonstrate well-grounded research in your case study analysis You should not make claims without proof.
• Provide credible references for any theory that you mention in your analysis. You do not want your work to be discarded because of plagiarism.

If you want to start the business in the future, case study analysis is essential for your education. It can give you a taste of what your career is might include.

Are you panicking because you have never written anything like this before? Don’t worry! After going through the guidelines in this article, you will get a better sense of what is required from you. It will not seem as scary anymore. 😊

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15 Case Study Analysis Examples

We have prepared 15 examples of case study analysis, so you can get an idea of how they should look. The disciplines are broad and there is something here for everyone. Check out the table below!

Let’s concentrate on the format for case study analysis!

Case Study Analysis: Format

In this section, we will get you acquainted with different types of case studies. We will focus on the difference between multiple and single case study analysis. Additionally, we will show you how to organize all of your ideas into an outline. Hence, your work will be understandable and complete.

• Types of Case Studies

There are several distinct types of case studies , each with its nuances. The choice will depend on the needs of your investigation. We will focus on Illustrative, Exploratory, Cumulative, and Critical Instance studies. Let’s explore each of them one by one.

• Illustrative Case Studies Illustrative case studies are the most common type. They are very descriptive, and the main goal is to help you understand the situation. You are typically given one or two instances of an event. Illustrative case studies answer two questions: What is happening? Why is it happening? The case study is explained in great detail, including location, key players, roles, influence, and involvement. The focus of illustrative case studies is to maintain the reader’s interest. Hence, the language should be understandable, but it should not be oversimplified. It is not preferred to quote more than two instances as the case study might become too complicated.
• Exploratory Case Studies Exploratory case studies are mainly used in Social Sciences. They tend to focus on real-life contexts for situations. They are implemented before a large-scale investigation to help develop the case for more advanced research processes. Exploratory case studies aim to research a specific topic in detail to help you reach a complete understanding of it. You need to identify questions that can later be answered as part of a more extensive examination. Your initial research might reveal very persuasive details. However, it is crucial to remember that concluding before the large-scale investigation is counterproductive.
• Cumulative Case Studies The idea of a cumulative case study is to gather information and details from many data sources to claim a general phenomenon. Cumulative case studies eliminate the need for additional and expensive new studies, which are simply repetitions of the old ones. If you properly analyze all of the case study data that exists, you will realize that everything you are looking for is already there. However, it is essential to look at the existing research from a new perspective to ensure it fits the current challenges and needs.
• Critical Instance Case Studies Critical instance case studies are similar to cumulative but work oppositely. Instead of defining a general phenomenon based on little research, it tries to understand a specific case based on generalized findings. Critical instance case studies help answer cause and effect questions. The adequate specification of your evaluation question is the most crucial part of your analysis.
• Single vs. Multiple Case Study

Your case study can either include a single case or multiple cases . In this section, we will discuss the benefits of both:

• Single Case Study Single case studies are less expensive and do not take as much time. When examining one case, it is easier to put all of your energy into it and get a deeper understanding of the subject. Since the study is more careful, you can look at one thing from many different perspectives. Usually, in a single case study, the case is more critical and unique , and it is possible to focus on a more longitudinal research.
• Multiple Case Study When studying several cases, you can understand the critical similarities and differences among them. If you base your research on many cases, it will be more robust and reliable. Such analysis allows you to form broader research questions. Hence, you can end up with a more convincing theory.

Now, let’s talk about the backbone of every study: the outline!

Case Study Outline

Before writing any paper, you should first prepare an outline. It not only makes your job easier but also enhances the organization of your paper. You should put all of your ideas down and try to understand which order and format will best suit your analysis.

We have tried to simplify the process by preparing a sample outline for your case study analysis. It will help you understand what your paper should include.

• Introduction Firstly, you should introduce your reader to the case, assuming they have no prior knowledge. Describe all the challenges and mention the most important details.
• Answers to the Questions There will probably be some questions about your case. It would be best if you answered all of them in an organized manner. Make sure not to make it too obvious. Answer them in such a way that it seems like a part of your analysis.
• Challenges Though you talk about the challenges in your introduction a little bit, it is essential to go into more detail within the main paragraphs to make sure your readers understand them. It will improve the comprehension of solutions later.
• Solutions Introduce each solution you have devised. Evaluate those based on different theories and mechanisms. All of your propositions need to be solid and well-designed. Your case study evaluation should be informative and engaging.
• Final Statement In this part of your paper, you should state which solution best fits the case according to your broader analysis. You should compare it with the others and explain why you have chosen it.
• Conclusion The conclusion is the last thing you need to write. There is nothing specific that should be included. Make sure that your paper comes to a logical end.
• References Of course, you need to reference all of the theories and practices mentioned in your paper for your analysis to be solid and well-grounded. The style of your references will depend on the format assigned by your instructor.

This is how a typical case study analysis should look like. We mentioned this format for you to imagine the standard thought process that goes into making outlines. First, organize your research and divide it into parts to achieve an exciting and compelling paper. The type of case study analysis with which you are dealing also matters.

Now, here’s how you start writing!

How to Write Case Study Analysis: Important Aspects

In this section, you will find everything you need to kickstart writing your paper. Firstly, we will go through the things you need to have ready before you start. Then, we will show you how to do adequate research. Finally, we will give you a case study checklist to make it easier to complete the tasks throughout your analysis.

Before You Start

It is vital to choose an appropriate case study topic first. It should be exciting and relevant to your area of study. Once you select your topic, you need to choose an applicable case study . There are several criteria that you need to keep in mind in your search of a case study:

• The case study should complement your topic of research For example, if the topic you have chosen is related to marketing, it would be weird if your case study was about banking. However, a case study about how a famous company handles its marketing would be very acceptable.
• The case study should apply to the phenomena that you have chosen to research Make sure that the way the company handles its marketing can be generalized to benefit other companies. It needs to be universally reusable.
• The case study cannot be outdated You need to know that you can apply the outcome of your research to the modern world. Everything needs to be analyzed from the perspective of today.
• Decide whether you need a single or multiple case study You can go through the comparison above once again. Try to understand which one suits your topic best.

Do you already have the topic? Let’s get your researching skills up to date!

Case Study Research

When doing case study research, simply googling something rains down tons of sources full of information. However, most of those sources cannot be trusted, especially when writing an academic paper. The references are the most crucial part of such papers. If they are poor, then your essay has no reliable basis. Hence, you need to look for official sources, such as university websites or scholarly articles. Remember that Wikipedia is not a valid source !

Throughout the process, have your research question in mind. It is easy to get carried away and read every exciting article on the topic. Nonetheless, it would be best to have a specific goal to ensure your research is practical and not wasting your time.

Finally, keep your research up to date! Remember that you are looking for information that applies to the current world and its challenges. You need to look for modern solutions to the given problem.

We are almost there! Let’s make sure you can tick off every item in this checklist !

Checklist for Case Study Analysis

Go through this checklist. It will help you keep your case study research and writing on track.

• Choose the topic.
• Decide whether you are going to do single or multiple case study.
• Identify the type of your case study.
• They are relevant to the topic.
• Their outcome can be generalized to fit other cases within the same area of research.
• They are not outdated.
• Define a clear case study research question.
• Make sure that the sources of your research are credible and up to date.
• Identify the theories and methodologies you are going to use to analyze the case.
• Use more than one point of view to examine the case, and look at it from different perspectives.
• Have a clear outline of what you are going to include in your paper.
• Write and proofread your paper.

Have you completed every item on this list? Congratulations! You are done with your case study analysis!

❓ What is the difference between case study and case analysis?

Case study and case analysis both provide you with a topic and require extensive research. However, a case study must be taken from real life. For example, a student might analyze Coca-Cola’s financial results and come up with brilliant results that can significantly impact the company. If you send this kind of case study analysis to the company, you might even get a reward. Case analysis focuses more on problems and solutions, whereas case studies can include general research and evaluation.

❓ What are the stages of a case study?

There are four main stages of a case study:

• analyzing the case,
• identifying its challenges,
• devising a set of possible solutions or outcomes,
• evaluating those outcomes.

To ensure the success of your analysis, you should go over all of these stages with equal diligence.

❓ What is the purpose of a case study?

The purpose of a case study analysis is to describe a case in detail and identify the main issues with it. Afterwards, these issues need to be analyzed based on appropriate theories from the discipline that you have learned about in class. Finally, you need to recommend a list of actions that should be performed for that case.

❓ What are the qualities of a good case study?

Here are some qualities of a good case study:

• It is written in a formal, academic language with good grammar and coherent structure.
• All of the claims made in the case study have a reasonable basis and can be proven.
• The case study does not overload the readers with unnecessary information. It is clear and to the point.
• The information is passed to the reader in an organized manner. It has flow, and it is easy to keep up with the extensive academic research.
• What is a Case Study Analysis
• Illustrative Case Studies
• Exploratory Case Study Example
• Definition of Cumulative Case Studies
• Definition of Critical Instance Case Studies
• A Comparative Study of Single and Multiple Case Studies
• How to Choose an Applicable Study
• Case Study Checklist
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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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Case Study Analysis: Examples + How-to Guide & Writing Tips

A case study analysis is a typical assignment in business management courses. The task aims to show high school and college students how to analyze a current situation, determine what problems exist, and develop the best possible strategy to achieve the desired outcome.

Many students feel anxious about writing case analyses because being told to analyze a case study and provide a solution can seem like a big task. That is especially so when working with real-life scenarios. However, you can rest assured writing a case analysis paper is easier than you think. Just keep reading this article and you will find case study examples for students and the advice provided by Custom-writing experts!

• 👣 Main Steps
• 🕵 Preparing the Case

🔬 Analyzing the Case

• 📑 Format & Structure
• 🙅 Things to Avoid
• 🏁 Conclusion

🔗 References

👣 writing a case study analysis: main steps.

Business management is built on case analysis. Every single economic result shows that the methods and instruments employed were either well-timed and expedient, in the event of success, or not, in case of failure. These two options indicate whether the strategy is efficient (and should be followed) or requires corrections (or complete change). Such an approach to the case study will make your writing piece more proficient and valuable for the reader. The following steps will direct your plan for writing a case study analysis.

Step 1: Preliminary work

• Make notes and highlight the numbers and ideas that could be quoted.
• Single out as many problems as you can, and briefly mark their underlying issues. Then make a note of those responsible. In the report, you will use two to five of the problems, so you will have a selection to choose from.
• Outline a possible solution to each of the problems you found. Course readings and outside research shall be used here. Highlight your best and worst solution for further reference.

Step 2: Drafting the Case

• Provide a general description of the situation and its history.
• Name all the problems you are going to discuss.
• Specify the theory used for the analysis.
• Present the assumptions that emerged during the analysis, if any.
• Describe the detected problems in more detail.
• Indicate their link to, and effect on, the general situation.
• Explain why the problems emerged and persist.
• List realistic and feasible solutions to the problems you outlined, in the order of importance.
• Specify your predicted results of such changes.
• Support your choice with reliable evidence (i.e., textbook readings, the experience of famous companies, and other external research).
• Define the strategies required to fulfill your proposed solution.
• Indicate the responsible people and the realistic terms for its implementation.
• Recommend the issues for further analysis and supervision.

Step 3: Finalizing the Case

Like any other piece of writing, a case analysis requires post-editing. Carefully read it through, looking for inconsistencies and gaps in meaning. Your purpose is to make it look complete, precise, and convincing.

🕵 Preparing a Case for Analysis

Your professor might give you various case study examples from which to choose, or they may just assign you a particular case study. To conduct a thorough data analysis, you must first read the case study. This might appear to be obvious. However, you’d be surprised at how many students don’t take adequate time to complete this part.

Read the case study very thoroughly, preferably several times. Highlight, underline, flag key information, and make notes to refer to later when you are writing your analysis report.

If you don’t have a complete knowledge of the case study your professor has assigned, you won’t conduct a proper analysis of it. Even if you make use of a business case study template or refer to a sample analysis, it won’t help if you aren’t intimately familiar with your case study.

You will also have to conduct research. When it comes to research, you will need to do the following:

• Gather hard, quantitative data (e.g. 67% of the staff participated in the meeting).
• Design research tools , such as questionnaires and surveys (this will aid in gathering data).
• Determine and suggest the best specific, workable solutions.

It would be best if you also learned how to analyze a case study. Once you have read through the case study, you need to determine the focus of your analysis. You can do this by doing the following:

Compare your chosen solutions to the solutions offered by the experts who analyzed the case study you were given or to online assignments for students who were dealing with a similar task. The experts’ solutions will probably be more advanced than yours simply because these people are more experienced. However, don’t let this discourage you; the whole point of doing this analysis is to learn. Use the opportunity to learn from others’ valuable experience, and your results will be better next time.

If you are still in doubt, the University of South Carolina offers a great guide on forming a case study analysis.

📑 Case Analysis Format & Structure

When you are learning how to write a case study analysis, it is important to get the format of your analysis right. Understanding the case study format is vital for both the professor and the student. The person planning and handing out such an assignment should ensure that the student doesn’t have to use any external sources .

In turn, students have to remember that a well-written case analysis provides all the data, making it unnecessary for the reader to go elsewhere for information.

Regardless of whether you use a case study template, you will need to follow a clear and concise format when writing your analysis report. There are some possible case study frameworks available. Still, a case study should contain eight sections laid out in the following format:

• Describe the purpose of the current case study;
• Provide a summary of the company;
• Briefly introduce the problems and issues found in the case study
• Discuss the theory you will be using in the analysis;
• Present the key points of the study and present any assumptions made during the analysis.
• Present each problem you have singled out;
• Justify your inclusion of each problem by providing supporting evidence from the case study and by discussing relevant theory and what you have learned from your course content;
• Divide the section (and following sections) into subsections, one for each of your selected problems.
• Present a summary of each problem you have identified;
• Present plausible solutions for each of the problems, keeping in mind that each problem will likely have more than one possible solution;
• Provide the pros and cons of each solution in a way that is practical.
• Conclusion . This is a summary of your findings and discussion.
• Decide which solution best fits each of the issues you identified;
• Explain why you chose this solution and how it will effectively solve the problem;
• Be persuasive when you write this section so that you can drive your point home;
• Be sure to bring together theory and what you have learned throughout your course to support your recommendations.
• Provide an explanation of what must be done, who should take action, and when the solution should be carried out;
• Where relevant, you should provide an estimate of the cost in implementing the solution, including both the financial investment and the cost in terms of time.
• References. While you generally do not need to refer to many external sources when writing a case study analysis, you might use a few. When you do, you will need to properly reference these sources, which is most often done in one of the main citation styles, including APA, MLA, or Harvard. There is plenty of help when citing references, and you can follow these APA guidelines , these MLA guidelines , or these Harvard guidelines .
• Appendices. This is the section you include after your case study analysis if you used any original data in the report. These data, presented as charts, graphs, and tables, are included here because to present them in the main body of the analysis would be disruptive to the reader. The University of Southern California provides a great description of appendices and when to make use of them.

When you’ve finished your first draft, be sure to proofread it. Look not only for potential grammar and spelling errors but also for discrepancies or holes in your argument.

You should also know what you need to avoid when writing your analysis.

🙅 Things to Avoid in Case Analysis

Whenever you deal with a case study, remember that there are some pitfalls to avoid! Beware of the following mistakes:

• Excessive use of colloquial language . Even though it is a study of an actual case, it should sound formal.
• Lack of statistical data . Give all the important data, both in percentages and in numbers.
• Excessive details. State only the most significant facts, rather than drowning the reader in every fact you find.
• Inconsistency in the methods you have used . In a case study, theory plays a relatively small part, so you must develop a specific case study research methodology.
• Trivial means of research . It is critical that you design your own case study research method in whatever form best suits your analysis, such as questionnaires and surveys.

It is useful to see a few examples of case analysis papers. After all, a sample case study report can provide you with some context so you can see how to approach each aspect of your paper.

👀 Case Study Examples for Students

It might be easier to understand how a case study analysis works if you have an example to look at. Fortunately, examples of case studies are easy to come by. Take a look at this video for a sample case study analysis for the Coca-Cola Company.

If you want another example, then take a look at the one below!

Business Case Analysis: Example

CRM’s primary focus is customers and customer perception of the brand or the company. The focus may shift depending on customers’ needs. The main points that Center Parcs should consider are an increase in customer satisfaction and its market share. Both of these points will enhance customer perception of the product as a product of value. Increased customer satisfaction will indicate that the company provides quality services, and increased market share can reduce the number of switching (or leaving) customers, thus fostering customer loyalty.

Case Study Topics

• Equifax case study: the importance of cybersecurity measures. 
• Study a case illustrating ethical issues of medical research.
• Examine the case describing the complications connected with nursing and residential care.
• Analyze the competitive strategy of Delta Airlines .
• Present a case study of an ethical dilemma showing the conflict between the spirit and the letter of the law.  
• Explore the aspects of Starbucks’ marketing strategyin a case study.  
• Research a case of community-based clinic organization and development.
• Customer service of United Airlines: a case study .
• Analyze a specific schizophrenia case and provide your recommendations.
• Provide a case study of a patient with hyperglycemia.
• Examine the growth strategy of United Healthcare.
• Present a case study demonstrating ethical issues in business.
• Study a case of the 5% shareholding rule application and its impact on the company.
• Case study of post-traumatic stress disorder .
• Analyze a case examining the issues of cross-cultural management .
• Write a case study exploring the ethical issues the finance manager of a long-term care facility can face and the possible reaction to them.
• Write a case study analyzing the aspects of a new president of a firm election.
• Discuss the specifics of supply chain management in the case of Tehindo company.
• Study a case of a life crisis in a family and the ways to cope with it.
• Case study of Tea Leaves and More: supply chain issues.   
• Explore the case of ketogenic diet implementation among sportspeople.  
• Analyze the case of Webster Jewelry shop and suggest some changes.  
• Examine the unique aspects of Tea and More brand management.  
• Adidas case study: an ethical dilemma .
• Research the challenges of Brazos Valley Food Bank and suggest possible solutions.  
• Describe the case of dark web monitoring for business.  
• Study a case of permissive parenting style .
• Case study of Starbucks employees.
• Analyze a case of workplace discrimination and suggest a strategy to avoid it.
• Examine a case of the consumer decision-making process and define the factors that influence it.
• Present a case study of Netflix illustrating the crucial role of management innovation for company development.  
• Discuss a case describing a workplace ethical issue and propose ways to resolve it.
• Case study of the 2008 financial crisis: Graham’s value investing principles in the modern economic climate.
• Write a case study analyzing the harmful consequences of communication issues in a virtual team.
• Analyze a case that highlights the importance of a proper functional currency choice. 
• Examine the case of Hitachi Power Systems management.  
• Present a case study of medication research in a healthcare facility.
• Study the case of Fiji Water and the challenges the brand faces.  
• Research a social problem case and suggest a solution.
• Analyze a case that reveals the connection between alcohol use and borderline personality disorder.
• Transglobal Airline case study: break-even analysis.
• Examine the case of Chiquita Brands International from the moral and business ethics points of view.
• Present a case study of applying for Social Security benefits. 
• Study the case of a mass hacker attack on Microsoft clients and suggest possible ways to prevent future attacks.
• Case study of leadership effectiveness. 
• Analyze a case presenting a clinical moral dilemma and propose ways to resolve it. 
• Describe the case of Cowbell Brewing Company and discuss the strategy that made them successful.
• Write a case study of WeWork company and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of its strategy.
• Case study of medical ethical decision-making.
• Study the case of The Georges hotel and suggest ways to overcome its managerial issues.

🏁 Concluding Remarks

Writing a case study analysis can seem incredibly overwhelming, especially if you have never done it before. Just remember, you can do it provided you follow a plan, keep to the format described here, and study at least one case analysis example.

If you still need help analyzing a case study, your professor is always available to answer your questions and point you in the right direction. You can also get help with any aspect of the project from a custom writing company. Just tackle the research and hand over the writing, write a rough draft and have it checked by a professional, or completely hand the project off to an expert writer.

Regardless of the path you choose, you will turn in something of which you can be proud!

✏️ Case Study Analysis FAQ

Students (especially those who study business) often need to write a case study analysis. It is a kind of report that describes a business case. It includes multiple aspects, for example, the problems that exist, possible solutions, forecasts, etc.

There should be 3 main points covered in a case study analysis:

• The challenge(s) description,
• Possible solutions,
• Outcomes (real and/or foreseen).

Firstly, study some examples available online and in the library. Case study analysis should be a well-structured paper with all the integral components in place. Thus, you might want to use a template and/or an outline to start correctly.

A case study analysis is a popular task for business students. They typically hand it in the format of a paper with several integral components:

• Description of the problem
• Possible ways out
• Results and/or forecasts

Students sometimes tell about the outcome of their research within an oral presentation.

• Case Study: Academia
• Windows of vulnerability: a case study analysis (IEEE)
• A (Very) Brief Refresher on the Case Study Method: SAGE
• The case study approach: Medical Research Methodology
• Strengths and Limitations of Case Studies: Stanford University
• A Sample APA Paper: Radford University
• How to Write a Case Study APA Style: Seattle PI
• The Case Analysis: GVSU
• How to Outline: Purdue OWL
• Incorporating Interview Data: UW-Madison Writing Center
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Problem-Solving in Business: CASE STUDIES

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A Model for Case Analysis and Problem Solving

ABOUT THIS CONTENT

Table of Contents

Why the Case Approach

The most effective way for learning to take place is to actually be in real situations, make decisions, deal with the consequences of those decisions, and learn from our real mistakes. Nothing will ever replace learning from experience. Cases (which involve real situations although names may be changed) allow us to "simulate" real life situations when we don’t have the luxury of having years of experience. Cases allow us (to some degree) to live with real situations, make decisions, and feel the consequences. Like scientists in a laboratory, students of management use case problems and experiential exercises as "laboratory" opportunities to experiment with real organizations in the classroom setting.

Cases attempt to reflect the various pressures and considerations managers confront in everyday organizational life. By using complex real world problems as a focus, cases are designed to challenge you to develop and practice skills that will be appropriate to the practical problems you will face in your career.

The case method is based on the learning principle that learning occurs most when people teach themselves, through their own struggles. You will gain greater understanding and improved skills in judgment when you work through a problem than if you listened passively to a lecture. Similarly, there will be greater learning if you "use" a theory than if you just heard about it. Therefore cases have two basic uses:

• Helping us learn how to apply theories to real situations
• Helping us learn how to solve real problems

Like real situations cases center around an array of partially-ordered, ambiguous, seemingly contradictory and reasonably unstructured facts, opinions, inferences and bits of information, data, and incidents out of which you must provide order by selectively choosing which bits to use and which to ignore. In real life others won’t do this for us. As in real life situations, it is unlikely that any two people would assemble the data or make inferences identically. You will have to work within the limitations inherent in evidence and arrive at internally consistent interpretations. Experiencing the process of learning this way may be frustrating and confusing, but it is also practical and realistic.

Cases, as in real management situations, require you to work with the "as is" of reality, not the "should be" of theory. Like managers you will have to exercise judgment which can be improved by discussion and consultation with others. However, note that like the manager, you will seldom be sure before your decision is made and often after it is made, that you have made the right or "best" decision. Like any manager, you will approach cases under time pressure, on the basis of limited facts, and in the face of many unknowns. You will approach cases along with other people who like you have idiosyncrasies and limitations, and different opinions.

In summary, cases have a number of benefits:

• They allow us to develop skill in thinking clearly about ambiguous, unstructured situations using incomplete information;
• They help us to develop skills at recognizing what information is important and what is missing
• They help us to develop concise, reasonable, and consistent action plans;
• Help you to identify implicit models and assumptions, values and goals you use every day
• They provide an opportunity to develop skills in presenting (written and oral) our ideas to people and to groups; to influence and persuade others
• Improve your ability to predict behavioral outcomes-yours and others

Your Responsibilities

Little can be learned from a case without preparing it carefully and discussing it with others. Cases are not designed to present you with a right answer which you can memorize in the hopes that you will remember it if you ever encounter a similar situation. Similarly you won’t gain much from listening to what others think is the right answer. The learning comes from actively participating in the search for solutions. Cases are the raw materials that permit simulation in the classroom of actual discussions carried on informally among managers.

Preparation : Cases require more preparation and active participation than most class activities. How much you get out of a case discussion depends heavily on how much effort you put into preparing it before class. Many students confronting cases for the first time are overwhelmed; they see so many factors that come into play. Facts are confusing and ambiguous and often incomplete. This guide is intended to help you walk through the critical steps.

Informal Discussion Groups: After preparing a case by yourself, it can really help to meet with a group of other students to talk about a case before class. This will give you a chance to test your ideas on others and learn about other perspectives about the case.

Participating in Class Discussions: The purpose of the class discussion is to test others ideas so that together students can reach a richer and deeper understanding of the case. The role of the discussion is to moderate and create an environment in which contributions of individual students build on one another to understand the problem more fully. The instructor’s role is not to answer. The instructor may highlight, synthesize the issues and help shape the discussion.

The quality of the class discussion depends on the quality of the students’ preparation and participation in class. The class should be considered a team of colleagues that has been asked to work together to solve a challenging problem. This requires good team members to push ideas and support them. Good class also requires an emphasis on listening; others will raise ideas you hadn’t thought of and you should be prepared to change your mind and incorporate new ideas when you find them persuasive.

Try to have your ideas build on the comments of others. Don’t be afraid to be challenged or to be wrong. Sometimes students leave a class discussion discouraged because many issues and arguments that were raised that they had not considered before class. Remember that no case would be worth discussing if it were simple and straightforward enough for you to have figured it out on your own.

The classroom should be a place where you can test ideas and learn from each other. Finally enjoy yourself. There should be a lot of satisfaction in struggling with a complex problem and through your efforts, coming to a better understanding of it.

Preparing a Case: Six Steps for Problem Analysis

The checklist is presented as a framework for diagnosis, problem-solving, and managerial action taking. Note that few if any situations that you will experience will require that you consider every element listed here. Management is a dynamic, ongoing process that never takes place as sequentially or rationally as this list would imply. In most real-world situations, as opposed to case discussions in class, you already know a great deal about the people and prior experiences that are relevant. In addition, events never turn out exactly as you anticipate them.

Step 1: Comprehend the Case Situation: Data Collection, Identify Relevant Facts

Most cases require at least two readings, sometimes more; the first time through should involve familiarizing yourself with the basic situation; you may be given some guide questions to help you and you also might think about why the case was assigned now. There are some standard questions that you might keep in mind as you read the case:

• What are the key issues in the case; who is the decision maker in the case; is there a critical decision?
• What is the environment in which the key people operate; what are the constraints on their actions; what demands are imposed by the situation?
• Are solutions called for?
• If you had the chance to talk to critical people in the company, what would you want to know?
• What are the actual outcomes of the current situation-productivity, satisfaction, etc; how stable are present conditions?
• What are the "ideal" outcomes; what is an ideal "future" condition?
• What information is lacking; what are the sources of the available information?

Managers and students rarely have complete information and must rely on inferences. Be prepared to make creative assumptions; good analysis goes beyond identifying the relevant facts in the case. If some facts aren’t given, figure out what you can assume they are.

Rereading: After the first reading, try to formulate several plausible courses of action and explanation for the data in the case. Imagine yourself as various key people in the case and figure out why you (as the person in the case) might have acted as he/she did, or what you would do. Think about the consequences if you are wrong.

Using evidence and numbers: One of the most difficult problems in preparing a case is sorting through the mass of information and evidence. Often cases involve considerable background information of varying relevance to the decision at hand. Often cases involve conflict with different actors providing selective information and courses of action to support their claims. As in real life, you must decide what information is important and what isn’t and evaluate apparently conflicting evidence.

As in real life, you will be faced with a lot of information but perhaps not exactly the information you need. It is not uncommon to feel paralyzed by all the available information; it is difficult to identify the key information after the first reading. You should be slightly skeptical about the information presented or the interpretation placed on it by various actors in the case. You won’t have time to question all evidence in the case but if the evidence is critical, you might ask yourself what it really implies and whether it is as compelling as it seems.

As you read the case keep in mind:

• remember that all behavior is caused, motivated, and goal-directed; behavior may see strange, or "irrational" but you can assume it makes sense to the actor
• separate fact from opinion; distinguish between what people say vs. do
• it might be possible to get more information about the case (eg. the industry) but for the most part you will be asked to do your best with the information available
• separate symptoms from underlying causes
• avoid judgments; avoid premature solutions

Step 2: Defining the Problem

What is the critical issue or problems to be solved? This is probably the most crucial part of the analysis and sometimes the hardest thing to do in the whole analysis. Perhaps the most common problem in case analysis (and in real life management) is that we fail to identify the real problem and hence solve the wrong problem. What we at first think is the real problem often isn’t the real problem .

To help in this stage here are some questions to ask in trying to identify the real problem:

• where is the problem (individual, group, situation) why is it a problem; is there a "gap" between actual performance and desired performance; for whom is it a problem and why
• explicitly state the problem; are you sure it is a problem; is it important; what would happen if the "problem" were left alone"; could doing something about the "problem" have unintended consequences?
• what standard is violated; where is the deviation from standard
• what are the actual outcomes in terms of productivity and job satisfaction; what are the ideal outcomes
• how do key people feel about the problem and current outcomes
• what type of problem is it ?(individual, relationships, group, intergroup, leadership/motivation/power, total system)
• how urgent is the problem? How important is the problem relative to other problems?
• assess the present conditions:
• What are the consequences; how high are the stakes; what factors must and can change?
• for the organization (costs and profits; meeting obligations; productivity)
• for the people (personal and financial rewards; careers; satisfaction and growth)
• How stable are present conditions?
• What information is lacking?
• What are the sources of the available information?

Traps in this stage :

• suggesting a solution prematurely-stating a problem while implying a solution
• stating problems in behavioral (personal) terms, not situational terms
• not explicitly stating the problem-assuming "your" problem is "the" problem
• blindly applying stereotypes to problems; accepting all information at face value; making premature judgments; multiple causality
• most crucial at this step is to avoid suggesting a solution
• confusing symptoms with causes; differentiating fact from opinion; prematurely judging people and actions
• stating the problem as a disguised solution (eg. Hardesty’s failure is due to his not visiting purchasing agents)

Step 3: Causes

Once you have identified the key problem(s), try to find the causes here. Most critical here is avoiding solutions, and avoiding blaming or judging people. Also

• don’t quit at the most obvious answer-try playing devil’s advocate; put yourself in the other person’s shoes
• accept the multiple causality of events
• there may be a number of viable ways to fit the data together; explore as many as you can; go past the obvious
• there is a great tendency to evaluate behavior as good or bad; I care about why it occurred; judgments leads to a poor analysis focusing on justification for the evaluation
• the concern is not whether behavior is good or bad but why it occurred and its consequences
• be careful about hindsight; actors in the case usually don’t have access to outcomes when they act so avoid "Monday Morning Quarterbacking"-consider what actors in the case are reasonably likely to know or do
• as before, avoid premature solutions and premature judgments

Step 4: Generating Alternative Solutions (not all assignments will call for this)

In thinking about a context for generating alternatives, think about:

• what are the decision-maker’s sources of power in the situation? (legitimate, reward, punishment, expert, referent)
• what are possible leverage points (changing technology such as machines, processes, product designs; changing organizational structure; changing reward systems, job descriptions education, changing personnel, changing culture)
• can individual behavior be changed (education, training, reward systems, job description, etc.)
• what are the constraints on the solution? (time, money, organizational traditions, prior commitments, external realities, legal etc)
• what are the available resources (time, money, people, existing relationships, power)
• should others be involved (in problem definition, data collection, generating alternatives, implementing solutions, monitoring and assessing realities)
• In this stage it is important to avoid reaching for a solution too quickly; be creative here and put yourself in the case. Try living with various alternatives that you are thinking about; what would be the impact on you and on others. Be sure to think about the costs and benefits of each alternative.

Step 5: Decision (note that not all assignments will call for a solution)

In considering the alternatives generated above you need to be clear on the criteria you will use to evaluate them. Some possible criteria include:

• does the alternative address the critical aspect of the problem? What are your objective? Be specific.
• what are the intended consequences; what are some unintended possible consequences; how will your decision improve the situation
• what is the probability of success; what are the risks; what happens if the plan fails
• what does the plan depend on? What are the costs? What power and control is needed?
• who would be the "change agent" Does he/she have the power, skills, knowledge to be successful
• is the "solution" consistent with organizational realities

Remember that there is no one "elegant" solution; all solutions have costs and benefits ; identify pros and cons of each alternative; evaluate relative to goals; look at main and side effects you may have to make inferences and judgments; do this as long as you have good reasons for your inferences Choose alternative which best meets the criteria. The decision might not be accepted by those involved so you may have to choose a more acceptable one. You might want to rank order your alternatives according to how well they meet the criteria used. as you think about action, put yourself into the case; try to project living with the consequences

Step 6: Taking Action and Following Up

In thinking about implementation you want to think about these areas:

• what are leverage points for change-technology, reward systems, work relationships, reporting relationships, personnel changes
• what are the decision maker’s sources of power: legitimate, reward, expert, referent, etc?
• what are the constraints on a solution: time, money, organizational policies, traditions, prior commitments, external realities
• does culture have to change; what historical relationships must be respected
• implementation-will people resist change; is change being reinforced; is a new stability developing
• monitoring changes-are further changes necessary; are costs and benefits of changes as expected
• make sure you have thought about the ramifications of implementing the plan; how will you address them

Action Plans : provide options for meeting specific objectives should include: a brief description of the plan, costs, benefits, drawbacks

Some simple models are helpful in thinking about implementation. One involves thinking about implementation as involving three stages:

• Unfreezing: Making sure those affected feel the need for change
• Change: introducing the change
• Refreezing: Reinforcing the new behaviors

General Reminders/Check List

• remember you will never have enough information!
• the most critical aspect of case analysis may be "identifying the problem"
• you will never be sure you have identified the real problem
• there is rarely one "right" answer-different answers may be somewhat right

Accept that cases and managerial situations involve:

• ambiguous situations multiple causality inadequate information
• no elegant solution
• acknowledge that personal values play a role in case analysis
• no one (including the instructors) can "solve" the case
• try to imagine "living" with the problem and your recommendations

Try to avoid:

• blindly applying stereotypes to problems accepting information at face value
• confusing symptoms with problems making premature evaluations
• judging behavior-we assume no one is "good" or "bad"; labelling people as such is an easy way to dispense with problems of trying to figure out why someone does what he does
• don’t assume you are so much smarter or better informed than managers you observe or read about that you can readily solve problems they have been dealing with for years
• managers involved may understand their problems better than you do and act the way they do for reasons that are sound to themselves

Writing Tips

• while it is critical to follow the above advice on case analysis, much of this analysis may not appear in your paper. The analysis is required to generate material for your memo but may not necessarily appear in it
• think carefully in your writing who your audience is
• assume your reader is a little dense; write in a form that is easy to digest-good introduction, subheadings, manageable paragraphs, clear topic sentences, clear transitions
• provide a strong introduction; give your reader a reason to read the analysis; give the reader the "benefits"
• in a memo, you can only convey one or two main points; make sure the reader knows what they are; make sure your introduction provides a clear "road map" for where you are going; reinforce this in the conclusion
• use models/theories in your analysis, but you may not necessarily "leave" these "tools" in your document.

Final Comments

Case teaching is a lab experience. It is low risk and participative. It does not provide "how to" or surefire techniques. Students sometimes express dissatisfaction with cases. "Information is ambiguous, redundant, irrelevant; the issue isn’t stated clearly; the instructor isn’t directive enough; we never know the "right" answer; the instructor should lecture more."

These comments are legitimate. But for the most part the difficulties associated with case teaching stem from real situations themselves. These are the same dilemmas you will face as managers.

More Related Posts

• Case Hints – Some Guidelines for Case Analysis & Number Crunching
• Case Hints – Marketing Management Case Analysis
• Case Hints – Suggested Technique for Case Analysis
• Case Hints – Case Analysis Evaluation
• Case Hints – Why We Use the Case Method

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After Supreme Court ruling, judge considers Trump's immunity claim in classified docs case

Donald Trump is seeking to build on his Supreme Court victory, which provided immunity from criminal prosecution for his official acts as president, by asking judges in his federal classified documents case and in his New York hush money conviction to throw out all of those charges.

U.S. District Judge Aileen Cannon postponed deadlines Saturday to debate evidence in the classified documents case and instead asked for written arguments about Trump’s immunity in the next two weeks.

Trump’s lawyers asked Cannon on Friday to halt all action in the classified documents case until she rules whether the charges are valid.

New York Judge Juan Merchan postponed sentencing Trump for his hush-money conviction of 34 counts of falsifying business records, which had been scheduled for Thursday, until September.

When the Supreme Court formally returns the election-interference case to U.S. District Judge Tanya Chutkan, she must weigh which charges are still valid to prosecute.

Neither Justice Department special counsel Jack Smith nor Manhattan District Attorney Alvin Bragg has responded to the Supreme Court’s decision yet.

Trump’s lawyers, Todd Blanche and Christopher Kise, have argued the high court’s ruling means each of the judges will have to determine which conduct is official or unofficial – and not use any official conduct as evidence for charges against unofficial conduct.

Here is where the cases stand:

Supreme Court orders 'close analysis' of whether Trump conduct was unofficial

The reason for uncertainty about criminal charges against Trump is because no former president has ever been charged before and the Supreme Court hadn’t ruled on whether they could be.

Until July 1. That’s when Chief Justice John Roberts wrote for a 6-3 majority that former presidents can’t be tried for their official acts, but could potentially be charged for unofficial acts.

The ruling said presidents discussing policy with executive agencies can’t even be questioned about their motives. This ruled out charges involving Trump urging his acting attorney general to pursue allegations of election fraud with officials in swing states.

But the ruling left open the possibility of charges dealing with Trump’s recruitment of fake presidential electors to support him in states President Joe Biden won. Roberts wrote that determining whether Trump's pressure on then-Vice President Mike Pence "requires a close analysis of the indictment’s extensive and interrelated allegations."

“The President is not above the law,” Roberts wrote. “But under our system of separated powers, the President may not be prosecuted for exercising his core constitutional powers, and he is entitled to at least presumptive immunity from prosecution for his official acts."

Trial judges must now determine whether Trump’s conduct for the various charges was official or unofficial.

Judge postpones filings in classified documents case to study Trump's immunity claim

Trump was charged with retaining national defense records and conspiring to hide them from government authorities until FBI agents seized them during a search of Mar-a-Lago, his Florida estate, in August 2022.

Prosecutors have noted the entire case involves conduct after Trump left the White House in January 2021. Smith's team office said Trump did not have legal authority to designate secret national security documents as personal records and send them to his private home. But Trump’s lawyers have argued his decision to ship the documents to Mar-a-Lago was an official act.

In an order Saturday, Cannon scrapped a Monday deadline for Trump to disclose his experts and Wednesday deadlines for prosecutors and defense lawyers to share more evidence in the case.

Instead, Cannon set a deadline July 18 for Smith to respond to Trump’s request for immunity. Trump will have until July 21 to respond.

Cannon hasn’t set a date for a hearing, but said she could still collect more evidence.

Trump’s lawyers want Cannon to only move forward on two issues in the case: Smith's request for a gag order preventing Trump from making comments that could incite threats against FBI agents working the case, and whether Smith was properly appointed to his job as special counsel.

In the Supreme Court’s ruling on immunity, Justice Clarence Thomas, wrote  a concurrence  questioning Smith's appointment, even though that wasn't at issue in the case and many special counsels have been previously appointed under similar circumstances.

Judge in federal election interference must also determine unofficial conduct

The Supreme Court hasn’t formally returned Trump’s election-interference case to Chutkan, under what is called a “mandate,” which might not happen until Aug. 2.

“The judgment or mandate of this Court will not issue for at least thirty-two days,” Supreme Court clerk Scott Harris wrote July 1 to the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals.

Chutkan will have to review which charges – if any – can go to trial once she gets the case back.

New York sentencing postponed because of potential immunity

Merchan previously postponed sentencing Trump in the hush-money case, which had been scheduled Thursday, until Sept. 18.

But that’s only if necessary. Merchan plans to decide Sept. 6 whether Trump is immune from the charges, even though his case involves state charges and the Supreme Court was reviewing federal charges.

Trump was convicted May 30 of falsifying records to hide his reimbursement to private lawyer Michael Cohen, who paid $130,000 to silence porn actress Stormy Daniels about alleged sex with Trump before the 2016 election.

The financial arrangements between Cohen and Daniels happened before Trump was elected president. But his series of 11 payments to Cohen – through his private company – happened the first year of his presidency.

Merchan previously ruled that Trump filed an immunity argument in the case too late to be considered.

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Article Contents

Introduction, overview of methods, case studies: quasi-experimental vaccine evaluation, conflict of interest, data availability.

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Quasi-experimental methods for pharmacoepidemiology: difference-in-differences and synthetic control methods with case studies for vaccine evaluation

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Lee Kennedy-Shaffer, Quasi-experimental methods for pharmacoepidemiology: difference-in-differences and synthetic control methods with case studies for vaccine evaluation, American Journal of Epidemiology , Volume 193, Issue 7, July 2024, Pages 1050–1058, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwae019

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Difference-in-differences and synthetic control methods have become common study designs for evaluating the effects of changes in policies, including health policies. They also have potential for providing real-world effectiveness and safety evidence in pharmacoepidemiology. To effectively add to the toolkit of the field, however, designs—including both their benefits and drawbacks—must be well understood. Quasi-experimental designs provide an opportunity to estimate the average treatment effect on the treated without requiring the measurement of all possible confounding factors, and to assess population-level effects. This requires, however, other key assumptions, including the parallel trends or stable weighting assumptions, a lack of other concurrent events that could alter time trends, and an absence of contamination between exposed and unexposed units. The targeted estimands are also highly specific to the settings of the study, and combining across units or time periods can be challenging. Case studies are presented for 3 vaccine evaluation studies, showcasing some of these challenges and opportunities in a specific field of pharmacoepidemiology. These methods provide feasible and valuable sources of evidence in various pharmacoepidemiologic settings and can be improved through research to identify and weigh the advantages and disadvantages in those settings.

This article is part of a Special Collection on Pharmacoepidemiology.

Determining the safety and efficacy of drugs and biologics is crucial, yet it faces many statistical, epidemiologic, regulatory, and logistical challenges. A related yet distinct challenge—determining the effects of health and social policies—has incorporated quasi-experimental study designs into its set of methods. Quasi-experimental methods can provide a convenient means for assessing the real-world effectiveness and safety of pharmacological products—especially those with population-level effects—in well-defined populations and specific circumstances that mitigate the risks of bias.

Quasi-experiments (in some cases also known as “natural experiments”) here refer to observational studies that identify a causal effect by taking advantage of circumstances that create variation in exposure status in ways that avoid the usual sources of confounding for that exposure and the outcome of interest. 1 , 2 This often comes through changes in the exposure that are not otherwise causally connected to the outcome, often referred to as exogeneity. 2 , 3

A suite of such approaches developed or formalized in the quantitative social sciences—including instrumental variables, regression discontinuity designs, interrupted time series, difference-in-differences, and synthetic control methods, among others—have become major empirical approaches in those fields 3 , 4 and have become popular in epidemiology as well. 5 For example, during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, they have been used to assess the effectiveness of universal masking in schools, 6 vaccine lotteries, 7 and other interventions. 8 , 9 Along with this rise in the use of the methods have come articles describing the uses and limitations of these methods in health policy evaluation. 1 , 2 , 10 , - 16

This article focuses on difference-in-differences (DiD) and the synthetic control method (SCM), quasi-experimental designs that are both controlled (ie, include exposed and unexposed units) and longitudinal (ie, exploit a change in exposure status over time to adjust for unmeasured confounders). 11 , 17

Despite their expanding use in health policy research, these methods have not been extensively studied for use in evaluating drugs and biologics. This article provides a brief overview of these methods (including recent developments from the econometrics literature), advice on settings where they are beneficial for pharmacoepidemiology (exemplified through 3 case studies of vaccine effectiveness evaluation), and discussion of the trade-offs and limitations they face. Finally, the article describes future research that can improve their use in pharmacoepidemiology.

DiD and SCM analyses estimate the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) by constructing the potential outcome for the exposed units in the (counterfactual) absence of the exposure using both cross-unit and within-unit comparisons. Below, I give a brief overview of these methods and their estimators, along with recent extensions. For a more comprehensive treatment, see the relevant econometrics 3 , 4 or public health review literature. 1 , 10 , 14 , 15 , 17

Difference-in-differences

Schematics showing simulated observed and counterfactual data for 4 quasi-experimental methods: A) difference-in-differences (DiD); B) DiD with staggered adoption; C) synthetic control method (SCM); D) augmented SCM. Vertical lines represent the beginning of exposure in exposed units/groups. Black dotted lines (A, B) and gray shaded regions (C, D) represent estimated effects. Note that different counterfactuals are possible with additional assumptions (B) and that augmented SCM is shown here when the exposed unit lies outside of the convex hull of the unexposed units (D).

Extensions of the DiD model

Several extensions to the DiD model aim to improve the validity of the parallel trends assumption. For example, covariates can be added when parallel trends holds only conditionally, or the so-called difference-in-difference-in-differences (or triple-differences) model can be used to remove nonparallel trends. 4 Both of these have analogous approaches in the epidemiology literature: adjusting for measured covariates in cohort studies for the former, and using negative controls to adjust for residual bias for the latter. 22 , 23

The functional form of the parallel trends assumption can also be changed by transforming the outcome variable. For example, if the counterfactual outcomes are judged more likely to have equivalent multiplicative trends than linear trends, a logarithmic transformation can be used on the outcome. Importantly, only one functional form can truly have parallel trends, so the modeling and estimand choices determine the validity of the causal assumptions made. 24

Recently, literature has extensively investigated DiD in cases where there are units with different exposure-onset times (eg, “staggered treatment adoption”; see Figure 1B ). 25 The TWFE model is subject to biased estimation of the ATT under this setting as the unit and time fixed effects do not properly capture treatment effect heterogeneity. 21 , 25 Various approaches have been proposed to ameliorate this problem in the DiD and related stepped-wedge trials literature 26 , - 30 ; these include different estimators and explicit weighting of time- and unit-specific estimators. 3 , 26 , 27

Synthetic control method

The major assumption of SCM is that these weights are stable, in the sense that a weighting scheme that matches the preexposure outcome trends well will also give an unbiased estimate of the potential outcome after the exposure time point. 31 A long preexposure time series on which to optimize the weights provides the best justification for this assumption under many data-generating processes. 31 For multiple exposed units and/or multiple postexposure periods, the individual estimators can be combined to target the desired estimand. 29 , 33

Extensions of the synthetic control method

One reason for the growth of SCM in comparative case studies is its interpretability: All unexposed units have a nonnegative weight showing their contribution to the estimated counterfactual, allowing discussion of the reasonableness of the counterfactual. However, this also imposes restrictions on the model; SCM does not work when the outcomes of the exposed unit fall outside the convex hull (loosely, the range) of the unexposed units’ outcomes. 31 Thinking of past outcomes as the “adjustment variables,” this requirement is roughly analogous to positivity requirements in cohort studies: Adjustment fails if there are combinations of covariates for which there are only exposed units.

Several extensions of SCM—including the generalized SCM, 34 augmented SCM (see Figure 1D ), 35 and Bayesian structural time series model 36 —trade off some interpretability by allowing outcome modeling and extrapolation outside of the convex hull. This allows the use of more control series, including those on different scales than the outcome itself. 37 This extrapolation, however, can lead to bias, especially when there are few pretreatment periods or unexposed units. 34

Quantifying uncertainty and negative controls

Pharmacoepidemiologic studies require not just point estimates but also quantification of uncertainty, often through P values, confidence intervals, or Bayesian alternatives. 38 For quasi-experiments, this can be more challenging, as they often involve only 1 or a limited number of exposed observations, and rarely form a sample of an identifiable study population. Because of this, model-based estimates of variability—even in cases when they can be computed, such as regression-based DiD and generalized SCM—may not have the desired interpretation or may require additional design-based assumptions. 27

Beyond statistical inference, it is desirable to quantify the causal or model-based uncertainty. Negative controls, sensitivity analyses, and robustness checks provide a means to assess the required assumptions to some extent. These include assessing the validity of the assumptions for the particular setting through models and graphical inspection of preexposure time trends, as well as assessing the model performance in settings with known effects. 17

Repeated negative controls—often called placebo tests or dummy analyses—conducted for different time points (where no change in exposure occurs), different units (ie, only using untreated units), or different outcomes (where the exposure should have no effect) generate null distributions using cases that should identify effects of zero. 3 , 31 Comparing the observed estimate with these distributions allows hypothesis testing. Bayesian frameworks are also feasible but may be sensitive to the prior distributions used. 36 Properly reporting and interpreting these measures of uncertainty remains a challenge for these quasi-experimental methods, especially as they are applied to new fields.

Case studies of the use of DiD and SCM in vaccine evaluation can illuminate the benefits and challenges of these designs. Vaccine evaluation studies demonstrate the use of large-scale routinely collected datasets in the context of exogenous variation to identify key public health effects as a supplement to randomized trial evidence or when it is not available. They also show potential pitfalls: the risk of concurrent events and misspecification leading to bias and the limited generalizability of targeted estimands.

Case 1: SCM analysis of meningococcal vaccines

Prunas et al analyzed the impact of early childhood meningococcal vaccination programs in Brazil and England in the 2010s (see Table 1 ). 39 Real-world estimates of vaccine effectiveness for hard-to-predict and highly variable diseases like invasive meningococcal disease are challenging, making quasi-experiments particularly useful. Using SCM on the logarithmic scale with Bayesian time-series modeling, the authors compared meningococcal disease incidence after the program roll-out with a synthetic control constructed from time series of other (nontargeted) diseases and the targeted disease in older age groups who were ineligible for vaccination.

Summary of meningococcal vaccine analyses in Prunas et al, a 2022.

Abbreviations: CrI, credible interval; MenB, meningococcal serogroup B; MenC, meningococcal serogroup C; SCM, synthetic control method.

a Prunas et al. 39

To demonstrate the value of the method, the authors conducted placebo tests using other quasi-experimental designs and found that the SCM better captured seasonality and nonlinear time trends; notably it avoids the need to specify a parametric time trend. It thus likely suffers from less bias in the desired analyses, although there could still be extrapolation bias due to the time series modeling. 32 , 36

Within-region controls (here, time series of nontargeted populations and outcomes) are particularly valuable for quasi-experimental evaluation of vaccines and drugs. By avoiding comparisons across geographic areas, they mitigate the risk of bias due to concurrent events or changes. However, they come with a potential increased risk of spillover or contamination, especially in infectious disease settings. 40 For the nontargeted age groups, bias could be caused by indirect protection of the vaccine (ie, a younger child receiving the vaccine is less likely to infect an older child in the household). For the nontargeted diseases, there is perhaps less risk of bias, but it could still occur due to off-target effects of vaccination or changes in health-seeking behavior and diagnosis in the wake of the vaccination policy. The authors used placebo tests and sensitivity analyses that dropped the older age groups as candidate control series, finding robust results that suggest these biases were minimal in this setting. 39

The results demonstrated effectiveness of the vaccination program against the targeted infections. Within each country of analysis, results on different early childhood age groups showed remarkable similarity, indicating that there may be some generalizability of these effects. However, as ATT estimands, these may still not be appropriate to transport to other countries with different infection risks. On the other hand, these estimates assess the overall effect of the program, rather than the individual-level direct effect, and so can provide an additional piece of evidence that is rarely achieved in preauthorization trials. 41 This is useful for public health policy-makers as real-world evidence of both the vaccine itself and the vaccination program. 42

Case 2: DiD analysis of an off-target vaccine against COVID-19

Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers sought to use existing drugs and vaccines to prevent infection, illness, and severe outcomes until COVID-19-specific drugs and vaccines could be developed and authorized. The bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine against tuberculosis was one such candidate because of its hypothesized off-target effects, 43 which were supported by cross-sectional analyses showing better COVID-19 outcomes in countries with high BCG vaccination coverage. 44 While randomized controlled trials would eventually occur in specific populations, 43 the emergency situation called for interim evidence to confirm or refute this hypothesis. A preprint by Matsuura et al in 2020 reexamined this hypothesis with a DiD analysis using existing country-level data (see Table 2 ). 44

Summary of BCG vaccine off-target effects vs. COVID-19 analysis in Matsuura et al, a 2020.

Abbreviations: BCG, bacille Calmette-Guérin; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; DiD, difference-in-differences; TWFE, 2-way fixed effects.

a Matsuura et al. 44

The authors identified countries that changed BCG vaccination recommendations at some point in the past and determined for various age groups in each country whether they were in a national vaccination cohort or not. They then conducted a TWFE analysis of the relationship between being in a BCG vaccination cohort and the log of confirmed COVID-19 cases for that age group and country, finding no protective effect of the vaccine. 44

In this study, incorporating within-country controls helped mitigate the bias of comparing across countries cross-sectionally. However, the use of age cohorts as the distinguishing feature risks contamination—as individuals of different ages interact and may provide indirect protection—and concurrent events, since many nonpharmaceutical interventions and recommendations in the COVID-19 pandemic were targeted to specific age groups. Identification for this design requires that the difference in log-cases between age cohorts would be constant (parallel multiplicative trends) across countries absent differential BCG vaccination policies. This would be threatened by differential age-targeted policies.

As in the previous study, the generalizability of the ATT is limited, since it is specific to the age cohorts and countries studied, as well as the time since BCG vaccination inherent in those age groups. However, the staggered adoption that occurs in this setting (different countries changed vaccination rules for different age cohorts) risks a larger problem of bias or incorrect interpretation of the ATT. The estimate given by the TWFE model is a weighted average of individual effects in each country-age cohort combination, with some given potentially negative weights. 21 Careful specification of the estimand and the analysis method in quasi-experimental analyses, especially with staggered adoption, is thus crucial. In this case, individual 2-by-2 DiD analyses may be more useful, providing a range of estimated treatment effects in the different age group-country combinations. 21 , 45

The challenges of estimand interpretation and generalizability limit the internal and external validity of this approach. Nonetheless, it provided useful exploratory evidence that controlling to some extent for country-level factors could account for the correlation observed in a cross-sectional analysis. As this negative finding was borne out by a randomized controlled trial, 43 this study provided immediate useful interim evidence before that trial was concluded.

Case 3: DiD and SCM analyses of the indirect protection of a COVID-19 vaccine

After the authorization of COVID-19 vaccines to prevent symptomatic and severe illness in adults, questions remained about the effectiveness of the vaccines in providing indirect protection by preventing infection and transmission. 41 Winner et al 46 sought to assess the indirect protection of children via adult vaccination by comparing infection rates among Austrian children in the district of Schwaz—which had high adult vaccination uptake due to a campaign during a localized outbreak—to other districts with much lower rates as of March 2021. They used both SCM analysis with other Austrian districts as controls and DiD analyses comparing Schwaz municipalities to neighboring municipalities outside the district (see Table 3 ). 46 All analyses reported strong indirect protection of children. 46

Summary of COVID-19 vaccine indirect protection analyses in Winner et al, a 2022.

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; DiD, difference-in-differences; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; SCM, synthetic control method; TWFE, 2-way fixed effects.

a Winner et al. 46

With a clear time point for the mass vaccination campaign, quasi-experimental methods are a natural design for this setting, and the neighboring municipalities and other districts in the country form a large pool of potential controls. Selecting unexposed units within the same country increases the plausibility of similar nonpharmaceutical interventions and other policies, supporting the assumptions of stable weights and parallel trends. The risk of cross-border contamination through indirect protection remains but would, if anything, yield conservative estimates. Negative controls included an in-space placebo test for SCM (ie, using the same method on nontargeted districts to create a null distribution) and assessment of preexposure parallel trends for DiD. 46

While policies spurred by a particular need create variation, there is risk in using them as quasi-experiments. In this case, a large outbreak in Schwaz spurred the vaccination campaign. This creates concurrent events and anticipation: The past outbreak and the vaccination both influence infection dynamics going forward and may violate the assumptions needed for these methods. 8 The authors sought to use districts with similar prior infection trends to mitigate this bias. Parallel trends could also be threatened by the use of linear functional forms for a nonlinear outcome like infections, although the authors used both a linear TWFE model and a logarithmic 2-by-2 DiD model here. 8 , 17 , 47

Once again, the results are highly contingent on the campaign and the setting in which it was enacted. The differential outcomes result from both the vaccination itself and any changes in behavior that may have resulted from a mass vaccination campaign; this point is well-described in the quasi-experimental literature for policy evaluation. 1 , 19 For pharmacoepidemiologic purposes, then, this makes it difficult to ascribe the full effect to the pharmaceutical itself in such cases. In addition, indirect protection in infectious disease outbreaks is specific to the prior evolution of the outbreak and the population at risk, limiting the generalizability and interpretability of estimates. 23 , 40 , 48 , 49 Nonetheless, the finding of a large indirect effect could inform public health practice and motivate the study of this effect in other settings, even if precise estimates are not transportable. 41 , 42

Quasi-experimental methods provide a promising set of designs for pharmacoepidemiology. The designs discussed here, among others, provide a class of observational study designs that can target useful public health-relevant estimands and provide meaningful real-world evidence in advance of or as a supplement to randomized controlled trials. 14 , 50 , 51 In the case of vaccines, for example, these designs can identify potential off-target effects of pharmaceutical products, encouraging further research into those effects, 44 , 51 and identify rare safety signals through the use of large, routinely collected datasets. 52 In addition, these studies can provide important postmarketing evaluation of the effects of products on their target outcomes in actual use, including indirect effects and changing effectiveness over time as conditions change. 53 , 54

By avoiding the need to measure and model all confounders between exposure and outcome, quasi-experimental methods can achieve high internal validity with routine data sources. 3 , 4 , 32 , 52 This, however, requires other counterfactual assumptions, such as parallel trends or stable weights. Justifying these assumptions, especially the appropriate functional form, requires an understanding of the setting and likely effect. 8 , 17 , 24 As seen in the case studies, both linear and logarithmic scales are used in vaccine evaluation studies, leading to different assumptions and different estimands.

Moreover, spillover and contamination of control units by the exposure and anticipation or lagged effects of the intervention can cause bias, often towards the null. 8 , 27 , 32 For pharmacoepidemiology, this could occur through off-label prescribing or, as in the vaccine cases, indirect effects within networks and communities. Attributing the observed causal effect to the exposure also requires a lack of concurrent events in the study units, which may be threatened by changes in behavior that co-occur with pharmaceutical interventions, like behavior changes that follow vaccination. 5 , 8 , 9 , 17

As in all medical studies, understanding the estimand targeted by these methods is crucial to properly using the evidence. 55 When aggregate population data are used, these methods target aggregate or population-level effects, and thus cannot be transported to individuals. 19 But this also provides useful real-world evidence, such as the overall effect measure in vaccine studies, as seen in the case studies. 23 This is rarely targeted by randomized trials and provides useful additional regulatory and public health evidence. 41 , 42 , 53

ATT estimands from quasi-experimental studies, however, are specific to the setting, exposure, outcomes, and exposed unit(s), as well as the contrast identified and other statistical analysis choices. Since the exposed units are rarely randomly selected (ie, the mass vaccination campaign in Schwaz occurred because of a prior outbreak 46 ), the ATT differs from the average treatment effect that is usually targeted by randomized trials and used in regulatory decisions. 56 It may be of specific interest in safety studies, as it represents the effect of removing the exposure from all exposed units (eg, compare Cowger et al 6 ). In general, however, it may be less transportable to populations yet to be exposed or require further assumptions. 5 , 16

Compared with other observational study designs, quasi-experimental designs tend to trade away some external validity for internal validity, although these aspects should ideally be considered in concert. 3 , 57 Researchers need to be careful about generalizing results of these methods to other settings and populations, especially for outcomes that have marked spatiotemporal patterns (eg, infectious diseases) or for populations with specific health needs and vulnerabilities (eg, specific age groups or people with co-morbidities). 19

Achieving the potential benefits of these designs will require further research and careful reporting and interpretation. The general methodology of these designs in the field of pharmacoepidemiology—as well as how to report results and place evidence in the context of other studies routinely conducted in the field—will be important for ensuring validity and appropriate interpretation. 9 , 11 Connecting the literature across various disciplines will improve uptake of the most appropriate methods as well. Moreover, research on the most appropriate designs for specific settings, considering the populations, interventions, and outcomes, is crucial. 50 This can include simulation studies in those settings to observe the relationship between estimates and true estimands. 15

For example, quasi-experimental vaccine evaluation studies will need to determine appropriate lag times, functional forms, and time frames for the necessary DiD and SCM assumptions to hold. 14 , 52 This can build on the existing health policy and stepped-wedge trials literature. 8 , 47 , 48 Understanding and communicating the trade-offs of identifying population-level effects but potentially losing generalizability will be key to appropriately contextualizing this evidence.

Negative controls, placebo tests, and sensitivity analyses also have an important role to play. Assessing methods for sensitivity to the selection of control units and time periods can inform both internal and external validity. Quantitative placebo tests can also allow the reporting of causal uncertainty alongside statistical uncertainty. 3 Investigators can improve generalizability by using multiple populations (as in the meningococcal vaccine case study 39 ), different methodological approaches or models (as in the COVID-19 vaccine case study 46 ), or multiple units and exposure points (as in the BCG vaccine case study 44 ). The latter, however, targets an estimand that averages potentially heterogeneous treatment effects, which may or may not have greater generalizability—depending on the setting—and can be statistically inefficient. 21 , 30 , 48 The proposed alternatives vary in their targeted estimands, required assumptions, and statistical properties. 25 , - 27 , 45 , 58 Investigation of the assumptions and relative performance of these methods in specific pharmacoepidemiologic settings (see, eg, multiple references 8 , 9 , 17 , 47 ), alongside the appropriate reporting of these challenges, is needed.

Quasi-experimental methods can alleviate some of the challenges of pharmacoepidemiology, while introducing others. Understanding and using them provides another tool for regulators, physicians, and public health policy-makers to understand the benefits and risks of drugs and biologics.

None declared.

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone.

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This article is part of our exclusive IEEE Journal Watch series in partnership with IEEE Xplore.

Programmers have spent decades writing code for AI models , and now, in a full circle moment, AI is being used to write code. But how does an AI code generator compare to a human programmer?

A study published in the June issue of IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering evaluated the code produced by OpenAI’s ChatGPT in terms of functionality, complexity and security. The results show that ChatGPT has an extremely broad range of success when it comes to producing functional code—with a success rate ranging from anywhere as poor as 0.66 percent and as good as 89 percent—depending on the difficulty of the task, the programming language, and a number of other factors.

While in some cases the AI generator could produce better code than humans, the analysis also reveals some security concerns with AI-generated code.

Yutian Tang is a lecturer at the University of Glasgow who was involved in the study. He notes that AI-based code generation could provide some advantages in terms of enhancing productivity and automating software development tasks—but it’s important to understand the strengths and limitations of these models.

“By conducting a comprehensive analysis, we can uncover potential issues and limitations that arise in the ChatGPT-based code generation... [and] improve generation techniques,” Tang explains.

To explore these limitations in more detail, his team sought to test GPT-3.5’s ability to address 728 coding problems from the LeetCode testing platform in five programming languages: C, C++, Java, JavaScript, and Python .

“A reasonable hypothesis for why ChatGPT can do better with algorithm problems before 2021 is that these problems are frequently seen in the training dataset.” —Yutian Tang, University of Glasgow

Overall, ChatGPT was fairly good at solving problems in the different coding languages—but especially when attempting to solve coding problems that existed on LeetCode before 2021. For instance, it was able to produce functional code for easy, medium, and hard problems with success rates of about 89, 71, and 40 percent, respectively.

“However, when it comes to the algorithm problems after 2021, ChatGPT’s ability to generate functionally correct code is affected. It sometimes fails to understand the meaning of questions, even for easy level problems,” Tang notes.

For example, ChatGPT’s ability to produce functional code for “easy” coding problems dropped from 89 percent to 52 percent after 2021. And its ability to generate functional code for “hard” problems dropped from 40 percent to 0.66 percent after this time as well.

“A reasonable hypothesis for why ChatGPT can do better with algorithm problems before 2021 is that these problems are frequently seen in the training dataset,” Tang says.

Essentially, as coding evolves, ChatGPT has not been exposed yet to new problems and solutions. It lacks the critical thinking skills of a human and can only address problems it has previously encountered. This could explain why it is so much better at addressing older coding problems than newer ones.

“ChatGPT may generate incorrect code because it does not understand the meaning of algorithm problems.” —Yutian Tang, University of Glasgow

Interestingly, ChatGPT is able to generate code with smaller runtime and memory overheads than at least 50 percent of human solutions to the same LeetCode problems.

The researchers also explored the ability of ChatGPT to fix its own coding errors after receiving feedback from LeetCode. They randomly selected 50 coding scenarios where ChatGPT initially generated incorrect coding, either because it didn’t understand the content or problem at hand.

While ChatGPT was good at fixing compiling errors, it generally was not good at correcting its own mistakes.

“ChatGPT may generate incorrect code because it does not understand the meaning of algorithm problems, thus, this simple error feedback information is not enough,” Tang explains.

The researchers also found that ChatGPT-generated code did have a fair amount of vulnerabilities, such as a missing null test, but many of these were easily fixable. Their results also show that generated code in C was the most complex, followed by C++ and Python, which has a similar complexity to the human-written code.

Tangs says, based on these results, it’s important that developers using ChatGPT provide additional information to help ChatGPT better understand problems or avoid vulnerabilities.

“For example, when encountering more complex programming problems, developers can provide relevant knowledge as much as possible, and tell ChatGPT in the prompt which potential vulnerabilities to be aware of,” Tang says.

• What to Do When the Ghost in the Machine Is You ›
• How Coders Can Survive—and Thrive—in a ChatGPT World ›
• Coding Assistant - ChatGPT ›

Michelle Hampson is a freelance writer based in Halifax. She frequently contributes to Spectrum's Journal Watch coverage, which highlights newsworthy studies published in IEEE journals.

That's yesterday's news, try it with version 4o, it's free.

"struggles due to training limitations" isn't that EVERYONE's problem with EVERYTHING.

"I could be an awesome guitar playing, but I struggle due to training limitations."

"I could be a great Opera singer, but I struggle due to training limitations."

"I could be a great jockey, but I am 6'4"...." Ok, well maybe not everything.

ChatGPT sucks at coding because it's not an AI - it's a big ass word predictor.

I actually think the key here is writing good test suits to ensure AI does the right thing...

Here is the full argument: https://medium.com/@samuel.sperling/software-2-1-ai-is-coding-now-why-test-mastery-is-your-new-job-security-31a65e792f7f

Soft Robot Can Amputate and Reattach Its Own Legs

Video friday: unitree talks robots, food service robots just need the right ingredients, related stories, what to do when the ghost in the machine is you, chatgpt’s new upgrade teases ai’s multimodal future, chatgpt may be a better improviser than you.

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• As Ozempic’s Popularity Soars, Here’s What to Know About Semaglutide and Weight Loss JAMA Medical News & Perspectives May 16, 2023 This Medical News article discusses chronic weight management with semaglutide, sold under the brand names Ozempic and Wegovy. Melissa Suran, PhD, MSJ
• Patents and Regulatory Exclusivities on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists JAMA Special Communication August 15, 2023 This Special Communication used data from the US Food and Drug Administration to analyze how manufacturers of brand-name glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists have used patent and regulatory systems to extend periods of market exclusivity. Rasha Alhiary, PharmD; Aaron S. Kesselheim, MD, JD, MPH; Sarah Gabriele, LLM, MBE; Reed F. Beall, PhD; S. Sean Tu, JD, PhD; William B. Feldman, MD, DPhil, MPH
• What to Know About Wegovy’s Rare but Serious Adverse Effects JAMA Medical News & Perspectives December 12, 2023 This Medical News article discusses Wegovy, Ozempic, and other GLP-1 receptor agonists used for weight management and type 2 diabetes. Kate Ruder, MSJ
• GLP-1 Receptor Agonists and Gastrointestinal Adverse Events—Reply JAMA Comment & Response March 12, 2024 Ramin Rezaeianzadeh, BSc; Mohit Sodhi, MSc; Mahyar Etminan, PharmD, MSc
• GLP-1 Receptor Agonists and Gastrointestinal Adverse Events JAMA Comment & Response March 12, 2024 Karine Suissa, PhD; Sara J. Cromer, MD; Elisabetta Patorno, MD, DrPH
• GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Use and Risk of Postoperative Complications JAMA Research Letter May 21, 2024 This cohort study evaluates the risk of postoperative respiratory complications among patients with diabetes undergoing surgery who had vs those who had not a prescription fill for glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists. Anjali A. Dixit, MD, MPH; Brian T. Bateman, MD, MS; Mary T. Hawn, MD, MPH; Michelle C. Odden, PhD; Eric C. Sun, MD, PhD
• Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist Use and Risk of Gallbladder and Biliary Diseases JAMA Internal Medicine Original Investigation May 1, 2022 This systematic review and meta-analysis of 76 randomized clinical trials examines the effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist use on the risk of gallbladder and biliary diseases. Liyun He, MM; Jialu Wang, MM; Fan Ping, MD; Na Yang, MM; Jingyue Huang, MM; Yuxiu Li, MD; Lingling Xu, MD; Wei Li, MD; Huabing Zhang, MD
• Cholecystitis Associated With the Use of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists JAMA Internal Medicine Research Letter October 1, 2022 This case series identifies cases reported in the US Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System of acute cholecystitis associated with use of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists that did not have gallbladder disease warnings in their labeling. Daniel Woronow, MD; Christine Chamberlain, PharmD; Ali Niak, MD; Mark Avigan, MDCM; Monika Houstoun, PharmD, MPH; Cindy Kortepeter, PharmD

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Sodhi M , Rezaeianzadeh R , Kezouh A , Etminan M. Risk of Gastrointestinal Adverse Events Associated With Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists for Weight Loss. JAMA. 2023;330(18):1795–1797. doi:10.1001/jama.2023.19574

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Risk of Gastrointestinal Adverse Events Associated With Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists for Weight Loss

• 1 Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
• 2 StatExpert Ltd, Laval, Quebec, Canada
• 3 Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences and Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
• Medical News & Perspectives As Ozempic’s Popularity Soars, Here’s What to Know About Semaglutide and Weight Loss Melissa Suran, PhD, MSJ JAMA
• Special Communication Patents and Regulatory Exclusivities on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Rasha Alhiary, PharmD; Aaron S. Kesselheim, MD, JD, MPH; Sarah Gabriele, LLM, MBE; Reed F. Beall, PhD; S. Sean Tu, JD, PhD; William B. Feldman, MD, DPhil, MPH JAMA
• Medical News & Perspectives What to Know About Wegovy’s Rare but Serious Adverse Effects Kate Ruder, MSJ JAMA
• Comment & Response GLP-1 Receptor Agonists and Gastrointestinal Adverse Events—Reply Ramin Rezaeianzadeh, BSc; Mohit Sodhi, MSc; Mahyar Etminan, PharmD, MSc JAMA
• Comment & Response GLP-1 Receptor Agonists and Gastrointestinal Adverse Events Karine Suissa, PhD; Sara J. Cromer, MD; Elisabetta Patorno, MD, DrPH JAMA
• Research Letter GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Use and Risk of Postoperative Complications Anjali A. Dixit, MD, MPH; Brian T. Bateman, MD, MS; Mary T. Hawn, MD, MPH; Michelle C. Odden, PhD; Eric C. Sun, MD, PhD JAMA
• Original Investigation Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist Use and Risk of Gallbladder and Biliary Diseases Liyun He, MM; Jialu Wang, MM; Fan Ping, MD; Na Yang, MM; Jingyue Huang, MM; Yuxiu Li, MD; Lingling Xu, MD; Wei Li, MD; Huabing Zhang, MD JAMA Internal Medicine
• Research Letter Cholecystitis Associated With the Use of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists Daniel Woronow, MD; Christine Chamberlain, PharmD; Ali Niak, MD; Mark Avigan, MDCM; Monika Houstoun, PharmD, MPH; Cindy Kortepeter, PharmD JAMA Internal Medicine

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) agonists are medications approved for treatment of diabetes that recently have also been used off label for weight loss. 1 Studies have found increased risks of gastrointestinal adverse events (biliary disease, 2 pancreatitis, 3 bowel obstruction, 4 and gastroparesis 5 ) in patients with diabetes. 2 - 5 Because such patients have higher baseline risk for gastrointestinal adverse events, risk in patients taking these drugs for other indications may differ. Randomized trials examining efficacy of GLP-1 agonists for weight loss were not designed to capture these events 2 due to small sample sizes and short follow-up. We examined gastrointestinal adverse events associated with GLP-1 agonists used for weight loss in a clinical setting.

We used a random sample of 16 million patients (2006-2020) from the PharMetrics Plus for Academics database (IQVIA), a large health claims database that captures 93% of all outpatient prescriptions and physician diagnoses in the US through the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9) or ICD-10. In our cohort study, we included new users of semaglutide or liraglutide, 2 main GLP-1 agonists, and the active comparator bupropion-naltrexone, a weight loss agent unrelated to GLP-1 agonists. Because semaglutide was marketed for weight loss after the study period (2021), we ensured all GLP-1 agonist and bupropion-naltrexone users had an obesity code in the 90 days prior or up to 30 days after cohort entry, excluding those with a diabetes or antidiabetic drug code.

Patients were observed from first prescription of a study drug to first mutually exclusive incidence (defined as first ICD-9 or ICD-10 code) of biliary disease (including cholecystitis, cholelithiasis, and choledocholithiasis), pancreatitis (including gallstone pancreatitis), bowel obstruction, or gastroparesis (defined as use of a code or a promotility agent). They were followed up to the end of the study period (June 2020) or censored during a switch. Hazard ratios (HRs) from a Cox model were adjusted for age, sex, alcohol use, smoking, hyperlipidemia, abdominal surgery in the previous 30 days, and geographic location, which were identified as common cause variables or risk factors. 6 Two sensitivity analyses were undertaken, one excluding hyperlipidemia (because more semaglutide users had hyperlipidemia) and another including patients without diabetes regardless of having an obesity code. Due to absence of data on body mass index (BMI), the E-value was used to examine how strong unmeasured confounding would need to be to negate observed results, with E-value HRs of at least 2 indicating BMI is unlikely to change study results. Statistical significance was defined as 2-sided 95% CI that did not cross 1. Analyses were performed using SAS version 9.4. Ethics approval was obtained by the University of British Columbia’s clinical research ethics board with a waiver of informed consent.

Our cohort included 4144 liraglutide, 613 semaglutide, and 654 bupropion-naltrexone users. Incidence rates for the 4 outcomes were elevated among GLP-1 agonists compared with bupropion-naltrexone users ( Table 1 ). For example, incidence of biliary disease (per 1000 person-years) was 11.7 for semaglutide, 18.6 for liraglutide, and 12.6 for bupropion-naltrexone and 4.6, 7.9, and 1.0, respectively, for pancreatitis.

Use of GLP-1 agonists compared with bupropion-naltrexone was associated with increased risk of pancreatitis (adjusted HR, 9.09 [95% CI, 1.25-66.00]), bowel obstruction (HR, 4.22 [95% CI, 1.02-17.40]), and gastroparesis (HR, 3.67 [95% CI, 1.15-11.90) but not biliary disease (HR, 1.50 [95% CI, 0.89-2.53]). Exclusion of hyperlipidemia from the analysis did not change the results ( Table 2 ). Inclusion of GLP-1 agonists regardless of history of obesity reduced HRs and narrowed CIs but did not change the significance of the results ( Table 2 ). E-value HRs did not suggest potential confounding by BMI.

This study found that use of GLP-1 agonists for weight loss compared with use of bupropion-naltrexone was associated with increased risk of pancreatitis, gastroparesis, and bowel obstruction but not biliary disease.

Given the wide use of these drugs, these adverse events, although rare, must be considered by patients who are contemplating using the drugs for weight loss because the risk-benefit calculus for this group might differ from that of those who use them for diabetes. Limitations include that although all GLP-1 agonist users had a record for obesity without diabetes, whether GLP-1 agonists were all used for weight loss is uncertain.

Accepted for Publication: September 11, 2023.

Published Online: October 5, 2023. doi:10.1001/jama.2023.19574

Correction: This article was corrected on December 21, 2023, to update the full name of the database used.

Corresponding Author: Mahyar Etminan, PharmD, MSc, Faculty of Medicine, Departments of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences and Medicine, The Eye Care Center, University of British Columbia, 2550 Willow St, Room 323, Vancouver, BC V5Z 3N9, Canada ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Etminan had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Sodhi, Rezaeianzadeh, Etminan.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Sodhi, Rezaeianzadeh, Etminan.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Kezouh.

Obtained funding: Etminan.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Sodhi.

Supervision: Etminan.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported.

Funding/Support: This study was funded by internal research funds from the Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of British Columbia.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funder had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement .

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