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Note beim Doktorexamen Von summa cum laude bis rite: Was bedeuten die Promotionsnoten?

Wer seine Promotion abschließt, erhält dafür eine Note. Was bedeuten magna cum laude, summa cum laude oder satis bene? Sind die Promotionsnoten verschiedener Fakultäten vergleichbar? Wie wichtig ist eine gute Note in der Dissertation?

Promotionsnoten im Überblick

Promotionsnoten: statistik, vergleichbarkeit von promotionsnoten.

• Relevanz von Promotionsnoten

Dissertationen werden in Deutschland traditionell mit lateinischen Noten bewertet. Wie in der Schule gibt es im Prinzip sechs Noten beim Doktorexamen , sie lauten:

• summa cum laude,
• magna cum laude,
• satis bene,
• insuffizienter oder non sufficit.

Was sie bedeuten, verrät die folgende Tabelle.

Im Ausland wird diese differenzierte deutsche Notenskala nur selten verwendet.

Laut Angaben des Statistischen Bundesamts (Bericht „ Prüfungen an Hochschulen “) wurden 2022 in Deutschland insgesamt 27.692 Promotionen abgeschlossen . Davon erhielten die Note

• Mit Auszeichnung (summa cum laude) : 14,38 Prozent
• Sehr gut ( magna cum laude ): 55,71 Prozent
• Gut ( cum laude ): 19,21 Prozent
• Befriedigend ( satis bene ): 1,97 Prozent
• Ausreichend ( rite ): 0,21 Prozent

„Endgültig nicht bestanden“ war das Urteil bei 12 Dissertationen (0,04 Prozent); bei 2.360 Disseration ist die Note nicht bekannt (8,52 Prozent).

Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin bzw. Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter (m/w/d) an der Professur für Recht und Digitalisierung

Researcher / PhD Candidate (m/f/diverse)

Akademische*r Mitarbeiter*in (w/m/d)

Zu beachten ist, dass die Bewertungssysteme an den verschiedenen Hochschulen und Fakultäten keinesfalls einheitlich und vergleichbar sind.

• Nicht jede Promotionsordnung sieht alle Noten vor.
• Die Übersetzung der lateinischen in klassische Schulnoten kann an den einzelnen Hochschulen bzw. Fakultäten unterschiedlich ausfallen.
• Die Gewichtung der schriftlichen Arbeit ( Dissertation ) und der mündlichen Prüfung (Verteidigung der Doktorarbeit, Disputation ) ist nicht einheitlich. Macht letztere an manchen Fakultäten bis zu 30 Prozent der Note aus, wirkt sie sich an anderen überhaupt nicht aus (nur bestanden – nicht bestanden).

Hinzu kommt, dass aus der Definition der einzelnen Notenstufe in den jeweiligen Promotionsordnungen der jeweiligen Fakultät oft nur vage hervorgeht, nach welchen Maßstäben die Bewertungen vergeben werden. So kommt es zu einer sehr ungleichen Verteilung der Promotionsnoten – nicht nur abhängig vom Fachbereich, sondern auch vom Hochschulstandort.

An manchen Fakultäten und an einigen Hochschulen scheint die Bestnote summa cum laude beinahe Standard zu sein, an anderen wiederum hat sie Seltenheitswert. In Ermangelung eines einheitlichen Bewertungssystems mit festen Bewertungskriterien lassen sich Promotionsnoten daher kaum objektiv vergleichen . 

Einige Beispiele: 

• An der Charité wurden 2023 11,49 Prozent der Dissertationen mit der Höchstnote summa cum laude ausgezeichnet. Knapp 52 Prozent erhielten die Note magna cum laude , knapp 35 Prozent schlossen mit cum laude ab und rund zwei Prozent mit rite .
• Im Bereich Wirtschaftswissenschaften wird über alle deutschen Hochschulen hinweg ein Drittel aller Dissertationen mit der Höchstnote summa cum laude ausgezeichnet. An der Universität Mannheim waren es zwischen 2016 und 2018 knapp 66 Prozent (bei insgesamt 142 Doktorarbeiten), an der Universität Hohenheim war es im selben Zeitraum nur ein Prozent (bei 86 Doktorarbeiten).
• An der Universität Heidelberg wurden zwischen 2016 und 2018 16 Prozent aller Doktorarbeiten mit summa cum laude bewertet. Im Fachbereich Germanistik waren es 48 Prozent (von insgesamt 40 Doktorarbeiten), im Fachbereich Zahnmedizin nur zwei Prozent (von insgesamt 108 Doktorarbeiten).

Generell erhält ein Großteil aller Dissertationen eine der drei besten Promotionsnoten, die als Prädikatspromotionen gelten. Rite wird kaum noch vergeben und die Durchfallquote bei Doktorarbeiten liegt fächerübergreifend im niedrigen einstelligen Prozentbereich. Diese Verteilung ist auch der engen Abstimmung der Dissertationsschrift mit Doktorvater oder -mutter geschuldet, die später oft in der Prüfungskommission sitzen. Der Professor benotet also auch das Ergebnis der eigenen Betreuungsleistung. So greifen in aller Regel frühe Regulierungsmöglichkeiten, die einem totalen Misserfolg vorbeugen. 

Es wurde allerdings seit den 2000ern ein Trend zu einer immer häufigeren Vergabe der Bestnote summa cum laude beobachtet. Kritiker:innen sprachen von einer Bestnoteninflation. Nach Angaben des Instituts für Forschungsinformation und Qualitätssicherung wurden im Zeitraum von 2001 bis 2003 noch 16 Prozent der Promotionen (ohne Medizin und Pharmazie) mit der Höchstnote ausgezeichnet, von 2010 bis 2012 waren es bereits 21 Prozent.

Auch wenn dieser Trend mittlerweile rückläufig ist, ist die Leistungsdichte an der Spitze enorm eng: 2023 wurden immerhin etwa 70 Prozent der Promotionen mit der Note summa oder magna cum laude , also einer 1, abgeschlossen.

Machen Sie den Test!

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Wann und wo bestimmte Promotionsnoten wichtig sind

Da sich an den Noten der Dissertationen die Qualität der Doktorarbeit nicht zwingend ablesen lässt, büßt auch deren Bedeutung für den Karriereverlauf in der freien Wirtschaft ein. In manchen Fächern, etwa den Wirtschaftswissenschaften , ist der Anteil der Promotionen mit der Bestnote so hoch, dass ein summa cum laude in Bewerbungen für Führungspositionen keine Besonderheit mehr ist.

Arbeitgeber setzen deshalb immer mehr auf eigene Auswahlverfahren und schenken den Promotionsnoten nur noch untergeordnete Beachtung . Generell kommt der Promotionsnote in Fachbereichen, wo mit der Bestbewertung vergleichsweise sparsam umgegangen wird, eine höhere Bedeutung zu. Das ist beispielsweise in der Biologie, der Medizin oder der Geografie der Fall.

Qualifizierte Promotion in der Wissenschaft: Enorm wichtig

Anders verhält es sich in der Wissenschaft. Hier ist die Bewertung der Promotion ein entscheidender Faktor. Wer eine Karriere als Professor:in anstrebt, der muss die in den Landeshochschulgesetzen festgeschriebenen Zugangsvoraussetzungen erfüllen. Gefordert wird dort eine „qualifizierte Promotion“.

Darunter wird üblicherweise eine Promotionsleistung verstanden, die zumindest mit magna cum laude bewertet wurde. Ein summa cum laude ist in der Regel nicht zwingend vorgeschrieben. Allerdings spielen auch andere Eignungsvoraussetzungen eine Rolle bei der Berufung. So finden sich in der Praxis an Fachhochschulen bzw. HAWs auch Hochschullehrer , die ihrer Tätigkeit mit dem Prädikat cum laude nachgehen.

Weitere Ratgeber zum Thema Promotion

Der Ph.D. gewinnt in Deutschland neben dem klassischen Doktortitel immer mehr an Bedeutung. Doch was macht den Abschluss aus und wann ist er sinnvoll?

Mit Kind oder schwanger zu promovieren ist eine besondere Herausforderung. Sie kann aber gelingen. Was ist zu beachten, wo gibt es finanzielle und beratende Unterstützung, und was ist mit Mutterschutz und Elternzeit?

Um den Doktortitel führen zu dürfen, muss die eigene Dissertation publiziert werden. Welche Möglichkeiten gibt es dafür und auf welche Unterstützung kann man zurückgreifen?

Was besagen die Zitierregeln nach APA, OSCOLA oder Harvard? Was bedeutet „et al“, und wie wird korrekt aus dem Internet zitiert? Alle Infos.

Mit unserer Job-Mail erhalten Sie wöchentlich passende Stellen sowie interessante Inhalte zu Ihrem Suchprofil. 

doktorandenforum.de

Die Noten für die Doktorarbeit

Vielleicht haben Sie es schon einmal gehört »summa cum laude« oder auch »Rite ist Schiete«. Für die Bewertung von Noten gibt es in Deutschland traditionell eigene lateinische Bezeichnungen, die nicht vollständig mit den bekannten deutschen Schulnoten vergleichbar sind. Einige Hochschulen sind zwischenzeitlich dazu übergegangen, deutsche Bezeichnungen zu verwenden - aber auch diese entsprechen in aller Regel nicht dem altbekannten System der Schulnoten von 1 (sehr gut) - 6 (ungenügend).

Gegenüberstellung der Notenbezeichnungen

Welche Noten gerade Ihre Fakultät für Dissertationen vergibt, können Sie der jeweiligen Promotionsordnung entnehmen. Üblicherweise orientieren sie sich an folgendem Aufbau:

Einige Fakultäten verwenden noch abweichende Bezeichnungen für die Bewertung der Dissertationsschrift, diese lauten z.B. opus eximium (»herausragendes Werk«), opus valde laudabile (»sehr lobenswertes Werk«), opus laudabile (»lobenswertes Werk«) und opus idoneum (»geeignetes Werk« sowie sub omni canone (»unterhalb jeden Maßstabs« = nicht bestanden) Die letztgenannte Note spielt zum Glück nur noch im übertragenen Sinne eine nennenswerte Rolle, nämlich in der Redensart »unter aller Kanone«.

Notenspektrum bei Promotionen

In der Praxis ist es vielmehr so, dass die guten Abschlussnoten im Promotionsverfahren überwiegen - schon die oben genannten Definitionen zeigen ja viel Platz an der Spitze und ein eher schmales Mittelfeld, welches die Schulnoten befriedigend und ausreichend mit einer gemeinsamen Stufe abdeckt. Wer sich die Notenverteilung in Promotionsverfahren ganz genau ansehen möchte, kann dies dank der detaillierten Erfassung durch das Bundesamt für Statistik tun - in der kostenlos abrufbaren Fachserie 11 - Prüfungen an Hochschulen werden sie veröffentlicht. Derzeit (August 2013) liegt die Fassung für 2011 vor. Zusammenfassend kann man sagen, dass wohl 60 - 70 % der Promotionsverfahren magna cum laude bzw. cum laude abgeschlossen werden, gute 20 - 30% mit summa cum laude . Die Note rite ist kaum vertreten. Die Zahlen für nicht bestandene Promotionen liegen in vielen Fachbereichen bei 0 - 1 Prozent und scheinen daher - trotz der damit im Einzelnen oft verbundenen Schicksale - in der Gesamtheit vernachlässigbar.

Die geringe Durchfallquote erklärt sich daraus, dass die Dissertationsschrift, die de facto den Hauptteil der zu erbringenden Leistung darstellt, in aller Regel in enger Abstimmung mit dem Doktorvater erstellt wird, der häufig später die Prüfung auch selbst abnimmt. So greifen in aller Regel frühe Steuerungsmöglichkeiten, die einen totalen Fehlschlag ausschließen. Mehr dazu z. B. unter Einreichen .

Dieser Beitrag ist eine Zusammenfassung inspiriert durch den Thread Noten für die Promotion im Forum.

Noch Fragen?

Eigene Fragen können Sie am besten im Forum stellen…

Gefunden bei https://doktorandenforum.de.

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Study Skills

Research skills.

• Searching the literature
• Note making for dissertations
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Note making for dissertations: First steps into writing

Note making (as opposed to note taking) is an active practice of recording relevant parts of reading for your research as well as your reflections and critiques of those studies. Note making, therefore, is a pre-writing exercise that helps you to organise your thoughts prior to writing. In this module, we will cover:

• The difference between note taking and note making
• Seven tips for good note making
• Strategies for structuring your notes and asking critical questions
• Different styles of note making

To complete this section, you will need:

• Approximately 20-30 minutes.
• Access to the internet. All the resources used here are available freely.
• Some equipment for jotting down your thoughts, a pen and paper will do, or your phone or another electronic device.

Note taking v note making

When you think about note taking, what comes to mind? Perhaps trying to record everything said in a lecture? Perhaps trying to write down everything included in readings required for a course?

• Note taking is a passive process. When you take notes, you are often trying to record everything that you are reading or listening to. However, you may have noticed that this takes a lot of effort and often results in too many notes to be useful.  
• Note making , on the other hand, is an active practice, based on the needs and priorities of your project. Note making is an opportunity for you to ask critical questions of your readings and to synthesise ideas as they pertain to your research questions. Making notes is a pre-writing exercise that develops your academic voice and makes writing significantly easier.

Seven tips for effective note making

Note making is an active process based on the needs of your research. This video contains seven tips to help you make brilliant notes from articles and books to make the most of the time you spend reading and writing.

• Transcript of Seven Tips for Effective Notemaking

Question prompts for strategic note making

You might consider structuring your notes to answer the following questions. Remember that note making is based on your needs, so not all of these questions will apply in all cases. You might try answering these questions using the note making styles discussed in the next section.

• Question prompts for strategic note making
• Background question prompts
• Critical question prompts
• Synthesis question prompts

Answer these six questions to frame your reading and provide context.

• What is the context in which the text was written? What came before it? Are there competing ideas?
• Who is the intended audience?
• What is the author’s purpose?
• How is the writing organised?
• What are the author’s methods?
• What is the author’s key argument and conclusions?

Answer these six questions to determine your critical perspectivess and develop your academic voice.

• What are the most interesting/compelling ideas (to you) in this study?
• Why do you find them interesting? How do they relate to your study?
• What questions do you have about the study?
• What could it cover better? How could it have defended its research better?
• What are the implications of the study? (Look not just to the conclusions but also to definitions and models)
• Are there any gaps in the study? (Look not just at conclusions but definitions, literature review, methodology)

Answer these five questions to compare aspects of various studies (such as for a literature review. 

• What are the similarities and differences in the literature?
• Critically analyse the strengths, limitations, debates and themes that emerg from the literature.
• What would you suggest for future research or practice?
• Where are the gaps in the literature? What is missing? Why?
• What new questions should be asked in this area of study?

Styles of note making

• Linear notes . Great for recording thoughts about your readings. [video]
• Mind mapping : Great for thinking through complex topics. [video]

Further sites that discuss techniques for note making:

• Note-taking techniques
• Common note-taking methods
• Strategies for effective note making  

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• Wie kommt die Note einer Dissertation zustande?
• Dissertation schreiben

Promotion im Umbruch

Empfehlungen für die note der dissertation, summa cum laude – ausgezeichnet, magna cum laude – sehr gut.

• Cum Laude – gut
• Rite – genügend
• Non sufficit – nicht genügend

Die Note einer Dissertation entscheidet oft über den späteren Karriereweg. Daher ist es nicht nur notwendig, das bestmögliche Ergebnis zu erzielen. Man sollte zudem auch über den Weg auf dem die Benotung zustande kommt, Bescheid wissen. Dieser Beitrag zeigt deshalb anhand von Beispielen, wie die Note einer Dissertation zustande kommen kann.

In Deutschland promovierten im Jahr 2009 etwa 25.000 Absolventen. (Vgl. Anforderungen an die Qualitätssicherung der Promotion ). Doch die Anzahl der durchgeführten Promotionen nimmt zu. So waren es 2014 dann schon über 28.000 in Deutschland (Vgl. Promotion im Umbruch , S. 18). Doch die Debatte um Qualitätsanforderungen an die Promotion ist seit einigen Jahren neu entfacht (Hornbostel, Tesch, S. 606 ff.). Nicht nur Plagiatsskandale und nicht nachvollziehbare Notenvergabe, sondern auch die Qualität der Promotion in manchen Fächern befeuern die Diskussion. Auch die in manchen Fachgebieten inflationäre und standortabhängige Vergabe der Bestnote facht den Streit immer wieder an (siehe dazu die Übersicht des Deutschen Zentrums für Hochschul- Wissenschaftsforschung ).

Die Einführung der strukturierten Promotion in Anlehnung an die angelsächsischen PhD Programme ist spätestens seit der Exzellenzinitiative in vielen Hochschulen angekommen. Sie sieht eine bessere Betreuung und gesicherte Finanzierung vor, ebenso wie ein zumindest für die Fakultät einheitliches Bewertungssystem. Doch wie wird nun eine Dissertation bewertet?

Der Note einer Dissertation liegen objektive Kriterien zugrunde. Für diese gibt es an fast jeder Hochschule eine Empfehlung (siehe z.B. die Empfehlung der Hochschule Hannover ):

Tabelle 1: Bewertungskriterien, Quelle:  Charité Promotionsgutachtenvorlage 2009

Die Benotung erfolgt nach fünf Graden, die wir im folgenden näher erklären und beschrieben. Sie beschreiben, was eine Dissertation schließlich leisten muss, die einer solchen Bewertung genügt (Vgl. die  Empfehlungen der Universität des Saarlandes ).

Die Benotung soll demnach herausragenden Arbeiten vorbehalten bleiben. Diese enthalten zudem völlig neuartige Ansätze der Hypothesenbildung, der Zusammenführung bisheriger Erkenntnisse oder auch methodischer Neuentwicklungen. Sie sollen außerdem den in einem internationalen Maßstab deutlichen Fortschritt wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnis oder methodischer Ansätze innerhalb eines Fachgebietes darstellen. Die Arbeit soll außerdem den oben genannten Kriterien uneingeschränkt und in besonderem Maße entsprechen. Die Zeitdauer der Promotion sollte außerdem maximal drei Jahre betragen haben (Richtwert).

Diese Benotung soll dann qualitativ hochwertigen Arbeiten vorbehalten bleiben, die jedoch neuartige Ansätze der Hypothesenbildung, der Zusammenführung bisheriger Erkenntnisse oder aber auch methodischer Neuentwicklungen enthalten. Die Arbeit sollte dementsprechend einen im internationalen Maßstab erkennbaren Fortschritt wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnis oder methodischer Ansätze innerhalb eines Fachgebietes darstellen. Die Arbeit muss außerdem den oben genannten Kriterien voll entsprechen.

Cum laude – gut

Diese Benotung soll dann dementsprechend qualitativ guten Arbeiten vorbehalten bleiben, die zudem solide Ansätze der Hypothesenbildung, der Zusammenführung bisheriger Erkenntnisse oder dazu auch methodischer Neuentwicklungen enthalten. Sie soll anschließend einen im internationalen Maßstab erkennbaren Fortschritt wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnis oder methodischer Ansätze innerhalb eines Fachgebietes darstellen, und gegebenenfalls den oben genannten Kriterien entsprechen.

Rite – genügend

Diese Benotung soll also qualitativ ordentlichen Arbeiten vorbehalten bleiben, die jedoch solide Ansätze der Hypothesenbildung, der Zusammenführung bisheriger Erkenntnisse oder aber auch methodischer Neuentwicklungen enthalten. Eine Arbeit mit einer solchen Bewertung stellt dann einen Fortschritt wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnis oder methodischer Ansätze innerhalb eines Fachgebietes dar, und entspricht schließlich den oben genannten Kriterien in den wesentlichen Punkten.

Non sufficit – nicht genügend

Diese Benotung soll schließlich für Arbeiten vergeben werden, deren Ansätze der Hypothesenbildung, der Zusammenführung bisheriger Erkenntnisse oder aber auch methodischer Neuentwicklungen keinen Fortschritt wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnis oder methodischer Verbesserungen innerhalb eines Fachgebietes darstellen. Ebenso gilt die Benotung außerdem, wenn den genannten Kriterien dann nicht in ausreichender Weise entsprochen wird.

Die meisten Hochschulen geben Empfehlungen dementsprechend für die Note der Dissertation heraus. Diese bestehen außerdem aus Fragen, entlang derer das Gutachten gestaltet werden kann und zudem aus einem festen Notensystem. Zusammen mit der mündlichen Prüfung entsteht daraus schließlich die Note für die Dissertation.

Hornbostel, S./Tesch, J. (2014) : Die Forschungspromotion , Entwicklungstrends in Deutschland, in: Forschung & Lehre, 8/14, S. 606-608.

Nationale Akademie der Wissenschaften Leopoldina (2017) : Promotion im Umbruch , Halle.

Wissenschaftsrat (2011) : Anforderungen an die Qualitätssicherung der Promotion , Positionspapier.

Marina Feidel

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Home · Ratgeber · Doktorarbeit · Abgabe

Bewertung und Benotung der Dissertation: Was passiert nach der Abgabe der Doktorarbeit?

Die letzten Schritte des Promotionsverfahrens: Abgabe, Bewertung, Benotung und Veröffentlichung der Doktorarbeit – Erfahrungen unserer Expertin.

„Und jetzt? Die Arbeit hat mich geprägt. Jeder Moment ohne sinnvolle Betätigung wirkt danach wie verlorene Zeit.“ Dr. Martina Park, ehem. Doktorandin ( Quelle )

Benotung Doktorarbeit: Die letzten Schritte des Promotionsverfahrens

Relativ am Anfang des Promotionsverfahrens steht das Verfassen der Dissertation, verbunden mit intensiver Forschung und umfangreichen Auswertungen, in jedem Fall aber mit viel Schreibarbeit. Doch nach der Abgabe der fertiggestellten Arbeit ist das Promotionsverfahren noch nicht beendet – auch wenn die Einreichung sicherlich einer der wesentlichen Schritte im Promotionsverfahren ist, dessen Erledigung daher auch die meiste Genugtuung bereitet, hängt die Benotung der Doktorarbeit noch von weiteren Faktoren ab.

„Die Endphase ist äusserst strapaziös. […] Das Hochgefühl nach der Abgabe muss man sich gönnen.“ Helga Knigge-Illgner, Psychologin und Promotionscoach ( Quelle )

Neben der Bewertung stehen nach der Abgabe der Doktorarbeit allerdings oft noch Prüfungen — das Rigorosum — und die Verteidigung der Doktorarbeit an — die Disputation. Die Dissertationsschrift muss veröffentlicht werden und erst dann steht der Verleihung der Promotionsurkunde als dem offiziellen Abschluss des Promotionsverfahrens und der Benotung nichts mehr im Wege.

Je nach Universität können sich die einzelnen Schritte in Details unterscheiden. So sind nicht in jedem Fall zusätzliche mündliche Prüfungen erforderlich. Allerdings können Auflagen vorhanden sein, die im Vorfeld beachtet werden müssen. Der erste Verfahrensschritt, der auf die Abgabe der Doktorarbeit folgt, ist jedoch im Regelfall die Bewertung der Arbeit.

Themenhub Doktorarbeit

• Doktorarbeit schreiben
• Zulassungsvoraussetzungen Promotion
• Intern oder extern promovieren?
• Forschungslücke finden
• Exposé der Doktorarbeit
• Doktormutter oder Doktorvater finden
• Zeitplan für die Doktorarbeit
• Software für die Doktorarbeit
• Formatierungsregeln für die Doktorarbeit
• Gliederungsempfehlungen für die Doktorarbeit
• Zitation in der Doktorarbeit
• Doktorarbeit Korrekturlesen lassen
• Fertigstellung der Doktorarbeit
• Doktorgrade erläutert
• Erfahrungsbericht Promotion
• Formatvorlage Doktorarbeit

Bewertung der Dissertation | Was bedeutet die Benotung?

• Nach der Einreichung der Doktorarbeit folgt im nächsten Schritt deren Bewertung . Diese wird in der Regel von drei Gutachterinnen und Gutachtern durchgeführt, die nach dem Lesen der Arbeit ein schriftliches Gutachten erstellen, an dessen Ende sich eine Note befindet. Eine bzw. einer der Begutachtenden ist immer diejenige Professorin oder derjenige Professor, die bzw. der die Arbeit betreut hat. Weitere Gutachterinnen und Gutachter können — je nach Universität — auch von der Promovierenden oder dem Promovierenden selbst vorgeschlagen werden.
• Die Bewertungsrichtlinien sind denen einer Masterarbeit ähnlich, allerdings wird der Fokus bei einer Dissertation noch mehr auf die wissenschaftliche Originalität und die Selbständigkeit bei der Wahl und der Bearbeitung der Fragestellung gelegt.
• Bei einigen Universitäten kann es erforderlich sein, eine Publikation bei einem angesehenen wissenschaftlichen Journal erfolgreich eingereicht zu haben.
• Dass alle formalen Vorgaben eingehalten werden müssen, versteht sich von selbst— genau wie die Plagiatsfreiheit .
• Unterscheiden sich die Gutachten stark oder wird von beiden die Arbeit mit , summa cum laude ‘ bewertet, wird in der Regel ein Drittgutachter

Die Benotung von Doktorarbeiten entspricht nicht dem aus der Schule oder dem Studium bekannten Notensystem. Es gibt eine Benotung in Form einer lateinischen Bezeichnung . Diese Bezeichnungen variieren je nach Promotionsordnung der jeweiligen Universität, werden aber meist folgendermassen verwendet:

• magna cum laude: Die Bewertung ‚magna cum laude‘ entspricht einem ‚sehr gut‘ und würde demnach im regulären Notensystem der Note 1 gleichkommen.
• Ergänzend kann auch das Prädikat ‚summa cum laude‘  vergeben werden, das dem  ‚magna cum laude‘  noch übergeordnet ist.
• cum laude: Auf die Note 1 folgt bekanntlich die 2 – sie steht, wie auch im Schulsystem, für ‚gut‘.
• rite: Mit ‚rite‘ wird eine 3 oder die Einschätzung ‚ genügend ‘ bzw. ‚ bestanden ‘ oder ‚ ausreichend ‘ ausgedrückt. An manchen Universitäten wird zwischen einem ‚cum laude‘ und einem ‚rite‘ noch die Note ‚ satis bene ‘ vergeben.
• non sufficit: Diese Benotung wird auch als ‚ insufficienter‘  oder  ‚non probatum‘  bezeichnet und bedeutet, dass die abgegebene Doktorarbeit nicht bestanden worden ist.

Mit der Dissertation nach jahrelanger Arbeit durchfallen zu können, mag im ersten Moment erschreckend klingen, kommt aber nur selten vor . Im Jahr 2017 wurden von 28.411 Promotionen an deutschen Universitäten lediglich 7 nicht bestanden ( Auswertung des statistischen Bundesamtes aus dem Jahr 2017 (ab S. 181)  . In der Regel arbeiten die Doktorandinnen und Doktoranden eng mit ihren Betreuerinnen und Betreuern zusammen, so dass diese Gefahr frühzeitig abgewendet werden kann.

Auslagezeitraum : Ist die Dissertation begutachtet, wird sie zusammen mit den Gutachten für einen in der Promotionsordnung festgelegten Zeitraum ausgelegt – meist zwei Wochen während der Vorlesungszeit, bzw. vier Wochen in den Semesterferien – und so der Universitätsöffentlichkeit (genauer den promovierten Mitgliedern der jeweiligen Fakultät) zugänglich gemacht .

Entdecken Sie all unsere Artikel zum Thema Doktorarbeit

Rigorosum, verteidigung und veröffentlichung der doktorarbeit.

Nach der Bewertung und der Auslage folgt – sofern die Prädikate in den Gutachten nicht zu stark voneinander abweichen und die Dissertation übereinstimmend mit ‚bestanden‘ bewertet wurde – das Rigorosum . Dieser Begriff ist dem Wortsinn nach als ‚ strenge Prüfung ‘ zu definieren. Das Rigorosum ist heutzutage nicht mehr an allen Universitäten Teil des Promotionsverfahrens. Meist erfolgt das Rigorosum, wenn sich Master- und Promotionsstudiengang deutlich unterscheiden. An einigen Universitäten folgt direkt auf die Abgabe der Doktorarbeit – nach positivem Ausgang des Bewertungsprozesses – deren Verteidigung oder Disputation . Erst nach deren Bestehen kann die Arbeit veröffentlicht werden.

Hinweis Wenn alle Bewertungen – also sowohl die von der Dissertation selbst als auch jene von Rigorosum und Verteidigung – sehr gut sind (oder ausgezeichnet), so kann die Auszeichnung ‚summa cum laude‘ als abschliessende Bewertung vergeben werden.

• Ist ein Rigorosum erforderlich, stimmen Sie im Normalfall die Inhalte dieser mündlichen Prüfung mit Ihren Prüfern ab. So ist es etwa je nach Universität und jeweiliger Promotionsordnung möglich, dass ein bis zwei Fachgebiete für das Rigorosum festgelegt werden. Diese mündliche Prüfung bezieht sich also nicht explizit auf das Themengebiet, das in der Dissertation bearbeitet wird – Anknüpfungspunkte gibt es aber in der Regel.
• Wurde das Rigorosum bestanden oder ist keine solche Prüfung vorgesehen, folgt als nächster Schritt die Verteidigung der Dissertation , die auch als Disputation oder Kolloquium bezeichnet wird und öffentlich ist. Sie sollten unbedingt die Möglichkeit nutzen , mindestens einmal an einer Disputation teilzunehmen . Sie können sich so bereits ein Bild davon machen, was Sie erwartet. Im Laufe der Verteidigung werden der wissenschaftliche Stellenwert der Arbeit und der Beitrag, den die Doktorarbeit innerhalb des Forschungsgebiets leistet, dargelegt. In diesem Rahmen werden auch offene Fragen beantwortet und es können Diskussionen geführt werden. Zudem können die Gutachterinnen und Gutachter hier (letztmalig) Änderungswünsche und Korrekturbedarf mitteilen, den sie in Bezug auf die eingereichte Doktorarbeit sehen. Sofern vorhanden, wird der besprochene Überarbeitungsbedarf dann in Form von Auflagen dokumentiert, die vor Veröffentlichung der Dissertation zu berücksichtigen sind.
• Die Veröffentlichung ist der letzte Schritt im Promotionsverfahren, der nach der Abgabe der Doktorarbeit noch eines nennenswerten aktiven Zutuns vonseiten der bzw. des Promovierenden bedarf. Bei der Veröffentlichung der Dissertation geht es darum, die Arbeit der wissenschaftlichen Öffentlichkeit zur Verfügung zu stellen. Erforderlich hierfür ist im Wesentlichen die Abgabe einer bestimmten Anzahl an Pflichtexemplaren der Arbeit, wobei die genaue Anzahl und die Einreichungsmodalitäten in der Promotionsordnung der Universität festgelegt sind.
• Unterschieden wird dabei häufig zwischen den Möglichkeiten der gedruckten und der elektronischen Veröffentlichung . Während die elektronische Veröffentlichung im Wesentlichen Anforderungen an die einzureichende PDF-Datei stellt und nur eine begrenzte Anzahl Pflichtexemplare erfordert, bedarf es im Falle einer gedruckten Veröffentlichung mehrererPflichtexemplare, die der Bibliothek der Universität zur Verfügung gestellt werden müssen. Eine dritte Möglichkeit besteht darin, mit einem gewerblich tätigen Verlag zusammenzuarbeiten, der die Dissertation regulär veröffentlicht und dann unter anderem auch die Bereitstellung der Pflichtexemplare übernimmt. Voraussetzungen für eine Verlagsveröffentlichung sind je nach Verlag oftmals eine gute bis sehr gute Gesamtbewertung und, dass die Arbeit thematisch in das Verlagsportfolio passt. Wir bieten Ihnen auch aktive Hilfe bei Ihrer   Veröffentlichung  
• Nach der Übergabe der Pflichtexemplare gilt die Doktorarbeit als veröffentlicht. Daraufhin wird alsbald der Doktortitel mit einer Promotionsurkunde verliehen , häufig im Rahmen der nächstfolgenden Absolventenfeier der Universität. Erst ab dem Tag des Erha lts der Promotionsurkunde darf der Doktortitel, der damit verliehen wurde, offiziell geführt werden.

Verfahrensschritte nach Abgabe der Doktorarbeit – von der Note bis zur Urkunde

Kurz zusammengefasst gestaltet sich das weitere Verfahren nach der Einreichung der Dissertation im Regelfall wie folgt:

• Bewertung der Doktorarbeit, Benotung (Notenfindung individuell, meist drei Begutachtende, schriftliches Gutachten)
• Rigorosum (nichtöffentliche mündliche Prüfung(en), ggf. in mehreren Fachgebieten)
• Disputation / Kolloquium (öffentliche Verteidigung der Dissertation)
• Veröffentlichung (Einreichung von Pflichtexemplaren, ggf. unter Berücksichtigung von Auflagen)
• Übergabe der Promotionsurkunde (offizielle Verleihung des Doktortitels, etwa im Rahmen einer Absolventenfeier)

Psychologische Folgen nach Einreichung der Doktorarbeit

Während der Bearbeitung der Dissertation gibt es keine schönere Aussicht, als die Dissertation eingereicht zu haben. Endlich können all die Dinge, die während des Schreibens liegen geblieben sind, nachgeholt werden. Endlich ist wieder Zeit für andere Aktivitäten. Endlich kann wieder Hobbys nachgegangen werden.

So verlockend das auch während des Arbeitsprozesses erscheinen mag: Nach der tatsächlichen Abgabe der Doktorarbeit fühlen sich viele ausgebrannt, leer und antriebslos. Dieses Gefühl von Leere kann fortan jeden einzelnen Tag dominieren. Alle Tätigkeiten, die nicht dem Zweck der Fertigstellung der – jetzt abgeschlossenen – Dissertation dienen, erscheinen nicht bedeutsam genug, um sie in Angriff zu nehmen. Hinzu kommt, dass nach dem oft wochenlangen oder gar monatelangen intensiven Schreiben an der Doktorarbeit in der Endphase eine ausgeprägte Antriebslosigkeit besteht – die sich auch anfühlen kann wie ein Burnout. Doch das ist völlig normal.

„Danach spüren viele eine Leere. Am besten konzentriert man sich dann wieder auf Dinge, die während der Promotion in den Hintergrund getreten sind.“ Helga Knigge-Illgner, Psychologin und Promotionscoach ( Quelle )

Auch wenn es schwerfällt, sollten Sie in dieser Situation Dinge in Angriff nehmen, die während der Bearbeitung der Dissertation in den Hintergrund gerückt sind. Ob es nun Haushalt, die Steuererklärung, der vernachlässigte Sport oder die Weiterbearbeitung eines vor der Dissertation begonnenen Romans ist – Tätigkeiten, auf die Sie (notgedrungen) verzichtet haben, sollten Sie in dieser Zeit bewusst wieder aufgreifen. Eine weitere hilfreiche Möglichkeit ist es, sich mit Bekannten, Freunden und Familie zu umgeben. Diesegeben nach der Abgabe der Doktorarbeit eine andere Sicht auf das Leben und tragen so zu einer gewissen Ablenkung und Auflockerung bei.

Daneben treten auch weitere Aufgaben wieder mehr in den Vordergrund – etwa familiäre Verpflichtungen innerhalb einer Beziehung und ggf. gegenüber Kindern sowie auch banale Aspekte des Alltags wie Einkäufe und Haushalt.

Und so endet der Zustand der Leere und Antriebslosigkeit oftmals schon nach wenigen Wochen und das Leben, das sich über mehrere Jahre in einer Art Ausnahmezustand befand, verläuft wieder in geregelten Bahnen. Darüber hinaus stehen irgendwann nach der Abgabe der Dissertation auch die Verteidigung und die abschliessenden Schritte vor dem tatsächlichen Ende des Promotionsverfahrens an.

Nach Abschluss des Promotionsverfahrens

Das Promotionsverfahren endet mit der Verleihung des Doktortitels und dem Erhalt der Promotionsurkunde. Jetzt können Sie endlich das Klingelschild und Ihre Ausweise und Versicherungskarten anpassen. Wenn Sie noch keine feste Anstellung zumindest in Aussicht haben, stellt sich für Sie als frischgebackene Doktor*in die Frage, wie es beruflich weitergehen soll.

Hinweis Nur rund ein Prozent der Bevölkerung in Deutschland verfügt über einen Doktortitel. Das entspricht einer Anzahl von rund einer Dreiviertelmillion Personen.

Sie können der akademischen Umgebung treu bleiben, indem Sie eine Karriere im Bereich der Forschung und Lehre anstreben. Zum Beispiel könnte im Kontext einer Postdoc-Anstellung intensiv geforscht oder eine Lehrtätigkeit forciert werden – und langfristig könnten Sie eine Habilitation anstreben. Alternativ haben Sie die Option, in die Wirtschaft einzusteigen, also – auch als Berufsanfänger – verstärkt praktische Erfahrungen zu sammeln und durch eine Anstellung in einem wirtschaftsstarken Unternehmen auch finanziell von dem erlangten Wissen zu profitieren. Je nach gewähltem Beruf verbessern sich die Verdienstaussichten mit einem Doktortitel enorm, wie die folgende Infografik zeigt:

Quelle: https://de.statista.com/infografik/15599/auswirkungen-des-abschlusses-auf-das-gehalt/

Starten Sie durch. Sie haben bewiesen, dass Sie sich selbständig und intensiv über einen längeren Zeitraum– und vor allem äusserst erfolgreich – mit einem Problem auseinandersetzen können und eine Lösung dafür finden – ein Pfund, mit dem Sie wuchern sollten.

Sie benötigen Hilfe bei Ihrem Dissertationsvorhaben?

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How To Write A Dissertation Or Thesis

8 straightforward steps to craft an a-grade dissertation.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) Expert Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2020

Writing a dissertation or thesis is not a simple task. It takes time, energy and a lot of will power to get you across the finish line. It’s not easy – but it doesn’t necessarily need to be a painful process. If you understand the big-picture process of how to write a dissertation or thesis, your research journey will be a lot smoother.  

In this post, I’m going to outline the big-picture process of how to write a high-quality dissertation or thesis, without losing your mind along the way. If you’re just starting your research, this post is perfect for you. Alternatively, if you’ve already submitted your proposal, this article which covers how to structure a dissertation might be more helpful.

How To Write A Dissertation: 8 Steps

• Clearly understand what a dissertation (or thesis) is
• Find a unique and valuable research topic
• Craft a convincing research proposal
• Write up a strong introduction chapter
• Review the existing literature and compile a literature review
• Design a rigorous research strategy and undertake your own research
• Present the findings of your research
• Draw a conclusion and discuss the implications

Step 1: Understand exactly what a dissertation is

This probably sounds like a no-brainer, but all too often, students come to us for help with their research and the underlying issue is that they don’t fully understand what a dissertation (or thesis) actually is.

So, what is a dissertation?

At its simplest, a dissertation or thesis is a formal piece of research , reflecting the standard research process . But what is the standard research process, you ask? The research process involves 4 key steps:

• Ask a very specific, well-articulated question (s) (your research topic)
• See what other researchers have said about it (if they’ve already answered it)
• If they haven’t answered it adequately, undertake your own data collection and analysis in a scientifically rigorous fashion
• Answer your original question(s), based on your analysis findings

In short, the research process is simply about asking and answering questions in a systematic fashion . This probably sounds pretty obvious, but people often think they’ve done “research”, when in fact what they have done is:

• Started with a vague, poorly articulated question
• Not taken the time to see what research has already been done regarding the question
• Collected data and opinions that support their gut and undertaken a flimsy analysis
• Drawn a shaky conclusion, based on that analysis

If you want to see the perfect example of this in action, look out for the next Facebook post where someone claims they’ve done “research”… All too often, people consider reading a few blog posts to constitute research. Its no surprise then that what they end up with is an opinion piece, not research. Okay, okay – I’ll climb off my soapbox now.

The key takeaway here is that a dissertation (or thesis) is a formal piece of research, reflecting the research process. It’s not an opinion piece , nor a place to push your agenda or try to convince someone of your position. Writing a good dissertation involves asking a question and taking a systematic, rigorous approach to answering it.

If you understand this and are comfortable leaving your opinions or preconceived ideas at the door, you’re already off to a good start!

Step 2: Find a unique, valuable research topic

As we saw, the first step of the research process is to ask a specific, well-articulated question. In other words, you need to find a research topic that asks a specific question or set of questions (these are called research questions ). Sounds easy enough, right? All you’ve got to do is identify a question or two and you’ve got a winning research topic. Well, not quite…

A good dissertation or thesis topic has a few important attributes. Specifically, a solid research topic should be:

Let’s take a closer look at these:

Attribute #1: Clear

Your research topic needs to be crystal clear about what you’re planning to research, what you want to know, and within what context. There shouldn’t be any ambiguity or vagueness about what you’ll research.

Here’s an example of a clearly articulated research topic:

An analysis of consumer-based factors influencing organisational trust in British low-cost online equity brokerage firms.

As you can see in the example, its crystal clear what will be analysed (factors impacting organisational trust), amongst who (consumers) and in what context (British low-cost equity brokerage firms, based online).

Need a helping hand?

Attribute #2:   Unique

Your research should be asking a question(s) that hasn’t been asked before, or that hasn’t been asked in a specific context (for example, in a specific country or industry).

For example, sticking organisational trust topic above, it’s quite likely that organisational trust factors in the UK have been investigated before, but the context (online low-cost equity brokerages) could make this research unique. Therefore, the context makes this research original.

One caveat when using context as the basis for originality – you need to have a good reason to suspect that your findings in this context might be different from the existing research – otherwise, there’s no reason to warrant researching it.

Attribute #3: Important

Simply asking a unique or original question is not enough – the question needs to create value. In other words, successfully answering your research questions should provide some value to the field of research or the industry. You can’t research something just to satisfy your curiosity. It needs to make some form of contribution either to research or industry.

For example, researching the factors influencing consumer trust would create value by enabling businesses to tailor their operations and marketing to leverage factors that promote trust. In other words, it would have a clear benefit to industry.

So, how do you go about finding a unique and valuable research topic? We explain that in detail in this video post – How To Find A Research Topic . Yeah, we’ve got you covered 😊

Step 3: Write a convincing research proposal

Once you’ve pinned down a high-quality research topic, the next step is to convince your university to let you research it. No matter how awesome you think your topic is, it still needs to get the rubber stamp before you can move forward with your research. The research proposal is the tool you’ll use for this job.

So, what’s in a research proposal?

The main “job” of a research proposal is to convince your university, advisor or committee that your research topic is worthy of approval. But convince them of what? Well, this varies from university to university, but generally, they want to see that:

• You have a clearly articulated, unique and important topic (this might sound familiar…)
• You’ve done some initial reading of the existing literature relevant to your topic (i.e. a literature review)
• You have a provisional plan in terms of how you will collect data and analyse it (i.e. a methodology)

At the proposal stage, it’s (generally) not expected that you’ve extensively reviewed the existing literature , but you will need to show that you’ve done enough reading to identify a clear gap for original (unique) research. Similarly, they generally don’t expect that you have a rock-solid research methodology mapped out, but you should have an idea of whether you’ll be undertaking qualitative or quantitative analysis , and how you’ll collect your data (we’ll discuss this in more detail later).

Long story short – don’t stress about having every detail of your research meticulously thought out at the proposal stage – this will develop as you progress through your research. However, you do need to show that you’ve “done your homework” and that your research is worthy of approval .

So, how do you go about crafting a high-quality, convincing proposal? We cover that in detail in this video post – How To Write A Top-Class Research Proposal . We’ve also got a video walkthrough of two proposal examples here .

Step 4: Craft a strong introduction chapter

Once your proposal’s been approved, its time to get writing your actual dissertation or thesis! The good news is that if you put the time into crafting a high-quality proposal, you’ve already got a head start on your first three chapters – introduction, literature review and methodology – as you can use your proposal as the basis for these.

Handy sidenote – our free dissertation & thesis template is a great way to speed up your dissertation writing journey.

What’s the introduction chapter all about?

The purpose of the introduction chapter is to set the scene for your research (dare I say, to introduce it…) so that the reader understands what you’ll be researching and why it’s important. In other words, it covers the same ground as the research proposal in that it justifies your research topic.

What goes into the introduction chapter?

This can vary slightly between universities and degrees, but generally, the introduction chapter will include the following:

• A brief background to the study, explaining the overall area of research
• A problem statement , explaining what the problem is with the current state of research (in other words, where the knowledge gap exists)
• Your research questions – in other words, the specific questions your study will seek to answer (based on the knowledge gap)
• The significance of your study – in other words, why it’s important and how its findings will be useful in the world

As you can see, this all about explaining the “what” and the “why” of your research (as opposed to the “how”). So, your introduction chapter is basically the salesman of your study, “selling” your research to the first-time reader and (hopefully) getting them interested to read more.

How do I write the introduction chapter, you ask? We cover that in detail in this post .

Step 5: Undertake an in-depth literature review

As I mentioned earlier, you’ll need to do some initial review of the literature in Steps 2 and 3 to find your research gap and craft a convincing research proposal – but that’s just scratching the surface. Once you reach the literature review stage of your dissertation or thesis, you need to dig a lot deeper into the existing research and write up a comprehensive literature review chapter.

What’s the literature review all about?

There are two main stages in the literature review process:

Literature Review Step 1: Reading up

The first stage is for you to deep dive into the existing literature (journal articles, textbook chapters, industry reports, etc) to gain an in-depth understanding of the current state of research regarding your topic. While you don’t need to read every single article, you do need to ensure that you cover all literature that is related to your core research questions, and create a comprehensive catalogue of that literature , which you’ll use in the next step.

Reading and digesting all the relevant literature is a time consuming and intellectually demanding process. Many students underestimate just how much work goes into this step, so make sure that you allocate a good amount of time for this when planning out your research. Thankfully, there are ways to fast track the process – be sure to check out this article covering how to read journal articles quickly .

Literature Review Step 2: Writing up

Once you’ve worked through the literature and digested it all, you’ll need to write up your literature review chapter. Many students make the mistake of thinking that the literature review chapter is simply a summary of what other researchers have said. While this is partly true, a literature review is much more than just a summary. To pull off a good literature review chapter, you’ll need to achieve at least 3 things:

• You need to synthesise the existing research , not just summarise it. In other words, you need to show how different pieces of theory fit together, what’s agreed on by researchers, what’s not.
• You need to highlight a research gap that your research is going to fill. In other words, you’ve got to outline the problem so that your research topic can provide a solution.
• You need to use the existing research to inform your methodology and approach to your own research design. For example, you might use questions or Likert scales from previous studies in your your own survey design .

As you can see, a good literature review is more than just a summary of the published research. It’s the foundation on which your own research is built, so it deserves a lot of love and attention. Take the time to craft a comprehensive literature review with a suitable structure .

But, how do I actually write the literature review chapter, you ask? We cover that in detail in this video post .

Step 6: Carry out your own research

Once you’ve completed your literature review and have a sound understanding of the existing research, its time to develop your own research (finally!). You’ll design this research specifically so that you can find the answers to your unique research question.

There are two steps here – designing your research strategy and executing on it:

1 – Design your research strategy

The first step is to design your research strategy and craft a methodology chapter . I won’t get into the technicalities of the methodology chapter here, but in simple terms, this chapter is about explaining the “how” of your research. If you recall, the introduction and literature review chapters discussed the “what” and the “why”, so it makes sense that the next point to cover is the “how” –that’s what the methodology chapter is all about.

In this section, you’ll need to make firm decisions about your research design. This includes things like:

• Your research philosophy (e.g. positivism or interpretivism )
• Your overall methodology (e.g. qualitative , quantitative or mixed methods)
• Your data collection strategy (e.g. interviews , focus groups, surveys)
• Your data analysis strategy (e.g. content analysis , correlation analysis, regression)

If these words have got your head spinning, don’t worry! We’ll explain these in plain language in other posts. It’s not essential that you understand the intricacies of research design (yet!). The key takeaway here is that you’ll need to make decisions about how you’ll design your own research, and you’ll need to describe (and justify) your decisions in your methodology chapter.

2 – Execute: Collect and analyse your data

Once you’ve worked out your research design, you’ll put it into action and start collecting your data. This might mean undertaking interviews, hosting an online survey or any other data collection method. Data collection can take quite a bit of time (especially if you host in-person interviews), so be sure to factor sufficient time into your project plan for this. Oftentimes, things don’t go 100% to plan (for example, you don’t get as many survey responses as you hoped for), so bake a little extra time into your budget here.

Once you’ve collected your data, you’ll need to do some data preparation before you can sink your teeth into the analysis. For example:

• If you carry out interviews or focus groups, you’ll need to transcribe your audio data to text (i.e. a Word document).
• If you collect quantitative survey data, you’ll need to clean up your data and get it into the right format for whichever analysis software you use (for example, SPSS, R or STATA).

Once you’ve completed your data prep, you’ll undertake your analysis, using the techniques that you described in your methodology. Depending on what you find in your analysis, you might also do some additional forms of analysis that you hadn’t planned for. For example, you might see something in the data that raises new questions or that requires clarification with further analysis.

The type(s) of analysis that you’ll use depend entirely on the nature of your research and your research questions. For example:

• If your research if exploratory in nature, you’ll often use qualitative analysis techniques .
• If your research is confirmatory in nature, you’ll often use quantitative analysis techniques
• If your research involves a mix of both, you might use a mixed methods approach

Again, if these words have got your head spinning, don’t worry! We’ll explain these concepts and techniques in other posts. The key takeaway is simply that there’s no “one size fits all” for research design and methodology – it all depends on your topic, your research questions and your data. So, don’t be surprised if your study colleagues take a completely different approach to yours.

Step 7: Present your findings

Once you’ve completed your analysis, it’s time to present your findings (finally!). In a dissertation or thesis, you’ll typically present your findings in two chapters – the results chapter and the discussion chapter .

What’s the difference between the results chapter and the discussion chapter?

While these two chapters are similar, the results chapter generally just presents the processed data neatly and clearly without interpretation, while the discussion chapter explains the story the data are telling  – in other words, it provides your interpretation of the results.

For example, if you were researching the factors that influence consumer trust, you might have used a quantitative approach to identify the relationship between potential factors (e.g. perceived integrity and competence of the organisation) and consumer trust. In this case:

• Your results chapter would just present the results of the statistical tests. For example, correlation results or differences between groups. In other words, the processed numbers.
• Your discussion chapter would explain what the numbers mean in relation to your research question(s). For example, Factor 1 has a weak relationship with consumer trust, while Factor 2 has a strong relationship.

Depending on the university and degree, these two chapters (results and discussion) are sometimes merged into one , so be sure to check with your institution what their preference is. Regardless of the chapter structure, this section is about presenting the findings of your research in a clear, easy to understand fashion.

Importantly, your discussion here needs to link back to your research questions (which you outlined in the introduction or literature review chapter). In other words, it needs to answer the key questions you asked (or at least attempt to answer them).

For example, if we look at the sample research topic:

In this case, the discussion section would clearly outline which factors seem to have a noteworthy influence on organisational trust. By doing so, they are answering the overarching question and fulfilling the purpose of the research .

For more information about the results chapter , check out this post for qualitative studies and this post for quantitative studies .

Step 8: The Final Step Draw a conclusion and discuss the implications

Last but not least, you’ll need to wrap up your research with the conclusion chapter . In this chapter, you’ll bring your research full circle by highlighting the key findings of your study and explaining what the implications of these findings are.

What exactly are key findings? The key findings are those findings which directly relate to your original research questions and overall research objectives (which you discussed in your introduction chapter). The implications, on the other hand, explain what your findings mean for industry, or for research in your area.

Sticking with the consumer trust topic example, the conclusion might look something like this:

Key findings

This study set out to identify which factors influence consumer-based trust in British low-cost online equity brokerage firms. The results suggest that the following factors have a large impact on consumer trust:

While the following factors have a very limited impact on consumer trust:

Notably, within the 25-30 age groups, Factors E had a noticeably larger impact, which may be explained by…

Implications

The findings having noteworthy implications for British low-cost online equity brokers. Specifically:

The large impact of Factors X and Y implies that brokers need to consider….

The limited impact of Factor E implies that brokers need to…

As you can see, the conclusion chapter is basically explaining the “what” (what your study found) and the “so what?” (what the findings mean for the industry or research). This brings the study full circle and closes off the document.

Let’s recap – how to write a dissertation or thesis

You’re still with me? Impressive! I know that this post was a long one, but hopefully you’ve learnt a thing or two about how to write a dissertation or thesis, and are now better equipped to start your own research.

To recap, the 8 steps to writing a quality dissertation (or thesis) are as follows:

• Understand what a dissertation (or thesis) is – a research project that follows the research process.
• Find a unique (original) and important research topic
• Craft a convincing dissertation or thesis research proposal
• Write a clear, compelling introduction chapter
• Undertake a thorough review of the existing research and write up a literature review
• Undertake your own research
• Present and interpret your findings

Once you’ve wrapped up the core chapters, all that’s typically left is the abstract , reference list and appendices. As always, be sure to check with your university if they have any additional requirements in terms of structure or content.  

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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20 Comments

thankfull >>>this is very useful

Thank you, it was really helpful

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Great to hear that – thanks for the feedback. Good luck writing your dissertation/thesis.

This is the most comprehensive explanation of how to write a dissertation. Many thanks for sharing it free of charge.

Very rich presentation. Thank you

Thanks Derek Jansen|GRADCOACH, I find it very useful guide to arrange my activities and proceed to research!

Thank you so much for such a marvelous teaching .I am so convinced that am going to write a comprehensive and a distinct masters dissertation

It is an amazing comprehensive explanation

This was straightforward. Thank you!

I can say that your explanations are simple and enlightening – understanding what you have done here is easy for me. Could you write more about the different types of research methods specific to the three methodologies: quan, qual and MM. I look forward to interacting with this website more in the future.

Thanks for the feedback and suggestions 🙂

Hello, your write ups is quite educative. However, l have challenges in going about my research questions which is below; *Building the enablers of organisational growth through effective governance and purposeful leadership.*

Very educating.

Just listening to the name of the dissertation makes the student nervous. As writing a top-quality dissertation is a difficult task as it is a lengthy topic, requires a lot of research and understanding and is usually around 10,000 to 15000 words. Sometimes due to studies, unbalanced workload or lack of research and writing skill students look for dissertation submission from professional writers.

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Hi. Where is the excel spread sheet ark?

could you please help me look at your thesis paper to enable me to do the portion that has to do with the specification

my topic is “the impact of domestic revenue mobilization.

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The Write of Passage: Reflections on Writing a Dissertation in Narrative Methodology

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

In this essay I explore, reflect upon and theorize my experiences as a doctoral student writing a dissertation in the field of narrative studies. The inquiry concentrates on the problematic tensions that are unique to academic writing in qualitative disciplines, tensions with which I dealt and grappled extensively during my work. I wish to reflect, through the writing of a theoretically informed autoethnography, on the space inscribed between the proposal and the dissertation, and thus on the young scholar's initiation journey through a constructed, narrative-in-becoming space, and on the relationship between the backpackers' narratives of identity and change, which I researched, and my own. In doing so I will evocatively problematize the epitome of the academic rite-of-passage, i.e. the writing of a modern dissertation, in times of post-modern inquiry and writing. The discussion is informed by the experience of travel and journey which took place between the interviewees' travel narratives and my own (in the form of a dissertation writing); between "field" and "office"; between positivist and interpretive paradigms; between proposal and dissertation, between paternal and maternal sources of writing, and between academic/scientific and poetic expression. The essay offers contributions to the inquiry into reflexivity and subjectivity within the growing paradigm of qualitative methodology, to the inquiry of rites-of-passage into communities and institutions, and it problematizes the possibility that narrative can contain and convey the post-modern, overwhelmed and fractured self.

• autoethnography
• rite-of-passage
• dissertation
• post-modern

Access to Document

• 10.17169/fqs-4.2.712 License: CC BY
• https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-4.2.712

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• Link to repository
• Link to publication

T1 - The Write of Passage: Reflections on Writing a Dissertation in Narrative Methodology

AU - Noy, Chaim

PY - 2003/1/1

Y1 - 2003/1/1

N2 - In this essay I explore, reflect upon and theorize my experiences as a doctoral student writing a dissertation in the field of narrative studies. The inquiry concentrates on the problematic tensions that are unique to academic writing in qualitative disciplines, tensions with which I dealt and grappled extensively during my work. I wish to reflect, through the writing of a theoretically informed autoethnography, on the space inscribed between the proposal and the dissertation, and thus on the young scholar's initiation journey through a constructed, narrative-in-becoming space, and on the relationship between the backpackers' narratives of identity and change, which I researched, and my own. In doing so I will evocatively problematize the epitome of the academic rite-of-passage, i.e. the writing of a modern dissertation, in times of post-modern inquiry and writing. The discussion is informed by the experience of travel and journey which took place between the interviewees' travel narratives and my own (in the form of a dissertation writing); between "field" and "office"; between positivist and interpretive paradigms; between proposal and dissertation, between paternal and maternal sources of writing, and between academic/scientific and poetic expression. The essay offers contributions to the inquiry into reflexivity and subjectivity within the growing paradigm of qualitative methodology, to the inquiry of rites-of-passage into communities and institutions, and it problematizes the possibility that narrative can contain and convey the post-modern, overwhelmed and fractured self.

AB - In this essay I explore, reflect upon and theorize my experiences as a doctoral student writing a dissertation in the field of narrative studies. The inquiry concentrates on the problematic tensions that are unique to academic writing in qualitative disciplines, tensions with which I dealt and grappled extensively during my work. I wish to reflect, through the writing of a theoretically informed autoethnography, on the space inscribed between the proposal and the dissertation, and thus on the young scholar's initiation journey through a constructed, narrative-in-becoming space, and on the relationship between the backpackers' narratives of identity and change, which I researched, and my own. In doing so I will evocatively problematize the epitome of the academic rite-of-passage, i.e. the writing of a modern dissertation, in times of post-modern inquiry and writing. The discussion is informed by the experience of travel and journey which took place between the interviewees' travel narratives and my own (in the form of a dissertation writing); between "field" and "office"; between positivist and interpretive paradigms; between proposal and dissertation, between paternal and maternal sources of writing, and between academic/scientific and poetic expression. The essay offers contributions to the inquiry into reflexivity and subjectivity within the growing paradigm of qualitative methodology, to the inquiry of rites-of-passage into communities and institutions, and it problematizes the possibility that narrative can contain and convey the post-modern, overwhelmed and fractured self.

KW - narrative

KW - identity

KW - autoethnography

KW - rite-of-passage

KW - writing

KW - dissertation

KW - modern

KW - post-modern

UR - https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/spe_facpub/648

UR - https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-4.2.712

U2 - 10.17169/fqs-4.2.712

DO - 10.17169/fqs-4.2.712

M3 - Article

JO - Forum: Qualitative Social Research

JF - Forum: Qualitative Social Research

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation

What Is a Dissertation? | Guide, Examples, & Template

A dissertation is a long-form piece of academic writing based on original research conducted by you. It is usually submitted as the final step in order to finish a PhD program.

Your dissertation is probably the longest piece of writing you’ve ever completed. It requires solid research, writing, and analysis skills, and it can be intimidating to know where to begin.

Your department likely has guidelines related to how your dissertation should be structured. When in doubt, consult with your supervisor.

You can also download our full dissertation template in the format of your choice below. The template includes a ready-made table of contents with notes on what to include in each chapter, easily adaptable to your department’s requirements.

Download Word template Download Google Docs template

• In the US, a dissertation generally refers to the collection of research you conducted to obtain a PhD.
• In other countries (such as the UK), a dissertation often refers to the research you conduct to obtain your bachelor’s or master’s degree.

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Table of contents

Dissertation committee and prospectus process, how to write and structure a dissertation, acknowledgements or preface, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review, methodology, reference list, proofreading and editing, defending your dissertation, free checklist and lecture slides.

When you’ve finished your coursework, as well as any comprehensive exams or other requirements, you advance to “ABD” (All But Dissertation) status. This means you’ve completed everything except your dissertation.

Prior to starting to write, you must form your committee and write your prospectus or proposal . Your committee comprises your adviser and a few other faculty members. They can be from your own department, or, if your work is more interdisciplinary, from other departments. Your committee will guide you through the dissertation process, and ultimately decide whether you pass your dissertation defense and receive your PhD.

Your prospectus is a formal document presented to your committee, usually orally in a defense, outlining your research aims and objectives and showing why your topic is relevant . After passing your prospectus defense, you’re ready to start your research and writing.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

The structure of your dissertation depends on a variety of factors, such as your discipline, topic, and approach. Dissertations in the humanities are often structured more like a long essay , building an overall argument to support a central thesis , with chapters organized around different themes or case studies.

However, hard science and social science dissertations typically include a review of existing works, a methodology section, an analysis of your original research, and a presentation of your results , presented in different chapters.

Dissertation examples

We’ve compiled a list of dissertation examples to help you get started.

• Example dissertation #1: Heat, Wildfire and Energy Demand: An Examination of Residential Buildings and Community Equity (a dissertation by C. A. Antonopoulos about the impact of extreme heat and wildfire on residential buildings and occupant exposure risks).
• Example dissertation #2: Exploring Income Volatility and Financial Health Among Middle-Income Households (a dissertation by M. Addo about income volatility and declining economic security among middle-income households).
• Example dissertation #3: The Use of Mindfulness Meditation to Increase the Efficacy of Mirror Visual Feedback for Reducing Phantom Limb Pain in Amputees (a dissertation by N. S. Mills about the effect of mindfulness-based interventions on the relationship between mirror visual feedback and the pain level in amputees with phantom limb pain).

The very first page of your document contains your dissertation title, your name, department, institution, degree program, and submission date. Sometimes it also includes your student number, your supervisor’s name, and the university’s logo.

Read more about title pages

The acknowledgements section is usually optional and gives space for you to thank everyone who helped you in writing your dissertation. This might include your supervisors, participants in your research, and friends or family who supported you. In some cases, your acknowledgements are part of a preface.

Read more about acknowledgements Read more about prefaces

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The abstract is a short summary of your dissertation, usually about 150 to 300 words long. Though this may seem very short, it’s one of the most important parts of your dissertation, because it introduces your work to your audience.

Your abstract should:

• State your main topic and the aims of your research
• Describe your methods
• Summarize your main results
• State your conclusions

Read more about abstracts

The table of contents lists all of your chapters, along with corresponding subheadings and page numbers. This gives your reader an overview of your structure and helps them easily navigate your document.

Remember to include all main parts of your dissertation in your table of contents, even the appendices. It’s easy to generate a table automatically in Word if you used heading styles. Generally speaking, you only include level 2 and level 3 headings, not every subheading you included in your finished work.

Read more about tables of contents

While not usually mandatory, it’s nice to include a list of figures and tables to help guide your reader if you have used a lot of these in your dissertation. It’s easy to generate one of these in Word using the Insert Caption feature.

Read more about lists of figures and tables

Similarly, if you have used a lot of abbreviations (especially industry-specific ones) in your dissertation, you can include them in an alphabetized list of abbreviations so that the reader can easily look up their meanings.

Read more about lists of abbreviations

In addition to the list of abbreviations, if you find yourself using a lot of highly specialized terms that you worry will not be familiar to your reader, consider including a glossary. Here, alphabetize the terms and include a brief description or definition.

Read more about glossaries

The introduction serves to set up your dissertation’s topic, purpose, and relevance. It tells the reader what to expect in the rest of your dissertation. The introduction should:

• Establish your research topic , giving the background information needed to contextualize your work
• Narrow down the focus and define the scope of your research
• Discuss the state of existing research on the topic, showing your work’s relevance to a broader problem or debate
• Clearly state your research questions and objectives
• Outline the flow of the rest of your work

Everything in the introduction should be clear, engaging, and relevant. By the end, the reader should understand the what, why, and how of your research.

Read more about introductions

A formative part of your research is your literature review . This helps you gain a thorough understanding of the academic work that already exists on your topic.

Literature reviews encompass:

• Finding relevant sources (e.g., books and journal articles)
• Assessing the credibility of your sources
• Critically analyzing and evaluating each source
• Drawing connections between them (e.g., themes, patterns, conflicts, or gaps) to strengthen your overall point

A literature review is not merely a summary of existing sources. Your literature review should have a coherent structure and argument that leads to a clear justification for your own research. It may aim to:

• Address a gap in the literature or build on existing knowledge
• Take a new theoretical or methodological approach to your topic
• Propose a solution to an unresolved problem or advance one side of a theoretical debate

Read more about literature reviews

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework. Here, you define and analyze the key theories, concepts, and models that frame your research.

Read more about theoretical frameworks

Your methodology chapter describes how you conducted your research, allowing your reader to critically assess its credibility. Your methodology section should accurately report what you did, as well as convince your reader that this was the best way to answer your research question.

A methodology section should generally include:

• The overall research approach ( quantitative vs. qualitative ) and research methods (e.g., a longitudinal study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., interviews or a controlled experiment )
• Details of where, when, and with whom the research took place
• Any tools and materials you used (e.g., computer programs, lab equipment)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical analysis , discourse analysis )
• An evaluation or justification of your methods

Read more about methodology sections

Your results section should highlight what your methodology discovered. You can structure this section around sub-questions, hypotheses , or themes, but avoid including any subjective or speculative interpretation here.

Your results section should:

• Concisely state each relevant result together with relevant descriptive statistics (e.g., mean , standard deviation ) and inferential statistics (e.g., test statistics , p values )
• Briefly state how the result relates to the question or whether the hypothesis was supported
• Report all results that are relevant to your research questions , including any that did not meet your expectations.

Additional data (including raw numbers, full questionnaires, or interview transcripts) can be included as an appendix. You can include tables and figures, but only if they help the reader better understand your results. Read more about results sections

Your discussion section is your opportunity to explore the meaning and implications of your results in relation to your research question. Here, interpret your results in detail, discussing whether they met your expectations and how well they fit with the framework that you built in earlier chapters. Refer back to relevant source material to show how your results fit within existing research in your field.

Some guiding questions include:

• What do your results mean?
• Why do your results matter?
• What limitations do the results have?

If any of the results were unexpected, offer explanations for why this might be. It’s a good idea to consider alternative interpretations of your data.

Read more about discussion sections

Your dissertation’s conclusion should concisely answer your main research question, leaving your reader with a clear understanding of your central argument and emphasizing what your research has contributed to the field.

In some disciplines, the conclusion is just a short section preceding the discussion section, but in other contexts, it is the final chapter of your work. Here, you wrap up your dissertation with a final reflection on what you found, with recommendations for future research and concluding remarks.

It’s important to leave the reader with a clear impression of why your research matters. What have you added to what was already known? Why is your research necessary for the future of your field?

Read more about conclusions

It is crucial to include a reference list or list of works cited with the full details of all the sources that you used, in order to avoid plagiarism. Be sure to choose one citation style and follow it consistently throughout your dissertation. Each style has strict and specific formatting requirements.

Common styles include MLA , Chicago , and APA , but which style you use is often set by your department or your field.

Create APA citations Create MLA citations

Your dissertation should contain only essential information that directly contributes to answering your research question. Documents such as interview transcripts or survey questions can be added as appendices, rather than adding them to the main body.

Read more about appendices

Making sure that all of your sections are in the right place is only the first step to a well-written dissertation. Don’t forget to leave plenty of time for editing and proofreading, as grammar mistakes and sloppy spelling errors can really negatively impact your work.

Dissertations can take up to five years to write, so you will definitely want to make sure that everything is perfect before submitting. You may want to consider using a professional dissertation editing service , AI proofreader or grammar checker to make sure your final project is perfect prior to submitting.

After your written dissertation is approved, your committee will schedule a defense. Similarly to defending your prospectus, dissertation defenses are oral presentations of your work. You’ll present your dissertation, and your committee will ask you questions. Many departments allow family members, friends, and other people who are interested to join as well.

After your defense, your committee will meet, and then inform you whether you have passed. Keep in mind that defenses are usually just a formality; most committees will have resolved any serious issues with your work with you far prior to your defense, giving you ample time to fix any problems.

As you write your dissertation, you can use this simple checklist to make sure you’ve included all the essentials.

Checklist: Dissertation

My title page includes all information required by my university.

I have included acknowledgements thanking those who helped me.

My abstract provides a concise summary of the dissertation, giving the reader a clear idea of my key results or arguments.

I have created a table of contents to help the reader navigate my dissertation. It includes all chapter titles, but excludes the title page, acknowledgements, and abstract.

My introduction leads into my topic in an engaging way and shows the relevance of my research.

My introduction clearly defines the focus of my research, stating my research questions and research objectives .

My introduction includes an overview of the dissertation’s structure (reading guide).

I have conducted a literature review in which I (1) critically engage with sources, evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of existing research, (2) discuss patterns, themes, and debates in the literature, and (3) address a gap or show how my research contributes to existing research.

I have clearly outlined the theoretical framework of my research, explaining the theories and models that support my approach.

I have thoroughly described my methodology , explaining how I collected data and analyzed data.

I have concisely and objectively reported all relevant results .

I have (1) evaluated and interpreted the meaning of the results and (2) acknowledged any important limitations of the results in my discussion .

I have clearly stated the answer to my main research question in the conclusion .

I have clearly explained the implications of my conclusion, emphasizing what new insight my research has contributed.

I have provided relevant recommendations for further research or practice.

If relevant, I have included appendices with supplemental information.

I have included an in-text citation every time I use words, ideas, or information from a source.

I have listed every source in a reference list at the end of my dissertation.

I have consistently followed the rules of my chosen citation style .

I have followed all formatting guidelines provided by my university.

Congratulations!

The end is in sight—your dissertation is nearly ready to submit! Make sure it's perfectly polished with the help of a Scribbr editor.

If you’re an educator, feel free to download and adapt these slides to teach your students about structuring a dissertation.

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Dissertation Essentials

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DSE Guides & Templates

Dissertation rubrics, preparing for your cmp course, academic success center services, library dissertation toolbox series, other resources, dissertation essentials webinars.

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• Doctoral Record
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• Scholarly Writing This link opens in a new window
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• Library Basic Training for Doctoral Students This link opens in a new window
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Need help ask us.

The Dissertation Essentials area houses guides, manuals, and templates to assist you in your doctoral journey.  There is also a section specifically for rubrics for each of the chapters as well as the proposal and manuscript.  Along with these items, there are additional resources provided for the ASC, Library, technology, accessing published dissertations, and even some school specific resources.

• DSE Manual (Previously Handbook) Use this guide throughout the dissertation process to support you in understanding the courses, deliverables, and expectations of students and the dissertation committee.
• Dissertation Proposal/Manuscript Template You will use this templates to write all chapters of the dissertation.
• PhD-DS Dissertation Proposal/Manuscript Template Students in the PhD Data Science program will use this template to write all chapters of the dissertation.
• DSE Dissertation Revision Timeline Use this template to create a timeline for deliverable revisions in the dissertation.
• SOBE Best Practice Guide for Qualitative Research and Design Methods
• SOBE Best Practice Guide in Quantitative Research and Design Methods

If you are working on your CMP course, your course will provide information on how to format your prospectus/portfolio.

• DSE Chapter 1 Rubric Use this rubric to guide you when writing Chapter 1 of your dissertation.
• DSE Chapter 2 Rubric Use this rubric to guide you when writing Chapter 2 of your dissertation.
• DSE Chapter 3 Rubric Use this rubric to guide you when writing Chapter 3 of your dissertation.
• DSE Dissertation Proposal Rubric Use this rubric to guide you when combining Chapters 1-3 into the Dissertation Proposal.
• DSE Chapter 4 Rubric Use this rubric to guide you when writing Chapter 4 of your dissertation.
• DSE Chapter 5 Rubric Use this rubric to guide you when writing Chapter 5 of your dissertation.
• DSE Dissertation Manuscript Rubric Use this rubric to guide you when combing all five of your dissertation chapters to produce your Dissertation Manuscript.

Not yet at the Dissertation phase?  Getting ready for your CMP course?  Check out the CMP Course Frequently Asked Questions document below:

• CMP Course Frequently Asked Questions

Library Dissertation Toolbox Workshop Series

The  Library Dissertation Toolbox Workshop Series  consists of engaging, skill-building workshops designed specifically for doctoral students. Students will learn how to effectively locate, evaluate, and use information relating to their dissertation research topics. Each toolbox session features a new research focus- sign up for the entire series, or just those that most appeal to you:

• Research Process Guide by NU Library Outlines important steps in the research process and covers topics such as evaluating information.
• Managing and Writing the Doctoral Thesis or Dissertation Dr. Linda Bloomberg's newest edition Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Road Map From Beginning to End is out now. This resource includes an interview between Methodspace and Dr. Bloomberg.

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Home » Dissertation – Format, Example and Template

Dissertation – Format, Example and Template

Table of Contents

Dissertation

Definition:

Dissertation is a lengthy and detailed academic document that presents the results of original research on a specific topic or question. It is usually required as a final project for a doctoral degree or a master’s degree.

Dissertation Meaning in Research

In Research , a dissertation refers to a substantial research project that students undertake in order to obtain an advanced degree such as a Ph.D. or a Master’s degree.

Dissertation typically involves the exploration of a particular research question or topic in-depth, and it requires students to conduct original research, analyze data, and present their findings in a scholarly manner. It is often the culmination of years of study and represents a significant contribution to the academic field.

Types of Dissertation

Types of Dissertation are as follows:

Empirical Dissertation

An empirical dissertation is a research study that uses primary data collected through surveys, experiments, or observations. It typically follows a quantitative research approach and uses statistical methods to analyze the data.

Non-Empirical Dissertation

A non-empirical dissertation is based on secondary sources, such as books, articles, and online resources. It typically follows a qualitative research approach and uses methods such as content analysis or discourse analysis.

Narrative Dissertation

A narrative dissertation is a personal account of the researcher’s experience or journey. It typically follows a qualitative research approach and uses methods such as interviews, focus groups, or ethnography.

Systematic Literature Review

A systematic literature review is a comprehensive analysis of existing research on a specific topic. It typically follows a qualitative research approach and uses methods such as meta-analysis or thematic analysis.

Case Study Dissertation

A case study dissertation is an in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or organization. It typically follows a qualitative research approach and uses methods such as interviews, observations, or document analysis.

Mixed-Methods Dissertation

A mixed-methods dissertation combines both quantitative and qualitative research approaches to gather and analyze data. It typically uses methods such as surveys, interviews, and focus groups, as well as statistical analysis.

How to Write a Dissertation

Here are some general steps to help guide you through the process of writing a dissertation:

• Choose a topic : Select a topic that you are passionate about and that is relevant to your field of study. It should be specific enough to allow for in-depth research but broad enough to be interesting and engaging.
• Conduct research : Conduct thorough research on your chosen topic, utilizing a variety of sources, including books, academic journals, and online databases. Take detailed notes and organize your information in a way that makes sense to you.
• Create an outline : Develop an outline that will serve as a roadmap for your dissertation. The outline should include the introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• Write the introduction: The introduction should provide a brief overview of your topic, the research questions, and the significance of the study. It should also include a clear thesis statement that states your main argument.
• Write the literature review: The literature review should provide a comprehensive analysis of existing research on your topic. It should identify gaps in the research and explain how your study will fill those gaps.
• Write the methodology: The methodology section should explain the research methods you used to collect and analyze data. It should also include a discussion of any limitations or weaknesses in your approach.
• Write the results: The results section should present the findings of your research in a clear and organized manner. Use charts, graphs, and tables to help illustrate your data.
• Write the discussion: The discussion section should interpret your results and explain their significance. It should also address any limitations of the study and suggest areas for future research.
• Write the conclusion: The conclusion should summarize your main findings and restate your thesis statement. It should also provide recommendations for future research.
• Edit and revise: Once you have completed a draft of your dissertation, review it carefully to ensure that it is well-organized, clear, and free of errors. Make any necessary revisions and edits before submitting it to your advisor for review.

Dissertation Format

The format of a dissertation may vary depending on the institution and field of study, but generally, it follows a similar structure:

• Title Page: This includes the title of the dissertation, the author’s name, and the date of submission.
• Abstract : A brief summary of the dissertation’s purpose, methods, and findings.
• Table of Contents: A list of the main sections and subsections of the dissertation, along with their page numbers.
• Introduction : A statement of the problem or research question, a brief overview of the literature, and an explanation of the significance of the study.
• Literature Review : A comprehensive review of the literature relevant to the research question or problem.
• Methodology : A description of the methods used to conduct the research, including data collection and analysis procedures.
• Results : A presentation of the findings of the research, including tables, charts, and graphs.
• Discussion : A discussion of the implications of the findings, their significance in the context of the literature, and limitations of the study.
• Conclusion : A summary of the main points of the study and their implications for future research.
• References : A list of all sources cited in the dissertation.
• Appendices : Additional materials that support the research, such as data tables, charts, or transcripts.

Dissertation Outline

Dissertation Outline is as follows:

Title Page:

• Title of dissertation
• Author name
• Institutional affiliation
• Date of submission
• Brief summary of the dissertation’s research problem, objectives, methods, findings, and implications
• Usually around 250-300 words

Table of Contents:

• List of chapters and sections in the dissertation, with page numbers for each

I. Introduction

• Background and context of the research
• Research problem and objectives
• Significance of the research

II. Literature Review

• Overview of existing literature on the research topic
• Identification of gaps in the literature
• Theoretical framework and concepts

III. Methodology

• Research design and methods used
• Data collection and analysis techniques
• Ethical considerations

IV. Results

• Presentation and analysis of data collected
• Findings and outcomes of the research
• Interpretation of the results

V. Discussion

• Discussion of the results in relation to the research problem and objectives
• Evaluation of the research outcomes and implications
• Suggestions for future research

VI. Conclusion

• Summary of the research findings and outcomes
• Implications for the research topic and field
• Limitations and recommendations for future research

VII. References

• List of sources cited in the dissertation

VIII. Appendices

• Additional materials that support the research, such as tables, figures, or questionnaires.

Example of Dissertation

Here is an example Dissertation for students:

Title : Exploring the Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Academic Achievement and Well-being among College Students

This dissertation aims to investigate the impact of mindfulness meditation on the academic achievement and well-being of college students. Mindfulness meditation has gained popularity as a technique for reducing stress and enhancing mental health, but its effects on academic performance have not been extensively studied. Using a randomized controlled trial design, the study will compare the academic performance and well-being of college students who practice mindfulness meditation with those who do not. The study will also examine the moderating role of personality traits and demographic factors on the effects of mindfulness meditation.

Chapter Outline:

Chapter 1: Introduction

• Background and rationale for the study
• Research questions and objectives
• Significance of the study
• Overview of the dissertation structure

Chapter 2: Literature Review

• Definition and conceptualization of mindfulness meditation
• Theoretical framework of mindfulness meditation
• Empirical research on mindfulness meditation and academic achievement
• Empirical research on mindfulness meditation and well-being
• The role of personality and demographic factors in the effects of mindfulness meditation

Chapter 3: Methodology

• Research design and hypothesis
• Participants and sampling method
• Intervention and procedure
• Measures and instruments
• Data analysis method

Chapter 4: Results

• Descriptive statistics and data screening
• Analysis of main effects
• Analysis of moderating effects
• Post-hoc analyses and sensitivity tests

Chapter 5: Discussion

• Summary of findings
• Implications for theory and practice
• Limitations and directions for future research
• Conclusion and contribution to the literature

Chapter 6: Conclusion

• Recap of the research questions and objectives
• Summary of the key findings
• Contribution to the literature and practice
• Implications for policy and practice
• Final thoughts and recommendations.

References :

List of all the sources cited in the dissertation

Appendices :

Additional materials such as the survey questionnaire, interview guide, and consent forms.

Note : This is just an example and the structure of a dissertation may vary depending on the specific requirements and guidelines provided by the institution or the supervisor.

How Long is a Dissertation

The length of a dissertation can vary depending on the field of study, the level of degree being pursued, and the specific requirements of the institution. Generally, a dissertation for a doctoral degree can range from 80,000 to 100,000 words, while a dissertation for a master’s degree may be shorter, typically ranging from 20,000 to 50,000 words. However, it is important to note that these are general guidelines and the actual length of a dissertation can vary widely depending on the specific requirements of the program and the research topic being studied. It is always best to consult with your academic advisor or the guidelines provided by your institution for more specific information on dissertation length.

Applications of Dissertation

Here are some applications of a dissertation:

• Advancing the Field: Dissertations often include new research or a new perspective on existing research, which can help to advance the field. The results of a dissertation can be used by other researchers to build upon or challenge existing knowledge, leading to further advancements in the field.
• Career Advancement: Completing a dissertation demonstrates a high level of expertise in a particular field, which can lead to career advancement opportunities. For example, having a PhD can open doors to higher-paying jobs in academia, research institutions, or the private sector.
• Publishing Opportunities: Dissertations can be published as books or journal articles, which can help to increase the visibility and credibility of the author’s research.
• Personal Growth: The process of writing a dissertation involves a significant amount of research, analysis, and critical thinking. This can help students to develop important skills, such as time management, problem-solving, and communication, which can be valuable in both their personal and professional lives.
• Policy Implications: The findings of a dissertation can have policy implications, particularly in fields such as public health, education, and social sciences. Policymakers can use the research to inform decision-making and improve outcomes for the population.

When to Write a Dissertation

Here are some situations where writing a dissertation may be necessary:

• Pursuing a Doctoral Degree: Writing a dissertation is usually a requirement for earning a doctoral degree, so if you are interested in pursuing a doctorate, you will likely need to write a dissertation.
• Conducting Original Research : Dissertations require students to conduct original research on a specific topic. If you are interested in conducting original research on a topic, writing a dissertation may be the best way to do so.
• Advancing Your Career: Some professions, such as academia and research, may require individuals to have a doctoral degree. Writing a dissertation can help you advance your career by demonstrating your expertise in a particular area.
• Contributing to Knowledge: Dissertations are often based on original research that can contribute to the knowledge base of a field. If you are passionate about advancing knowledge in a particular area, writing a dissertation can help you achieve that goal.
• Meeting Academic Requirements : If you are a graduate student, writing a dissertation may be a requirement for completing your program. Be sure to check with your academic advisor to determine if this is the case for you.

Purpose of Dissertation

some common purposes of a dissertation include:

• To contribute to the knowledge in a particular field : A dissertation is often the culmination of years of research and study, and it should make a significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge in a particular field.
• To demonstrate mastery of a subject: A dissertation requires extensive research, analysis, and writing, and completing one demonstrates a student’s mastery of their subject area.
• To develop critical thinking and research skills : A dissertation requires students to think critically about their research question, analyze data, and draw conclusions based on evidence. These skills are valuable not only in academia but also in many professional fields.
• To demonstrate academic integrity: A dissertation must be conducted and written in accordance with rigorous academic standards, including ethical considerations such as obtaining informed consent, protecting the privacy of participants, and avoiding plagiarism.
• To prepare for an academic career: Completing a dissertation is often a requirement for obtaining a PhD and pursuing a career in academia. It can demonstrate to potential employers that the student has the necessary skills and experience to conduct original research and make meaningful contributions to their field.
• To develop writing and communication skills: A dissertation requires a significant amount of writing and communication skills to convey complex ideas and research findings in a clear and concise manner. This skill set can be valuable in various professional fields.
• To demonstrate independence and initiative: A dissertation requires students to work independently and take initiative in developing their research question, designing their study, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. This demonstrates to potential employers or academic institutions that the student is capable of independent research and taking initiative in their work.
• To contribute to policy or practice: Some dissertations may have a practical application, such as informing policy decisions or improving practices in a particular field. These dissertations can have a significant impact on society, and their findings may be used to improve the lives of individuals or communities.
• To pursue personal interests: Some students may choose to pursue a dissertation topic that aligns with their personal interests or passions, providing them with the opportunity to delve deeper into a topic that they find personally meaningful.

Advantage of Dissertation

Some advantages of writing a dissertation include:

• Developing research and analytical skills: The process of writing a dissertation involves conducting extensive research, analyzing data, and presenting findings in a clear and coherent manner. This process can help students develop important research and analytical skills that can be useful in their future careers.
• Demonstrating expertise in a subject: Writing a dissertation allows students to demonstrate their expertise in a particular subject area. It can help establish their credibility as a knowledgeable and competent professional in their field.
• Contributing to the academic community: A well-written dissertation can contribute new knowledge to the academic community and potentially inform future research in the field.
• Improving writing and communication skills : Writing a dissertation requires students to write and present their research in a clear and concise manner. This can help improve their writing and communication skills, which are essential for success in many professions.
• Increasing job opportunities: Completing a dissertation can increase job opportunities in certain fields, particularly in academia and research-based positions.

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How to write a dissertation literature review

(Last updated: 11 November 2021)

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We have helped 10,000s of undergraduate, Masters and PhD students to maximise their grades in essays, dissertations, model-exam answers, applications and other materials. If you would like a free chat about your project with one of our UK staff, then please just reach out on one of the methods below.

Are you tired of hearing the phrase 'literature review' every five minutes at university and having no idea what it means, let alone where to start? Not to worry - we've got you covered with this step-by-step guide to creating a great dissertation literature review.

What is a literature review?

In short, a dissertation literature review provides a critical assessment of the sources (literature) you have gathered and read surrounding your subject area, and then identifies a “gap” in that literature that your research will attempt to address.

There are a lot of misunderstandings about what exactly a dissertation literature review entails, as it can vary. Whilst in some cases a dissertation literature review can be a simple summary of important sources, most often it requires you to critically engage with the text to convey your positive or negative opinions of it. What is your interpretation of a particular source? Does this interpretation differ considerably from other viewpoints in the literature? This is the sort of critical engagement expected from you in a literature review.

Whereas a summary will most likely provide a simple recap of the general arguments of the source(s), the expectations concerning a literature review extend beyond this. A literature review may provide a new perspective on a classic research paper or it may combine both new and old interpretations (this is the “gap” – more on this later). A literature review may also provide a thorough and critical outline of the intellectual developments in a field with a focus on major, and often polemical, debates. In other scenarios, a literature review may also provide an assessment of a source and inform a reader about its validity, pertinence and relevance to the research subject.

"In a literature review, you're aiming to summarise and provide a critical analysis of the research arguments you have found in your readings, without making new contributions to the literature. Hence the term: “literature review ”."

There tends to be confusion between literature reviews and academic papers in general, but they are not one and the same. Generally, academic papers aim to provide new research material about a particular subject, and a literature review features as part of this objective. In a research paper, the literature review forms the basis of the research – it helps to highlight any research gaps as support for a new argument or insights you intend to provide. In a literature review, you're aiming to summarise and provide a critical analysis of the research arguments you have found in your readings, without making new contributions to the literature. Hence the term: “literature review ”.

Is a literature review really necessary?

Now that we know what a literature review is, the next step is to understand the point of writing one in the first place. Like it or not, a literature review is an essential part of any academic piece of writing, as it demonstrates to your tutor or reader that you have a nuanced understanding of the sources concerning your research area or question.

Although it may seem arbitrary, the literature review helps to persuade the person reading and marking your assignment that what you have written about is relevant and your arguments are justified and worthwhile. So, in short, a literature review is essential, and you need to put the necessary time into getting it right.

How do you write a dissertation literature review?

As the next section of this blog is quite lengthy, we've broken it down into several key steps which should make it easier to follow when writing your own dissertation literature review. You start by identifying your sources, then you read and re-read them. Next, you think about any gaps in the research or literature you have used, and finally, you write your review using all the preparation and information gathered in the steps prior.

Identify sources

To write a good dissertation literature review, you need to have a fair idea of what sources you would like to review. If you haven’t been given a formal reference list by your tutor, refer back to the techniques we recommended earlier.

Make sure that your sources are balanced; include enough books and academic journals and any useful published work from reputable scholars. To help you choose your sources appropriately, you might want to think about the parameters and objectives of your research. What are you hoping to find out? In your literature review , what theoretical issues or perspectives do you aim to tackle? How about your methodology? Will you focus on mainly qualitative or quantitative studies, or a mixture of both? These general questions should help guide you in selecting your sources and again, remember that the abstract of a source is a very useful tool. Having a quick scan of the abstract and its ‘keywords’ will often give you an indication of the whether the source will be useful for your research or not.

As you’re identifying your sources, ensure you a keep a list as it’s very easy to lose focus given the wide scope of the Internet. Reference tools such as Mendeley allow you to store your sources online and via a desktop app, and are a great way to keep your bibliography organised. The citation tools attached to these programmes will also allow you to simply export citations in a format of your choice when required later. They will save you countless hours trying to figure out how to use Harvard or APA referencing correctly.

Read your sources

Now that you have organised your sources efficiently, it’s time to read through them. As unnatural as it may feel, it’s most effective to read in a few stages, as detailed below:

First, go through all the texts to get a sense of their general content and arguments. This will also help you judge which sources you mainly want to focus on in your review. During the second stage of your reading, you can then take a more critical, in-depth look at your sources. Make a lot of notes, be critical, ask questions. What is your academic opinion on the text? Do you have any comments on the methodological approach, the theoretical argument or the general hypothesis? Note these down. It will ensure that your literature review is not merely a summary of your readings, and will encourage a clear line of argument so that your work is logical and coherent.

Consider gaps in the research

When writing a dissertation literature review, an essential thing to consider is identifying the research gap. Identifying the gap is particularly important if your review forms part of a research proposal, as it will highlight the pertinence of your research – assuming that your research has been designed to fill this gap. In other instances, identifying the gap is an indication of good critical analysis and can score you extra points.

To identify the “gap” it is important that we know what this “gap” is. A research gap is essentially the existence of a research question, perspective or problem that has not been answered in the existing literature on any field of study. Identifying the research gap is important for highlighting the originality of your research; it proves you’re not simply recounting or regurgitating existing research. It also shows that you are very much aware of the status of the literature in your chosen field of study, which in turn, demonstrates the amount of research and effort you have put into your review.

Many students, especially at post-graduate level, find it extremely difficult to identify research gaps in their subject area. For post-graduate research papers, identifying research gaps and formulating research questions that can address these gaps form the very essence of a research paper. Identifying research gaps does not have to be a difficult endeavour and there are several ways to overcome this difficulty:

Start by reading A simple approach will be to read important parts of key articles in your research area. First, note that you’ll have to sift through many articles to identify the ones that are most suitable for your research. A quick search using keywords on Google Scholar will often give you a quick overview of the available literature. Other useful sources include databases such as JSTOR or Wiley Online Library . You can then snowball additional articles by clicking on ‘related articles’ or checking out which other papers have cited your source.

Abstracts and recommendations Whichever avenue you choose, reading the abstract is often a good starting point to get a sense of what the articles entails. You should also do a quick examination of the introductory and concluding paragraphs of the paper as these sections always provide some information on the aims and outcomes of the research, as well as ‘recommendations for future studies.’ These recommendations typically provide some insight on the research gaps in the literature. Another route would be to simply read as much as you can on your research subject while considering which research areas still need addressing in the literature – this is usually an indication of research gaps.

Write your review

Now you’re well prepared to start putting fingers to keyboard. Consider the following pointers:

1. Use sample literature reviews Have a look at sample dissertation literature reviews in your subject area and read them thoroughly to familiarise yourself with existing key debates and themes. This can be a good starting point for framing and structuring your own review. If you are not familiar with academic writing, going through samples will help you to get a sense of what is expected in this regard. Pay attention to the academic language and formal style used. Also, remember that the bibliography or reference section of your selected texts will help you to snowball further references if you need any.

2. Keep it simple Keep your topic as narrowed down as possible. Remember that there are hundreds – or in some instances, thousands – of sources or perspectives concerning any subject area or topic. Researchers investigate research problems in many divergent ways and the literature available on any given subject is extremely broad. In your literature review, you won’t be expected to address every argument or perspective concerning your topic – this might actually undermine your ability to write a coherent and focused piece. You’ll make your work easier if you limit the scope of your work. In your review, ensure that you clearly state what the focus of your work will be.

3. Make sure your sources are as current as possible If you are reviewing scientific work, it’s essential your sources are as current as possible given the advancements in the field over the years. In the medical field particularly, research is constantly evolving and a source that’s only three years old may be even out-dated. In the social sciences this rule may not apply, as many theoretical works are classics and you will be expected to be familiar with these perspectives. You might have to the review the work of Marx, or Hobbes, or any other classic scholar. You still need to balance theory with current approaches, as you will need to demonstrate the ways in which perspectives in the literature have changed over the years, or you may even want to demonstrate how scholars have used classic theories to inform their work.

4. Consider the organisation of your work In a dissertation literature review, organising your work goes beyond having an introduction, body and conclusion. You’ll be reviewing a number of texts, so you’ll also have to think clearly about how to organise themes, topics and your argument in general. Below is a detailed guide on how to do this:

Like any other academic paper, a dissertation literature review will comprise a basic introduction, body, and conclusion.

The introduction of a literature review should be clear, short and focused. It should outline the focus of the review – in other words, it should clearly state the main topics to be covered. A good literature review will also state the arguments to be made, as well as underlying rationale that underpins these arguments.

The body of your literature review will include an in-depth discussion of the academic sources you have chosen to review. You may choose to organise your sources according to themes, methodology or even based on a chronological order. In the body of your review, ensure that your arguments are presented clearly and that you link these arguments with the literature. Is there a scholar that agrees with your view? Say so, in a way that the reader will understand easily. This demonstrates that you are very familiar with the academic research in your field. Remember to also make note of any views that do not agree with your position; excluding these arguments will reduce the methodological robustness of your piece. You can use direct quotations in your literature review, however do so sparingly so you don’t appear lazy. Most tutors will not approach it kindly; the purpose of a literature review is to demonstrate your ability to critically engage with a piece of text, and littering your review with direct quotes isn’t a good indication of this. Instead, try to paraphrase quotations and only use direct quotes if it really helps to illustrate your argument.

In the summary of your dissertation literature review, it’s important to give a summary of the conclusions you’ve drawn from your readings. If your literature review forms part of a broader research proposal, reiterate the gaps in the literature here, and clearly state how your proposed research will fill these gaps. Make recommendations for future research in this section too, which demonstrates your analytical skills and will score you some extra points.

You now have the basic structure of your research in place, however it’s worth dedicating some time to what the body of your work should entail. The body is the main core of your work, so it’s important to consider how you will frame and organise it. You have options here – you can choose to organise the content of your work based on a chronological method, based on themes, trends or methodology, or based on arguments.

To structure the body of work chronologically, you will have to organise your sources based on when they were published. A limitation of this approach is that it inhibits continuity in your arguments and in some instances, can undermine the coherence of your work. Use with caution.

A more coherent way of organising your work is to group your sources based on the arguments they make in a ‘for versus against’ manner. This enables you to present your work in a more dynamic way and what’s more, makes the key debates in the literature more obvious. Say you were trying to convey the debates on European migration policy, you might want to start by writing something along these lines:

"While scholars such as X argue that migration policies must be made more stringent to counteract the increased flow of Syrian refugees to Europe, other scholars such as Y offer a divergent perspective. They specifically espouse a perspective based on a human rights approach…"

This approach also leaves room for you to insert your voice into the literature. Consider this statement:

"While X argues for the enactment of more stringent migration policies, this paper argues along the lines of Y that migration policies should be based on human rights considerations."

Using this technique also allows you to introduce additional literature that supports your position.

Another way of organising your content is according to theme; or sub-themes, if your review focuses on one overarching topic. This method of organisation still allows you to present an overview of any polemical debates within these sub-themes. A thematic review can easily shift between chronological periods within each sub-section too.

Structuring work using a methodological approach is quite a common approach, however it’s often used in tandem with other ways of organising sources. This method is particularly evident in introductory sections whereby researchers may simply want to state that a particular subject has been mostly studied from a qualitative or quantitative perspective (they will often then cite a number of scholars or studies to support this claim). In scientific reviews however, a methodological approach may form the basis of the discussions in the body. If this is the case for you, focus on the methods used by various researchers. How did they go about answering a particular research question? Were there any limitations to this method? If so, what method(s) would have been better?

You’ll soon realise that organising the body of your literature review is an iterative process and you’ll more often than not use all of these approaches in your write-up. The body of your research may also include additional sections that do not necessarily form a part of its organisational structure. For instance, you might want to include a ‘context section’ that provides some insight on any background detail required for understanding the focus of the literature review. It may also focus on historical considerations. You could include a short methodology section that details the approach you used in selecting and analysing your sources.

5. Write the paragraphs of the body Once you have settled on the approach to writing your body, you must now write each of its paragraphs in a way that is in keeping with academic conventions. Consider this paragraph from a literature review about stakeholder participation for environmental management, to clarify the discussion that follows:

As the example above suggests, a dissertation literature review must be written using a formal and academic style . Also, note how sources have been grouped according to both arguments and themes. Remember we noted that the process of grouping sources in the body of your literature review is never a linear one? You will often use a combination of the approaches that we have discussed. Ensure that your writing is concise, coherent and devoid of any personal or strong language. Avoid any phrases like, “I hate X’s work”; a more academic way of stating your disagreement would be to simply state: “I would argue against X’s position that…”, or “X’s argument is inconsistent with the evidence because...”, or “X’s arguments are based on false assumptions because...”.

In the sample paragraph above, notice the use of words like “argue” – this is a good academic alternative to more commonplace words such as “says”. Other good alternatives include “states”, “asserts”, “proposes” or “claims”. More academic options include “opine”, “posit”, “postulate”, or “promulgate”, however some tutors and readers find these words to be too ‘heavy’ and archaic, so ensure that you are familiar with the writing standards in your institution.

If your writing is tailored to a peer-reviewed journal, it’s worth having a look at articles within that journal to get a sense of the writing style. Most tutors will provide a guideline on writing styles, and it’s important you adhere to this brief. You will often be required to also use the third person when writing a literature review, thus phrases such as “this paper argues” or “this paper is of the view that…” are appropriate.

There are exceptions at post-graduate level or generally – like when you have conducted your own primary research or published your work widely – which give you the academic authority to boldly make claims. In cases like these, the use of first person is suitable and you may use phrases such as “I argue” or “I propose”.

Remember also to generally use present tense when referring to opinions and theories (although in the context of specific research experiments, the use of the past tense is better).

Beyond the use of the academic terms suggested above, ‘linking’ words are also particularly important when writing a literature review, since you’ll be grouping a lot of writers together with either similar or divergent opinions. Useful linking words and phrases include: similarly, there are parallels, in convergence with…

When there is disagreement, you may want to use any of the following: However, conversely, on the other hand, diverges from, antithetical to, differential from…

6. Write the conclusion The conclusion of a dissertation literature review should always include a summary of the implications of the literature, which you should then link to your argument or general research question.

Some final notes

The overall structure of your literature review will be largely based on your research area and the academic conventions that are in line with it. Nevertheless, there are some essential steps that apply across all disciplines and that you should ensure you follow:

Do not simply describe the opinions of writers Analyse, analyse, analyse, and ensure that your analysis is critical (what have the writers missed; where does your opinion sit with theirs, etc.).

Structure the body of your argument using various techniques Your structure should be organised based on thematic areas, key debates or controversial issues, and according to methodological approaches. Keep your review dynamic, but coherent. Remember to identify literature gaps and link this to your own research.

Use ample evidence This is extremely important and forms the very essence of a dissertation literature review. You must refer to various sources when making a point; see the sample paragraph above for an example of this. Your arguments and interpretation of a research topic must be backed by evidence. Do not make baseless claims, as a literature review is an academic piece of writing and not an opinion piece.

Be very selective Not every piece of research has to be reviewed. If you are determined to show that you aware of the available literature out there, try writing techniques such as: There is robust literature available concerning the migration patterns of Syrian refugees. Notable works include: X(2015), y (2013), Z (2014). Once you have acknowledged these works, you do not have to review them in detail. Be selective about the sources that you will discuss in detail in your review.

Do not rely too much on direct quotes Only use them to emphasise a point. Similarly, don’t rely too heavily on the work of a single author. Instead, highlight the importance of that author in your research and move on. If you need to keep going back to the work of that author, then you need to link those discussions with your work. Do not simply provide a summary of the author’s work. In what ways does your work agree or disagree with his/hers? Be critical.

Make your voice heard Yes, the whole point of the literature review is to provide a critical analysis and summary of the viewpoints out there, but a critical analysis does include the fact that you need to make your opinion known in the context of the literature. Note how skilfully, in the earlier sample paragraph by Reed (2008), he weaves his opinions with references. Read back over the sample and try to perfect this skill.

Ensure that you reference your work correctly And make sure you use the appropriate referencing style. For more help on this, click here .

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Why search this literature?

It is crucial for graduate students to search the thesis and dissertation literature to make sure that an idea or hypothesis has not already been tested, explored, and published.  An additional reason to search this literature is that it is rich with ideas and information not found elsewhere.  If graduate students do not continue on as academics or if students that came after them in their programs did not continue their research, this literature may be the end of the line for scholarship on a topic.

ProQuest has published dissertation e-learning modules covering the usefulness of using dissertations as a research source.  See link below:

• Dissertation eLearning resources from ProQuest Uncover the value of dissertations.

Library Databases

All graduate students should, at minimum, search the ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global database (PQDT) to see if the research they are proposing to do has already been done by a student at another institution/university.  RIT dissertations and theses have been included in PQDT since approximately 2006.

• Proquest Dissertations & Theses Global This link opens in a new window Identifies Ph.D. dissertations from U.S. & Canadian universities since 1861. Abstracts from 1980. Master's theses from 1988. Many with full-text.

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• Digital Institutional Repository The digital institutional repository for the Rochester Institute of Technology, managed by RIT Libraries.
• ProQuest - Most Accessed Dissertations/Theses

Each month ProQuest updates this list of the top 25 Most-Accessed Dissertations and Theses across all subjects, based upon total PDF downloads. Find out what is trending.

The web sites below should also be consulted as appropriate to perform a full and thorough review of the dissertation and thesis literature beyond your introductory search of ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.  Consider whether a particular country or part of the world would have an interest in your potential research topic.

Only large-scale repositories of dissertations and theses are included here. You may also need to search individual university repositories directly.

• Ebsco Open Dissertations Search thousands of open dissertations and theses from over 50 participating libraries.
• EThOS (from the British Library) EThOS offers a 'single point of access' where researchers the world over can access ALL theses produced by UK Higher Education.
• Indian Institute of Science Dissertations and theses from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.
• Indian Theses and Dissertations (Shodhganga) Over 130 participating Indian universities and over 8800 ETD documents.
• National ETD Portal (South Africa) South African theses and dissertations.
• Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations The Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD), is an international organization dedicated to promoting the adoption, creation, use, dissemination, and preservation of electronic theses and dissertations (ETDs). The NDLTD Union Catalog contains more than one million records of electronic theses and dissertations. Search the Union Catalog from here: http://thumper.vtls.com:6090/?theme=NDLTD
• OhioLINK ETD Center Electronic theses and dissertations from colleges and universities in the state of Ohio.
• Open Access Theses and Dissertations OATD aims to be the best possible resource for finding open access graduate theses and dissertations published around the world. Metadata (information about the theses) comes from over 600 colleges, universities, and research institutions. OATD currently indexes over 1.5 million theses and dissertations. RIT is included.
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How to Write a Dissertation: A Step-by-Step Guide

Table of contents

Understanding the basics of a dissertation.

Before delving into the writing process, it is crucial to comprehend the fundamental aspects of a dissertation. A dissertation is a lengthy, research-based document that explores a particular subject in depth. It is typically a requirement for obtaining a degree and is a reflection of the knowledge, skills, and critical thinking ability you have acquired throughout your academic journey.

Embarking on the journey of writing a dissertation is akin to setting sail on a scholarly adventure, where the seas of knowledge are vast and the winds of discovery propel you forward. As you navigate through the turbulent waters of research and analysis, you will chart new territories of understanding and insight, guided by the compass of academic rigour and intellectual curiosity .

What is a dissertation?

A dissertation is an extended piece of academic writing that demonstrates your ability to conduct independent research, develop a coherent argument, and contribute original insights to your chosen field of study. It typically consists of several chapters, including an introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, discussion, and conclusion.

The literature review section of a dissertation serves as a scholarly map, guiding readers through the existing landscape of research and theories related to your topic. It is here that you showcase your understanding of the academic conversations that have shaped your field, identifying gaps in knowledge that your research aims to fill. By critically analysing and synthesising existing literature, you lay the foundation for your own contribution to the scholarly discourse.

The importance of a dissertation in your academic journey

A dissertation holds great significance in your academic journey as it showcases your ability to engage in scholarly research and contribute to the existing body of knowledge within your discipline. It not only demonstrates your intellectual capabilities but also exhibits your dedication , perseverance, and commitment to your chosen field.

Furthermore, a dissertation is a testament to your academic maturity and readiness to join the community of scholars in your field. It is a rite of passage that signifies your transition from a consumer of knowledge to a producer of knowledge, as you make a unique and valuable contribution to the academic conversation. Through the process of crafting a dissertation, you refine your analytical skills, deepen your understanding of research methodologies, and cultivate a sense of academic integrity that will serve you well in your future endeavours.

Preparing to write your dissertation

Proper preparation is key to successfully embarking on your dissertation writing journey. By setting a strong foundation, you can streamline the entire process and alleviate potential challenges along the way.

Embarking on the journey of writing a dissertation is akin to setting sail on a scholarly voyage, where the destination is a culmination of your academic prowess and intellectual acumen. As you prepare to delve into the depths of your chosen subject, it is essential to equip yourself with the necessary tools and knowledge to navigate the turbulent waters of research and analysis.

Choosing your dissertation topic

The first step in preparing for your dissertation is selecting an appropriate topic. Choose a subject that you are passionate about and that aligns with your academic interests. Conduct thorough research to ensure that your topic is relevant, feasible, and has the potential to contribute meaningfully to your field of study.

Delving into the realm of selecting a dissertation topic is akin to embarking on a quest for academic enlightenment. It is a journey that requires careful consideration, introspection, and a deep understanding of your academic aspirations. Your chosen topic will not only shape the trajectory of your research but also reflect your intellectual curiosity and scholarly pursuits.

Conducting preliminary research

Prior to diving into the writing process, it is essential to conduct preliminary research on your chosen topic. Familiarize yourself with existing research and theories related to your subject. This will provide you with a foundation on which to build your own research, identify gaps in the current knowledge, and determine the unique contribution your dissertation can make.

Embarking on the seas of preliminary research is akin to charting the unexplored territories of knowledge within your chosen field. By immersing yourself in the existing literature and scholarly discourse, you lay the groundwork for your own academic expedition. This phase of research not only enriches your understanding of the subject but also sharpens your analytical skills in preparation for the intellectual odyssey that lies ahead.

Crafting your dissertation proposal

Once you have selected your topic and conducted preliminary research, the next step is to craft a dissertation proposal. A proposal outlines the objectives, methodology, and structure of your dissertation. It serves as a blueprint for your research and must be approved by your supervisor before you proceed with the actual writing.

The crafting of a dissertation proposal is akin to architecting the blueprint for a grand academic edifice. It requires meticulous planning, attention to detail, and a clear vision of the scholarly monument you aim to construct. Your proposal not only delineates the path of your research but also serves as a testament to your academic acumen and research aptitude.

Structuring your dissertation

Structuring your dissertation is a critical aspect of the writing process. A well-organized structure ensures that your ideas flow logically and coherently, making it easier for your readers to follow your arguments and understand your research findings.

The essential elements of a dissertation structure

A typical dissertation structure consists of several key elements. These include the introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, discussion, and conclusion. Each section has its unique purpose and should be organized in a manner that supports the overall coherence and fluidity of your dissertation.

Writing your introduction

The introduction serves as the starting point of your dissertation and sets the context for your research. It provides an overview of your topic, establishes the relevance of your study, highlights the gap in existing literature, and outlines your research objectives. A well-written introduction captures the attention of your readers and motivates them to continue reading.

Developing your literature review

The literature review is a critical component of your dissertation that demonstrates your understanding of existing research and the theoretical frameworks relevant to your study. It involves reviewing and analyzing scholarly articles, books, and other sources to establish the current state of knowledge on your topic and identify areas for further investigation.

Detailing your methodology

The methodology section of your dissertation outlines the research methods and techniques you employed to gather data and analyze your findings. It provides a clear and concise explanation of your research design, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. This section is crucial as it allows other researchers to replicate your study and validate your findings.

Presenting your findings

In the findings section, you present the results of your research. This includes your data analysis, statistical findings, and any other relevant information that supports or refutes your research hypotheses. The findings should be presented in a logical and systematic manner, using appropriate tables, graphs, and charts to facilitate a clear understanding of the results.

Discussing your results

The discussion section is where you interpret and analyze your results in relation to your research objectives. Here, you critically evaluate your findings, compare them with existing literature, and discuss their implications. This section provides an opportunity to reflect on the significance of your research and highlight its contribution to the field.

Expanding your dissertation with additional paragraphs

Now that we have covered the essential elements of a dissertation structure, let's delve into a few additional paragraphs to enhance your dissertation further.

One important aspect to consider when structuring your dissertation is the inclusion of subheadings within each section. Subheadings help to break down your content into smaller, more manageable chunks, making it easier for your readers to navigate through your work. By using clear and descriptive subheadings, you can guide your readers through the different sections of your dissertation, ensuring that they can easily locate the information they need.

Another crucial element to consider is the use of citations and references throughout your dissertation. Properly citing your sources not only adds credibility to your work but also allows readers to explore the research that has influenced your study. Be sure to follow the referencing style specified by your institution and provide accurate and complete citations for all the sources you have used.

By incorporating these additional paragraphs into your dissertation, you can enhance the overall length and depth of your work. Remember, a well-structured and comprehensive dissertation is a testament to your research skills and academic prowess. Good luck with your writing!

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(10.09.2021, 14:07) gasrrt schrieb:   (10.09.2021, 13:41) ritinger schrieb:   (09.09.2021, 19:41) Gast schrieb:   (09.09.2021, 06:40) Gast schrieb:   Rite. Aber mir ging’s halt eh nur um den Titel.

(10.09.2021, 09:11) Gast schrieb:   (10.09.2021, 06:58) Gast schrieb:   Cum laude. Liest doch eh kein Schwein und der Verlag ist mir sowas von egal (habe kostenlos online veröffentlicht). Und trotzdem bin ich an der Uni tätig und habe gute Aussichten auf ne Professur. Und das lustigste: ich habe nur wegen des Titels promoviert. Kommt meist sowieso alles anders (besser), zum Glück ?

(12.09.2021, 12:07) Gast schrieb:   (10.09.2021, 09:11) Gast schrieb:   (10.09.2021, 06:58) Gast schrieb:   Cum laude. Liest doch eh kein Schwein und der Verlag ist mir sowas von egal (habe kostenlos online veröffentlicht). Und trotzdem bin ich an der Uni tätig und habe gute Aussichten auf ne Professur. Und das lustigste: ich habe nur wegen des Titels promoviert. Kommt meist sowieso alles anders (besser), zum Glück ?

(12.09.2021, 14:25) Gast schrieb:   (12.09.2021, 12:07) Gast schrieb:   (10.09.2021, 09:11) Gast schrieb:   (10.09.2021, 06:58) Gast schrieb:   Cum laude. Liest doch eh kein Schwein und der Verlag ist mir sowas von egal (habe kostenlos online veröffentlicht). Und trotzdem bin ich an der Uni tätig und habe gute Aussichten auf ne Professur. Und das lustigste: ich habe nur wegen des Titels promoviert. Kommt meist sowieso alles anders (besser), zum Glück ?

(12.09.2021, 15:20) Gast schrieb:   (12.09.2021, 14:25) Gast schrieb:   (12.09.2021, 12:07) Gast schrieb:   (10.09.2021, 09:11) Gast schrieb:   (10.09.2021, 06:58) Gast schrieb:   Cum laude. Liest doch eh kein Schwein und der Verlag ist mir sowas von egal (habe kostenlos online veröffentlicht). Und trotzdem bin ich an der Uni tätig und habe gute Aussichten auf ne Professur. Und das lustigste: ich habe nur wegen des Titels promoviert. Kommt meist sowieso alles anders (besser), zum Glück ?

(12.09.2021, 15:22) Gast schrieb:   (12.09.2021, 15:20) Gast schrieb:   (12.09.2021, 14:25) Gast schrieb:   (12.09.2021, 12:07) Gast schrieb:   (10.09.2021, 09:11) Gast schrieb:   Cum laude und dann habilitieren habe ich – bisher jedenfalls – noch nie gehört...   An einer Uni geht es ohne Habilitation (bzw. Habilitationsvorhaben für eine Juniorprofessur)  in Jura doch idR nicht?! Zumal danach das durchsetzen in fast jedem Auswahlverfahren bei der zT sehr starken Konkurrenz noch immer arg schwer sein dürfte, wenn die bestellten Gutachter der Kommission die Diss sichten und bewerten und zu einem ähnlichen Ergebnis gelangen?!

Liturgy of St. Tikhon of Moscow

The Divine Liturgy of St. Tikhon is one of the liturgies authorized for use by the Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate (AWRV), and has similarities with the Book of Common Prayer.

• 1 Origins of the Rite
• 2 Structure of the Ordinary
• 5 External links

Origins of the Rite

When St Tikhon was the ruling bishop of the American diocese of the Church of Russia , some Episcopalians, wishing to become Orthodox, asked Bishop Tikhon whether they might be allowed to continue to use the 1892 American Book of Common Prayer . After Bp Tikhon sent this BCP to Moscow, a commission was appointed to examine the use of this book within the Orthodox Church; the final report of this commission addressed the changes that would need to be made in the BCP to make it suitable for Orthodox worship, and the Holy Synod noted in its Observations that the specifics of this rite "can be carried out only on the spot in America," and fount it "desirable to send the 'Observations' themselves to the Right Rev. Tikhon, the American Bishop".

However, this was not to occur. The Episcopalians who had petitioned St Tikhon withdrew their petition, and St Tikhon did not receive any Episcopalians before returning to Russia in 1907. At this point, neither the Holy Synod of the Church of Russia, nor St Tikhon, had approved the rite.

In the 1970s, however, the Liturgy of St Tikhon was produced for use by Episcopalians who wished to convert to Orthodoxy but retain the liturgy to which they were accustomed. The text of the liturgy is based upon the Episcopal Church's 1928 Book of Common Prayer , which was then adapted by Father Joseph Angwin for Orthodox use, following the Observations on the 1892 Book. To do this, the Liturgy included certain features of the Mass of the Catholic Church prior to the Second Vatican Council, along with certain modifications to make it conform to Orthodox theology and practise (including a strengthened epiclesis and the restoration of the original Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed by removing the filioque ).

At present, the Liturgy of St Tikhon of Moscow is celebrated in the Church of Antioch (in the Archdiocese of North America and the Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and the Philippines ). The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia has approved a service with many similarities (under the name 'The English Liturgy'), as have the Patriarchates of Alexandria citation needed and Moscow .

Structure of the Ordinary

• The Preparation for Mass
• Collect for Purity
• Summary of the Law
• Kyrie eleison (nine-fold)
• Gloria in excelsis
• Collect of the Day
• Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed
• Prayer for the whole state of Christ's Church (Intercessions)
• Confession of sin and absolution
• Comfortable Words
• Lord's Prayer
• Prayer of Humble Access
• Prayers before Communion (including "I believe, O Lord, and I confess....")
• Holy Communion
• Prayer of thanksgiving after Communion
• Blessing of the faithful
• Last Gospel (Prologue of St John's Gospel)
• Andersen, Sdn. Benjamin. "An Anglican Liturgy in the Orthodox Church: The Origins and Development of the Liturgy of Saint Tikhon." M.Div. diss., St. Vladimir's Seminary, 2005.
• Orthodox Missal (Saint Luke's Priory Press, 1995)
• Saint Andrew's Service Book , 2nd edition (Antiochian Archdiocese, 1996)
• Liturgy of St. Tikhon (text)

External links

• An Incomplete Text of the Liturgy of St. Tikhon is contained in the Saint Andrew Service Book , copyright Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, all rights reserved.
• Russian observations on the American Prayer Book
• The English Liturgy
• St. Tikhon Liturgy not Cranmerian
• Articles lacking citations
• Western Rite

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The Decision of the Council of Bishops of the ROCOR Concerning the Old Ritual. 1974

The Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad has considered the question of the attitude of the Russian Church to the customs and rites which She observed in former days, known by the general name of the old ritual, and contained in the liturgical books printed before the middle of the 17 th century, and also the interdicts and anathemas which were imposed by the Moscow Councils of 1656 and 1667, and by individual persons in respect to the observation of these customs.

• The Orthodox Church of Christ has from ancient times permitted variations in local usages on condition of unity in the truths of the Faith;
• The old rite does not express any un-Orthodox teaching of which the participants of the aforementioned councils accused them;
• The anathemas pronounced by these councils were the cause of many disasters for the Russian Church, and led not to peace in the Church, which was the aim of their authors, but to schism and the falling away from the Church of many adherents of the old ritual, in the midst of which intolerable “slanderous expressions” were employed by both sides, and also to the persecution of those who held differing views, as a result of which many zealots of the old rite suffered;
• The old rite comprises a part of our common heritage which should not be uprooted;
• From the year 1800, the use of the old ritual was permitted by the Russian Church, and the interdicts on active members were lifted and revoked;
• In the last century, the Russian Church, headed by Metropolitan Philaret of Moscow, took steps to revoke the anathemas on the old ritual, but this was not achieved due to misunderstandings;
• The Pre-Council Commission of 1906, in which Metropolitan Anthony [Khrapovitsky] actively participated, resolved to petition the future local Council “to revoke the anathemas on the faith who use two fingers to make the sign of the cross, as they were imposed because of bad feelings” and “to rescind [the anathemas], just as the Council of 1667 rescinded the anathemas of the Council of the One Hundred Chapters (Stoglav) on those who did not use two fingers in their devotions”;
• The Council of 1917-18, although it did not formulate a conciliar act concerning this question (since it had no possibility of peacefully concluding its business), still it resolved, on the testimony of Metropolitan Anthony, to rescind these anathemas, to accept into our Church the Old Ritualist bishops at the rank then held and to provide Old Ritualist bishops for the Orthodox Old Ritualists.  But Patriarch Tikhon, shortly after his accession to the patriarchal throne, appointed the first Orthodox Old Ritualist bishop (who was subsequently martyred) as bishop of Okhten, Simon (Shleyev), a defender of the old rite and supported of the rescinding of the anathemas;
• Their Beatitudes, Metropolitans Anthony [Khrapovitsky] and Anastas [Gribanovsky], themselves repeatedly served according to the old books in Orthodox Old Ritualist churches;
• The Synod of Bishops of the Russian Church Abroad, by a decree dated 26 August/8 September 1964, recognized the old rite as Orthodox, and blessed its use by those who so desired;
• The Third Council Abroad, with the participation of the clergy and laity, persistently request the Synod to life those anathemas….

NOW THE SYNOD OF BISHOPS of the RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH ABROAD resolves:

• To consider the ancient liturgical customs and rites contained in the service books of the Russian Church before the middle of the 17 th century as Orthodox and salvific;
• To consider the interdicts and anathemas imposed in the past of the Councils of 1656 and 1667, and also by certain individuals who took part in the Councils, because of misunderstandings, as null and void and rescinded AS IF THEY HAD NEVER BEEN;
• To permit the use of the old rite by who wish to observe it, and who are in communion with the Orthodox Church, provided, however, that this does not result in any confusion in the church life of existing parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad
• Not to demand from those Old Ritualists, who wish to be accepted into liturgical communion, a renunciation of the Old Rite,  nor acceptance by them of contemporary rites.  Also, to appoint priests for them and, if necessary, bishops who will be obliged to observe accurately the ancient ceremonies;
• To call upon the Old Ritualists, on their part, to respect our rites as worthy of equal honor as the old;
• While grieving over the split that occurred and, in particular, over the persecutions inflicted on the adherents to the Old Rite, the Synod of Bishops, however, does not consider that it has the right to judge concerning the responsibility of specific individuals for what took place, since the participants have long ago appeared before the judgment seat of God to Whom they had to give an account for their deeds.  The Russian Orthodox Church Abroad has never participated in inimical actions against the Old Ritualists.  Therefore, the Synod of Bishops appeals to them to forget those previous offenses and injustices, and instead of remembering this evil, to consider rather how to so arrange their church life in exile in the best way for the salvation of Christian souls
• The Synod of Bishops calls upon all Orthodox Christians not to resume, out of imaginary zeal for Orthodoxy, unnecessary disputes over ritual, and in particular, not to repeat the intolerable and censorious expressions, since both rituals have been sanctified.  Such expressions, whenever and by whomever used in the past, the Synod of Bishops rejects and considers rescinded.

+ Metropolitan Philaret

President of the Synod of Bishops

Members of the Synod

+Archbishop Nikon

+Archbishop Seraphim SF

+Archbishop Filofei

+Archbishop Vitaly

+Archbishop Antony

+Archbishop Antony LA

+Archbishop Antony SF

+Archbishop Seraphim

+Archbishop Theodosy

+Bishop Nektary

+Bishop Constantine

Secretaries

+Bishop Paul

+Bishop Lavr

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Dissertation: The Ground Axiom

Unforcing and the Ground Axiom

My interest in “unforcing,” somehow working backwards from a forcing extension to a ground model, started early in my set theory studies. When I went through the rite of passage of learning Paul Cohen’s forcing – an exercise in induction, with a lovely (and at the time, frustratingly opaque) back-and-forth between technical details and philosophical issues – my initial reaction was “This is a great operation. What’s the inverse?” The resulting discussions with my advisor, Joel David Hamkins , led us eventually to the formulation of the Ground Axiom, a first attempt to explore seriously an aspect of unforcing.

In my dissertation I focussed on models in which the universe is not a forcing extension of an inner model (we say such a model satisfies the Ground Axiom): In order to understand how to “unforce,” let’s first see what it’s like to not be able to do so.

Class forcing from scratch

One of the main tools I used in this work was class forcing, both iterations and products. As a new student of forcing, I was unsatisfied with the expositions of class forcing available in the standard texts – many of them seemed to rely on the offhand “this proof is readily adapted to the class context” or “the class version of this lemma is immediate.” With that in mind, I included an appendix that develops and proves the main results of class forcing, mirroring the structure for development of set forcing but presenting the main arguments in their entirety. Unlike the case of set forcing, for which every partial order preserves ZFC, class forcing requires some additional restrictions to ensure ZFC in the extension, and I focussed on two such restrictions (progressively closed products and iterations) that cover a large variety of class forcings including all those employed in the dissertation.

Abstract. A new axiom is proposed, the Ground Axiom, asserting that the universe is not a nontrivial set-forcing extension of any inner model. The Ground Axiom is first-order expressible, and any model of ZFC has a class-forcing extension which satisfies it. The Ground Axiom is independent of many well-known set-theoretic assertions including the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis, the assertion V=HOD that every set is ordinal definable, and the existence of measurable and supercompact cardinals. The related Bedrock Axiom, asserting that the universe is a set-forcing extension of a model satisfying the Ground Axiom, is also first-order expressible, and its negation is consistent. As many of these results rely on forcing with proper classes, an appendix is provided giving an exposition of the underlying theory of proper class forcing.

Reitz, Jonas, “The Ground Axiom” (2006). CUNY Academic Works , arXiv .

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Inner-Model Reflection Principles

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Saint Mark's Parish of Denver

Before the year 1054 there would have been no difficulty in declaring that the Western Rite of the Undivided Church was simply the use of Latin speaking Churches. The Rite used by Christians in Scotland, Ireland and England, was as Orthodox as that used in Constantinople.

In the first thousand years of Christendom all the far flung churches that were in communion with the Five Patriarchates (Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Rome) were Orthodox. After 1054, and more precisely, after the Norman Conquest (1066) of England, the Churches of the West were drawn into the Great Schism of the Roman Patriarchate away from the Unity of the Orthodox Church.

The Western Liturgy came to reflect the Papal errors and even incorporated the Filioque in the Nicene Creed with other aberrations. The restoration of a corrected, and truly Orthodox, Western Rite to Holy Orthodoxy in the United States was not originated by laity or by ordinary clergy.

The vision of the Western Rite as an essential part of the Orthodox Mission in America belonged to Archbishop Tikhon  of the American Archdiocese under the  Moscow Patriarchate . About ninety years ago he examined the existing Anglican Book of Common Prayer and sent it to the Holy Synod of Moscow. That Liturgy, derived from the ancient use of the Orthodox West, and first expressed in English in the edition of 1549 by authority of King Edward the Sixth of England, was corrected and approved by the Holy Synod for Orthodox Church use.

In the years following, blessed Tikhon was himself elevated to Patriarch of Moscow, martyred by the communists in 1925, since declared a Saint of the Church, and thus known to Orthodox faithful throughout the world as  St. Tikhon, Enlightener of America . This is the same  Saint Tikhon  who, about the time he obtained approval for the restoration of the Western Rite in America, also consecrated (in 1904)  Raphael Hawaweeny  to the episcopate of the Orthodox Church of North America, from which the  Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese  descends.

As the Orthodox Mission in America grew in numbers and in maturity, further authorization of the Western Rite was given by the Patriarchs and Holy Synod of Antioch.  Metropolitan Anthony (Bashir)  founded the  Western Rite Vicariate  for the creation of Western Rite Missions and Parishes in the Archdiocese. Metropolitan Philip (Saliba) has promoted an increasing number of Western Rite Parishes throughout North America; and new additions of Clergy and Laity to this world have more than doubled its size in a few years. Western Rite Orthodoxy is now a rapidly growing dimension of the Church’s Mission in America.

The Western Rite Parishes represent a restoration of the legitimate Western Liturgy of the Undivided Church of the first 1,000 years, by  Patriarchal  authority, for the benefit of all Orthodox people.

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The Disturbing Truth About Hair Relaxers

They’ve been linked to reproductive disorders and cancers. Why are they still being marketed so aggressively to Black women?

A woman at a salon having relaxer applied to her hair. Credit... Naila Ruechel for The New York Times

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• June 13, 2024

The phone rang incessantly in Dr. Tamarra James-Todd’s office at Harvard’s T.H. Chan School of Public Health. “I’m sorry,” she said, excusing herself for the third time. “It’s happening a lot,” she explained after pausing to take another call, “with the F.D.A. thing.”

Listen to this article, read by Robin Miles

James-Todd, an associate professor of environmental reproductive epidemiology, is a pioneer who has conducted or been a co-author of nearly 70 scientific investigations over the past 20 years to establish the connection between the chemicals in hair products that generations of Black women have used to straighten their hair and the reproductive-health racial disparities that scientists have struggled to explain for decades. And on that day last October, she was receiving calls because the Food and Drug Administration had announced a proposal for a ban on the use of formaldehyde as an ingredient in hair relaxers, citing its link to cancer and other long-term adverse health effects.

Her early and sustained interest has also inspired other scientists — most of them Black women like her — to add questions about the use of hair relaxers and other products to large longitudinal studies with tens of thousands of subjects as they pursue explanations for these racial disparities. The scientists are driven by their own intimate experience: As children, they sat in salon chairs or in kitchens having chemical relaxers, colloquially called “creamy crack,” applied to their hair as they waited for it to go from “kinky” to smooth and silky as the products promised. Decades later, they still recall the harsh smell and the sensation of their scalps being aflame. “I go all the way back to: I was right,” James-Todd said. “That stuff that was burning on my head — it wasn’t safe.”

The research has finally begun to bear fruit: A robust body of scientific evidence has now shown that straighteners and other hair products marketed to Black girls and women have been linked to endocrine-disrupting substances associated with the early onset of menstruation and many of the reproductive-health issues that follow, from uterine fibroids, preterm birth and infertility to breast, ovarian and uterine cancer. Many of these hormone-health-related problems are more common in Black women than in other women, including an aggressive form of breast cancer that contributes to a death rate from the disease that is 28 percent higher than the rate for white women.

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