biography is a secondary source

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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on June 20, 2018 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on May 31, 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . Thus, secondary research describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews , surveys , experiments ) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

Documentaries

If you are researching the causes of World War II, a recent documentary about the war is a secondary source . But if you are researching the filmmaking techniques used in historical documentaries, the documentary is a primary source .

Reviews and essays

If your paper is about the novels of Toni Morrison, a magazine review of one of her novels is a secondary source . But if your paper is about the critical reception of Toni Morrison’s work, the review is a primary source .

Newspaper articles

If your aim is to analyze the government’s economic policy, a newspaper article about a new policy is a secondary source . But if your aim is to analyze media coverage of economic issues, the newspaper article is a primary source .

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in evaluating the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

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Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research. Tertiary sources are often used in the first, exploratory stage of research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesize a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review or meta analysis, you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

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Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

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Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 31). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved July 10, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/primary-and-secondary-sources/

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Is a Biography a Primary Source? Details Every Author Should Know

Is a biography a primary source? Good question.

When writing for an audience, adding relevant quotes, excerpts, and data provides credibility to your work. Primary sources reign supreme because information that comes from the original source leaves little room for error. In our digital age, where so much information is repeated from website to website, it’s easy for data to be mistyped, quotes to be misattributed, and information to just be wrong.

It’s similar to the group game, Telephone, that kids play. One person starts the game by whispering a phrase into the person’s ear next to them. The phrase is repeated until it gets to the last person who says the phrase out loud to see if the message changed. When I played it as a little girl, the phrase hardly ever came out like the original. We run the same risk when we copy statistics or information from random websites that aren’t the primary or original source.

In the first half of this article, we’ll answer the question, “Is a biography a primary source?” define what the answer means, and then take a closer look at why biographies are categorized as such. In the second part, we’ll look at what to consider before writing one.

Table of Contents

Is a biography a primary source.

The short answer is no. In most cases, a biography is considered a secondary source; however, there’s a little more to it than that.

A primary source is a first-person account (e.g., direct quote, diary entry) or the original source of information (e.g., a research organization that creates original data for an industry.).

A secondary source is a third-party account where the person or company sharing the information, got it from somewhere else. As I mentioned in the Telephone example, the problem with secondary sources is that since they aren’t the first hands to touch the information, there’s no guarantee that it’s correct. Primary sources aren’t always available, but if you have a choice between the two, do the extra research to find the primary source. It will pay off in the long run.

A biography is a third-person account of another person’s life written by a biographer whose name appears on the cover. The subject of the biography can be living or deceased and the work can be authorized or unauthorized. For these reasons, biographies are classified as secondary sources. 

Related: Biography vs Memoir

The rare occasion when a biography can be used as a primary source is when the biographer is the subject of the content being written.

For example, if one were to write an article that analyzed the works of the American biographer Jean Strouse, her best biographies , Alice James: A Biography or Morgan: American Financier would be considered primary sources.

The source status of her biographies changes from secondary to primary because it is her writing that’s being analyzed not the personal knowledge of what she wrote (unless that was part of the review).

What’s the Difference Between an Authorized and an Unauthorized Biography? 

With an authorized biography, the subject of the work is either involved in the writing process or they’ve given permission for the biographer to write the book. The biographer works with the person to ensure that the information included is correct and approved. This can include talking to close family members and friends to get a more well-rounded, objective view of the person’s life.

Unauthorized biographies are not approved by the subject. Anyone can write an unauthorized biography about anyone they’d like. You don’t need permission, and the final book doesn’t have to be approved to be published; however, unauthorized biographies can be seen as less reliable than approved ones. Content presented as fact may come into question exposing the work to libel, invasion of privacy claims, and other legal issues. To be clear, biographies, autobiographies, and memoirs can all be vulnerable to legal claims, so tread lightly when writing them. 

According to the Writer’s GPS: A guide for navigating the legal landscape of publishing by intellectual property attorney Matt Knight, securing life story rights is key to protecting yourself and your book from legal claims. Regarding life story rights, he says the following:

Life story rights are a collection of legal rights held by an individual regarding a story about someone’s life. The purpose for securing these rights or the permission to use the facts of someone’s life is to protect the writer and publisher from being sued for defamation, invasion of privacy, or the misappropriation of the right to publicity. Life story rights agreements, depending on the breadth of the contract language, allows the writer to use and potentially change or dramatize the life story for entertainment purposes (whether in print or on screen). Knight, M. (2020). The Writer’s Legal GPS: A Guide for Navigating the Legal Landscape of Publishing (A Sidebar Saturdays Desktop Reference) . Sidebar Saturdays Desk Referen.

If you’re considering writing a biography (authorized or unauthorized), it’s important to understand potential liability issues and how they can impact you as the writer.

It’s interesting that for every authorized biography, it is not uncommon to find many unauthorized ones. For actress Elizabeth Taylor, the book on the left (below) was released in December 2022 and listed as “ the first ever authorized biography of the most famous movie star of the twentieth century, Elizabeth Taylor “; however, I found many biographies listed for her over the years (I stopped counting at 20).

Is it Possible to Write a Biography about Yourself? 

No. If you write a biography about yourself it is called an autobiography (different from a memoir). If you get a ghostwriter to write it, it is still an autobiography. Autobiographies are primary sources because they are first-hand accounts based on the subjects’ memories and recall of past experiences. 

Unlike a biography, the subject of the autobiography is viewed as the author , whether they wrote it or used a ghostwriter . Autobiographies are considered subjective compared to biographies since they are a single person’s account of events (not friends, family, or other third-party references like with a biography.)

How do You Write a Biography About Someone Who Has Passed?

As previously mentioned, if you can get permission to write the biography, do so. If the person is deceased, look for a representative, like a family member, or an executor of their estate. It’s important to share with them your plan for writing the person’s life story and hopefully get the green light to move forward. Getting approval can open the door to accessing archives and other personal details about the person to create a more in-depth work. This can include personal photos, diaries, and other information. Compare this to an unauthorized biography where you may only have access to what has already been talked about or uncovered. 

If the person passed a long time ago, getting permission might be a challenge, but you can still write the biography. Just do your research, save your notes, and try to write a biography that is thorough, objective, and professional. Prioritize primary sources over secondary and cite all of your sources to add credibility. It may be tempting to try to rush through the process, especially when you’ve been staring at the same information day after day, but doing a thorough job can pay big dividends.

In the writing of the Pulitzer Prize-winning biography American Prometheus: The Triumph and Trajedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer , it took author, Martin J. Sherwin, 25 years to complete the work. The first 20 years were spent doing interviews and collecting over fifty boxes of archives (some received through the Freedom of Information Act). The last five years he partnered with author Kai Bird to complete the work . While it doesn’t take every biographer that long to write a biography, it does add a weighty perspective to what writing an in-depth book about someone’s life could entail.

Whether you write an authorized or unauthorized biography, the quality and objectivity of your writing are what matter most. Although biographies are considered secondary sources, it doesn’t mean that they can’t make a significant contribution to the tapestry of a person’s public life record. 

Seek out the permission of the person you want to write about if they are living or their family or representative if they are incapacitated or deceased. People’s life stories are personal, so the best advice from one writer to another is to write their stories with the same respect you’d want someone to write yours. This will add a strong entry to your book portfolio, save you a lot of headaches in the long run, and help keep you out of a courtroom.

Note: In this article, we touched on nonfiction life stories, but there are also biographical novels (fictitious) and autobiographical fiction that are not within the scope of this article. For more information on creative nonfiction, start here . 

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Looking for a book, article, database or something else for your research, primary sources.

A  primary source  is an  original  document containing  firsthand  information about a topic.

Different fields of study may use different types of primary sources. Common examples of a primary source are:

• Autobiographies
• Eyewitness Accounts
• Interview Transcripts
• Legal Documents
• Original works of art
• Photographs of the topic
• Original Research
• Video Footage of the topic event
• Works of literature

Secondary Sources

A  secondary source  contains commentary on or discussion about a primary source. The most important feature of secondary sources is that they offer an  interpretation  of information gathered from primary sources.

Common examples of a secondary source are:

• Biographies
• Indexes, Abstracts, Bibliographies (used to locate a secondary source)
• Journal Articles
• Literary Criticism
• Monographs written about the topic
• Reviews of books, movies, musical recordings,. works of art, etc.

Primary vs. Secondary Information

Primary sources are first hand sources; secondary sources are second-hand sources. For example, suppose there had been a car accident. The description of the accident which a witness gives to the police is a primary source because it comes from someone who was actually there at the time. The next day's newspaper story is a secondary source because the reporter who wrote the story did not actually witness the event.  The reporter is presenting a way of understanding the accident or an interpretation.

*From North Park University, History Department

However , the distinctions between primary and secondary sources can be ambiguous. It is important to remember that you cannot determine whether a source is primary or secondary solely based on the document type. An individual document may be a primary source in one context and a secondary source in another. For example, the movie  Love, Marilyn  is a secondary source when the topic is Marilyn Monroe; it would be considered a primary source if the topic of research was the works of Liz Garbus (the film's director).

Additionally, time can be a defining element. For example, a recent newspaper article is not usually a primary source; but a newspaper article from the 1860’s may be a primary source for United States Civil War research.

*From CBB Library and IT Consortium

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Sometimes, the same source might be a primary source for one research paper and a secondary source for another. It all depends on the relationship of the source to your research question. For example, if you are researching Franklin Roosevelt's life, the book  No ordinary time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The home front in World War II  by Doris Kearns Goodwin would be a secondary source. If you were researching the literary style of Ms. Goodwin, it would be a primary source.

*From Joyner Library, East Carolina University

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Primary Sources: A Research Guide

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Primary Sources

Texts of laws and other original documents.

Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.

Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or wrote.

Original research.

Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics.

Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event.

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

Most books about a topic.

Analysis or interpretation of data.

Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not directly involved.

Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Whether something is a primary or secondary source often depends upon the topic and its use.

A biology textbook would be considered a secondary source if in the field of biology, since it describes and interprets the science but makes no original contribution to it.

On the other hand, if the topic is science education and the history of textbooks, textbooks could be used a primary sources to look at how they have changed over time.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Adapted from Bowling Green State University, Library User Education, Primary vs. Secondary Sources .

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• Knowledge Base
• Working with sources
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on 4 September 2022 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on 15 May 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . A secondary source describes, interprets, or synthesises primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

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Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys, experiments) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyses information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesise information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopaedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyse it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in analysing the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesise a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review , you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of sources are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analysing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyse language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analysing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

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Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 15). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 10 July 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/working-sources/primary-vs-secondary-sources/

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Primary & Secondary Sources in the Humanities - Overview

Primary and Secondary Sources are understood in different ways by different subject areas. When you think about primary and secondary sources in your own life, those examples are probably most similar to the way the Humanities and Social Sciences generally understand primary and secondary sources.  See the guide What is a Primary Source for a concise overview.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are original materials on which research is based. They present information in its original form, neither interpreted nor condensed nor evaluated by other writers.  In the humanities and social sciences, these are the direct or first-hand evidence of events, objects, people, or works of art. 

Depending upon the context, primary sources can include items such as original artwork, manuscripts, sales receipts, speeches, e-mails,  photos, diaries, personal letters, spoken stories/tales/interviews, diplomatic records.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources provide commentary upon, interpretation of, or analysis of primary sources.  They put primary sources in context.  Because they are often written significantly after events by parties not directly involved but who have special expertise, they may provide historical context or critical perspectives.

Secondary sources can include items such as scholarly books; articles in newspapers, scholarly journals, and magazines; movie reviews; biographies.

Finding Primary Sources

• Using Library Search (Catalog) to Find Primary Sources

There are lots of places to start searching for primary sources in the Humanities and Social Sciences. Below are some places to start your search.

Library Search

Library Search finds items in the UConn Library Collection, including archival materials, print materials with original text, printed facsimiles, and online resources that link to digital facsimiles. 

For help finding primary sources using Library Search, see the Using the Library Search (Catalog) to Find Primary Sources tab.

Archives & Special Collections holds over 1000 collections of archival materials and primary sources. Primary sources from cultural institutions around the state of Connecticut can also be found in the Connecticut Digital Archive .

Research Guides

Library Subject Specialists create Research Guides that provide information and instruction on research within specific subjects.  Each guide varies, and may include primary source databases and other helpful resources in that field.  For additional help finding primary sources in a subject, contact the subject specialist profiled in the specific research guide.

Selected Primary Source Library Databases and Websites

• Historical Newspapers from ProQuest Search for historical articles in a variety of major American and international newspapers published between 1764-2019. See more info for complete list of newspapers included. more... less... Includes: Arizona Republican (1870-2007)*, Atlantic Constitution (1868-1984), Atlanta Daily World (1931-2010), Baltimore Afro-American (1893-2010), Baltimore Sun (1837-1997)*, Boston Globe (1872-1991), Chicago Defender (1909-2010), Chicago Tribune (1849-2013), Chinese Newspapers Collection (1832-1953), Christian Science Monitor (1908-2009)*, Cleveland Call & Post (1934-2010), Detroit Free Press (1831-1999)*, The Globe and Mail (1844-2019)*, The Guardian and the Observer (1791-2003)*, Hartford Courant (1764-1997), Irish Times and the Weekly Irish Times (1859-2021)*, Jerusalem Post (1932-2008)*, Jewish Advocate (1905-1990)*, Korea Times (1956-2016)*, Leftist Newspapers and Periodicals (1845-2015)*, Los Angeles Sentinel (1934-2010), Los Angeles Times (1881-1999), Louisville Defender (1951-2010), Michigan Chronicle (1939-2010), Minneapolis Star Tribune (1867-2001)*, New York Amsterdam News (1922-2010), New York Times (1851-2019), New York Tribune / Herald Times (1841-1962), Norfolk Journal and Guide (1916-2010), Philadelphia Inquirer (1860-2001)*, Philadelphia Tribune (1912-2010), Pittsburgh Courier (1911-2010), Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (1786-2003)*, The Scotsman (1817-1950), Times of India (1838-2010), Vermont Collection, Wall Street Journal (1889-2011), Washington Post (1877-2007) *=available through June 30, 2024, unlimited users have access to this material. Continued access beyond that date is not guaranteed and is subject to a purchase decision by the UConn Library.
• Manuscript Women's Letters and Diaries Includes personal writings of women of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, displayed as high-quality images of the original manuscripts.
• Popular Culture in Britain and America, 1950-1975 Includes manuscripts, images, and video content highlighting popular culture from 1950-1975.
• Revolution and Protest Online Includes scholarly books and articles, documentary films and interviews covering revolutions, protests, and social movements from the French Revolution to the Arab Spring.
• Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600-2000 Includes books, images, essays, book and website reviews, and other primary sources covering various women's and social movements between 1600-2000.
• Black Freedom Struggle in the United States: A Selection of Primary Sources Select primary source documents related to critical people and events in African American history. Contains approximately 1,600 documents focused on different phases of Black Freedom.
• Connecticut Digital Archives Wide range of digital resources for scholars, students and the general public from UConn, the Connecticut State Library and other Connecticut institutions and agencies in Connecticut.
• Library of Congress Digital Collections 339 digital collections from the Library of Congress; includes photos, manuscripts, audio, film, and more.
• Primary Source Sets (Digital Public Library) Primary source collections exploring topics in history, literature, and culture developed by educators

Library Search finds items in the UConn Library Collection

Search Using Primary Document-Related Terms

Add words that identify types of primary sources. These are often part of the Subject Heading , a search option in Advanced Search.  These terms may include:

In the Advanced Search, type your topic on the 1st line. On the 2nd line, change the Any field drop-down to Subject and use of the the subject headings that specify primary sources.

Search Using Date

Narrow your search to the year of publication to find contemporary materials.

Search Using Author

Search a person's name as an author (changing the Any field drop-down to Author ).  Search by author, not as a subject or keyword, as that will find materials about the person, not works by the person.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Caption: Fugazi Playing the Anthrax Club, Joe Snow Punk Rock Collection. Archives & Special Collections at the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, University of Connecticut Library. Caption: Dunn, K. (2008). Never mind the bollocks: The punk rock politics of global communication. Review of International Studies, 34(S1), 193-210.

It's All About Context

There is nothing that definitively makes a source "primary" or "secondary" - it's all about the relationship between your research topic and the source material .  The same source can be a primary source OR a secondary source, depending on how you are studying it.

For example, Stephen Oates' 1977 biography of Abraham Lincoln, With Malice Toward None: A Life Of Abraham Lincoln , could be considered a

• Secondary Source, if you are studying the life of Lincoln
• Primary Source, if you are studying texts accused of plagiarism

Check Yourself!

Identifying Primary and Secondary Sources for Humanities

Test your ability to identify items as primary or secondary sources in this quick, interactive exercise!

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• Last Updated: Mar 19, 2024 4:03 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uconn.edu/exploreinfo

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources: A Quick Guide: Secondary Sources

• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources

What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary sources are books, periodicals, web sites, etc. that people write using the information from primary sources. They are not written by eyewitnesses to events, for instance, but use eyewitness accounts, photographs, diaries and other primary sources to reconstruct events or to support a writer's thesis about the events and their meaning. Many books you find in the Cornell Library Catalog are secondary sources.

Reference Help

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• URL: https://guides.library.cornell.edu/sources

Primary and Secondary Sources

• Primary Sources
• Finding Primary Sources

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

• Scholarly Sources
• Finding Secondary (and Scholarly) Sources

A  secondary source  is one that was created later by someone that did not experience firsthand or participate in the events in which the author is writing about. Secondary sources often summarize, interpret, analyze or comment on information found in primary sources.

Common examples of secondary sources include:

• Biographies
• Literary Criticism
• Journal articles that do not present new research

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• Last Updated: Jun 14, 2024 12:08 PM
• URL: https://library.uhv.edu/sources
• UHV Library 3006 N. Ben Wilson Victoria, TX 77901

EDU 312: Introduction to Educational Research

• Developing a Research Question
• Background Information
• Find Articles
• Find Books & Media
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• Different Types of Sources
• Evaluating Information
• Media Literacy
• AI Literacy and Critical Thinking This link opens in a new window
• Citations This link opens in a new window
• Need Help? Ask Us!
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources

What is a primary source?

Primary sources provide the raw data you use to support your arguments. Some common types of primary resources include manuscripts, diaries, court cases, maps, data sets, experiment results, news stories, polls, or original research.  In many cases what makes a primary resource is contextual.  For example, a biography about Abraham Lincoln is a secondary resource about Lincoln. However, if examined as a piece of evidence about the nature of biographical writing, or as an example of the biographer's writing method it becomes a primary resource.

What is a secondary source?

Secondary sources analyze primary sources, using primary source materials to answer research questions.  Secondary sources may analyze, criticize, interpret or summarize data from primary sources. The most common secondary resources are books, journal articles, or reviews of the literature. Secondary sources may also be primary sources. For example if someone studies the nature of literary criticism in the 19th century then a literary critique from the 19th century becomes a primary resource.

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• Last Updated: May 14, 2024 1:36 PM
• URL: https://rwu.libguides.com/EDU312

Primary Sources Research Guide

• What Are Primary Sources?
• What Are Secondary Sources?
• Examples of Primary & Secondary Sources
• Where to Look for Primary Sources

Defining Secondary Sources

• Secondary sources interpret, analyze, and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources. Examples of secondary sources include scholarly books and articles.
• Secondary sources are generally a second-hand account or observation at least one step removed from the event, i.e., accounts written after the fact by people not present when an event took place. Such sources are second-hand interpretations of what occurred.
• Secondary sources, however, can be considered to be primary sources depending on the context of their use. For example, Ken Burns' documentary of the Civil War is a secondary source for Civil War researchers (because it consists of Burns' interpretation of primary source materials from the Civil War), but a primary source for those studying documentary filmmaking.
• Secondary sources benefit from the filter of time and differing cultural contexts and perspectives which may assist (or interfere with) scholarly analysis.

Secondary sources can include:

• biographical works;
• commentaries and critical reviews;
• books other than fiction or autobiographies
• journal, newspaper, and magazine articles written well after an event takes place

*Some of the above material is used with permission from the University of Pittsburgh Library's research guide on Primary Sources

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• Last Updated: Mar 1, 2024 9:31 AM
• URL: https://guides.libraries.emory.edu/main/primary_sources_overview

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

Primary sources, secondary sources, tertiary sources, primary and secondary sources in law.

This work ( Constitution of the United States, page 1), identified by National Archives and Records Administration , is free of known copyright restrictions.

This guide will introduce students to three types of resources or sources of information: primary, secondary, and tertiary.

Definition of a Primary Source: 

Primary sources are firsthand documents that provide direct evidence on your topic.   The Library of Congress refers to them as the "raw materials of history — original documents and objects which were created at the time under study. They are different from secondary sources, accounts or interpretations of events created by someone without firsthand experience."

A primary source is most often created during the time the events you are studying occurred, such as newspaper articles from the period, correspondence, diplomatic records, original research reports and notes, diaries etc. They may also include items created after the events occurred, but that recount them such as autobiographies and oral histories.

Definition of a Secondary Source: 

Secondary Sources are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather commentary on and discussion of evidence. ¹

¹​ Yale University Library, "Primary, secondary & tertiary sources" http://guides.library.yale.edu/content.php?pid=129904&sid=1196376

Definition of a Tertiary Source

A tertiary source presents summaries or condensed versions of materials, usually with references back to the primary and/or secondary sources. 

Primary Source in Law: 

A statement of the law itself from a governmental entity, such as a court, legislature, executive agency, President or Governor.  

Secondary Source in Law: 

Materials that discuss, explain, interpret, and analyze what the law is or what it should be.

• Last Updated: Nov 10, 2020 9:30 AM
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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources

Search catalog, what are the differences.

Sources of information or evidence are often categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary material. These classifications are based on the originality of the material and the proximity of the source or origin. This informs the reader as to whether the author is reporting information that is first hand or is conveying the experiences and opinions of others which is considered second hand. Determining if a source is primary, secondary or tertiary can be tricky. Below you will find a description of the three categories of information and examples to help you make a determination.

Primary Sources

These sources are records of events or evidence as they are first described or actually happened without any interpretation or commentary. It is information that is shown for the first time or original materials on which other research is based.  Primary sources display original thinking, report on new discoveries, or share fresh information.

Secondary Sources

These sources offer an analysis or restatement of primary sources. They often try to describe or explain primary sources. They tend to be works which summarize, interpret, reorganize, or otherwise provide an added value to a primary source.

Tertiary Sources

These are sources that index, abstract, organize, compile, or digest other sources. Some reference materials and textbooks are considered tertiary sources when their chief purpose is to list, summarize or simply repackage ideas or other information. Tertiary sources are usually not credited to a particular author.

• Reference Books & eBooks
• Articles/Databases
• Primary Sources
• Evaluating Web Resources
• Different Types of Sources
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• Citations This link opens in a new window
• Careers and Professional Organizations
• Secondary Sources

What is a primary source?

Primary sources provide the raw data you use to support your arguments. Some common types of primary resources include manuscripts, diaries, court cases, maps, data sets, experiment results, news stories, polls, or original research.  In many cases what makes a primary resource is contextual.  For example, a biography about Abraham Lincoln is a secondary resource about Lincoln. However, if examined as a piece of evidence about the nature of biographical writing, or as an example of the biographer's writing method it becomes a primary resource.

What is a secondary source?

Secondary sources analyze primary sources, using primary source materials to answer research questions.  Secondary sources may analyze, criticize, interpret or summarize data from primary sources. The most common secondary resources are books, journal articles, or reviews of the literature. Secondary sources may also be primary sources. For example if someone studies the nature of literary criticism in the 19th century then a literary critique from the 19th century becomes a primary resource.

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• Last Updated: Oct 4, 2023 10:09 AM
• URL: https://guides.beloit.edu/history

• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
• Faculty of Arts & Sciences Libraries

Library Research Guide for the History of Science: Introduction

• Background and Context/Biography
• Senior Theses 2023

Understanding the History of Science (Background and Context/Biography)

Contemporary subject dictionaries, doing cross-disciplinary research: connecting with other fields, don't forget print, print only resources that were on this page.

• Exploring Your Topic
• Using HOLLIS
• What is a Secondary Source?
• What is a Primary Source?
• Exploring the Special Collections at Harvard
• Citing Sources & Organizing Research

Your History of Science Librarians

Fred Burchsted

History of Science Librarian

Research Librarian  

• Fred Burchsted's guides
• History of Science
• Finding Newspaper and Periodical Indexes and Articles
• Finding Archival Materials

Encyclopedias and histories are useful first stops to acquire context and background for your topic. If you have a solid overview of the topic and its history it will be easier to recognize the more in-depth articles, books etc. that will be most helpful to you.

To find one, try searching in HOLLIS  for your subject (see the HOLLIS tab in this guide for how to know the proper Subject terms) plus the words encyclopedias or dictionaries.   

To find individual encyclopedia articles in HOLLIS - Everything, do a Title search on your topic and then take look at "Refine My Results" on the right side of the page. Find the "Resource Type" section and choose Reference entries .

Major subject encyclopedias and other reference works

Human Biology

Cambridge Histories Online includes Cambridge History of Science :

•   Vol. 1: Ancient Science
•    Vol. 2: Medieval Science
•   Vol. 3: Early Modern Science
•   Vol. 4: Eighteenth Century Science
•   Vol. 5: Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences
•   Vol. 6: Modern Biological and Earth Sciences
•   Vol. 7: Modern Social Sciences
•   Vol. 8: Modern Science in National, Transnational and Global Context

The Oxford companion to the history of modern science (Harvard Login) , ed. by J.L. Heilbron et al. NY: Oxford University Press, 2003, 941 p. 

The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology (Harvard Login) , ed. by Hugh Richard Slotten. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

The Oxford encyclopedia of philosophy, science, and technology in Islam (Harvard Login) , ed. by Ibrahim Kalin. Oxford ; NY: Oxford University Press, 2014.

Science, technology, and society: an encyclopedia (Harvard Login) , ed. by Sal Restivo. NY: Oxford University Press, 2005, 701 p.  

Encyclopedia of the history of psychological theories (Harvard Login) , ed. by Robert W. Rieber. NY: Springer, 2012. 2 v. 

The Oxford companion to the mind , ed. by Richard L. Gregory. 2nd ed. Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2004, 1004 p. Internet Archive Full Text

The Oxford handbook of the history of psychology: global perspectives (Harvard Login) , ed. by David B. Baker. Oxford; NY: Oxford University Press, 2012, 645 p. 

The Oxford Companion to the body  (Harvard Login) , ed. by Colin Blakemore and Sheila Jennett et al. Oxford; NY: Oxford University Press, 2001, 753 p. 

The Oxford handbook of the history of eugenics  (Harvard Login; print versions also in HOLLIS) , ed. by Alison Bashford, Philippa Levine. NY: Oxford University Press, 2010, 586 p.), ed. by Sarah Toulalan and Kate Fisher. Abingdon, Oxon; NY: Routledge, 2013, 579 p. 

Cambridge historical dictionary of disease (Harvard Login) , ed. by Kenneth F. Kiple. Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2003, 412 p. 

Cambridge world history of human disease (Harvard Login)  ed. by Kenneth F. Kiple et al. Cambridge ; NY: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 1176 p.

Companion encyclopedia of the history of medicine (Harvard Login) , ed. by W.F. Bynum and Roy Porter. London; NY: Routledge, 1993. 2 v. HOLLIS record --This is a useful collection of essays on the History of Science. -- Table of contents of both volumes in Google Books .

Companion to medicine in the twentieth century  (Print only) , ed. by Roger Cooter and John Pickstone. London; NY: Routledge, 2003, 756 p.  --Articles, with references, especially on social, institutional, political, and policy aspects of medicine. Internet Archive Full Text   --  Another copy

Medical research: a midcentury survey   Boston, Published for the American Foundation by Little, Brown, 1955, 2 v.  --A valuable overview of medical research circa 1940-1955. The first volume covers institutional and policy aspects, the second summarizes the state of research on cancer, infertility, arteriosclerosis, hypertension, rheumatic syndromes, tuberculosis, viruses, alcoholism, and schizophrenia.

Oxford handbook of the history of medicine  (Harvard Login) , ed. by Mark Jackson. Oxford ; New York ; Oxford University Press, 2011, 672 p. 

American National Biography (Harvard login) is the standard American source for biographies of major figures. Can do searches of occupations and limit by date.

Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Harvard login) is the standard British source for biographies of major figures. Can do searches of occupations and limit by date: Advanced Search Options: People Search.

Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography (Harvard login) offers biographical sketches on deceased scientists to 1975, including excellent lists of primary and secondary literature.

• Social .scientists are covered unevenly.
• For more recent sources (post-1975) use History of Science, Technology and Medicine (Harvard login).  For new primary works (new editions, etc.) put your person in the author field. For new secondary works, put your person in the Subject field.

Dictionary of American medical biography , ed. by M. Kaufman, S. Galishoff & T. L. Savitt. 2 v. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984.  Internet Archive Full Text: Vol. 1   --  Vol. 2

Dictionary of medical biography , ed. by W. F. Bynum and Helen Bynum. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007. 5 v. --Covers 18th century through 1975. Internet Archive Full Text: Vol. 1   --  Vol. 2   --  Vol. 3   --  Vol. 4   --  Vol. 5

A dictionary of scientists  (Harvard Login) , Oxford Reference. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Biographical sources for women in science  

Biographical sources for American physicians (this guide is still under development)

Additional general sources in Finding Biographical Information

Contemporary subject encyclopedias and dictionaries are useful in interpreting primary sources. They can be found by an Advanced Search in the  HOLLIS Catalog  with, e.g., <Medicine dictionaries> [Keyword search], limited by year range.

Gould, George M. (George Milbry), 1848-1922. An illustrated dictionary of medicine, biology and allied sciences ... 3d ed. rev. Philadelphia, Blakiston, 1897, c1894.

Subject: Medicine--Dictionaries. Natural history--Dictionaries.

These books are usually shelved toward the beginning of each subject class in the Old Widener system.

History of science topics often explore the relations of scientific work with other fields, such as:

• public policy
• popular media

Primary and secondary sources in other fields may therefore be important to you. You might need to investigate original documents in public policy or film footage in media studies.  There are several options for finding this material:

• In the Library Research Guide for History , there is a list of major periodical indexes for other disciplines.
• Research guides by other Harvard librarians on a large variety of subjects .
• To find resources in HOLLIS Databases , choose Subject and browse the resource types..
• Your History of Science librarian is available to help you think about topics and where best sources are likely to be found.

Other Research Guides

• Environmental
• Latin America
• African American
• Area Studies
• Finding Periodical Articles and Book Reviews on Africa
• Asian Studies Research Guides
• Finding Periodical Articles and Book Reviews on Latin America
• Guides for Middle Eastern Studies
• Slavic and Eurasian Studies at Harvard: Library and Archival Resources
• Humanities/Social Sciences
• Inter Libros: Research Guide for Classics, Byzantine, & Medieval Studies
• Rinascimento: Digital Renaissance Studies
• Bioethics sources
• Literary Research in Harvard Libraries
• Philosophy Resources at Harvard

The human subjects of your research didn't read online. Reading linked and related articles online is an entirely different experience from that of browsing the newspaper or an online journal. The medium can be significant.

Don't disregard print indexes and the crucial print resources to which they may lead.

Fall 2020: During the virtual semester our access to print resources is of course limited. During this time you may be able to locate the full text for many normally print-only materials HathiTrust or other digital libraries. (for HathiTrust, this is less common for books published in the last 10 years)

Encyclopedia of American environmental history  (Print Only) , ​ed. by K. A. Brosnan. 4 v. NY: Facts on File, 2011. 

Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures  (Print Only) , ed. by Helaine Selin. 2nd ed. Berlin; NY: Springer, 2008. 2 v.

Technology (this was the entire tech section):

An Encyclopaedia of the history of technology , ed. by Ian McNeil. London; New York: Routledge, 1990, 1062 p. (Print only)

The biographical dictionary of scientists (Print Only) , by Roy Porter, Marilyn Ogilvie. NY: Oxford University Press, 3rd. ed., 2000. 2 v. 

• A collection of short articles.
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Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

Primary Sources

• What are Primary Sources?
• Digital Collections
• Print Materials
• Archives & Special Collections
• Tips for Using Primary Sources

What are Primary and Secondary Sources?

Primary Sources Primary sources are the "materials on a topic upon which subsequent interpretations or studies are based, anything from firsthand documents such as poems, diaries, court records, and interviews to research results generated by experiments, surveys, ethnographies, and so on."*

Primary sources are records of events as they are first described, usually by witnesses or people who were involved in the event. Many primary sources were created at the time of the event but can also include memoirs, oral interviews, or accounts that were recorded later.  

Visual materials, such as photos, original artwork, posters, and films are important primary sources, not only for the factual information they contain, but also for the insight they may provide into how people view their world.   Primary sources may also include sets of data, such as census statistics, which have been tabulated but not interpreted. However, in the sciences or social sciences, primary sources report the results of an experiment. 

It can sometimes be difficult to determine whether a particular source is primary or secondary, because the same source can be a primary source for one topic and a secondary source for another topic.   David McCullough’s biography, John Adams , could be a secondary source for a paper about John Adams but a primary source for a paper about how various historians have interpreted the life of John Adams.

*From Hairston, Maxine and John J. Ruszkiewicz. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers. 4th ed. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1996, pg. 547.

Secondary Sources Secondary sources offer an analysis or a restatement of primary sources. They often attempt to describe or explain primary sources. Some secondary sources not only analyze primary sources, but also use them to argue a contention or persuade the reader to hold a certain opinion. Examples of secondary sources include dictionaries, encyclopedias, textbooks, and books and articles that interpret, analyze, or review research works.

More Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

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• URL: https://guides.library.georgetown.edu/primary_sources

Primary Source Research: Definitions -What is a primary source?

• Definitions -What is a primary source?
• What are the types of primary sources?
• Examples of Primary Sources
• Databases of Primary Sources This link opens in a new window
• Digital Collections & Websites
• Getting Started on Your Topic
• Access Tools
• Document Analysis
• Citing Digitized Primary Documents
• Related Subject Guides

Primary Sources

What are Primary Sources?

There are many types of primary sources. Definitions vary by academic discipline.

Common elements to all types of primary sources are

Primary source materials have not been edited, evaluated, analyzed, combined, commented on, or changed by a person other than the creator.

Is a book a primary source?

The format, such as a book, newspaper, or film, does not determine whether the item is a primary source. Content and context are the determining factors.

What about translations?

Official or authorized translations are generally considered primary.  Unofficial translations are usually not considered primary because the translator may have biases or may not be fully fluent in the subject matter.  Translations generated by software, such as Google Translate, are never, ever, considered primary sources.

What are the types of Primary Sources?

“I was there” – Personal Accounts

Among the most frequently used primary sources are writings or interviews that come directly from the people who were present when the event being studied occurred. This material, created by individuals who directly experienced or were involved in the subject under investigation, is considered primary. The “I was there” type of primary source is referred in many different terms:

• Personal recollection
• Firsthand account
• Eyewitness report
• Contemporary account
• Direct Personal recollection
• Personal observation
• Autobiography
• Saw with ‘own eyes’

In additional to personal accounts, documents, such as court records, laws, hearings, treaties, death certificates, maps, photographs, that originate from or were created at the time of the event being studied are also primary sources. In some cases, documents created shortly after the event can also be primary.

Original Creations

Original creations by a person, such as letters, diaries, an autobiography, poem, musical score, work of art, screenplays, military field notes, a scientist’s lab notebooks, or an anthropologist’s diaries are primary.

Numerical data is a primary source. Data from public opinion polls may be primary. Once the raw data is interpreted or combined with other data it may no longer be primary.

Tools, clothing, buildings, films, TV shows, or tangible objects from a particular period can be a primary source.

Why are primary sources needed in research?

Original materials provide valuable insights into the culture, perspectives, actions, and conditions, making them essential for analysis and understanding of a particular time period, event or subject.

What are some examples of primary sources?

• Autobiographies
• Scientists' lab notebooks
• Photographs
• Official records (government reports, transcripts, court records, death certificates, etc.)
• Contemporary news reports (newspapers, telecasts, radio addresses, etc.)
• Eye-witness accounts
• Military Field Notes
• Ships' logs
• Music (scores, sheet music, recordings, etc.)
• Images (photographs, paintings, films etc.)
• Polls & Public Opinion Data
• Laws, statutes, hearings

What is a Secondary Source?

A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may include images of or quotes from primary sources. Some types of secondary sources include: journal/magazine articles, textbooks, commentaries, and encyclopedias.

In the strictest sense, translations are secondary sources unless the translation is provided by the author or issuing agency.  Consult your professor if you have questions about a source.

Secondary sources are interpretations and analyses based on primary sources.

For example, an autobiography is a primary source while a biography is a secondary source.

Typical secondary sources include:

• Scholarly Journal Articles.  Use these and books exclusively for writing Literature Reviews.
• Encyclopedias.
• Dictionaries.
• Documentaries. (but can also be primary)
• Newspapers.

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find primary and secondary sources published in book form.

Subject Guide

Can a Secondary Source become a Primary Source? What about newspapers?

Often secondary and primary sources are relative concepts.  Typical secondary sources may be primary sources depending on the research topic.

• Newspapers may be either primary or secondary. Most articles in newspapers are secondary, but reporters may be considered as witnesses to an event.  Any topic on the media coverage of an event or phenomenon would treat newspapers as a primary source.  There are so many articles and types of articles in newspapers that they can often be considered both primary and secondary.
• Intellectual history topics. For example, although scholarly journal articles are usually considered secondary sources, if one's topic is the history of human rights, then journal articles on human rights will be primary sources in this instance.  Similarly, research on the thinking of a scholar will include her published journal articles as primary sources.
• Historical topics. Magazine articles are secondary sources, but for someone researching the view of judicial punishment in the 1920s, magazines from that time period are primary sources.  Indeed, any older publication, such as those prior to the 20th century, is very often automatically considered a primary source.
• Translations In the strictest sense, translations are secondary sources unless the translation is provided by the author or issuing agency.  Consult your professor if you have questions about a source.

-Clement Ho

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• Last Updated: May 6, 2024 3:24 PM
• URL: https://subjectguides.library.american.edu/primaryresearchtutorial

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