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ADHD ( Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) Essay Examples

Adhd essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: understanding adhd: causes, symptoms, and treatment.

Thesis Statement: This research essay aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), including its possible causes, common symptoms, and various treatment approaches.

• Introduction
• Defining ADHD: An Overview
• Possible Causes of ADHD: Genetic, Environmental, and Neurological Factors
• Symptoms and Diagnosis: Recognizing ADHD in Children and Adults
• Treatment Options: Medication, Behavioral Therapy, and Lifestyle Interventions
• The Impact of ADHD on Daily Life: School, Work, and Relationships
• Current Research and Future Directions in ADHD Studies
• Conclusion: Enhancing Understanding and Support for Individuals with ADHD

Essay Title 2: ADHD in Children: Educational Challenges and Supportive Strategies

Thesis Statement: This research essay focuses on the educational challenges faced by children with ADHD, explores effective strategies for supporting their learning, and highlights the importance of early intervention.

• Educational Implications of ADHD: Academic, Social, and Emotional Impact
• Supportive Classroom Strategies: Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) and 504 Plans
• Teacher and Parent Collaboration: Creating a Supportive Learning Environment
• Alternative Learning Approaches: Montessori, Waldorf, and Inclusive Education
• ADHD Medication in the Educational Context: Benefits and Considerations
• Early Intervention and the Role of Pediatricians and School Counselors
• Conclusion: Nurturing Academic Success and Well-Being in Children with ADHD

Essay Title 3: ADHD in Adulthood: Challenges, Coping Strategies, and Stigma

Thesis Statement: This research essay examines the often overlooked topic of ADHD in adults, discussing the challenges faced, coping mechanisms employed, and the impact of societal stigma on individuals with adult ADHD.

• ADHD Persisting into Adulthood: Recognizing the Symptoms
• Challenges Faced by Adults with ADHD: Work, Relationships, and Self-Esteem
• Coping Strategies and Treatment Options for Adult ADHD
• The Role of Mental Health Support: Therapy, Coaching, and Self-Help
• ADHD Stigma and Misconceptions: Impact on Diagnosis and Treatment
• Personal Stories of Triumph: Overcoming ADHD-Related Obstacles
• Conclusion: Raising Awareness and Providing Support for Adults with ADHD

Understanding ADHD: an Informative Overview

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Rethinking ADHD: Balancing Medication with Holistic Interventions

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Personal Experience of The Struggles Associated with Asperger's Syndrome and ADHD

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Negative Effects Associated with Prescription Drugs on Children with ADHD

How fidgeting actually contributes to a lack of focus in students, diagnosing dyscalculia and adhd diagnosis in schools, the issue of social injustice of misdiagnosed children with adhd, understanding adhd: a comprehensive analysis, behavioral disorders: causes, symptoms, and support.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by excessive amounts of inattention, carelessness, hyperactivity (which evolves into inner restlessness in adulthood), and impulsivity that are pervasive, impairing, and otherwise age-inappropriate.

The major symptoms are inattention, carelessness, hyperactivity (evolves into restlessness in adults), executive dysfunction, and impulsivity.

The management of ADHD typically involves counseling or medications, either alone or in combination. While treatment may improve long-term outcomes, it does not get rid of negative outcomes entirely. Medications used include stimulants, atomoxetine, alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists, and sometimes antidepressants. In those who have trouble focusing on long-term rewards, a large amount of positive reinforcement improves task performance.ADHD stimulants also improve persistence and task performance in children with ADHD.

Relevant topics

• Mental Health
• Schizophrenia
• Stress Management
• Eating Disorders

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162 ADHD Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for ADHD topics to write about? ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) is a very common condition nowadays. It is definitely worth analyzing.

🔝 Top 10 ADHD Research Topics

🏆 best adhd essay examples, 💡 most interesting adhd topics to write about, 🎓 exciting adhd essay topics, 🔥 hot adhd topics to write about, 👍 adhd research paper topics, ❓ research questions about adhd.

In your ADHD essay, you might want to focus on the causes or symptoms of this condition. Another idea is to concentrate on the treatments for ADHD in children and adults. Whether you are looking for an ADHD topic for an argumentative essay, a research paper, or a dissertation, our article will be helpful. We’ve collected top ADHD essay examples, research paper titles, and essay topics on ADHD.

• ADHD and its subtypes
• The most common symptoms of ADHD
• The causes of ADHD: genetics, environment, or both?
• ADHD and the changes in brain structures
• ADHD and motivation
• Treating ADHD: the new trends
• Behavioral therapy as ADHD treatment
• Natural remedies for ADHD
• ADD vs. ADHD: is there a difference?
• Living with ADHD: the main challenges
• Everything You Need to Know About ADHD The frontal hemisphere of the brain is concerned with coordination and a delay in development in this part of the brain can lead to such kind of disorder.
• Learning Disabilities: Differentiating ADHD and EBD As for the most appropriate setting, it is possible to seat the child near the teacher. It is possible to provide instructions with the help of visual aids.
• Variables in “ADHD Outside the Laboratory” Study The other variables are the videogames, matching exercise and the zoo navigation exercise used to test the performance of the boys.
• Psychology: Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder It is important to pay attention to the development of proper self-esteem in children as it can negatively affect their development and performance in the future.
• ADHD and Its Effects on the Development of a Child In particular, this research study’s focus is the investigation of the impact of household chaos on the development and behavior of children with ADHD.
• The History of ADHD Treatment: Drug Addiction Disorders Therefore, the gathered data would be classified by year, treatment type, and gender to better comprehend the statistical distribution of the prevalence of drug addiction.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Recommended Therapy The condition affects the motivational functioning and abnormal cognitive and behavioural components of the brain. Dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex contributed to a lack of alertness and shortened attention in the brain’s short-term memory.
• Rhetorical Modes Anthology on Attention Deficit Disorder It clearly outlines the origin and early symptoms of the disorder and the scientist who discovered attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Summary & Validity: This article describes the causes of hyperactivity disorder and the potential factors […]
• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in a Young Girl The particular objective was to assist Katie in becoming more focused and capable of finishing her chores. The patient received the same amount of IR Ritalin and was required to continue taking it for an […]
• Similarities and Differences: SPD, ADHD, and ASD The three disorders, Sensory Processing Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and Autism Spectrum Disorder, are often confused with each other due to the connections and similarities that exist.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Awareness According to Sayal et al, ADHD is common in young boys as it is easier to identify the problem. The disorder is well-known, and there is no struggle to identify the problem.
• Assessing the Personality Profile With ADHD Characteristics On the contrary, the study was able to understand significant changes in the emotional states and mood of the children when the observations and the tests ended.
• Aspects of ADHD Patients Well-Being This goal can be achieved through the help of mental health and behavioral counselors to enhance behavioral modification and the ability to cope with challenges calmly and healthily.
• ADHD and Problems With Sleep This is because of the activity of a person in the middle of the day and the condition around them. The downside of the study is that the study group included 52 adults with ADHD […]
• The Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Treatment It has been estimated that when medicine and therapy are applied as treatment together, the outcomes for children with ADHD are excellent.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Organization’s Mission Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is an organization that is determined to handle individuals affected by ADHD. The organization was founded in 1987 following the rampant frustration and isolation that parents experienced due to […]
• Case Conceptualization: Abuse-Mediated ADHD Patient The case provides insight into the underlying causes of James’s educational problems and the drug abuse of his parents. The case makes it evident that the assumption from the first case conceptualization about James’s ADHD […]
• Change: Dealing With Patients With ADHD In the current workplace, the most appropriate change would be the increase in the awareness of nurses regarding the methods of dealing with patients with ADHD.
• Dealing With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Although my experience is not dramatic, it clearly shows how untreated ADHD leads to isolation and almost depression. However, the question arises of what is the norm, how to define and measure it.
• Parents’ Perception of Attending an ADHD Clinic The main principles of the clinic’s specialists should be an objective diagnosis of the neurological status of the child and the characteristics of his/her behavior, the selection of drug treatment only on the basis of […]
• ADHD: Mental Disorder Based on Symptoms The DSM-5 raised the age limit from 6 to 12 for qualifying the disorder in children and now requires five instead of six inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.
• Understanding Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Thus, the smaller sizes of the reviewed brain structures associated with ADHD result in problems with attention, memory, and controlling movement and emotional responses.
• Effective Therapies for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder The problem at hand is that there is a need to determine which of the therapies administered is effective in the management of ADHD.
• Participants of “ADHD Outside the Laboratory” Study The participants in the testing group and those in the control group were matched for age within 6 months, for IQ within 15 points and finally for performance on the tasks of the study.
• Different Types of Diets and Children’s ADHD Treatment The last factor is a trigger that can lead to the development of a child’s genes’ reaction. Thus, diet is one of the factors that can help prevent the development of ADHD.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children The consistent utilization of effective praises and social rewards indeed results in the behavioral orientation of the child following the treatment goals.
• Vyvanse – ADD and ADHD Medicine Company Analysis It is produced by Shire and New River Pharmaceuticals in its inactive form which has to undergo digestion in the stomach and through the first-pass metabolic effect in the liver into L-lysine, an amino acid […]
• Dealing With the Disruptive Behaviors of ADHD and Asperger Syndrome Students While teaching in a class that has students with ADHD and Asperger syndrome, the teacher should ensure that they give instructions that are simple and easy to follow.
• Behavioral Parenting Training to Treat Children With ADHD These facts considered, it is possible to state that the seriousness of ADHD accounts for the necessity of the use of behavioral parental training as the treatment of the disorder.
• Current Issues in Psychopharmacology: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder This is the area that is charged with the responsibility for vision control as well as a regulation of one’s brain’s ability to go to aresynchronize’ and go to rest.
• Cognitive Psychology and Attention Deficit Disorder On top of the difficulties in regulating alertness and attention, many individuals with ADD complain of inabilities to sustain effort for duties.
• Adult and Paediatric Psychology: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder To allow children to exercise their full life potential, and not have any depression-caused impairment in the social, academic, behavioral, and emotional field, it is vital to reveal this disorder as early in life, as […]
• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Biological Testing The research, leading to the discovery of the Biological testing for ADHD was conducted in Thessaloniki, Greece with 65 children volunteering for the research. There is a large difference in the eye movement of a […]
• Issues in the Diagnosis of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children Concept theories concerning the nature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder influence treatment, the approach to the education of children with ADHD, and the social perception of this disease.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Care Controversy The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy, in terms of symptoms and function, and safety of “once-daily dose-optimized GXR compared with placebo in the treatment of children and adolescents aged 6 17 […]
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Interventions The authors examine a wide range of past studies that reported on the effects of peer inclusion interventions and present the overall results, showing why further research on peer inclusion interventions for children with ADHD […]
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in a Child A child counselor works with children to help them become mentally and emotionally stable. The case that is examined in this essay is a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Drug-Free Therapy The proposed study aims to create awareness of the importance of interventions with ADHD among parents refusing to use medication. The misperceptions about ADHD diagnosis and limited use of behavioral modification strategies may be due […]
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Psychosocial Interventions The mentioned components and specifically the effects of the condition on a child and his family would be the biggest challenge in the case of Derrick.
• The Diagnosis and Treatment of ADHD Cortese et al.state that cognitive behavioral therapy is overall a practical approach to the treatment of the condition, which would be the primary intervention in this case.
• The Attention Deficit Hypersensitivity Disorder in Education Since ADHD is a topic of a condition that has the potential to cripple the abilities of a person, I have become attached to it much.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Comorbidities Due to the effects that ADHD has on patients’ relationships with their family members and friends, the development of comorbid health problems becomes highly possible.
• Medicating Kids to Treat ADHD The traditional view is that the drugs for the disorder are some of the safest in the psychiatric practice, while the dangers posed by untreated ADHD include failure in studies, inability to construct social connections, […]
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Signs and Strategies Determining the presence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in a child and addressing the disorder is often a rather intricate process because of the vagueness that surrounds the issue.
• Cognitive Therapy for Attention Deficit Disorder The counselor is thus expected to assist the self-reflection and guide it in the direction that promises the most favorable outcome as well as raise the client’s awareness of the effect and, by extension, enhance […]
• “Stress” Video and “A Natural Fix for ADHD” Article There certainly are some deeper reasons for people to get stressed, and the video documentary “Stress: Portrait of a Killer” and the article “A Natural Fix for A.D.H.D”.by Dr.
• Attention Deficit Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment The patient lives with her parents and 12-year-old brother in a middle-class neighborhood. Her father has a small business, and her mother works part-time in a daycare center.
• Bright Not Broken: Gifted Kids, ADHD, and Autism It is possible to state that the book provides rather a high-quality review of the issues about the identification, education, and upbringing of the 2e children.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder: Case Review On the other hand, Mansour’s was observed to have difficulties in the simple tasks that he was requested to perform. Mansour’s appears to be in the 3rd phase of growth.
• Treatment of Children With ADHD Because of the lack of sufficient evidence concerning the effects of various treatment methods for ADHD, as well as the recent Ritalin scandal, the idea of treating children with ADHD with the help of stimulant […]
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Medicalization This paper discusses the phenomenon of medicalization of ADHD, along with the medicalization of other aspects perceived as deviant or atypical, it will also review the clash of scientific ideas and cultural assumptions where medicalization […]
• Medication and Its Role in the ADHD Treatment Similar inferences can be inferred from the findings of the research conducted by Reid, Trout and Schartz that revealed that medication is the most appropriate treatment of the symptoms associated with ADHD.
• Children With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder The purpose of the present research is to understand the correlation between the self-esteem of children with ADHD and the use of medication and the disorder’s characteristics.
• Natural Remedies for ADHD The key peculiarity of ADHD is that a patient displays several of these symptoms, and they are observed quite regularly. Thus, one can say that proper diet can be effective for the treatment of attention […]
• Cognitive Behavior Therapy in Children With ADHD The study revealed that the skills acquired by the children in the sessions were relevant in the long term since the children’s behaviors were modeled entirely.
• Is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Real? In fact, the existence of the condition, its treatment and diagnosis, have been considered controversial topics since the condition was first suggested in the medical, psychology and education.
• Is Attention Deficit Disorder a Real Disorder? When Medicine Faces Controversial Issues In addition, it is necessary to mention that some of the symptoms which the children in the case study displayed could to be considered as the ones of ADHD.
• Foods That Effect Children With ADHD/ ADD Therefore, it is the duty of parents to identify specific foods and food additives that lead to hyperactivity in their children.
• Toby Diagnosed: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder The symptoms of the disorder are usually similar to those of other disorder and this increases the risks of misdiagnosing it or missing it all together.
• Identifying, Assessing and Treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder For these criteria to be effective in diagnosing a child with ADHD, the following symptoms have to be present so that the child can be labelled as having ADHD; the child has to have had […]
• ADHD Should Be Viewed as a Cognitive Disorder The manifestation of the disorder and the difficulties that they cause, as posited by the American Psychiatric Association, are typically more pronounced when a person is involved in some piece of work such as studying […]
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Influence on the Adolescents’ Behavior That is why the investigation was developed to prove or disprove such hypotheses as the dependence of higher rates of anxiety of adolescents with ADHD on their diagnosis, the dependence of ODD and CD in […]
• Stroop Reaction Time on Adults With ADHD The model was used to investigate the effectiveness of processes used in testing interference control and task-set management in adults with ADHD disorder.
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Causes Family studies, relationship studies of adopted children, twin studies and molecular research have all confirmed that, ADHD is a genetic disorder.
• Diagnosis and Treatment of ADHD The diagnosis of ADHD has drawn a lot of attention from scientific and academic circles as some scholars argue that there are high levels of over diagnosis of the disorder.
• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder As it would be observed, some of the symptoms associated with the disorder for children would differ from those of adults suffering from the same condition in a number of ways.
• Working Memory in Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Whereas many studies have indicated the possibility of the beneficial effects of WM training on people with ADHD, critics have dismissed them on the basis of flawed research design and interpretation.
• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The Basic Information in a Nutshell In the case with adults, however, the definition of the disorder will be quite different from the one which is provided for a child ADHD.
• How ADHD Develops Into Adult ADD The development of dominance is vital in processing sensations and information, storage and the subsequent use of the information. As they become teenagers, there is a change in the symptoms of ADHD.
• Medical Condition of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder A combination of impulsive and inattentive types is referred to as a full blown ADHD condition. To manage this condition, an array of medical, behavioral, counseling, and lifestyle modification is the best combination.
• Effects of Medication on Education as Related to ADHD In addition, as Rabiner argues, because of the hyperactivity and impulsivity reducing effect of ADHD drugs, most ADHD suffers are nowadays able to learn in an indistinguishable class setting, because of the reduced instances of […]
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Treatment Generally the results indicate that children with ADHD had a difficult time in evaluating time concepts and they seemed to be impaired in orientation of time.
• The Ritalin Fact Book: Stimulants Use in the ADHD Treatment Facts presented by each side of the critical issue The yes side of the critical issue makes it clear that the drugs being used to control ADHD are harmful as they affect the normal growth […]
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD / ADHD) Some critics maintain that the condition is a work of fiction by the psychiatric and pharmacists who have taken advantage of distraught families’ attempts to comprehend the behaviour of their children to dramatise the condition.
• Behavior Modification in Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Introduction The objective of the article is to offer a description of the process of behavior modification for a child diagnosed with ADHD.
• What Is ADHD and How Does It Affect Kids
• The Benefits of Physical Activities in Combating the Symptoms of ADHD in Students
• The Effects of Exercise and Physical Activity as Intervention for Children with ADHD
• What Are the Effects of ADHD in the Classroom
• Are Children Being Diagnosed with ADHD too Hastily
• The Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on ADHD
• Understanding ADHD, Its Effects, Symptoms, and Approach to Children with ADHD
• ADHD Stimulant Medication Abuse and Misuse Among U.S. Teens
• Severity of ADHD and Anxiety Rise if Both Develop
• The Best Approach to Dealing with Attention Deficit/Herpactivity Disorder or ADHD in Children
• An Analysis of the Potential Causes and Treatment Methods for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Young Children
• The Best Way to Deal with Your Child Who Struggles with ADHD
• Response Inhibition in Children with ADHD
• Behavioral and Pharmacological Treatment of Children with ADHD
• Symptoms And Symptoms Of ADHD, Depression, And Anxiety
• Bioethics in Intervention in the Deficit Attention Hyperkinetic Disorder (ADHD)
• The Effects of Children’s ADHD on Parents’ Relationship Dissolution and Labor Supply
• The Effects of Pharmacological Treatment of ADHD on Children’s Health
• The Educational Implications Of ADHD On School Aged Children
• Differences in Perception in Children with ADHD
• The Effects Of ADHD On Children And Education System Child
• Students With ADD/ADHD and Class Placement
• The Advantage and Disadvantage of Using Psychostimulants in the Treatment of ADHD
• How to Increase Medication Compliance in Children with ADHD
• Effective Teaching Strategies for Students with ADHD
• Scientists Probe ADHD Treatment for Long Term Management of the Disease
• Should Stimulants Be Prescribed for ADHD Children
• The Rise of ADHD and the an Analysis of the Drugs Prescribed for Treatment
• The Correlation Between Smoking During Pregnancy And ADHD
• Exploring Interventions Improving Workplace Behavior In Adults With ADHD
• The Promise of Music and Art in Treating ADHD
• The Struggle Of ADHD Medication And Over Diagnosis
• The Problems of Detecting ADHD in Children
• The Harmful Effects of ADHD Medication in Children
• The Symptoms and Treatment of ADHD in Children and Teenagers
• The Impact of Adult ADD/ADHD on Education
• The Experience of Having the ADHD Disorder
• The Young Children And Children With ADHD, And Thinking Skills
• The Use of Ritalin in Treating ADD and ADHD
• The Ethics Of Giving Children ADHD Medication
• The Importance of Correctly Diagnosing ADHD in Children
• The Rise in ADHD Diagnosis and Treatment within the United States of America
• The World of ADHD Children
• The Use of Drug Therapies for Children with ADHD
• What Are the Effects of ADHD in the Classroom?
• Does ADHD Affect Essay Writing?
• What Are the Three Main Symptoms of ADHD?
• How Does ADHD Medication Affect the Brain?
• What Can ADHD Lead To?
• Is ADHD Legitimate Medical Diagnosis or Socially Constructed Disorder?
• How Does Art Help Children With ADHD?
• What Are the Four Types of ADHD?
• Can Sports Affect Impulse Control in Children With ADHD?
• What Age Does ADHD Peak?
• How Can You Tell if an Adult Has ADHD?
• Should Antihypertensive Drugs Be Used for Curing ADHD?
• How Does ADHD Affect Cognitive Development?
• Is Adult ADHD a Risk Factor for Dementia or Phenotypic Mimic?
• How Are People With ADHD Seen in Society?
• Can Additional Training Help Close the ADHD Gender Gap?
• How Does School Systems Deal With ADHD?
• Are Children With Low Working Memory and Children With ADHD Same or Different?
• How Does ADHD Affect School Performance?
• Should Children With ADHD Be Medicated?
• How Does Society View Children With ADHD?
• What Do Researches Tell Us About Students With ADHD in the Chilean Context?
• Why Should Teachers Understand ADHD?
• Does DD/ADHD Exist?
• What Are Some Challenges of ADHD?
• Why Is ADHD an Important Topic to Discuss?
• Is ADHD Born or Developed?
• Can ADHD Cause Lack of Emotion?
• Does ADHD Affect Females?
• Is ADHD on the Autism Spectrum?
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ADHD and Graduate Writing

What this handout is about.

This handout outlines how ADHD can contribute to hitting the wall in graduate school. It describes common executive function challenges that grad students with ADHD might experience, along with tips, strategies, and resources for navigating the writing demands of grad school with ADHD.

Challenges for graduate students with ADHD

Many graduate students hit the wall (lose focus, productivity, and direction) when they reach the proposal, thesis, or dissertation phase—when they have a lot of unstructured time and when their external accountability system is gone. Previously successful strategies aren’t working for them anymore, and they aren’t making satisfactory progress on their research.

In many ways, hitting the wall is a normal part of the grad school experience, but ADHD, whether diagnosed or undiagnosed, can amplify the challenges of graduate school because success depends heavily on executive functioning. ADHD expert Russell Barkley explains that people with ADHD have difficulty with some dimensions of executive function, including working memory, motivation, planning, and problem solving. For grad students, those difficulties may emerge as these kinds of challenges:

• Being forgetful and having difficulty keeping things organized.
• Not remembering anything they’ve read in the last few hours or the last few minutes.
• Not remembering anything they’ve written or the argument they’ve been developing.
• Finding it hard to determine a research topic because all topics are appealing.
• Easily generating lots of new ideas but having difficulty organizing them.
• Being praised for creativity but struggling with coherence in writing, often not noticing logical leaps in their own writing.
• Having difficulty breaking larger projects into smaller chunks and/or accurately estimating the time required for each task.
• Difficulty imposing structure on large blocks of time and finishing anything without externally set deadlines.
• Spending an inordinate amount of time (like 5 hours) developing the perfect plan for accomplishing tasks (like 3 hours of reading).
• Having trouble switching tasks—working for hours on one thing (like refining one sentence), often with no awareness of time passing.
• Conversely, having trouble focusing on a single task–being easily distracted by external or internal competitors for their attention.
• Being extremely sensitive to or upset by criticism, even when it’s meant to be constructive.
• Struggling with advisor communications, especially when the advisors don’t have a strict structure, e.g., establishing priorities, setting clear timelines, enforcing deadlines, providing timely feedback, etc.

If you experience these challenges in a way that is persistent and problematic, check out our ADHD resources page and consider talking to our ADHD specialists at the Learning Center to talk through how you can regain or maintain focus and productivity.

Strategies for graduate students with ADHD

Writing a thesis or dissertation is a long, complex process. The list below contains a variety of strategies that have been helpful to grad students with ADHD. Experiment with the suggestions below to find what works best for you.

Reading and researching

Screen reading software allows you to see and hear the words simultaneously. You can control the pace of reading to match your focus. If it’s easier to focus while you’re physically active, try using a screen reader so you can listen to journal articles while you take a walk or a run or while you knit or doodle–or whatever movement helps you focus. Find more information about screen readers and everything they can do on the ARS Technology page .

Citation management systems can help you keep your sources organized. Most systems enable you to enter notes, add tags, save pdfs, and search. Some allow you to annotate pdfs, export to other platforms, or collaborate on projects. See the UNC Health Sciences Library comparison of citation managers to learn more about options and support.

Synthesis matrix is a fancy way of saying “spreadsheet,” but it’s a spreadsheet that helps you keep your notes organized. Set the spreadsheet up with a column for the full citations and additional columns for themes, like “research question,” “subjects,” “theoretical perspective,” or anything that you could productively document. The synthesis matrix allows you to look at all of the notes on a single theme across multiple publications, making it easier for you to analyze and synthesize. It saves you the trouble of shuffling through lots of highlighted articles or random pieces of paper with scribbled notes. See these example matrices on Autism , Culturally Responsive Pedagogy , and Translingualism .

Topic selection

Concept maps (also called mind maps) represent information visually through diagrams, flowcharts, timelines, etc. They can help you document ideas and see relationships you might be interested in pursuing. See examples on the Learning Center’s Concept Map handout . Search the internet for “concept-mapping software” or “mind-mapping software” to see your many choices.

Advisor meetings can help you reign in all of the interesting possibilities and focus on a viable, manageable project. Try to narrow the topics down to 3-5 and discuss them with your advisor. Be ready to explain why each interests you and how you would see the project developing. Work with your advisor to set goals and a check-in schedule to help you stay on track. They can also help you sort what needs to be considered now and what’s beyond the scope of the dissertation—tempting though it may be to include everything possible.

Eat the elephant one bite at a time. Break the dissertation project down into bite-sized pieces so you don’t get overwhelmed by the enormity of the whole project. The pieces can be parts of the text (e.g., the introduction) or the process (e.g., brainstorming or formatting tables). Enlist your advisor, other grad students, or anyone you think might help you figure out manageable chunks to work on, discuss reasonable times for completion, and help you set up accountability systems.

Tame perfectionism and separate the processes . Writers with ADHD will often try to perfect a single sentence before moving on to the next one, to the point that it’s debilitating. Start with drafting for ideas, knowing that you’re going to write a lot of sentences that will change later. Allow the ideas to flow, then set aside times to revise for ideas and to polish the prose.

List questions you could answer as a way of brainstorming and organizing information.

Make a slideshow of your key points for each section, chapter, or the entire dissertation. Hit the highlights without getting mired in the details as you draft the big picture.

Give a presentation to an imaginary (or real) audience to help you flesh out your ideas and try to articulate them coherently. The presentation can be planned or spontaneous as a brainstorming strategy. Give your presentation out loud and use dictation software to capture your thoughts.

Use dictation software to transcribe your speech into words on a screen. If your brain moves faster than your fingers can type, or if you constantly backspace over imperfectly written sentences, dictation software can capture the thoughts as they come to you and preserve all of your phrasings. You can review, organize, and revise later. Any device with a microphone (like your phone) will do the trick. See various speech to text tools on the ARS Technology page .

Turn off the monitor and force yourself to write for five, ten, twenty minutes, or however long it takes to dump your brain onto the screen. If you can’t see the words, you can’t scrutinize and delete them prematurely.

Use the Pomodoro technique . Set a timer for 25 minutes, write as much as you can during that time, take a five-minute break, and then do it again. After four 25-minute segments, take a longer break. The timer puts a helpful limit on the writing session that can motivate you to produce. It also keeps you aware of the passage of time, helping you stay focused and keeping your time more structured.

Sprints or marathons? Some people find it helpful to break down the writing process into smaller tasks and work on a number of tasks in smaller sprints. However, some people with ADHD find managing a number of tasks overwhelming, so for them, a “marathon write” may be a good idea. A marathon write doesn’t have to mean last-minute writing. Try to plan ahead, stock up on food for as many days as you plan to write, and think about how you’ll care for yourself during the long stretch of writing.

Minimize distractions . Turn off the internet, find a suitable place (quiet, ambient noise, etc.), minimize disruptions from other people (family, office mates, etc.), and use noise-canceling headphones or earplugs if they help. If you catch your thoughts wandering, write down whatever is distracting and you can attend to it later when you finish.

Seek feedback for clarity . Mind-wandering is a big asset for people with ADHD as it boosts creativity. Expansive, big-picture thinking is also an asset because it allows you to imagine complex systems. However, these things can also make graduate students with ADHD struggle with maintaining logical coherence. When you ask for feedback, specify logical coherence as a concern so your reader has a focus. If you’d like to look at your logic before you seek feedback, see our 2-minute video on reverse outlining .

Seek feedback for community . Talking to people about your ideas for writing will help you stay connected at a time when it’s easy to fade into a dark hole. Check out this handout on getting feedback .

Time management and accountability

Enlist your advisor . Graduate students with ADHD might worry about the perception that they’re “gaming the system” if they disclose their ADHD. Or they might struggle with an advisor with a more hands-off mentoring style. It will be helpful to be explicit about your neurodiversity and your potential need for a structure. Ask your advisor to clarify the expectations specifically (even quantify them), and work with them to come up with a clear timeline and a regular check-in schedule.

Enlist other mentors . Your advisor may be less understanding and/or may not be able to provide enough structure, or you may think it’s a good idea to have more than one person on your structure team. Look for other mentors on your faculty (inside or outside of your committee), and talk to senior grad students about their strategies.

Pay attention to your body rhythms . When do you feel most creative? Most focused? Most energetic? Or the least creative, focused, energetic? What activities could you engage in during those times? How can you do them consistently?

Think about task vs. time . It can be difficult to estimate how long a task is going to take, so think about setting a time limit for working on something. Set a timer, work for that amount of time, and change tasks when the time is over.

Tame hyperfocus . If you have trouble switching tasks, ask a friend or colleague to “interrupt” you, or figure out a system you can use to interrupt yourself. For example, when you find yourself trying to fix a sentence for 30 minutes, you can call a friend for a brief conversation about another topic. People with ADHD often find this helps them to look at the work from a more objective perspective when they return to it.

Set SMART goals . Check out the handout on setting SMART goals to help you set up a regular research and writing routine.

Set up a reward system . Tie your research or writing goal to an enjoyable reward. Note that it can also be pre-ward – something you do beforehand that will help you feel refreshed and motivated to work.

Find accountability buddies . These can be people you update on your progress or people you meet with to get work done together. Oftentimes, the simple presence of other people is able to motivate and keep us focused. This “body-doubling” strategy is particularly helpful for people with ADHD. Look for events like the Dissertation Boot Camp or IME Writing Wednesdays .

Find virtual accountability partners . There are a number of online platforms to connect you with virtual work partners. See this article on strategies and things to consider.

Use productivity and focus apps . Check out some recommendations among the Learning Center’s ADHD/LD Resources . To find the best options for you, try Googling “Apps for focus and productivity” to find reviews of timers and other focus apps.

Learn more about accountability . See the Learning Center’s Accountability Strategies page for great information and resources.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Barkley, R. (2022, July 11). What is executive function? 7 deficits tied to ADHD . ADDitude: Inside the ADHD Mind. https://www.additudemag.com/7-executive-function-deficits-linked-to-adhd/

Hallowell, E. and Ratey, J. (2021). ADHD 2.0: New science and essential strategies for thriving with distraction—from childhood through adulthood . Random House Books.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Breaking Barriers: My Battle with ADHD

In a prize-winning essay about overcoming obstacles, a child with attention deficit disorder explains the effects of adhd on his life. from enlisting the help of family members to keeping a journal, this is how jack prey manages his diagnosis..

Have you ever been working on something important, when a song pops into your head? Then that leads you to think of something in the song about flying, which leads you to play with your remote control glider? Next thing you know, it’s dinnertime, and you haven’t finished the homework you started two hours before.

That’s what it’s like to have Attention Deficit Disorder. I know because I’ve had ADHD for as long as I can remember. For me, ADHD means that I can’t focus whenever I really need to. It’s something I will live with for the rest of my life. And it’s no fun!

When I was younger, people told me I was really smart. But I never got good grades to show it. When I was at school, I would get bored really quickly. Then I would look for something more interesting to do. Sometimes I would try to help other kids with their work. The problem was, I didn’t finish my work, and that would lead to trouble. There were lots of days I even felt like quitting school.

My parents were confused. They knew I was smart, but I wasn’t showing it. My doctor suggested that I see a specialist. He gave me a bunch of tests. When it was all done, he told my parents that I had ADD . Now it’s called ADHD. The H stands for “hyper.” He said I didn’t really have the H , so I guess that was some good news.

To help me focus, the doctor gave me some tips to follow. One of them is to keep a special journal with me all the time to write down things, like what homework I have and when things are due. I try to keep the notebook with me wherever I go. It really helps.

[ Get This Free Download: 5 Powerful Brain Hacks for Focus & Productivity ]

I came up with another tip myself. When I have a test or a quiz, I challenge myself to get it done by a certain time. That keeps me focused on the test and not on the pretty girl sitting in front of me or the lizard in the aquarium. Ah, lizards. I really like lizards. Where was I again?

Oh yeah, my focus techniques. With the help of my parents and my older brother, I started doing some other things that help, like going to bed a little earlier so I can get a good night’s sleep.

My brother and I share a bedroom, and he has agreed to go to bed earlier to help me out. Another thing our whole family has started doing is eating a healthy diet. I used to eat a lot of junk food, but now I only eat a little bit. Ah, junk food. Oops, I’ll try not to do that again.

I’ve been working hard, using these focus techniques for the last year and guess what? My grades have started to go up! In fact, on my last report card I got five As and one B. That’s the best I’ve ever done!

[ Your Free Download: What Every Teacher Should Know About ADHD: A Poster for School ]

My teacher, Miss Ryan, suggested I write this essay. I’m not sure if I knew who Jackie Robinson was before this, but I did some checking. Turns out, he was a great man who had to overcome one of the worst things there is: racism. He did it using the values of courage, determination, teamwork, persistence, integrity, citizenship, justice, commitment, and excellence.

I have used some of these same values to help me overcome ADHD. For instance, I am committed to using my focus techniques, and I am determined to do better in school. Plus, my family has helped me, and that is being a team. Go, team! Also, when I focus, I am a good citizen and don’t bother my classmates as much. Last but not least, using these values has helped me to get almost all As on my report card, which is an example of excellence. Thanks for being such a good example, Jackie!

[ Read This Next: How I Came to Rock My ADHD ]

Talking About ADHD: Read These Next

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• The effect of ADHD on the life of an individual, their family, and community from preschool to adult life
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• Correspondence to: Dr V A Harpin Ryegate Children’s Centre, Sheffield Children’s NHS Trust, Tapton Crescent Road, Sheffield S10 5DD, UK; Val.Harpinsheffch-tr.trent.nhs.uk

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may affect all aspects of a child’s life. Indeed, it impacts not only on the child, but also on parents and siblings, causing disturbances to family and marital functioning. The adverse effects of ADHD upon children and their families changes from the preschool years to primary school and adolescence, with varying aspects of the disorder being more prominent at different stages. ADHD may persist into adulthood causing disruptions to both professional and personal life. In addition, ADHD has been associated with increased healthcare costs for patients and their family members.

• CHQ, Child Health Questionnaire
• ODD, oppositional defiant disorder

https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2004.059006

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• Editorial Introduction P Hill Archives of Disease in Childhood 2005; 90 i1-i1 Published Online First: 21 Jan 2005. doi: 10.1136/adc.2004.058842

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Miss. Diagnosis: A Systematic Review of ADHD in Adult Women

Darby e. attoe.

1 University of Calgary, AB, Canada

Emma A. Climie

The aim of this review was to explore the impact of living with undiagnosed ADHD and adult diagnosis on women.

A systematic literature search was completed using three databases. Eight articles were considered relevant based on strict inclusion criteria. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the results of the articles.

Four key themes emerged: Impacts on social-emotional wellbeing, Difficult relationships, Lack of control, and Self-acceptance after diagnosis.

Conclusion:

This knowledge can be used to advance the understanding of ADHD in adult women and the implications for late diagnosis in women.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was once thought to be a male only disorder, leaving women and girls to suffer in silence ( Nussbaum, 2012 ). In childhood, the ratio of boys to girls with ADHD is about 3:1 whereas in adulthood it is closer to 1:1, suggesting that women and girls are underdiagnosed in childhood ( Da Silva et al., 2020 ). ADHD is one of the most common psychiatric disorders in childhood and can result in cognitive difficulties and functional impairments ( American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013 ). Without a diagnosis, women with ADHD often report spending their lives feeling “different,” “stupid,” or “lazy” and blaming themselves for their underachievement ( Lynn, 2019 ). Consequently, receiving a diagnosis of ADHD can be instrumental for a woman’s self-esteem and identity ( Waite, 2010 ). Many women experience diagnosis as a lightbulb moment, giving an external explanation for their struggles and allowing them to accept themselves more fully ( Stenner et al., 2019 ).

ADHD is a manageable condition; early detection and treatment can dramatically change the outcomes for children with ADHD as they continue into adulthood ( Quinn, 2004 ). Early intervention can reduce academic and professional underachievement, relationship difficulties, and psychiatric comorbidities ( Sassi, 2010 ). Research has consistently shown that females are underdiagnosed in childhood ( Mowlem et al., 2018 ; Quinn, 2004 ; Waite, 2010 ); however, there is little research looking at the impact of this underdiagnosis. The current review examines adult ADHD diagnosis in women and the impacts of living undiagnosed until adulthood.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

ADHD is a developmental disorder characterized by developmentally inappropriate and impairing symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity ( APA, 2013 ). There are three main presentations of ADHD, dividing symptoms into classifications of inattention, hyperactive-impulsive, or a combination of the two ( APA, 2013 ). Presentations will manifest differently for each individual and will look different from person to person. ADHD is a disorder prevalent in 5% to 10% of school aged children ( APA, 2013 ). It persists into adulthood and affects both men and women ( Da Silva et al., 2020 ), impacting 2% to 6% of the global population ( Song et al., 2021 ).

Gender & ADHD

Societal norms and values play an important role in how people with ADHD perceive themselves and how they are perceived by others, with society’s prevailing norms influencing what is considered appropriate behavior ( Holthe, 2013 ). These norms differ based on gender (i.e., the social meaning attached to biological sex); women and girls are encouraged to display “feminine” behaviors and traits such as empathy, good relationships with others, organization, and obedience ( Holthe, 2013 ). When girls display behaviors consistent with ADHD symptoms (e.g., impulsivity, hyperactivity, and disorganization), they are at a higher risk for social judgment for violations of feminine norms ( Holthe, 2013 ). To avoid social sanctions, many girls with ADHD exert considerable effort to mask symptoms of ADHD ( Waite, 2010 ).

ADHD symptoms present differently in girls and boys ( Mowlem et al., 2018 ; Nussbaum, 2012 ; Quinn, 2004 ). Girls are more often diagnosed with ADHD-Inattentive (ADHD-I), exhibiting symptoms such as distraction, disorganization, and forgetfulness ( Nussbaum, 2012 ). Boys more frequently present with ADHD-Hyperactivity/Impulsivity (ADHD-HI), exhibiting greater levels of hyperactivity, impulsivity, and aggression ( Waite, 2010 ). These symptoms are often more disruptive in the classroom setting, leading to higher rates of referral for assessment in boys than girls ( Waite, 2010 ). Mowlem et al. (2018) found that a clinical diagnosis of ADHD was more common in boys than girls; of the children in their study, 72% of those who had a clinical diagnosis of ADHD were boys. An additional 12.9% met the symptom criteria for ADHD but did not have a formal diagnosis. Of these additional undiagnosed participants, 64% were boys and 36% were girls, suggesting gender differences in rates of diagnosis as well as diagnostic criteria. Externalizing behaviors are a stronger predictor of diagnosis in girls than boys. Girls who display significant externalizing behaviors are more likely to receive a diagnosis than those who display internalizing symptoms, suggesting that girls may be more likely to be missed in the diagnostic process unless they have significant externalizing behaviors ( Mowlem et al., 2018 ). Findings suggest that the current diagnostic criteria and/or clinical practice is biased toward the male presentation of ADHD ( Mowlem et al., 2018 ).

Not surprisingly, males are diagnosed with ADHD at higher rates than females ( Mowlem et al., 2018 ). One potential reason for this differential rate of diagnosis is that physicians may lack knowledge of gender differences in ADHD, leading to overlooked or missed diagnoses for women and girls ( Quinn, 2008 ). Many women seeking treatment for mood and emotional problems may have unrecognized ADHD ( Quinn, 2008 ). Higher rates of comorbidities such as depression and eating disorders in females with ADHD may make diagnosis more difficult. As well, physicians may have more difficulty separating ADHD from its comorbidities, potentially clouding ADHD symptoms and leading to delayed diagnosis in females ( Quinn, 2008 ).

Additionally, the reason for referral for ADHD services differs among males and females. Males are more often referred due to behavioral symptomology (e.g., ADHD), whereas females are more often referred due to emotional issues, such as anxiety or depression ( Klefsjö et al., 2021 ). Klefsjö et al. (2021) found that girls had more visits to a psychiatric care facility prior to ADHD diagnosis, were prescribed non-ADHD medications (e.g., anti-depressants) before and after diagnosis at a higher rate, and were older than boys at time of referral and at age of diagnosis. They suggest that this difference may be due to the higher burden of emotional problems required for girls to be referred for treatment. Girls are often less noticed by teachers and parents until symptoms are causing significantly more impairment than required for recognition in boys ( Klefsjö et al., 2021 ).

Mowlem et al. (2018) found that females referred for and diagnosed with ADHD exhibited symptoms that were a significant deviation from their typical behaviors, suggesting that females may have a slightly higher threshold for symptom severity for referral and diagnosis. Females with more externalizing symptoms were also referred more often, suggesting that because externalizing disorders are not in line with what is considered normative for females, they are more easily recognized and referred for assessment than those with internalizing symptoms on their own.

Gender bias not only occurs in clinical settings but also in the perceptions of parents and teachers, which may impact the rate in which males and females are referred for treatment. Ohan and Visser (2009) asked parent and teacher participants to read a vignette describing a child displaying symptoms of ADHD. Vignettes did not differ, other than half of participants read a vignette describing a child with a male name and the other half read a vignette describing a child with a female name. Participants were then asked to rate their likeliness to recommend or seek services for the child described. Both teachers and parents were less likely to seek or recommend services for girls than boys in these vignettes.

There is also gender bias in the research informing diagnostic criteria. Hartung and Widiger (1998) examined 243 empirical studies published in the Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology over the 6-year period between publication of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) DSM-III-R (1987) and the publication of the DSM-IV (1994). Seventy of those studies concerned ADHD, with 81% of participants being male and only 19% female. Other studies looked at in this review also found gender bias in participants; of 243 studies that stated participant gender, 71% included both boys and girls and 29% (70 studies) were confined to one sex. Of these 70 single-sex studies, 99.6% were studies of male children.

ADHD is not the only disorder where women are underdiagnosed. Research on autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has found that women are commonly undiagnosed or misdiagnosed. This inaccurate diagnosis may be due to diagnostic criteria being developed primarily on the behavioral presentation of males ( Green et al., 2019 ). Gender influences diagnostic processes in both mental and physical health settings; for example, cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death for women worldwide yet due to differences in symptom presentation and underrepresentation of females in clinical trials, women are more likely to experience delays in diagnosis, be treated less aggressively, and have worse outcomes than men ( DeMarvao et al., 2021 ). Receiving a diagnosis can be a central part of an individual’s identity. Individuals suffering from mental illness not only experience symptoms, but also interpret their experience of having a diagnosed condition. Assigning meaning to diagnosis can affect hope and self-esteem ( Yanos et al., 2010 ), while receiving a diagnosis provides an individual with a model in which to compare themselves and can help them to form their identity. Diagnosis can help an individual make sense of their past and relieve uncertainty ( Schmitz et al., 2003 ).

Women With ADHD

There are several key characteristics specific to the expression of ADHD in women as compared to men. These characteristics include differences in symptom presentation, decreased self-esteem, more difficulty in peer relationships, increased likelihood of anxiety and other affective disorders, the development of coping strategies that mask symptoms of ADHD, and gender based societal expectations ( Quinn & Madhoo, 2014 ). Women are more likely to present with inattentive symptoms than hyperactive symptoms, which may be less easily noticed and less likely to trigger a referral for diagnosis ( Williamson & Johnston, 2015 ). As well, women are often diagnosed with, and treated for, a comorbid condition before being recognized as having ADHD. Quinn (2005) found that 14% of girls with ADHD were prescribed antidepressants before being treated for ADHD compared to only 5% of boys. Robison et al. (2008) looked at gender differences in ADHD symptoms, psychological functioning, physical symptoms, and treatment response. They found that women were rated as more impaired on every measure of ADHD symptoms. Women were also found to score higher on rating scales for anxiety and depression as well as experienced greater emotional dysregulation compared to men.

Women with ADHD are also at a higher risk of engaging in risky sexual behavior, unplanned pregnancy, and are more likely to be coerced into having sex than women without ADHD ( Young et al., 2020 ). Social stigma around risky sexual behavior, particularly for females, may increase social problems and limit occupational opportunities ( Young et al., 2020 ). Low self-esteem is common among women with ADHD and, in combination with social stigma and risky sexual behaviors, may leave women with ADHD more vulnerable to sexual harassment, exploitation, and abusive or inappropriate relationships ( Young et al., 2020 ). Additionally, societal and cultural expectations often put the bulk of household and parental duties on women and the demands placed on mothers often differ from demands placed on fathers ( Young et al., 2020 ). Increased expectations placed on women and mothers may result in increased impairment and anxiety in women with ADHD. Low self-esteem in combination with these demands may result in dysfunctional beliefs such as perceived failure, guilt, and feelings of inadequacy ( Young et al., 2020 ).

For many women, the process of receiving a diagnosis and treatment for ADHD is not straightforward. Many women begin the process of getting a diagnosis after their child has been diagnosed with ADHD, while others may begin this process by seeking treatment for other comorbid conditions ( Stenner et al., 2019 ). Many women also self-diagnose as having ADHD; this self-identification is another important way in which women come to identify as having ADHD. For many women, ADHD falls under the category of “illnesses you have to fight to get” ( Stenner et al., 2019 , p. 181). Women often feel they need to prove symptoms for a physician to take them seriously and consider a diagnosis of ADHD ( Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Comorbidities

ADHD in both men and women is often accompanied by one or more comorbid conditions such as depression, anxiety, and substance use ( Quinn, 2004 ). These comorbidities can often complicate the assessment of ADHD, as physicians tend to treat comorbid conditions first and sometimes overlook the diagnosis of ADHD completely ( Quinn, 2004 ). Comorbidities are often different for females with ADHD compared to males ( Quinn, 2008 ). Rucklidge and Tannock (2001) found that when comparing females with ADHD to males with ADHD, females were more psychosocially impaired than males. Females reported more overall distress, anxiety, and depression, as well as a greater external locus of control. They found that the combination of having ADHD and being a female may put an individual at higher risk for psychological distress. When Fuller-Thomson et al. (2016) compared women aged 20 to 39 years with ADHD to women without ADHD, they found that the women with ADHD had twice the prevalence of substance abuse, current smoking, depressive disorders, severe poverty, and childhood physical abuse as well as triple the prevalence of insomnia, chronic pain, suicidal ideation, childhood sexual abuse, and generalized anxiety disorder compared to women without ADHD. Biederman et al. (2006) compared girls with ADHD to girls without ADHD over a 5-year period. ADHD was associated with a significantly increased lifetime risk of major depression, multiple anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, oppositional-defiant disorder, conduct disorder, Tourette’s/tic disorders, enuresis, language disorder, nicotine dependence and drug dependence. Results from this study show that at a mean age of 16 years, girls with ADHD are at a very high risk for antisocial, mood, anxiety, and addictive disorders. Biederman et al. (2006) stress the importance of early intervention and prevention strategies for girls with ADHD considering the high morbidity associated with ADHD in females found in their study.

Current Study

The present study intends to consolidate the literature on adult ADHD diagnosis in women. A systematic review identifying, appraising, and synthesizing the literature on this topic is needed to produce a complete interpretation of the findings. A deeper understanding of the experience of adult diagnosis and its implications in women is needed. Uncovering and identifying broad themes within the literature may provide a narrative of the experiences of adult diagnosis and their associated outcomes for women.

Literature Search

Using a university digital library, three databases were searched for relevant abstracts: Google Scholar, PsycINFO, and PubMed. Studies were identified using the following search terms across all databases: ADHD (ADHD OR Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) AND women (OR females) AND diagnosis (OR late diagnosis OR adult diagnosis) AND health outcomes (OR psychosocial outcomes) AND adult (in title and abstract) AND mental health , as well as adult ADHD diagnosis (in title and abstract), ADHD diagnosis in girls, adult ADHD diagnosis in women, women with ADHD, specific issues women with ADHD, implications of adult ADHD diagnosis in women, psychosocial outcomes of women diagnosed with ADHD as adults. Literature searches were conducted across the three separate databases and reference lists of included articles were reviewed for additional papers fitting inclusion criteria.

Eligibility Criteria

Studies were included if they (1) were published after 1997, (2) were written in the English language, (3) focused on women over the age of 18 who received a diagnosis of ADHD in adulthood, (4) were peer reviewed, and (5) had available full text. Conversely, studies were excluded if they (1) were case studies, (2) included individuals diagnosed with ADHD in childhood, and (3) focused on medication treatment for ADHD. Case studies were excluded as they were not considered to be generalizable to the experience of women with adult ADHD. Studies with participants diagnosed in childhood were excluded as the focus of the review was to understand the impacts of an ADHD diagnosis made in adulthood. Additionally, ADHD treatment was not the focus of the present review.

Study Selection

A flow chart created by Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA; Moher et al., 2009 ) was used to visually track the number of articles at each step in the review process (see Figure 1 ). The initial search of Google Scholar resulted in 108 results, the search of PsycINFO resulted in 118 results, and the search of PubMed resulted in 251 results. Seven additional articles were included from reference searches through relevant articles. A combined total of 484 articles were found. These records were screened, and 27 duplicates were removed leaving 457 articles. Titles and abstracts were screened for relevance leaving 25 articles. Four articles were inaccessible, 21 articles were retrieved for full text screening. After full text screening, 13 articles were excluded for a final total of eight articles (see Appendix A ).

PRISMA flowchart.

Note. From top to bottom, numbers represent articles included after each deduction.

Data Analysis

Using the techniques of thematic analysis ( Braun & Clarke, 2006 ) each study was closely examined to identify significant statements and results, including identifying common significant statements and potential codes. Key words and phrases were identified in the texts as significant if they were repeated by multiple participants and clearly described the experience of receiving a diagnosis of ADHD as an adult woman. Significant statements were compared across studies to compile a list of initial codes (See Appendix B ). Studies were then examined with the list of preliminary codes to identify any statements or findings that fit within the codes. Once all articles had been coded with the preliminary coding scheme, codes were grouped by similarities and following, potential themes were identified. The list of codes themes was then reviewed and refined by other members of the research team.

Positionality Statement

In qualitative research, it is important to consider the position of the researcher and any potential bias that may be introduced. There is potential for bias in the process of selecting studies for the final review. To mitigate potential biases in study selection the researcher used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA; Moher et al., 2009 ) flow diagram (See Figure 1 ) to ensure a systematic method of study selection. The first author of this paper identifies as a woman with ADHD; as such, the researcher may have had a priori assumptions about the experiences of women with ADHD diagnosed in adulthood. These assumptions may introduce the potential for bias in the interpretation of results. To reduce the potential for researcher biases to influence interpretation of data, codes and themes, the researcher utilized an inductive approach to coding deriving codes and themes directly from the studies as opposed to using a coding scheme. The researcher also used an iterative coding process reviewing codes and themes multiple times, reviewing these with the project supervisor and revising as needed.

Results & Discussion

This review consolidated the literature to summarize the current understanding of adult ADHD diagnosis in women. Using techniques of thematic analysis ( Braun & Clarke, 2006 ), eight articles were reviewed. The results of each article were broken down into smaller units of meaning (codes), which were then grouped into categories forming themes. Four major themes emerged, focused on the impacts on social emotional wellbeing, difficulty in relationships, feeling out of control, and self-acceptance after diagnosis.

Theme 1: Impacts on Social-Emotional Wellbeing

Negative impacts on social-emotional wellbeing were a main finding of all eight papers in this review. Social-emotional wellbeing affects several aspects of an individual’s life, such as the ability to form close, secure, and meaningful relationships, experience, regulate and express emotions, and explore the environment and learn new skills ( Cohen et al., 2005 ).

These results suggest women with adult ADHD may experience significant difficulties in various aspects of social emotional functioning, such as self-esteem, peer relations, and emotional control ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Rucklidge (1997) noted that women with ADHD reported having more depressive episodes, were treated more times by a mental health professional, had lower self-esteem, higher stress, and higher anxiety than women without ADHD.

Low Self Esteem

Women with undiagnosed ADHD may have notably low self-esteem and self-efficacy ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Undiagnosed ADHD can have profound impacts on self-esteem and feelings of self-worth; for example, when referring to her childhood one woman reported “what I felt was I was actually a bad person. . . I was not an adequate human being.” ( Stenner et al., 2019 , p. 191). Lacking a better explanation, perceived personal flaws could become the reason for academic, social, and emotional struggles, resulting in self-blame and a negative self-image ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Results suggest women with undiagnosed ADHD often endure childhoods filled with misunderstanding, self-blame, and rejection ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). For these women, low self-esteem might be the result of difficulties endured growing up with an undiagnosed disorder that neither they nor those around them understood ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). They can struggle with negative automatic thoughts, feelings of shame, guilt, and self-blame ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). They often report negative automatic thoughts such as, “what’s wrong with you,” “you’re a failure,” and “I hate myself and I want to die” ( Lynn, 2019 , p. 39). They may experience shame and frustration when comparing themselves to their peers and could feel that they are not living up to the expectations they set for themselves or the expectations of society ( Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ). Findings indicate that these negative feelings can result in low self-esteem, increased anxiety, and self-loathing. With no external cause to attribute functional impairments to, women in these studies often felt there was something personally wrong with them ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Social Relations and Emotional Control

The studies indicate that women with ADHD had significant difficulties in social relations, emotional control, and identity formation ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Studies suggested that women with ADHD lacked value for themselves, had little to no self-worth, experienced feelings of inadequacy and weakness, and felt that their lives were filled with missed opportunities ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Many women in these studies felt “different” and alienated in childhood and expressed difficulties relating to their peers ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Holthe (2013) found that women with ADHD had problems picking up on social cues, felt awkward and out of place socially, and struggled with unintentionally saying things that were considered hurtful or inappropriate. These women experienced peer rejection, bullying and difficulty making friends; for example, one participant stated, “I cried all the time, very lonely, very sad, being on my own and almost the voice inside my head was my only friend” ( Stenner et al., 2019 , p. 190).

Anger issues, poor emotion regulation and a fear of losing self-control were also main findings ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ); one participant stated “there’s a lot to ADHD, like anger. I have a lot of anger issues, and problems controlling emotions. It’s not only problems with concentration and organizational skills” ( Holthe, 2013 , p. 43). Social difficulties persisted into adulthood for many of these women. Social anxiety and feeling unable to relate to other women were common experiences suggesting that difficulty in social relationships in adulthood may be a result of peer rejection in childhood ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Lynn, 2019 ).

Maladaptive Coping Strategies

Results may indicate the development of maladaptive behaviors to cope with undiagnosed ADHD ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Pinkhardt et al., 2009 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Rucklidge (1997) found that women with ADHD engaged in less task-oriented coping and in more emotion-oriented coping. Women in these studies often turned to recreational drugs, alcohol, nicotine, and sex to self-medicate for symptoms of undiagnosed ADHD ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Pinkhardt et al., 2009 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). For example, one woman reported that she started drinking, smoking, and being sexually active by age 10 ( Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Desire for Earlier Diagnosis

Many women expressed regret at the fact that they were not diagnosed and treated earlier in their lives ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Rucklidge (1997) found that 38% of women wished they had been able to change the symptoms of ADHD and those who recalled symptoms as a child viewed symptoms as their fault and largely uncontrollable. These women expressed feeling that an earlier diagnosis would have benefited them growing up ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). One participant stated, “I think that if I had known a little bit earlier, maybe that would have helped me to make sense of why things seemed harder, at an earlier age.” ( Holthe, 2013 , p. 47).

Results from these eight articles suggest that women who live undiagnosed until adulthood experience significant negative outcomes in the areas of self-esteem, social interaction, and psychosocial wellbeing beginning in childhood and continuing into adulthood. Earlier diagnosis and treatment may help to mediate these negative outcomes.

Theme 2: Difficult Relationships

Difficulty in family and romantic relationships was supported by seven of the eight papers in this review. Relationships with others are an important part of life; high quality close relationships and feeling socially connected to those in one’s life have been associated with decreased mortality and disease morbidity ( Holt-Lunstad et al., 2017 ). Women with undiagnosed ADHD may have difficulty in relationships with the people in their lives ( Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Women in these studies reported worse relationships with teachers, peers and siblings, more abusive homes, more drug and alcohol abuse by their parents, and perceived relationships more negatively than women without ADHD ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Romantic Relationships

Difficulties getting into and maintaining healthy romantic relationships can be a common experience for these women ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ). Findings may indicate women with ADHD can have problematic relationships involving abuse, divorce, and unsatisfactory sexual relationships ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Women in these studies had difficulty with emotionally close relationships, intimacy, and the ability to share emotions with others without losing their own identity. They were also found to be more emotionally distant in relationships and have difficulty expressing and or verbalizing their individual needs ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ).

Family Relations

Women with ADHD in these studies often described very difficult childhoods marked by a sense of self-hatred and self-destruction arising from difficulty in familial relationships ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). For example, one participant described a long history of feeling resented by family members for her “loudness” ( Stenner et al., 2019 ). These women did not feel unconditionally accepted by their families and often felt very out of place ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). One participant stated, “as a child I actually felt I was living in the wrong family” ( Stenner et al., 2019 , p. 191).

Findings suggest difficulties in relationships of all kinds were frequent among women with ADHD. Women in these studies often expressed problematic romantic relationships, difficulty expressing themselves to others, and unsupportive family environments ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Findings from these articles suggest that undiagnosed ADHD may have an impact on women’s ability to form and sustain close and meaningful relationships.

Theme 3: Lack of Control

Feeling a sense of control is integral for wellbeing and life satisfaction and has been found to be a protective factor for mental health outcomes ( Keeton et al., 2008 ). A higher sense of control has been found to predict lower levels of psychological distress, depression, and anxiety ( Keeton et al., 2008 ). Many women with ADHD may lack this sense of control, which may leave them more vulnerable to psychological distress and lower life satisfaction ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Women with ADHD in these studies often felt little to no control academically, and in relationships with teachers, peers, parents, and siblings ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Results suggest these women viewed negative events as uncontrollable, stable, and global ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Locus of Control

Women with ADHD in these studies had a more external locus of control and felt that chance and powerful others were more controlling over their lives ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). They often attributed successes to external causes (i.e., luck, powerful others etc.) and failures to internal flaws (i.e., lack of intelligence, laziness etc.; Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). For example, one woman stated, “ I remember in graduate school, when I got an A or A+, I’d immediately feel like “oh, that was because it was an easy class”, whereas if I did poorly, I’d think “this I’m supposed to be able to do, but still I can’t do it.”” ( Holthe, 2013 , p. 55). These women felt they had little control over their minds and that they were incapable of making decisions for themselves ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ), leaving them feeling powerless and with little confidence in their ability to cope with everyday life ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Burgess, 2000 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Together, these findings suggest that women with undiagnosed ADHD may feel little control over their lives resulting in increased risk for negative psychological outcomes.

Theme 4: Self-Acceptance After Diagnosis

Feelings of relief and self-acceptance after receiving a diagnosis of ADHD as an adult were reported by six of the eight papers in this review. The experience of receiving a diagnosis can be an important moment in the lives of adult women with ADHD. Diagnosis can provide an explanation, relieve feelings of shame and guilt, and allow for increased self-acceptance. These feelings were shared by many women across several articles ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Many women in these studies experienced a sense of relief after diagnosis and felt that a professional diagnosis served as an external validation of their struggles ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). This relief is exemplified in how one woman described diagnosis as, “a huge sense of relief, this isn’t all my fault. . . the fact that you could see a reason for it and deal with it was tremendously helpful” ( Rucklidge, 1997 , p. 131). These women often blamed themselves for difficulties they faced growing up and a diagnosis validated their struggles, reduced feelings of self-blame, and provided them with access to various treatment interventions ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Gaining Control

Many women reported that it was only after diagnosis that they were able to feel more in control of their symptoms. Knowing that they had ADHD may have allowed them to view difficult situations from a different perspective; results suggested they now felt they had more control and viewed situations as more changeable ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Statements made by participants reflect this change such as, “I am not lazy – up to that point I was lazy. . . my control really improved, I recognized that what were weaknesses in character were now changeable” ( Rucklidge, 1997 , p. 130). Women also described a change in their behavior upon discovering they had ADHD, reflected in their relationships with their children, romantic partners, and with themselves ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). For example, one woman stated, “ADD has made me feel better – knowledge has helped, I’m more realistic now with my expectation of myself, I can now learn new strategies” ( Rucklidge, 1997 , p. 130). For many women, diagnosis can provide an external explanation for difficulties previously attributed to personal flaws giving them a greater sense of control over their lives ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Self-Acceptance

Results suggested receiving a diagnosis positively impacted self-esteem and enabled women to begin to view themselves less critically ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ), with women stating, “I feel good about myself now” and “I am more understanding, kinder to myself” ( Rucklidge, 1997 , p. 131). Findings indicate that prior to diagnosis many women felt that they were bad people; consequently, a diagnosis made it possible for women to reconceptualize some of the feelings of guilt and shame as an external cause ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). Diagnosis can be a form of validation from an external source, enabling women to have more self-compassion ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ). For example, one woman stated “It’s answered a lot of questions . . . I let myself off the hook. . . . I’m healing that little girl inside of me” ( Stenner et al., 2019 , p. 191).

Results may indicate that overall diagnosis and treatment helped these women develop a sense of self-acceptance and self-awareness. They finally had an explanation for the difficulties they encountered throughout their lives. All participants explained that with diagnosis and treatment for ADHD, they were able to make more sense of their lives and more fully accept themselves. Their shame, anxiety, and depression lessened and was replaced with feelings of pride as they began to view their “disorder” as strength ( Bartlett et al., 2005 ; Henry & Jones, 2011 ; Holthe, 2013 ; Lynn, 2019 ; Rucklidge, 1997 ; Stenner et al., 2019 ).

Limitations

Some limitations have been identified for the present review. Many of the studies included in this review relied on subjective measures such as self-report and interviews, which introduces the potential for bias, possibly influencing results. As well, studies relied on self-reports of childhood, which may not accurately reflect childhood experiences due to memory bias. Studies included in this review had relatively small sample sizes; consequently, generalizability may be limited.

While this review may provide summative insight into the experiences of women diagnosed with ADHD as adults, it must be noted that research on this topic is limited and it is not possible to draw definitive conclusions. For example, this review relied on the identification of individuals by individual researchers for each study and was unable to determine the impact of biological sex differences versus the impact of socially constructed gender differences. More research is needed to determine the impact of biological sex versus gender on the experience of being a woman with ADHD.

Implications

The present review has several implications for research and clinical practice in the diagnosis and treatment of women and girls with ADHD. This review may highlight a disparity in early diagnosis and treatment for boys versus girls. There is a general lack of knowledge of ADHD in females both in research and clinical practice. Healthcare professionals, teachers and parents often have limited knowledge of the specifics of ADHD in women and girls (i.e., symptoms, behaviors, and outcomes more commonly found in females), resulting in differences in diagnosis and treatment. Quinn and Wigal (2004) found that 40% of teachers report having more difficulty identifying ADHD symptoms in girls and that 85% of teachers and 57% of parents think girls are more likely to remain undiagnosed. Lynch and Davison (2022) found that teachers and clinicians struggled to identify symptoms of potential ADHD in young women. Despite these young women displaying symptoms of inattention and executive dysfunction both teachers and clinicians did not identify these as being problematic for these young women. They did not view these symptoms as needing further assessment. As such, delayed diagnosis may prevent women from accessing treatment options that could mitigate risk factors associated with ADHD ( Da Silva et al., 2020 ).

Physicians also have difficulty in diagnosing ADHD in adult populations. Research has shown that adults with ADHD often get misdiagnosed or not diagnosed at all. For example, Faraone et al. (2004) conducted a medical review of adults with ADHD and reported that only 25% of adult ADHD cases were diagnosed in childhood or adolescence. They also noted that if ADHD was not diagnosed in childhood or adolescence, primary care physicians did not consider making an ADHD diagnosis in adults. These findings may indicate a gap in knowledge of ADHD in adults and females for healthcare providers and teachers which may impede access to appropriate diagnoses and treatment options.

Women and girls continue to be under recognized and misdiagnosed when it comes to ADHD. Findings from this review may indicate that increased education and training is needed to better support women and girls with ADHD and reduce negative outcomes in adulthood. Targeted intervention aimed at educating health professionals, teachers and parents could contribute to closing the gap in diagnosis for girls providing them with increased treatment options at an earlier age.

Future Directions

Literature regarding the impacts of undiagnosed ADHD in women is scarce. As such, further research is needed to gain a more complete picture of the impact of later diagnoses for women. This research should be extended further to compare the impacts of undiagnosed ADHD in both men and women to identify potential gender differences in outcomes as well as explore underlying biases or beliefs that hinder early identification in either gender. Further research including a greater sample and mixed methodologies may have greater explanatory power and contribute to a greater understanding of adult ADHD in women.

Findings from the current review may indicate a need for further research into the topic of adult ADHD diagnosis in women. Living undiagnosed until adulthood can have lasting impacts on social emotional wellbeing, the ability to form and maintain relationships, and feelings of control. Based on these findings, it is apparent that undiagnosed ADHD in childhood can have lasting negative consequences into adulthood. Missed or late diagnosis can be damaging for a woman’s self-esteem, mental health, and overall wellbeing, while accurate and timely diagnosis can profoundly change the lives of women and girls with ADHD, allowing them to stop blaming themselves and begin to lead more fulfilling and satisfying lives. Women and girls are too often suffering in silence, being left out of the ADHD narrative; it is imperative that these women are not forgotten.

Author Biographies

Darby E. Attoe recently graduated with a B.A in psychology from the University of Calgary. Her research interests include, ADHD, gender, and women’s mental health.

Emma A. Climie , PhD, RPsych, is an associate professor in the School and Applied Child Psychology program in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary. She is also the lead researcher- Carlson Family Research Award in ADHD. Her research focuses on understanding children with ADHD from a strengths-based perspective, integrating primary research and intervention in the areas of resilience, stigma and mental health, and cognitive development.

Characteristics of Reviewed Studies.

Themes and Codes.

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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