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What is physics?

Physics is the branch of science that deals with the structure of matter and how the fundamental constituents of the universe interact. It studies objects ranging from the very small using quantum mechanics to the entire universe using general relativity .

Physicists and other scientists use the International System of Units (SI) in their work because they wish to use a system that is agreed upon by scientists worldwide. Since 2019 the SI units have been defined in terms of fundamental physical constants, which means that scientists anywhere using SI can agree upon the units they use to measure physical phenomena.

physics , science that deals with the structure of matter and the interactions between the fundamental constituents of the observable universe . In the broadest sense, physics (from the Greek physikos ) is concerned with all aspects of nature on both the macroscopic and submicroscopic levels. Its scope of study encompasses not only the behaviour of objects under the action of given forces but also the nature and origin of gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear force fields. Its ultimate objective is the formulation of a few comprehensive principles that bring together and explain all such disparate phenomena.

(Read Einstein’s 1926 Britannica essay on space-time.)

Physics is the basic physical science . Until rather recent times physics and natural philosophy were used interchangeably for the science whose aim is the discovery and formulation of the fundamental laws of nature. As the modern sciences developed and became increasingly specialized, physics came to denote that part of physical science not included in astronomy , chemistry , geology , and engineering . Physics plays an important role in all the natural sciences, however, and all such fields have branches in which physical laws and measurements receive special emphasis, bearing such names as astrophysics , geophysics , biophysics , and even psychophysics . Physics can, at base, be defined as the science of matter , motion , and energy . Its laws are typically expressed with economy and precision in the language of mathematics .

Both experiment, the observation of phenomena under conditions that are controlled as precisely as possible, and theory, the formulation of a unified conceptual framework, play essential and complementary roles in the advancement of physics. Physical experiments result in measurements, which are compared with the outcome predicted by theory. A theory that reliably predicts the results of experiments to which it is applicable is said to embody a law of physics. However, a law is always subject to modification, replacement, or restriction to a more limited domain, if a later experiment makes it necessary.

The ultimate aim of physics is to find a unified set of laws governing matter, motion, and energy at small (microscopic) subatomic distances, at the human (macroscopic) scale of everyday life, and out to the largest distances (e.g., those on the extragalactic scale). This ambitious goal has been realized to a notable extent. Although a completely unified theory of physical phenomena has not yet been achieved (and possibly never will be), a remarkably small set of fundamental physical laws appears able to account for all known phenomena. The body of physics developed up to about the turn of the 20th century, known as classical physics, can largely account for the motions of macroscopic objects that move slowly with respect to the speed of light and for such phenomena as heat , sound , electricity , magnetism , and light . The modern developments of relativity and quantum mechanics modify these laws insofar as they apply to higher speeds, very massive objects, and to the tiny elementary constituents of matter, such as electrons , protons , and neutrons .

The scope of physics

The traditionally organized branches or fields of classical and modern physics are delineated below.

Mechanics is generally taken to mean the study of the motion of objects (or their lack of motion) under the action of given forces. Classical mechanics is sometimes considered a branch of applied mathematics. It consists of kinematics , the description of motion, and dynamics , the study of the action of forces in producing either motion or static equilibrium (the latter constituting the science of statics ). The 20th-century subjects of quantum mechanics, crucial to treating the structure of matter, subatomic particles , superfluidity , superconductivity , neutron stars , and other major phenomena, and relativistic mechanics , important when speeds approach that of light, are forms of mechanics that will be discussed later in this section.

In classical mechanics the laws are initially formulated for point particles in which the dimensions, shapes, and other intrinsic properties of bodies are ignored. Thus in the first approximation even objects as large as Earth and the Sun are treated as pointlike—e.g., in calculating planetary orbital motion. In rigid-body dynamics , the extension of bodies and their mass distributions are considered as well, but they are imagined to be incapable of deformation . The mechanics of deformable solids is elasticity ; hydrostatics and hydrodynamics treat, respectively, fluids at rest and in motion.

The three laws of motion set forth by Isaac Newton form the foundation of classical mechanics, together with the recognition that forces are directed quantities ( vectors ) and combine accordingly. The first law, also called the law of inertia , states that, unless acted upon by an external force , an object at rest remains at rest, or if in motion, it continues to move in a straight line with constant speed . Uniform motion therefore does not require a cause. Accordingly, mechanics concentrates not on motion as such but on the change in the state of motion of an object that results from the net force acting upon it. Newton’s second law equates the net force on an object to the rate of change of its momentum, the latter being the product of the mass of a body and its velocity. Newton’s third law, that of action and reaction, states that when two particles interact, the forces each exerts on the other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Taken together, these mechanical laws in principle permit the determination of the future motions of a set of particles, providing their state of motion is known at some instant, as well as the forces that act between them and upon them from the outside. From this deterministic character of the laws of classical mechanics, profound (and probably incorrect) philosophical conclusions have been drawn in the past and even applied to human history.

Lying at the most basic level of physics, the laws of mechanics are characterized by certain symmetry properties, as exemplified in the aforementioned symmetry between action and reaction forces. Other symmetries, such as the invariance (i.e., unchanging form) of the laws under reflections and rotations carried out in space , reversal of time, or transformation to a different part of space or to a different epoch of time, are present both in classical mechanics and in relativistic mechanics, and with certain restrictions, also in quantum mechanics. The symmetry properties of the theory can be shown to have as mathematical consequences basic principles known as conservation laws , which assert the constancy in time of the values of certain physical quantities under prescribed conditions. The conserved quantities are the most important ones in physics; included among them are mass and energy (in relativity theory, mass and energy are equivalent and are conserved together), momentum , angular momentum , and electric charge .

A. Physics. Definition

When learning about and discussing physics, we focus heavily on energy, the core element of the science. To better understand this connection, it helps to refer to a solid working definition of physics.

Physics. The science in which matter and energy are studied both separately and in combination with one another.

And a more detailed working definition of physics may be: The science of nature, or that which pertains to natural objects, which deals with the laws and properties of matter and the forces which act upon them. Quite often, physics concentrates upon the forces having an impact upon matter, that is, gravitation , heat , light , magnetism , electricity , and others.

B. Physics. Orientation

Because physics utilizes elements of other branches of sciences, biology and chemistry for example, it has the reputation of being more complicated than other sciences.

Physics, as opposed to natural philosophy (with which it was grouped until the 19 th century), relies upon scientific methods in order to describe the natural world.

To understand the fundamental principles of the universe, physics utilizes many workings from the other natural sciences. Because of this overlap, phenomena studied in physics (conservation of energy for example) are common to all material systems. The specific ways in which they apply to energy (hence, physics) are often referred to as the "laws of physics."

Because each of the other natural sciences biology, chemistry, geology, material science, medicine, engineering, and others, work with systems which adhere to the laws of physics, physics is often referred to as the "fundamental science."

For an example of how the laws of physics apply to all of the other sciences, consider that chemistry, the science of matter which studies atoms and molecules, complies with the theories of quantum mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism in order to produce chemical compounds.

C. Physics and Mathematics

As a whole, physics is closely related to mathematics, for it provides the logical structure in which physical laws may be formulated and their predictions quantified. A great many of physics' definitions, models, and theories are expressed using mathematical symbols and formulas.

The central difference between physics and mathematics is that ultimately physics is concerned with descriptions of the material world whereas mathematics is focused on abstract logical patterns that may extend beyond the real world.

Because physics concentrates on the material world, it tests its theories through the process known as observation or experimentation. In theory, it may seem relatively easier to detect where physics leaves off and mathematics picks up. However, in reality, such a clean-cut distinction does not always exist. Hence, the gray areas in between physics and mathematics tend be called "mathematical physics."

Both engineering and technology also have ties to physics. For instance, electrical engineering studies the practical application of electromagnetism. That is why you will quite often find physics to be a component in the building of bridges, or in the creation of electronic equipment, nuclear weaponry, lasers, barometers, and other valuable measurement devices.

D. Physics. Range of Fields

While there are no definitive answers as to whether or not physics is more complex than other sciences, it is safe to say that physics has decidedly more branches, both traditional and modern.

Take for example the range of traditional subdivisions of physics that exist: acoustics, optics, mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. And then there are those still considered to be modern extensions: atomic and nuclear physics, cryogenics, solid-state physics, particle physics, and plasma physics.

Below is a list, by no means comprehensive, of the dizzying variety of disciplines that exist within the science of physics:

• Acoustics. Study of sound and sound waves.
• Astronomy. Study of space.
• Astrophysics. Study of the physical properties of objects in space.
• Atomic Physics. Study of atoms, specifically the electron properties of the atom.
• Biophysics. Study of physics in living systems.
• Chaos. Study of systems with strong sensitivity to initial conditions, so that a slight change at the beginning quickly becomes major changes in the system.
• Chemical Physics. Study of physics in chemical systems.
• Computational Physics. Application of numerical methods to solve physical problems for which a quantitative theory already exists.
• Cosmology. Study of the universe as a whole, including its origins and evolution.
• Cryophysics, Cryogenics, and Low Temperature Physics. Study of physical properties in low temperature situations, far below the freezing point of water.
• Crystallography. Study of crystals and crystalline structures.
• Electromagnetism. Study of electrical and magnetic fields, which are two aspects of the same phenomenon.
• Electronics. Study of the flow of electrons, generally in a circuit.
• Fluid Dynamics and Fluid Mechanics. Study of the physical properties of "fluids," specifically defined in this case to be liquids and gases.
• Geophysics. Study of the physical properties of the Earth.
• High Energy Physics. Study of physics in extremely high energy systems, generally within particle physics.
• High Pressure Physics. Study of physics in extremely high pressure systems, generally related to fluid dynamics.
• Laser Physics. Study of the physical properties of lasers.
• Mathematical Physics. Discipline in which rigorous mathematical methods are applied to solving problems related to physics.
• Mechanics. Study of the motion of bodies in a frame of reference.
• Meteorology and Weather Physics. Physics of weather.
• Molecular Physics. Study of physical properties of molecules.
• Nanotechnology. Science of building circuits and machines from single molecules and atoms.
• Nuclear Physics. Study of the physical properties of the atomic nucleus.
• Optics and Light Physics. Study of the physical properties of light.
• Particle Physics. Study of fundamental particles and the forces of their interaction.
• Plasma Physics. Study of matter in the plasma phase.
• Quantum Electrodynamics. Study of how electrons and photons interact at the quantum mechanical level.
• Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Physics. Study of science where the smallest discrete values, or quanta, of matter and energy become relevant.
• Quantum Optics. Application of quantum physics to light.
• Quantum Field Theory. Application of quantum physics to fields, including the fundamental forces of the universe.
• Quantum Gravity. Application of quantum physics to gravity and the unification of gravity with the other fundamental particle interactions.
• Relativity. Study of systems displaying the properties of Einstein's theory of relativity, which generally involves moving at speeds very close to the speed of light.
• Statistical Mechanics. Study of large systems by statistically expanding the knowledge of smaller systems.
• String Theory and Superstring Theory. Study of the theory that all fundamental particles are vibrations of one-dimensional strings of energy, in a higher-dimensional universe.
• Thermodynamics. Physics of heat.

The reason so many subdivisions have evolved is that physics, as a whole, presents such a broad area of study. For scientists to perform meaningful research and studies, they must reduce the scope of their focus. By narrowing their field of study, they avoid becoming overwhelmed by the magnitude of knowledge and data that exists within the entire natural (physical) world.

E. Methods of Energy Production

Energy and work (energy as defined as the ability to do work) occupy an important part of our ordinary lives, and are among the most important topics in physics. Work, in terms of a physics related definition, has quite a different meaning than the type of work about which we normally think. In physics, work is performed only when an object is moved in the direction of an applied force.

Energy in physics is defined as the ability to do work. Doesn't this seem logical? For the more energy you have, the more work you can accomplish and the more activities you can engage in. In terms of a formula used, work is the force exerted multiplied by the distance moved, or W=F x d.

F. History of Physics

a. Prehistoric Era

Up until the Industrial Revolution during the late 1800s, humans had a limited call for energy. With fire for cooking, heating, and for safety purposes, along with animals for strength and transportation, humans really had the majority of their basic needs covered.

In addition to fire and animals, humans were also using wind as energy. This knowledge was acquired around 1200 BC in Polynesia, where people learned to use wind as a method for propelling their boats with the appendage known as a "sail."

Approximately 5000 years ago, the Chinese were the first to use magnetic energy. They relied upon the pull of magnetic iron objects to guide navigators and, thanks to the Earth's magnetic field, point them in the direction of north.

About 2500 years ago, the Greek philosopher Thales was credited with discovering electrical energy. By rubbing fur against a piece of amber, Thales found that dust and other particles clung to the amber with what is known as an electrostatic force.

And in 1000 BC, because it burned slower and longer than wood and provided more heat, the Chinese began to use coal as a source of fuel. Found to be a superior source of energy, this fuel was introduced to the Western World by Marco Polo in 1275, and was used for countless centuries thereafter.

b. 17 th Century

During the 1600s, the Netherlands discovered reserves of coal and began providing it to countries throughout Europe. In the 1700s England discovered its own source of coal and became both a manufacturer and distributor to neighboring countries. Within a short while, England broadened its distribution route, becoming the world's largest producer and supplier. Within this same time period, Europeans discovered solar heat had the ability to grow plants indoors during cold weather months.

c. 18 th Century

During the 1700s, due to diminished forested territories, England's primary source of fuel was coal. Further contributing to the demand for coal at this time was the invention of the steam engine. Devised to pump water out of coal mines, later models of the steam engine sported an increased number of cylinders and a more efficient method for burning the coal.

Eventually, the newly improved steam engine served as the primary impetus for the Industrial Revolution.

d. 19 th Century

During the 19 th century, the Industrial Revolution was well under way. Beginning in England and moving throughout Europe, North America, and the rest of the world, the Revolution was marked by mass production, the by-product of newly introduced machinery. With the advent of such flourishing mechanized activity came an unprecedented need for additional sources of energy.

Along with the steam engine, the first steamboat debuted in 1807 and the first steam locomotive in 1804. Again, with new technology came an increased need for productive, high-capacity engines, and more inexpensive forms of energy.

During this era, scientists were aware that energy supplies were limited and began to seek out alternative sources, for example, solar energy, hydroelectric energy, and geothermal energy. Not only were they worried about coal shortages, but they were also concerned about the residual effects (exhaust fumes, and so on) caused by coal's combustible output (fossil fuels).

During the mid-1800s, alternative energy sources were the focus of a great deal of study, research, and experimentation. Mouchout developed solar energy in 1860. Although Charles Tellier, John Ericsson, Henry E. Willsie, Eneas, et al ., all made notable improvements in the solar engine; it failed to catch on commercially because coal was widely available and significantly less expensive.

In the 19 th century, additional energy related highlights included:

• Construction of small hydroelectric power plants .
• Windmills developed to produce electric power .
• Geothermal energy used to heat up houses and, by the end of the century, capable of contributing to the production of electricity.
• Crude petroleum oil drilled out of the ground in Titusville, Pennsylvania.
• Internal combustion engines mounted in automobiles.
• Petroleum gradually began to dominate coal in the energy industry.
• French inventor Lenoir invented an internal combustion engine that used gasoline as fuel.
• German inventors Daimler and Benz invented the first automobile by mounting the engine on a carriage.
• Subsequently, Henry Ford later mass produced automobiles enabling the car to become a common means of transportation.
• The Wright brothers invented the first airplane with a gasoline engine, and, thus, ushered in an era of faster and cheaper transportation.

Modern Times

In modern times, some of the same energy sources which scientists had explored during the 19 th century, like solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal energy, are now being revisited as possible alternative options. Another contemporary power source is nuclear energy. Though widely used, many scientists are concerned about the fall out associated with the residual effects of nuclear energy, one of which includes the effect of radioactivity upon the environment.

Due to some misuses and exploitation, the world has depleted many of its long established supplies of energy sources. In the midst of these increasingly dire circumstances, scientists continue to seek out alternative forms of energy. Their primary requirements are to find energy sources that are not harmful to the environment, are accessible, inexpensive, and available in mass quantities.

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Physics archive

Course: physics archive   >   unit 1.

• Introduction to physics

What is physics?

• Preparing to study physics

• Precisely define the most fundamental measurable quantities in the universe (e.g., velocity, electric field, kinetic energy). The effort to find the most fundamental description of the universe is a quest that has historically always been a big part of physics, as can be seen in the comic image below. What does fundamental mean? There are some measurable quantities that are not considered fundamental, like the population of Ireland or the value of the stock exchange. Even though those quantities are measurable, and theoretically might be describable using an unthinkably complex application of the fundamental laws of physics, we would not typically consider theories about such things to be physics. Exactly where the line is drawn between fundamental and not fundamental is a little vague and shifts with history. A rough guide is that if you were to reply with the word “why?” over and over to whatever explanation a professor were giving you, the last and best scientific answer he or she would give you is most likely to be a law of physics, assuming they don't throw you out of their office before that point.
• Find relationships between those fundamental measured quantities (e.g., Newton’s Laws, conservation of energy, special relativity). These patterns and correlations are expressed using words, equations, graphs, charts, diagrams, models, and any other means that allow us to express a relationship in a way that we as humans can better understand and use. Math makes things simpler?! Believe it or not, the principles, graphs, laws, and equations used in physics were not created to make explaining the universe more difficult; they are there to make it easier to explain the universe and precisely illustrate the patterns found within it. This might serve as little solace to a physics student struggling with a seemingly random and unrelated set of equations and definitions, but try to remember that underneath all of the intimidating and sometimes foreign-looking mathematical symbols, there is usually a simple conceptual idea. The math simply makes it possible to formulate a conceptual idea in a very precise and concise manner.

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Introductory essay

Written by the educators who created The Edge of Knowledge, a brief look at the key facts, tough questions and big ideas in their field. Begin this TED Study with a fascinating read that gives context and clarity to the material.

Particle physicists are nothing if not ambitious. And the aim of particle physics is to understand what everything's made of, and how everything sticks together. And by everything I mean, of course, me and you, the Earth, the Sun, the 100 billion suns in our galaxy and the 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe. Absolutely everything. Brian Cox

To the outside observer, it may seem that physics is in some ways the opposite of art and that physicists must sacrifice their artistic intelligence to make way for cold rationality and logic. But nothing could be farther from the truth: Each step forward in our understanding of the universe could not have been conceived without an enormous dose of intuition and creativity.

Physicists are on a quest to figure out how nature works at the most fundamental level. This is a romantic story, penned in what may seem the least emotive of languages: mathematics. What's surprising is that the immeasurable beauty of the world is far from lost once its inner workings are expressed in this abstract language. Moreover, there remains something deeply intriguing about the fact that the universe is governed by the rules of mathematics in the first place. As we'll hear from Murray Gell-Mann in the first of the TEDTalks in The Edge of Knowledge, these beautiful mathematical laws are "not merely a conceit of the human mind" — instead, they're an intrinsic part of nature.

Many successful ideas in science can be described as beautiful and very often this is a reference to the simplicity and conciseness of nature's laws. Einstein's special and general theories of relativity, which describe how space, time and gravity behave, are based on only three brief postulates. The laws of electromagnetism, which govern every aspect of how we experience the worldthrough sight, sound, smell, taste or touch, are so concise thatthey can be written on the front of a T-shirt. The Standard Model of Particle Physics, which describes all of the known particles and three of the four forces that act between them, fits on the side of a coffee mug. As we will hear from Garrett Lisi, looking for beauty in the patterns that emerge in the laws of physics can tell us about how the universe works at the most fundamental level.

Science is a collaborative discipline and a global one too. It is the extent to which scientists cooperate that allows science to move at an incredible pace. The majority of the ideas presented in these TEDTalks have been around no longer than 50 years; some less than a decade. Since these speakers featured in The Edge of Knowledge delivered their TEDTalks, scientists working in global collaborations have developed and implemented several new experimental measurements. Most recently, the European Space Agency's Planck satellite has made precise measurements of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB): the results are in agreement with the predictions of the Standard Cosmological Model, which describes how the universe evolved from the Big Bang to what we see today. In Brian Cox's TEDTalk, we'll hear about the search for new elementary particles at CERN's Large Hadron Collider, encompassing the work of over 10,000 physicists from over 100 countries. This search is underway, and appears already to have yielded one of the most important scientific results of the 21st century: the discovery of the Higgs boson, the final ingredient predicted by the Standard Model of Particle Physics.

Notwithstanding the significance of these recent discoveries and their agreement with predictions, our picture of the fundamental structure of the universe is far from complete: a number of big mysteries remain in both particle physics and cosmology. As we'll hear from Patricia Burchat, many of these mysteries link together the physics of the smallest elementary particles and the largest distances of the cosmos. One of the most enduring mysteries is how to reconcile a complete theory of gravity with our understanding of the fundamental particles. From Brian Greene, we'll hear about the potential of string theory to solve this problem and the possible existence of tiny, curled up, extra spatial dimensions.

However, fundamental laws are not enough on their own. Aristotle said that "all human actions have one or more of these seven causes: chance, nature, compulsion, habit, reason, passion, and desire." It's the first of these — chance — that is not decided by the laws of physics; in fact, chance is not decided at all. The fundamental laws of physics cannot predict what will happen; they can only tell us what might happen. This uncertainty is built into the laws of quantum mechanics.

As we'll hear from Aaron O'Connell, the most striking feature of quantum mechanics is that it's weird. For example, we're challenged to contemplate the possibility that a thing can be in more than one place at the same time. It's quantum mechanics, more than any other idea in fundamental physics, which forces us to question our intuition about how everyday objects behave. For the microscopic constituents of the universe, our everyday observations simply do not hold. In spite of its counter-intuitiveness, quantum mechanics has come to define our modern world through the technologies that it underpins. From the tiny switches crammed by the billions onto microchips to medical scanners and laser therapies, all rely upon the weirdness of quantum mechanics.

Ultimately, science remains an empirical discipline. Thinking up beautiful theories is not enough on its own: every theory must stand up to the experimental observations of how nature actually works. If it doesn't, then the theory can't be correct and we must try again. If, on the other hand, our observations and predictions agree, then we're encouraged and — if the evidence is sufficient — we might even dare to claim some measure of understanding.

Through our human creativity, expressed in a process of trial and improvement, incremental advances in our understanding accumulate and scientific progress is made. As the chess grandmaster Gary Kasparov puts it, our success is "the ability to combine creativity and calculation...into a whole that is much greater than the sum of its parts." With each of these steps forward, science closes one more door and moves on to try one of the many, many doors that remain open.

This series of TEDTalks discusses some of the toughest questions and the most profound ideas in fundamental physics. The concepts not only challenge us to think objectively and rationally, but also require us to put aside many of our everyday preconceptions and intuitions about how nature works. Be prepared to re-watch the talks and re-read the supporting material; trying to get your head around 13.8 billion years of the universe's history isn't something you can do in an afternoon!

Let's begin with CalTech physicist Murray Gell-Mann for an introduction to the Standard Model of particle physics and the quest for a unified theory.

Murray Gell-Mann

Beauty, truth and ... physics, relevant talks.

Aaron O'Connell

Making sense of a visible quantum object.

CERN's supercollider

Brian Greene

Making sense of string theory.

Garrett Lisi

An 8-dimensional model of the universe.

Patricia Burchat

Shedding light on dark matter.

1.1 Physics: An Introduction

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain the difference between a principle and a law.
• Explain the difference between a model and a theory.

The physical universe is enormously complex in its detail. Every day, each of us observes a great variety of objects and phenomena. Over the centuries, the curiosity of the human race has led us collectively to explore and catalog a tremendous wealth of information. From the flight of birds to the colors of flowers, from lightning to gravity, from quarks to clusters of galaxies, from the flow of time to the mystery of the creation of the universe, we have asked questions and assembled huge arrays of facts. In the face of all these details, we have discovered that a surprisingly small and unified set of physical laws can explain what we observe. As humans, we make generalizations and seek order. We have found that nature is remarkably cooperative—it exhibits the underlying order and simplicity we so value.

It is the underlying order of nature that makes science in general, and physics in particular, so enjoyable to study. For example, what do a bag of chips and a car battery have in common? Both contain energy that can be converted to other forms. The law of conservation of energy (which says that energy can change form but is never lost) ties together such topics as food calories, batteries, heat, light, and watch springs. Understanding this law makes it easier to learn about the various forms energy takes and how they relate to one another. Apparently unrelated topics are connected through broadly applicable physical laws, permitting an understanding beyond just the memorization of lists of facts.

The unifying aspect of physical laws and the basic simplicity of nature form the underlying themes of this text. In learning to apply these laws, you will, of course, study the most important topics in physics. More importantly, you will gain analytical abilities that will enable you to apply these laws far beyond the scope of what can be included in a single book. These analytical skills will help you to excel academically, and they will also help you to think critically in any professional career you choose to pursue. This module discusses the realm of physics (to define what physics is), some applications of physics (to illustrate its relevance to other disciplines), and more precisely what constitutes a physical law (to illuminate the importance of experimentation to theory).

Science and the Realm of Physics

Science consists of the theories and laws that are the general truths of nature as well as the body of knowledge they encompass. Scientists are continually trying to expand this body of knowledge and to perfect the expression of the laws that describe it. Physics is concerned with describing the interactions of energy, matter, space, and time, and it is especially interested in what fundamental mechanisms underlie every phenomenon. The concern for describing the basic phenomena in nature essentially defines the realm of physics .

Physics aims to describe the function of everything around us, from the movement of tiny charged particles to the motion of people, cars, and spaceships. In fact, almost everything around you can be described quite accurately by the laws of physics. Consider a smart phone ( Figure 1.3 ). Physics describes how electricity interacts with the various circuits inside the device. This knowledge helps engineers select the appropriate materials and circuit layout when building the smart phone. Next, consider a GPS system. Physics describes the relationship between the speed of an object, the distance over which it travels, and the time it takes to travel that distance. GPS relies on precise calculations that account for variations in the Earth's landscapes, the exact distance between orbiting satellites, and even the effect of a complex occurrence of time dilation. Most of these calculations are founded on algorithms developed by Gladys West, a mathematician and computer scientist who programmed the first computers capable of highly accurate remote sensing and positioning. When you use a GPS device, it utilizes these algorithms to recognize where you are and how your position relates to other objects on Earth.

Applications of Physics

You need not be a scientist to use physics. On the contrary, knowledge of physics is useful in everyday situations as well as in nonscientific professions. It can help you understand how microwave ovens work, why metals should not be put into them, and why they might affect pacemakers. (See Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5 .) Physics allows you to understand the hazards of radiation and rationally evaluate these hazards more easily. Physics also explains the reason why a black car radiator helps remove heat in a car engine, and it explains why a white roof helps keep the inside of a house cool. Similarly, the operation of a car’s ignition system as well as the transmission of electrical signals through our body’s nervous system are much easier to understand when you think about them in terms of basic physics.

Physics is the foundation of many important disciplines and contributes directly to others. Chemistry, for example—since it deals with the interactions of atoms and molecules—is rooted in atomic and molecular physics. Most branches of engineering are applied physics. In architecture, physics is at the heart of structural stability, and is involved in the acoustics, heating, lighting, and cooling of buildings. Parts of geology rely heavily on physics, such as radioactive dating of rocks, earthquake analysis, and heat transfer in the Earth. Some disciplines, such as biophysics and geophysics, are hybrids of physics and other disciplines.

Physics has many applications in the biological sciences. On the microscopic level, it helps describe the properties of cell walls and cell membranes ( Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7 ). On the macroscopic level, it can explain the heat, work, and power associated with the human body. Physics is involved in medical diagnostics, such as x-rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasonic blood flow measurements. Medical therapy sometimes directly involves physics; for example, cancer radiotherapy uses ionizing radiation. Physics can also explain sensory phenomena, such as how musical instruments make sound, how the eye detects color, and how lasers can transmit information.

It is not necessary to formally study all applications of physics. What is most useful is knowledge of the basic laws of physics and a skill in the analytical methods for applying them. The study of physics also can improve your problem-solving skills. Furthermore, physics has retained the most basic aspects of science, so it is used by all of the sciences, and the study of physics makes other sciences easier to understand.

Models, Theories, and Laws; The Role of Experimentation

The laws of nature are concise descriptions of the universe around us; they are human statements of the underlying laws or rules that all natural processes follow. Such laws are intrinsic to the universe; humans did not create them and so cannot change them. We can only discover and understand them. Their discovery is a very human endeavor, with all the elements of mystery, imagination, struggle, triumph, and disappointment inherent in any creative effort. (See Figure 1.8 and Figure 1.9 .) The cornerstone of discovering natural laws is observation; science must describe the universe as it is, not as we may imagine it to be.

We all are curious to some extent. We look around, make generalizations, and try to understand what we see—for example, we look up and wonder whether one type of cloud signals an oncoming storm. As we become serious about exploring nature, we become more organized and formal in collecting and analyzing data. We attempt greater precision, perform controlled experiments (if we can), and write down ideas about how the data may be organized and unified. We then formulate models, theories, and laws based on the data we have collected and analyzed to generalize and communicate the results of these experiments.

A model is a representation of something that is often too difficult (or impossible) to display directly. While a model is justified with experimental proof, it is only accurate under limited situations. An example is the planetary model of the atom in which electrons are pictured as orbiting the nucleus, analogous to the way planets orbit the Sun. (See Figure 1.10 .) We cannot observe electron orbits directly, but the mental image helps explain the observations we can make, such as the emission of light from hot gases (atomic spectra). Physicists use models for a variety of purposes. For example, models can help physicists analyze a scenario and perform a calculation, or they can be used to represent a situation in the form of a computer simulation. A theory is an explanation for patterns in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and verified multiple times by various groups of researchers. Some theories include models to help visualize phenomena, whereas others do not. Newton’s theory of gravity, for example, does not require a model or mental image, because we can observe the objects directly with our own senses. The kinetic theory of gases, on the other hand, is a model in which a gas is viewed as being composed of atoms and molecules. Atoms and molecules are too small to be observed directly with our senses—thus, we picture them mentally to understand what our instruments tell us about the behavior of gases.

A law uses concise language to describe a generalized pattern in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and repeated experiments. Often, a law can be expressed in the form of a single mathematical equation. Laws and theories are similar in that they are both scientific statements that result from a tested hypothesis and are supported by scientific evidence. However, the designation law is reserved for a concise and very general statement that describes phenomena in nature, such as the law that energy is conserved during any process, or Newton’s second law of motion, which relates force, mass, and acceleration by the simple equation F = m a F = m a . A theory, in contrast, is a less concise statement of observed phenomena. For example, the Theory of Evolution and the Theory of Relativity cannot be expressed concisely enough to be considered a law. The biggest difference between a law and a theory is that a theory is much more complex and dynamic. A law describes a single action, whereas a theory explains an entire group of related phenomena. And, whereas a law is a postulate that forms the foundation of the scientific method, a theory is the end result of that process.

Less broadly applicable statements are usually called principles (such as Pascal’s principle, which is applicable only in fluids), but the distinction between laws and principles often is not carefully made.

Models, Theories, and Laws

Models, theories, and laws are used to help scientists analyze the data they have already collected. However, often after a model, theory, or law has been developed, it points scientists toward new discoveries they would not otherwise have made.

The models, theories, and laws we devise sometimes imply the existence of objects or phenomena as yet unobserved. These predictions are remarkable triumphs and tributes to the power of science. It is the underlying order in the universe that enables scientists to make such spectacular predictions. However, if experiment does not verify our predictions, then the theory or law is wrong, no matter how elegant or convenient it is. Laws can never be known with absolute certainty because it is impossible to perform every imaginable experiment in order to confirm a law in every possible scenario. Physicists operate under the assumption that all scientific laws and theories are valid until a counterexample is observed. If a good-quality, verifiable experiment contradicts a well-established law, then the law must be modified or overthrown completely.

The study of science in general and physics in particular is an adventure much like the exploration of uncharted ocean. Discoveries are made; models, theories, and laws are formulated; and the beauty of the physical universe is made more sublime for the insights gained.

The Scientific Method

Ibn al-Haytham (sometimes referred to as Alhazen), a 10th-11th century scientist working in Cairo, significantly advanced the understanding of optics and vision. But his contributions go much further. In demonstrating that previous approaches were incorrect, he emphasized that scientists must be ready to reject existing knowledge and become "the enemy" of everything they read; he expressed that scientists must trust only objective evidence. Al-Haytham emphasized repeated experimentation and validation, and acknowledged that senses and predisposition could lead to poor conclusions. His work was a precursor to the scientific method that we use today.

As scientists inquire and gather information about the world, they follow a process called the scientific method . This process typically begins with an observation and question that the scientist will research. Next, the scientist typically performs some research about the topic and then devises a hypothesis. Then, the scientist will test the hypothesis by performing an experiment. Finally, the scientist analyzes the results of the experiment and draws a conclusion. Note that the scientific method can be applied to many situations that are not limited to science, and this method can be modified to suit the situation.

Consider an example. Let us say that you try to turn on your car, but it will not start. You undoubtedly wonder: Why will the car not start? You can follow a scientific method to answer this question. First off, you may perform some research to determine a variety of reasons why the car will not start. Next, you will state a hypothesis. For example, you may believe that the car is not starting because it has no engine oil. To test this, you open the hood of the car and examine the oil level. You observe that the oil is at an acceptable level, and you thus conclude that the oil level is not contributing to your car issue. To troubleshoot the issue further, you may devise a new hypothesis to test and then repeat the process again.

The Evolution of Natural Philosophy into Modern Physics

Physics was not always a separate and distinct discipline. It remains connected to other sciences to this day. The word physics comes from Greek, meaning nature. The study of nature came to be called “natural philosophy.” From ancient times through the Renaissance, natural philosophy encompassed many fields, including astronomy, biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and medicine. Over the last few centuries, the growth of knowledge has resulted in ever-increasing specialization and branching of natural philosophy into separate fields, with physics retaining the most basic facets. (See Figure 1.11 , Figure 1.12 , and Figure 1.13 .) Physics as it developed from the Renaissance to the end of the 19th century is called classical physics . It was transformed into modern physics by revolutionary discoveries made starting at the beginning of the 20th century.

Classical physics is not an exact description of the universe, but it is an excellent approximation under the following conditions: Matter must be moving at speeds less than about 1% of the speed of light, the objects dealt with must be large enough to be seen with a microscope, and only weak gravitational fields, such as the field generated by the Earth, can be involved. Because humans live under such circumstances, classical physics seems intuitively reasonable, while many aspects of modern physics seem bizarre. This is why models are so useful in modern physics—they let us conceptualize phenomena we do not ordinarily experience. We can relate to models in human terms and visualize what happens when objects move at high speeds or imagine what objects too small to observe with our senses might be like. For example, we can understand an atom’s properties because we can picture it in our minds, although we have never seen an atom with our eyes. New tools, of course, allow us to better picture phenomena we cannot see. In fact, new instrumentation has allowed us in recent years to actually “picture” the atom.

Limits on the Laws of Classical Physics

For the laws of classical physics to apply, the following criteria must be met: Matter must be moving at speeds less than about 1% of the speed of light, the objects dealt with must be large enough to be seen with a microscope, and only weak gravitational fields (such as the field generated by the Earth) can be involved.

Some of the most spectacular advances in science have been made in modern physics. Many of the laws of classical physics have been modified or rejected, and revolutionary changes in technology, society, and our view of the universe have resulted. Like science fiction, modern physics is filled with fascinating objects beyond our normal experiences, but it has the advantage over science fiction of being very real. Why, then, is the majority of this text devoted to topics of classical physics? There are two main reasons: Classical physics gives an extremely accurate description of the universe under a wide range of everyday circumstances, and knowledge of classical physics is necessary to understand modern physics.

Modern physics itself consists of the two revolutionary theories, relativity and quantum mechanics. These theories deal with the very fast and the very small, respectively. Relativity must be used whenever an object is traveling at greater than about 1% of the speed of light or experiences a strong gravitational field such as that near the Sun. Quantum mechanics must be used for objects smaller than can be seen with a microscope. The combination of these two theories is relativistic quantum mechanics, and it describes the behavior of small objects traveling at high speeds or experiencing a strong gravitational field. Relativistic quantum mechanics is the best universally applicable theory we have. Because of its mathematical complexity, it is used only when necessary, and the other theories are used whenever they will produce sufficiently accurate results. We will find, however, that we can do a great deal of modern physics with the algebra and trigonometry used in this text.

Check Your Understanding

A friend tells you they have learned about a new law of nature. What can you know about the information even before your friend describes the law? How would the information be different if your friend told you they had learned about a scientific theory rather than a law?

Without knowing the details of the law, you can still infer that the information your friend has learned conforms to the requirements of all laws of nature: it will be a concise description of the universe around us; a statement of the underlying rules that all natural processes follow. If the information had been a theory, you would be able to infer that the information will be a large-scale, broadly applicable generalization.

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Why Study Physics?

Want to know “how” and “why” learn physics..

Physics is crucial to understanding the world around us, the world inside us, and the world beyond us. It is the most fundamental science.

Physics challenges our imaginations with concepts like relativity and string theory. It leads to great discoveries that, in turn, bring life-changing technologies, like computers, GPS, and lasers. Physicists also work to solve some of the greatest challenges of our times by finding ways to cure cancer, heal joints, or develop solutions for sustainable energy.

Learn more about the work that physicists do by reading stories from real physicists on our Physicists Profiles and Career Options pages.

If you’re an educator looking for resources to incorporate into your middle or high school classroom, review APS’s PhysicsQuest and STEP UP projects.

Like science? It begins with physics

Physics encompasses the study of the universe from the largest galaxies to the smallest (subatomic!) particles.

Moreover, physics is the basis for many other sciences, including chemistry, oceanography, seismology, and astronomy, as well as the applied sciences, like the various branches of engineering. The principles of physics are also applied in many areas of biology and biomedical science. Advanced education in all of these areas — and more! — is possible with a bachelor’s degree in physics.

Want to learn real-world skills? Study physics!

Physicists are problem solvers. Their analytical skills make them versatile and adaptable, so physicists often work interesting jobs in interesting places. You can find physicists in industrial and government labs, on college campuses, in the astronaut corps, and consulting for the special effects in TV shows and movies. In addition, many physics grads work for engineering or consulting firms, at newspapers and magazines, in government, for non-profits, in data science and app development roles, and even on Wall Street — places where their ability to think analytically is a great asset.

In general, though, most physics majors continue in STEM-related careers or careers that require strong problem-solving skills. Data shows that nearly 4 in 10 physics majors continue in engineering professions, while 1 in 4 go into computer or information systems. Another 1 in 4 physics majors continue in another STEM pathway or a non-STEM career where they regularly solve technical problems.

Want a job? People hire physicists

Physics brings a broad perspective to any problem. Because physicists learn how to critically analyze and breakdown even the most complex problems, they are not bound by context. This form of inventive thinking makes physicists desirable in any field. A bachelor’s degree in physics is a great foundation for careers in:

• Computer Science
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• Engineering

Want a good salary? Physics tops the sciences

Even when the job market is slow, physicists get well-paying job offers. Employers know that a physicist brings additional skills and expertise — and they pay accordingly! That's why physics graduates can expect career salaries similar to those of computer science and engineering majors.

As of 2020, data shows the mean starting salary for a physics major taking a job in the STEM private sector was about $65k annually, with students who chose non-STEM technical pathways earning slightly less, at about $50k. But some physics majors, depending on their interests and skills acquired during college, start at much higher salaries — $80k or more.

Like most fields of STEM, if you pursue advanced education, your salary increases . After completing a master’s degree, physicists earn an average of about $90k annually, and after a doctorate, physicists earn a starting salary of roughly $120k.

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A List of 240 Physics Topics & Questions to Research

Plates break when you drop them. Glasses help you see better. Have you ever wondered why?

Physics has the answer. It studies the observable as well as invisible aspects of nature. An essential part of this is examining the structure and interactions of matter.

Are you a high-schooler studying for your exams? Or maybe you need to write an interesting physics paper for your Ph.D. research or college seminar? This article presents a list of the most popular topics in physics for you to choose from.

Best of all, you don’t have to push yourself too hard to finish your essay. Custom-writing.org is happy to help students with all kinds of written assignments.

🔝 Top 10 Physics Research Topics

✅ branches of physics.

• ⭐ Top 10 Physics Topics
• ⚙️ Mechanics
• 🌡️ Thermodynamics
• ⚡ Electromagnetism
• 🔊 Sounds & Waves
• ☢️ Modern Physics
• 🔋 Physics Project Topics
• 🔭 Astrophysics
• 🌎 Physical Geography
• 🤔 Theoretical Physics
• ⚛️ Quantum Physics

🔍 References

• Modern vs. classical physics
• Gravity method in geophysics
• Why can’t the multiverse be real?
• Nuclear physics vs. quantum physics
• Photonics’ relationship to other fields
• Is electromagnetism the strongest force?
• What would extra dimensions look like?
• The importance of kinematics in real life
• Is string theory a generalization of quantum field theory?
• The difference between liquid pressure and air pressure

Now: before writing about physics you should know about its main branches. These are classical and modern . Let’s take a closer look:

• Mechanics , which is concerned with motion. Two of its essential aspects are kinematics and dynamics.
• Optics helps us understand the properties of light.
• Another branch investigates waves and sound . It studies the way they travel and how they are produced.
• Thermodynamics deals with heat and motion. One of its key concepts is entropy.
• Electromagnetism studies the interactions between charged particles. It also deals with the forces and fields that surround them.
• Finally, physical geographers observe our Earth’s physical features. These include environmental processes and patterns.
• Atomic physics , which examines the structure and behavior of atoms.
• Nuclear physics investigates the nucleus of atoms. This branch often deals with radioactivity.
• Scientists working in quantum physics concentrate on the erratic behavior of waves and particles.
• Relativity can be general and special. Special relativity deals with time and motion. General relativity describes gravity as an alteration of spacetime caused by massive objects.
• Cosmology and astrophysics explore the properties of celestial bodies. Cosmologists strive to comprehend the universe on a larger scale.
• Mesoscopic physics covers the scale between macroscopic and microscopic.

You can talk about any of these branches in your essay. Keep in mind that this division is a basic outline. Strictly speaking, everything that happens around you is physics! Now, we’re all set to move on to our physics paper topics.

⭐ Top 10 Physics Topics 2024

• Biophysics vs. biochemistry
• The future of nano-physics
• The use of perturbation theory
• Possible cause of baryogenesis
• Solid-state vs. condensed matter physics
• Why is the quark model introduced?
• The importance of plasma in physics
• Statistical mechanics vs. statistical physics
• Ways to calculate electronic structure
• Difference between matter and dark matter

🧲 Classical Physics Topics to Write About

Classical physics deals with energy, force, and motion. You encounter this kind of physics in everyday life. Below, we’ve compiled a list with compelling prompts you’ll recognize from your physics class:

⚙️ Mechanics Essay Topics

• What does Newton’s laws of motion state?
• How do ships stay afloat?
• Equipartition: for what systems does it not hold?
• What does Bernoulli’s principle state about fluids?
• Surface tension: what causes it?
• How does buoyancy work?
• An overview of the molecular origins of viscosity.
• The equipartition theorem: how does it connect a system’s temperature to its energies?
• The benefits of the continuum assumption.
• Contrast the different types of forces.
• Explain the term “momentum.”
• Kinematics: describing the relationships of objects in constrained motion.
• What causes objects to oscillate?

🌡️ Thermodynamics Paper Topics

• Thermodynamics as a kinetic theory of matter.
• What is entropy?
• Describe the three types of thermodynamic processes.
• The Carnot heat engine as part of a thermodynamic cycle.

• Perpetual motion: is it possible or not?
• Investigate fire in terms of chemistry and thermodynamics.

⚡ Electromagnetism Topics to Research

• Examine the connection between electric potential and electric field.
• What makes an excellent conduit?
• How does a dielectric impact a capacitor?
• Contrast current, resistance, and power.
• How do magnetic fields relate to electricity?
• Explain inductance. What causes it?
• How do induction stoves work?

🔊 Essay Topics on Sounds & Waves

• Sound waves: how do they travel?
• Describe the two types of mechanical waves.
• What are electromagnetic waves used for?
• The difference between interference and diffraction.
• Music and vibrations: the properties of sound.

👓 Optics Topics to Write About

• How does reflection work?
• What happens when an object absorbs light?
• Why does light break into a rainbow?
• Lasers: what do we use them for?
• What causes Aurora Borealis?
• Photography: what happens when you change the aperture?
• Explain what influences the colors of sunsets.
• Fata Morgana mirages: where do they originate from?
• What is the Novaya Zemlya effect?

☢️ Modern Physics Topics for a Paper

The world of modern physics shifts away from its more tangible origins. It deals with atoms and even smaller particles. Nuclear, atomic, and quantum physics belong to this category. One of the central problems of modern physics is redefining the concept of gravity.

• Relativity: a discovery that turned our understanding of physics upside down.
• An overview of 20th century physics.
• The ultraviolet catastrophe and how it was solved.
• What happens to the energy entering an ideal blackbody?
• The photoelectric effect: creating current with light.
• Why did the classical lightwave model become outdated?
• How do night vision devices work?
• The production of x-rays.
• Explain why the charge of electrons is quantized.
• How does the kinetic energy of an electron relate to the light’s frequency and intensity?
• Describe the photon model of the Compton Scattering.
• How do you identify an element using its line spectra?
• Cold Fusion: how likely is it?
• Explain the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
• Electron shells and atomic orbitals: properties of electrons.
• What causes peaks in the x-ray spectrum?
• How do you calculate radioactive decay?
• Carbon dating: how accurate is it?
• The discovery of radioactivity.
• What holds electronic nuclei together?
• Nuclear Fusion: will it ever be possible?
• Describe the types of elemental transmutation.
• Applications of nuclear fission.
• Virtual particles: how do they come into existence?

• Nucleosynthesis: creating atomic nuclei.
• How do you dope a semiconductor using ion implantation?
• What are the magic numbers?
• Superheavy primordial elements: the history of unbihexium.
• Predictions surrounding the island of stability.
• How does a computer tomography work?

🔋 Physics Project Topics for a Science Fair

What’s the most fun part of every natural science? If you said “experiments,” you guessed it! Everybody can enjoy creating rainbows or exploring the effects of magnets. Your next physics project will be as fascinating as you want it to be with these exciting ideas!

• Build a kaleidoscope and learn how it works.
• Investigate the centripetal force with the help of gelatin and marbles.
• Make a potato battery.
• Construct an elevator system.
• Prove Newton’s laws of motion by placing objects of different weights in a moving elevator.
• Learn how a telescope works. Then build one from scratch.
• Levitate small objects using ultrasound.
• Measure how fast a body in free fall accelerates.
• Find out what causes a capacitor to charge and discharge over time.
• Measure how light intensity changes through several polarizing filters.
• Observe how sound waves change under altered atmospheric conditions.
• Find out how a superheated object is affected by its container.
• Determine the mathematics behind a piece of classical music.
• Replicate an oil spill and search for the best way to clean it up.
• What makes a circular toy easy to spin? Experiment by spinning hula hoops of different sizes.
• Make DNA visible. What happens if you use different sources of plant-based DNA?
• Charge your phone with a handmade solar cell.
• Find out what properties an object needs to stay afloat.
• Create music by rubbing your finger against the rim of a glass. Experiment with several glasses filled with different amounts of water.
• Compare the free-fall speed of a Lego figure using various parachutes.
• Experiment with BEC to understand quantum mechanics.
• Make a windmill and describe how it works.
• Build an automatic light circuit using a laser.
• How do concave and convex mirrors affect your reflection?
• Investigate how pressure and temperature influence the air volume.
• Determine the conductivity of different fluids.
• Learn about the evolution of the universe by measuring electromagnetic radiation.
• Capture charged particles in an ion trap.
• Build a rocket car using a balloon.
• Experiment with pendulums and double pendulums. How do they work?

🔭 Astrophysics Topics for a Research Paper

Astrophysicists, astronomers, and cosmologists observe what happens in space. Astronomy examines celestial bodies, while astrophysics describes their mechanics. At the same time, cosmology attempts to comprehend the universe as a whole.

• Explain when a celestial body is called a planet.
• Dark energy and dark matter: how do they affect the expansion of the universe?
• The cosmic microwave background: investigating the birth of the universe.
• What are the possible explanations for the expansion of the universe?
• Evidence for the existence of dark matter.
• The discovery of gravitational waves: consequences and implications.
• Explore the history of LIGO.
• How did scientists observe a black hole?
• The origins of light.
• Compare the types of stars.
• Radioactivity in space: what is it made of?
• What do we know about stellar evolution?
• Rotations of the Milky Way.
• Write an overview of recent developments in astrophysics.
• Investigate the origin of moons.
• How do we choose names for constellations?
• What are black holes?
• How does radiative transfer work in space?
• What does our solar system consist of?
• Describe the properties of a star vs. a moon.

• What makes binary stars special?
• Gamma-ray bursts: how much energy do they produce?
• What causes supernovae?
• Compare the types of galaxies.
• Neutron stars and pulsars: how do they differ?
• The connection between stars and their colors.
• What are quasars?
• Curved space: is there enough evidence to support the theory?
• What produces x-rays in space?
• Exoplanets: what do we know about them?

🌎 Physical Geography Topics to Write About

Physical geographers explore the beauty of our Earth. Their physical knowledge helps them explain how nature works. What causes climate change? Where do our seasons come from? What happens in the ocean? These are the questions physical geographers seek to answer.

• What creates rainbows?
• How do glaciers form?
• The geographical properties of capes.
• What causes landslides?
• An overview of the types of erosion.
• What makes Oceania’s flora unique?
• Reefs: why are they important?
• Why is there a desert in the middle of Siberia?
• The geography of the Namibian desert.
• Explain the water cycle.
• How do you measure the length of a river?
• The Gulf Stream and its influence on the European climate.
• Why is the sky blue?
• What creates waves?
• How do marshes form?
• Investigate the causes of riptides.
• The Three Gorges Dam: how was it built?
• Explain the phenomenon of Green Sahara.
• The consequences of freshwater pollution.
• What are the properties of coastal plains?
• Why is the Atacama Desert the driest place on Earth?
• How does a high altitude affect vegetation?
• Atmospheric changes over the past 100 years.
• Predicting earthquakes: a comparison of different methods.
• What causes avalanches?
• Seasons: where do they come from?
• The Baltic and the Northern Seas meeting phenomenon.
• The geographical properties of the Altai Mountains.
• How do the steppes form?
• Why are some water bodies saltier than others?

🤔 Theoretical Physics Topics to Research

Math fans, this section is for you. Theoretical physics is all about equations. Research in this area goes into the development of mathematical and computer models. Plus, theoretical physicists try to construct theories for phenomena that currently can’t be explained experimentally.

• What does the Feynman diagram describe?
• How is QFT used to model quasiparticles?
• String theory: is it a theory of everything?
• The paradoxical effects of time travel.
• Monstrous moonshine: how does it connect to string theory?
• Mirror symmetry and Calabi-Yau manifolds: how are they used in physics?
• Understanding the relationship between gravity and BF theories.
• Compare the types of Gauge theories.

• Applications of TQFT in condensed matter physics.
• Examine the properties of fields with arbitrary spin.
• How do quarks and gluons interact with each other?
• What predictions does quantum field theory make for curved spacetime?
• How do technicolor theories explain electroweak gauge symmetry breaking?
• Quantum gravity: a comparison of approaches.
• How does LQG address the structure of space?
• An introduction into the motivation behind the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis.
• What does the M-theory state?
• What does the Ising model say about ferromagnetism?
• Compare the thermodynamic Debye model with the Einstein model.
• How does the kinetic theory describe the macroscopic properties of gases?
• Understanding the behavior of waves and particles: scattering theory.
• What was the luminiferous aether assumption needed for?
• The Standard Model of particles: why is it not a full theory of fundamental interactions?
• Investigate supersymmetry.
• Physical cosmology: measuring the universe.
• Describe the black hole thermodynamics.
• Pancomputationalism: what is it about?
• Skepticism concerning the E8 theory.
• Explain the conservation of angular momentum.
• What does the dynamo theory say about celestial bodies?

⚛️ Quantum Physics Topics for Essays & Papers

First and foremost, quantum physics is very confusing. In quantum physics, an object is not just in a specific place. It merely has the probability to be in one place or another. Light travels in particles, and matter can be a wave. Throw physics as you know it overboard. In this world, you can never be sure what and where things really are.

• How did the Schrödinger Equation advance quantum physics?
• Describe the six types of quarks.
• Contrast the four quantum numbers.
• What kinds of elementary particles exist?
• Probability density: finding electrons.
• How do you split an atom using quantum mechanics?
• When is an energy level degenerate?
• Quantum entanglement: how does it affect particles?
• The double-slit experiment: what does it prove?
• What causes a wave function to collapse?
• Explore the history of quantum mechanics.
• What are quasiparticles?
• The Higgs mechanism: explaining the mass of bosons.
• Quantum mechanical implications of the EPR paradox.
• What causes explicit vs. spontaneous symmetry breaking?
• Discuss the importance of the observer.
• What makes gravity a complicated subject?
• Can quantum mechanical theories accurately depict the real world?
• Describe the four types of exchange particles.
• What are the major problems surrounding quantum physics?
• What does Bell’s theorem prove?
• How do bubble chambers work?
• Understanding quantum mechanics: the Copenhagen interpretation.
• Will teleportation ever be possible on a large scale?
• The applications of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
• Wave packets: how do you localize them?
• How do you process quantum information?
• What does the Fourier transform do?
• The importance of Planck’s constant.
• Matter as waves: the Heisenberg-Schrödinger atom model.

We hope you’ve found a great topic for your best physics paper. Good luck with your assignment!

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What Is Quantum Physics?

This article was reviewed by a member of Caltech's Faculty .

Quantum physics is the study of matter and energy at the most fundamental level. It aims to uncover the properties and behaviors of the very building blocks of nature.

While many quantum experiments examine very small objects, such as electrons and photons, quantum phenomena are all around us, acting on every scale. However, we may not be able to detect them easily in larger objects. This may give the wrong impression that quantum phenomena are bizarre or otherworldly. In fact, quantum science closes gaps in our knowledge of physics to give us a more complete picture of our everyday lives.

Quantum discoveries have been incorporated into our foundational understanding of materials, chemistry, biology, and astronomy. These discoveries are a valuable resource for innovation, giving rise to devices such as lasers and transistors, and enabling real progress on technologies once considered purely speculative, such as quantum computers . Physicists are exploring the potential of quantum science to transform our view of gravity and its connection to space and time. Quantum science may even reveal how everything in the universe (or in multiple universes) is connected to everything else through higher dimensions that our senses cannot comprehend.

The Origins of Quantum Physics

The field of quantum physics arose in the late 1800s and early 1900s from a series of experimental observations of atoms that didn't make intuitive sense in the context of classical physics. Among the basic discoveries was the realization that matter and energy can be thought of as discrete packets, or quanta, that have a minimum value associated with them. For example, light of a fixed frequency will deliver energy in quanta called "photons." Each photon at this frequency will have the same amount of energy, and this energy can't be broken down into smaller units. In fact, the word "quantum" has Latin roots and means "how much."

Knowledge of quantum principles transformed our conceptualization of the atom, which consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Early models depicted electrons as particles that orbited the nucleus, much like the way satellites orbit Earth. Modern quantum physics instead understands electrons as being distributed within orbitals, mathematical descriptions that represent the probability of the electrons' existence in more than one location within a given range at any given time. Electrons can jump from one orbital to another as they gain or lose energy, but they cannot be found between orbitals.

Other central concepts helped to establish the foundations of quantum physics:

• Wave-particle duality: This principle dates back to the earliest days of quantum science. It describes the outcomes of experiments that showed that light and matter had the properties of particles or waves, depending on how they were measured. Today, we understand that these different forms of energy are actually neither particle nor wave. They are distinct quantum objects that we cannot easily conceptualize.
• Superposition : This is a term used to describe an object as a combination of multiple possible states at the same time. A superposed object is analogous to a ripple on the surface of a pond that is a combination of two waves overlapping. In a mathematical sense, an object in superposition can be represented by an equation that has more than one solution or outcome.
• Uncertainty principle : This is a mathematical concept that represents a trade-off between complementary points of view. In physics, this means that two properties of an object, such as its position and velocity, cannot both be precisely known at the same time. If we precisely measure the position of an electron, for example, we will be limited in how precisely we can know its speed.
• Entanglement : This is a phenomenon that occurs when two or more objects are connected in such a way that they can be thought of as a single system, even if they are very far apart. The state of one object in that system can't be fully described without information on the state of the other object. Likewise, learning information about one object automatically tells you something about the other and vice versa.

Mathematics and the Probabilistic Nature of Quantum Objects

Because many of the concepts of quantum physics are difficult if not impossible for us to visualize, mathematics is essential to the field. Equations are used to describe or help predict quantum objects and phenomena in ways that are more exact than what our imaginations can conjure.

Mathematics is also necessary to represent the probabilistic nature of quantum phenomena. For example, the position of an electron may not be known exactly. Instead, it may be described as being in a range of possible locations (such as within an orbital), with each location associated with a probability of finding the electron there.

Given their probabilistic nature, quantum objects are often described using mathematical "wave functions," which are solutions to what is known as the Schrödinger equation . Waves in water can be characterized by the changing height of the water as the wave moves past a set point. Similarly, sound waves can be characterized by the changing compression or expansion of air molecules as they move past a point. Wave functions don't track with a physical property in this way. The solutions to the wave functions provide the likelihoods of where an observer might find a particular object over a range of potential options. However, just as a ripple in a pond or a note played on a trumpet are spread out and not confined to one location, quantum objects can also be in multiple places—and take on different states, as in the case of superposition—at once.

Observation of Quantum Objects

The act of observation is a topic of considerable discussion in quantum physics. Early in the field, scientists were baffled to find that simply observing an experiment influenced the outcome. For example, an electron acted like a wave when not observed, but the act of observing it caused the wave to collapse (or, more accurately, "decohere") and the electron to behave instead like a particle. Scientists now appreciate that the term "observation" is misleading in this context, suggesting that consciousness is involved. Instead, "measurement" better describes the effect, in which a change in outcome may be caused by the interaction between the quantum phenomenon and the external environment, including the device used to measure the phenomenon. Even this connection has caveats, though, and a full understanding of the relationship between measurement and outcome is still needed.

The Double-Slit Experiment

Perhaps the most definitive experiment in the field of quantum physics is the double-slit experiment . This experiment, which involves shooting particles such as photons or electrons through a barrier with two slits, was originally used in 1801 to show that light is made up of waves. Since then, numerous incarnations of the experiment have been used to demonstrate that matter can also behave like a wave and to demonstrate the principles of superposition, entanglement, and the observer effect.

The field of quantum science may seem mysterious or illogical, but it describes everything around us, whether we realize it or not. Harnessing the power of quantum physics gives rise to new technologies, both for applications we use today and for those that may be available in the future .

Dive Deeper

Imagining spacetime as a visible grid is an extraordinary journey into the unseen

History of science

His radiant formula

Stephen Hawking’s greatest legacy – a simple little equation now 50 years old – revealed a shocking aspect of black holes

Roger Highfield

History of ideas

Chaos and cause

Can a butterfly’s wings trigger a distant hurricane? The answer depends on the perspective you take: physics or human agency

Erik Van Aken

The abyss at the edge of human understanding – a voyage into a black hole

Tiny, entangled universes that form or fizzle out – a theory of the quantum multiverse

Metaphysics

Simple entities in universal harmony – Leibniz’s evocative perspective on reality

The Indian astronomer whose innovative work on black holes was mocked at Cambridge

Seven years later, what can we make of our first confirmed interstellar visitor?

Is it possible to design a shape to roll along any fixed path?

Space exploration

Mind-bending speed is the only way to reach the stars – here are three ways to do it

Find the building blocks of nature within a single, humble snowflake

Why the golden age of total solar eclipses is already behind us

Future of technology

Is this the future of space travel? Take a luxury ‘cruise’ across the solar system

A song of ice, fire and jelly – exploring the physics and history of the trumpet

Quantum theory

We are not empty

The concept of the atomic void is one of the most repeated mistakes in popular science. Molecules are packed with stuff

Mario Barbatti

A dreamy tribute to the music of Brian Eno, rendered in paint, soap and water

Why does the Sun occasionally flash green as it eclipses the horizon?

There’s a striking link between quantum and astronomic scales. What could it mean?

Untangling entanglement

Why does the quantum world behave in that strange, spooky way? Here’s our simple, four-step explanation (no magic needed)

Huw Price & Ken Wharton

The key to geckos’ unrivalled climbing skills isn’t sticky feet. It’s subatomic

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Not a backdrop, an illusion or an emergent phenomenon, time has a physical size that can be measured in laboratories

Sara Walker & Lee Cronin

The ancient philosophy of monism and the physics of quantum entanglement agree: all that exists is one unified whole

Heinrich Päs

Philosophy of mind

We may never settle the ‘free will’ debate, but tapping into it is still worthwhile

What are you really seeing when you see magnificent images of space?

Why Study Physics?

The goal of physics is to understand how things work from first principles.  We offer physics courses that are matched to a range of goals that students may have in studying physics -- taking elective courses to broaden one's scientific literacy, satisfying requirements for a major in the sciences or engineering, or working towards a degree in physics or engineering physics. Courses in physics reveal the mathematical beauty of the universe at scales ranging from subatomic to cosmological. Studying physics strengthens quantitative reasoning and problem solving skills that are valuable in areas beyond physics.

Where do I start?

• Students who have never studied physics before and would like a broad introduction should consider one of the introductory seminar courses in Physics or Applied Physics. Those interested in astronomy and astrophysics might enjoy PHYSICS 15, 16 or 17, which is intended for nontechnical majors.
• Students considering a career in science or engineering should start with the PHYSICS 20 & 40 series or PHYSICS 61, 71, 81 .
• The PHYSICS 20 series assumes no background in calculus, and is intended primarily for those who are majoring in the biological sciences. However, such students who have AP credit in calculus or physics should consider taking the PHYSICS 40 series, which will provide a depth and emphasis on problem solving that is of significant value in biological research, which today involves considerable physics-based technology.
• For those intending to major in engineering or the physical sciences, or simply wishing a stronger background in physics, the department offers the PHYSICS 40 series and PHYSICS 61, 71, 81 . Either of these series will satisfy the entry-level physics requirements of any Stanford major.  However, students majoring in Physics or Engineering Physics are required to take PHYSICS 61, 71, 81 -- possibly after completing PHYSICS 41 and 43. 
• PHYSICS 61, 71, 81 courses are intended for those who have already taken a physics course at the level of PHYSICS 41 and 43, or at least have a strong background in mechanics, some background in electricity and magnetism, and a strong background in calculus. To determine whether you are prepared for PHYSICS 61, take the the Physics Placement Diagnostic .
• The PHYSICS 40 series begins with PHYSICS 41 (mechanics), which is offered as a 4-unit course in both Autumn and Winter quarters, and continues with PHYSICS 43 (electricity and magnetism) in both Winter and Spring quarters, and PHYSICS 45 (thermodynamics and optics) in Autumn quarter.
• Beginning in academic year 2023/2024, a five-unit version of PHYSICS 41 is offered in the Winter quarter: PHYSICS 41E (Extended). This course is designed to enable students who have had little or no high school physics background to succeed in physics. 
• The PHYSICS 61, 71, 81 series begins in the Autumn quarter (only) with special relativity and a deeper dive into mechanics.   
• While most students are recommended to begin with mechanics in the PHYSICS 40 series (PHYSICS 41 or 41E), those who have had strong physics preparation in high school (such as a score of at least 4 on the Physics Advanced Placement C exam) may be ready to start with PHYSICS 45 in Autumn quarter (and then take PHYSICS 43 in the Winter quarter), or to start with PHYSICS 61 in the Autumn. 
• Students are individually advised on the best entry point into either the PHYSICS 40 series or PHYSICS 61, 71, 81 on the basis of their score on the Physics Placement Diagnostic , which is available online.

LAWS OF PHYSICS

Home — Essay Samples — Science — Newton'S Laws of Motion — Laws of Physics in everyday life

Laws of Physics in Everyday Life

• Categories: Galileo Galilei Newton'S Laws of Motion Universe

About this sample

Words: 1262 |

Published: Oct 31, 2018

Words: 1262 | Pages: 3 | 7 min read

Table of contents

Simple mechanical devices, pointing the way toward newton., newton’s three laws of motion., mass and gravitational acceleration, works cited, transportation, modern communication, natural applications, galileo’s test, introduced by newton in his principia (1687), the three laws are:.

• Dabrowski, J. R., & Ganjehlou, F. M. (2018). Dynamics of torque and angular acceleration of a rigid body. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1109(1), 012013.
• Ghose, M. K., & Agrawal, M. (2021). Dynamics of motion of an oscillating rigid body subjected to a time-varying torque. Mechanics Based Design of Structures and Machines, 1-19.
• Gribbin, J. (2017). Six Impossible Things: The ‘Quanta’ of Physics Explained. Icon Books.
• Kaplan, S. (2021). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Cengage Learning.
• Kozlov, V. V. (2017). Analytical mechanics: An introduction. CRC Press.
• Levine, I. N. (2019). Classical mechanics. Courier Dover Publications.
• Ohanian, H. C., & Ruffini, R. (2013). Gravitation and spacetime. Cambridge University Press.
• Reichl, L. E. (2016). A modern course in statistical physics. John Wiley & Sons.
• Serway, R. A., & Jewett, J. W. (2017). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Cengage Learning.
• Young, H. D., & Freedman, R. A. (2017). University Physics with Modern Physics. Pearson Education.

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• Essay Contest

2023 Essay Contest 

The Forum on the History and Philosophy of Physics (FHPP) of the American Physical Society is proud to announce the outcome of our 2023 History of Physics Essay Contest. We received thirty entries from seven countries: the United States, Australia, Germany, India, Oman, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. The entries were evaluated by our FHPP Executive Committee . The essays were judged on originality, clarity, and potential to contribute to the field.

The 2023 Winner Is:

Rebecka Mähring -- for the outstanding essay, " Hilde Levi: A Jewish Woman's Life in Physics in the 20th Century ." This inspiring account of Dr. Hilde Levi's life describes her pioneering interdisciplinary labors in biophysics and on the applications of radioisotopes. Levi collaborated with various other physicists, scientists, and medical professionals. Her unpretentious kindness enabled her to fulfill, renegotiate, and transcend traditional gender roles.

An abridged version will be published as the Back Page of APS News . Rebecka Mähring receives a cash award of $ 1,000.00, plus support (up to a $ 2,000.00 value) for travel, registration, hotel lodging and meals, to be an Invited Speaker at the APS April 2024 Meeting in Sacramento, California, to present a talk based on the essay.

We also award three Runners-Up , in a three-way tie, with cash awards of $ 500 each. In alphabetical order, they are: Stefano Farinella, “Galileo’s Use of Mathematics in its Historical Context”; Preetha Sarkar, “Meghnad Saha: A Win for Science”; and Jessica Schonhut-Stasik, “The Transit of Venus, King Kal ā kaua, and Indigenous Knowing.” Below, we include information about each award recipient, links to their commendable essays, and past winners.

The FHPP Essay Contest promotes interest in the history of physics. The contest is intended for undergraduate and graduate students but is open to anyone without a Ph.D. in physics or history. Entries can address the work of physicists, physics discoveries, or other related topics. At 2,500 words, entries should be scholarly and accessible to scientists and historians. Previously published work, excerpts, or entries with multiple authors are not accepted.

On behalf of FHPP, I congratulate the four Award Winners, and I warmly thank all other participants too for submitting essays. In a few weeks, we will announce our 2024 Essay Contest, on this webpage. Alberto Martinez, Chair of APS FHPP

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2023 winner.

Essay: "Hilde Levi: A Jewish Woman's Life in Physics in the 20th Century" Rebecka Mähring graduated in May 2023 with a bachelor’s degree in Physics from Princeton University. Her senior thesis research was on dark matter phenomenology. While at Princeton, she also developed a strong interest in the history of science, which led to a research visit at the Niels Bohr Archive in Copenhagen, Denmark, during the summer. The APS essay is the result of this research.

. Winning Essay

2023 Runner-ups

Stefano Farinella University of Hamburg

Essay: “Galileo’s Use of Mathematics in its Historical Context” Stefano Farinella is a first-year Ph.D. student at the University of Hamburg. He completed his B.S. in Physics at the University of Padua, and his M.S. in Theoretical Physics at the University of Amsterdam. He is now part of the Centre for the Study of Manuscript Cultures in Hamburg, and his research focuses on the interplay between processes of transformation of knowledge and early modern manuscript culture in the notes of mathematician and natural philosopher Thomas Harriot (1560-1621).

Preetha Sarkar University of Illinois

Essay: “Meghnad Saha: A Win for Science” Preetha Sarkar is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Physics and the Illinois Materials Research Science and Engineering Center at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Her research focuses on understanding how the electronic properties of two-dimensional van der Waals materials, such as graphene, are modified under mechanical strain by conducting low temperature electron transport experiments. She is passionate about science outreach and diversity, equity and inclusion efforts in STEM. In her free time, she enjoys painting, writing poetry, singing, swimming, reading history and fiction, and volunteering for social causes. View Essay

Jessica Schonhut-Stasik Vanderbilt University

Essay: “The Transit of Venus, King Kalākaua, and Indigenous Knowing.” Jessica Schonhut-Stasik is a Ph.D. candidate in astronomy at Vanderbilt University, specializing in Galactic Archaeology. After being diagnosed with autism, ADHD, and OCD at age 27, Jessica became a neurodivergent self-advocate and is the Program and Communications Manager at the Frist Center for Autism and Innovation, housed in Vanderbilt’s School of Engineering. She works remotely from her home on Hawai'i Island, where she lives with her husband, dogs, and cats. Jessica has become deeply rooted in the community since emigrating from the U.K. in 2015 to live and work in the Hawai'i astronomy community. She participates in outreach and education initiatives such as the Maunakea Scholars program. She hosts the AstronomerAND podcast, which interviews non-traditional astronomers to elevate the voices of marginalized communities. View Essay

Past Recipients

2022 winner.

Miguel Ohnesorge is a PhD Student at the University of Cambridge and Visiting Fellow at Boston University’s Philosophy of Geoscience Lab. In his PhD project, he reconstructs how physical geodesists measure(d) planetary figures and explores the insights that this problem holds for the epistemology of scientific measurement. His other work focuses on the global history of physics and the ethics and epistemology of industry-funded science. You can learn more about his research on his website  https://www.mohnesorgehps.com .

Winning Essay

2022 Runner-up

Shraddha Agrawal University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

I am a fifth-year Ph.D. student in the Department of Physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. My research is in atomic physics, specifically using ultracold atomic gases to explore novel topological phenomena. Outside of research, I enjoy reading fiction, writing physics-related essays and stories, doing crosswords, and making good food. View Essay

2021 Winner

Briley Lewis is a fourth-year graduate student and NSF Fellow at the University of California, Los Angeles studying Astronomy & Astrophysics. Her research focuses on how we can apply techniques from direct imaging of exoplanets to other planetary science questions. She is a member of the Astrobites collaboration, contributing author for Massive Science , and former organizer for ComSciCon-Los Angeles . She also teaches writing at UCLA in her course for first year undergraduates, “Astrobiology in Science Journalism.” Follow her on Twitter @briles_34 or visit her website www.briley-lewis.com .

2021 Runner-up

Advait Iyer is an undergraduate freshman studying engineering at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. His interests include physics, soccer statistics, whistling and writing.

I am a second-year PhD student in Department of Physics and the Illinois Quantum Information Science and Technology (IQUIST) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. I completed my B.S. dual-degree in Physics and Chemistry at Baylor University in Waco, Texas. My research is in ultracold atomic physics with the goal of investigating novel states of quantum matter for experimental approaches to quantum computing. I enjoy playing the piano and all kinds of formal writing from research-driven works to musical compositions.

Hannah Pell currently works in science publishing and as a freelance science writer. She is a former Research Assistant for the Center for History of Physics at the American Institute of Physics and an alumna of the Fulbright Program. She earned her B.S. in Physics and B.A. in Music from Lebanon Valley College and her M.A. in Music Theory from the University of Oregon. Her current research interests include science policy and communication with regards to nuclear power, large-scale high energy physics collaborations, and intersections between science and labor history. She has also been appointed to the Citizens Advisory Panel for the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant decommissioning process.

John Vastola Vanderbilt University

John Vastola is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Vanderbilt University. He currently uses theoretical tools from physics to better understand how individual cells regulate how many proteins and RNA of various kinds they have. More broadly, he is interested in asking and trying to answer questions about nature; for example, how do collections of apparently inanimate atoms conspire to form our friends and family?

Zhixin Wang is a Ph.D. candidate at the Department of Applied Physics and the Yale Quantum Institute at Yale University. He completed his B.S. in electrical engineering at Tsinghua University in Beijing, and his M.S. and M.Phil. in applied physics at Yale University. His research focuses on the experimental and theoretical study of superconducting quantum circuits, microwave quantum optics, and hybrid quantum systems.

Melia Bonomo is a Ph.D. candidate in applied physics at Rice University in Houston, TX. She completed her B.S. in physics with a minor in Italian at Dickinson College in Carlisle, PA and her M.S. in applied physics at Rice. Prior to graduate school, Melia spent several years teaching high school in Italy. Her current research interest is in theoretical biophysics, with a focus on applications to studying the human brain. She also enjoys investigating the history of physics and obscure scientists, particularly those with underrepresented genders.

Flavio Del Santo is a Ph.D. student in physics at the University of Vienna and Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information. He completed his Bachelor in Physics and Astrophysics at the University of Florence (Italy) and his Masters in Theoretical Physics at the University of Vienna. His main research interests are the foundations of quantum mechanics, with a focus on the quantum measurement problem. He is also engaged in research activities in the history and philosophy of science.

Grigoris Panoutsopoulos is a Ph.D. student at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, in the Department of Philosophy and History of Science. He holds a B.Sc. in Physics and a M.A. in History and Philosophy of Science and Technology. His research has focused on the history of CERN, Modern Physics, Big Science, the relationship between theory and experiment and the contemporary crises in the field of High Energy Physics. He has made presentations in international conferences and he has published articles in international journals and edited collections. He is the co-author, of the book Borders, Bodies and Narratives of Crisis in Europe, (Palgrave Macmillan 2018).

Ryan is a first-year Ph.D. student at The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, VA. His interest in fusion began through a 2016 Summer Science Undergraduate Laboratory Internship (SULI) at General Atomics in San Diego, CA. During that summer he researched energetic particles on the DIII-D Tokamak and this experience guided him towards a research career in fusion energy and intrigued him to learn more about the history of the science.

Shaun Datta is a senior studying Physics, Mathematics, and Computer Science at MIT.

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The Year in Physics

December 22, 2022

Myriam Wares for Quanta Magazine

Introduction

The year began right as the James Webb Space Telescope was unfurling its sunshield — the giant, nail-bitingly thin and delicate blanket that, once open, would plunge the observatory into frigid shade and open up its view of the infrared universe. Within hours of the ball dropping here in New York City, the sunshield could have caught on a snag, ruining the new telescope and tossing billions of dollars and decades of work into the void. Instead, the sunshield opened perfectly, getting the new year in physics off to an excellent start.

JWST soon started to glimpse gorgeous new faces of the cosmos. On July 11, President Biden unveiled the telescope’s first public image — a panoramic view of thousands of galaxies various distances away in space and time. Four more instantly iconic images were released the next day. Since then, the telescope’s data has been distributed among hundreds of astronomers and cosmologists, and cosmic discoveries and papers are pouring forth.

Astronomy is swimming in fresh data of all kinds. In May, for instance, the Event Horizon Telescope released the first-ever photo of the supermassive black hole in the heart of our galaxy — one of several recent observations that are helping astrophysicists figure out how galaxies operate . Other telescopes are mapping the locations of millions of galaxies, an effort that recently yielded surprising evidence of an asymmetry in galaxy distribution .

Breakthroughs are coming fast in condensed matter physics, too. An experiment published in September all but proved the origin of high-temperature superconductivity , which could help in the field’s perennial quest for an even warmer version of the phenomenon that could work at room temperature. That’s also a goal of research on two-dimensional materials. This year, a kind of flat crystal that once helped lubricate skis has emerged as a powerful platform for exotic, potentially useful quantum phenomena.

Particle physicists, who seek new fundamental ingredients of the universe, have been less lucky. They’ve continued to unravel features of particles we already know of — including the proton , the subject of a wonderful visual project we published this fall. But theorists have few if any concrete clues about how to go beyond the Standard Model of particle physics, the stiflingly comprehensive set of equations for the quantum world that’s been the theory to beat for half a century. Hope is a virtue, though, and at least one possible crack in the Standard Model did open up this year. Let’s start the 2022 greatest-hits list there.

Samuel Velasco/Quanta Magazine

A Tantalizingly Heavy Boson

The Tevatron collider in Illinois smashed its last protons a decade ago, but its handlers have continued to analyze its detections of W bosons — particles that mediate the weak force. They announced in April that, by painstakingly tracking down and eliminating sources of error in the data, they’d measured the mass of the W boson more precisely than ever before and found the particle significantly heavier than predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics.

A true discrepancy with the Standard Model would be a monumental discovery, pointing to new particles or effects beyond the theory’s purview. But hold the applause. Other experiments weighing the W — most notably the ATLAS experiment at Europe’s Large Hadron Collider — measured a mass much closer to the Standard Model prediction. The new Tevatron measurement purports to be more precise, but one or both groups might have missed some subtle source of error.  

The ATLAS experiment aims to resolve the matter. As Guillaume Unal, a member of ATLAS, said, “The W boson has to be the same on both sides of the Atlantic.”

Emily Buder/Quanta Magazine; Kristina Armitage and Rui Braz for Quanta Magazine

Rethinking Naturalness

All that buzz about a tenuous hint of a problem with the Standard Model reflects the troubled situation particle physicists find themselves in. The 17 elementary particles known to exist — the ones described by the Standard Model — don’t solve all the mysteries of the universe. Yet the Large Hadron Collider hasn’t turned up an 18th.

For years, theorists have struggled with how to proceed. But recently, a new direction has opened up. Theorists are rethinking a long-held assumption known as naturalness — a way of reasoning about what’s natural or expected in the laws of nature. The idea is closely connected to nature’s reductionist, nesting-doll structure, where big stuff is explained by smaller stuff. Now theorists wonder if profound naturalness problems like the lack of new particles from the Large Hadron Collider might mean the laws of nature aren’t structured in such a simple bottom-up way after all. In a spate of new papers, they’re exploring how gravity might dramatically change the picture.

“Some people call it a crisis,” said the theoretical particle physicist Isabel Garcia Garcia, referring to the current moment in the field. But that’s too pessimistic, in her view: “It’s a time where I feel like we are on to something profound.”  

(Incidentally, as well as rethinking naturalness, Garcia Garcia also studies the physics of nothing — the subject of a rollicking explainer published in August.)

Sasha Maslov and Olena Shmahalo for Quanta Magazine

2D Physics Unlocked  

Thousands of condensed matter physicists have studied graphene, a crystal sheet made of carbon atoms that has special properties. But lately a new family of flat crystals has hit the scene: transition metal dichalcogenides, or TMDs. Stacking different TMDs gives rise to bespoke materials with different quantum properties and behaviors.

The near-magical properties of these materials are known largely thanks to Jie Shan and Kin Fai Mak, a married couple who co-run a lab at Cornell University. Quanta ’s profile of Shan and Mak , published this past summer, tells the story of 2D materials against the backdrop of condensed matter physics, while also unpacking a slew of exciting new breakthroughs spilling out of Shan and Mak’s lab, from artificial atoms to long-lived excitons. A short documentary about the duo and their discoveries also appeared on Quanta ’s YouTube channel .

Kim Taylor for Quanta Magazine

A Holographic Wormhole

In November, physicists announced a first-of-its-kind “quantum gravity experiment on a chip,” in the words of team leader Maria Spiropulu of the California Institute of Technology. They ran a “wormhole teleportation protocol” on Google’s Sycamore quantum computer, manipulating the flow of quantum information in the computer in such a way that it was mathematically equivalent, or dual, to information passing through a wormhole between two points in space-time.  

To be clear, the wormhole isn’t part of the space-time we inhabit. It’s a sort of simulation or hologram — though not one of the kinds we’re used to — and it has a different space-time geometry than the real, positively curved, 4D space-time we live in. The point of the experiment was to demonstrate holographic duality, a major theoretical discovery of the last 25 years which states that certain quantum systems of particles can be interpreted as a bendy, gravitating space-time continuum. (The space-time can loosely be thought of as a hologram that emerges from the lower-dimensional quantum system.) In more advanced quantum computer experiments in the coming years, researchers hope to explore the mechanics of holographic duality, with the ultimate goal of unraveling whether “gravity in our universe is emergent from some quantum [bits] in the same way that this little baby one-dimensional wormhole is emergent” from the Sycamore chip, said Daniel Jafferis of Harvard University, who developed the wormhole teleportation protocol.  

The holographic wormhole spawned endless opinions among physicists and lay readers alike. Some physicists thought the quantum simulation was too pared down compared to the theoretical model it was based on to have a holographic dual description as a wormhole. Many felt that the physicists behind the work, and we, the journalists who covered it, should have better emphasized that this was not an actual wormhole that could transport people to Andromeda. Indeed, to open up a wormhole in real space-time, you’d need negative-energy material, and that doesn’t seem to exist.  

NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI and Judy Schmidt

JWST Is Revolutionizing Astronomy

The biggest thing in physics this year is floating a million miles away, at a spot in space called Lagrange Point 2, where its sunshield can simultaneously block out the Earth, moon and sun. JWST’s images have made hearts stand still. Its data is already reshaping our understanding of the cosmos.

When Biden unveiled JWST’s first image, researchers immediately began spotting interesting galaxies in the vast tableau. Scientific papers appeared online within days. Two weeks later, Quanta reported that JWST data had already yielded new discoveries about galaxies, stars, exoplanets and even Jupiter. One of the most exciting early findings was that galaxies seem to have assembled surprisingly early in cosmic history — perhaps even earlier than cosmological models can easily explain. Expect to hear more about this in 2023.  

We’ll also have to wait patiently for JWST’s much-anticipated studies of the rocky planets in a nearby star system called TRAPPIST-1. A key JWST specialty is to dissect the starlight that pierces the atmosphere of a distant planet as the planet moves across the face of its star. This reveals what the planet’s atmosphere is made of, including possible evidence of “biosignature” gases that might signify alien biology. The telescope has produced excellent exoplanet spectra already. But potentially habitable worlds, like the TRAPPIST-1 planets, are so small that they’ll need to transit in front of their suns a few times over the next few years before atmospheric features will show up.  

Seeing clear-cut biosignatures in their skies might be unlikely. Still, some astronomers have waited their whole careers for the search to begin. Lisa Kaltenegger, director of the Carl Sagan Institute at Cornell University and one of the leading computer modelers of potentially habitable worlds, came of age just as the first exoplanets were discovered. She joined a cadre of dreamers who started thinking about how to find life on one. Our profile of Kaltenegger describes how she and her generation of exoplanet astronomers have planned for this era for decades, setting the stage for an epochal detection. More on that in the coming years.  

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hang in there —

Animals use physics let us count the ways, cats twist and snakes slide, exploiting and negotiating physical laws..

Tom Siegfried, Knowable Magazine - Jul 14, 2024 11:13 am UTC

Isaac Newton would never have discovered the laws of motion had he studied only cats.

Suppose you hold a cat, stomach up, and drop it from a second-story window. If a cat is simply a mechanical system that obeys Newton’s rules of matter in motion, it should land on its back. (OK, there are some technicalities—like this should be done in a vacuum, but ignore that for now.) Instead, most cats usually avoid injury by twisting themselves on the way down to land on their feet.

Most people are not mystified by this trick—everybody has seen videos attesting to cats’ acrobatic prowess. But for more than a century, scientists have wondered about the physics of how cats do it. Clearly, the mathematical theorem analyzing the falling cat as a mechanical system fails for live cats , as Nobel laureate Frank Wilczek points out in a recent paper.

“This theorem is not relevant to real biological cats,” writes Wilczek, a theoretical physicist at MIT. They are not closed mechanical systems, and can “consume stored energy … empowering mechanical motion.”

Nevertheless, the laws of physics do apply to cats—as well as every other kind of animal, from insects to elephants. Biology does not avoid physics; it embraces it. From friction on microscopic scales to fluid dynamics in water and air, animals exploit physical laws to run or swim or fly. Every other aspect of animal behavior, from breathing to building shelters, depends in some way on the restrictions imposed, and opportunities permitted, by physics.

“Living organisms are … systems whose actions are constrained by physics across multiple length scales and timescales,” Jennifer Rieser and coauthors write in the current issue of the Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics .

While the field of animal behavior physics is still in its infancy, substantial progress has been made in explaining individual behaviors, along with how those behaviors are shaped via interactions with other individuals and the environment. Apart from discovering more about how animals perform their diverse repertoire of skills, such research may also lead to new physics knowledge gained by scrutinizing animal abilities that scientists don’t yet understand.

Critters in motion

Physics applies to animals in action over a wide range of spatial scales. At the smallest end of the range, attractive forces between nearby atoms facilitate the ability of geckos and some insects to climb up walls or even walk on ceilings. On a slightly larger scale, textures and structures provide adhesion for other biological gymnastics. In bird feathers, for instance, tiny hooks and barbs act like Velcro, holding feathers in position to enhance lift when flying, Rieser and colleagues report.

Biological textures also aid movement by facilitating friction between animal parts and surfaces. Scales on California king snakes possess textures that allow rapid forward sliding, but increase friction to retard backward or sideways motion. Some sidewinding snakes have apparently evolved different textures that reduce friction in the direction of motion, recent research suggests.

Small-scale structures are also important for animals’ interaction with water. For many animals, microstructures make the body “superhydrophobic”—capable of blocking the penetration of water. “In wet climates, water droplet shedding can be essential in animals, like flying birds and insects, where weight and stability are crucially important,” note Rieser, of Emory University, and coauthors Chantal Nguyen, Orit Peleg and Calvin Riiska.

Water-blocking surfaces also help animals keep their skins clean. “This self-cleansing mechanism … can be important to help protect the animal from dangers like skin-borne parasites and other infections,” the Annual Review authors explain. And in some cases, removing foreign material from an animal’s surface may be necessary to preserve the surface properties that enhance camouflage.

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How a simple physics experiment could reveal the “dark dimension”

Could the universe's missing matter be hiding in a "dark" extra dimension? We now have simple ways to test this outlandish idea - and the existence of extra dimensions more generally

10 July 2024

Craig Frazier

We tend not to dwell on the fact that we exist in three dimensions. Forwards-back, left-right, up-down; these are the axes on which we navigate the world. When we try to imagine something else, it typically conjures images from the wildest science fiction – of portals in the fabric of space-time and parallel worlds.

Yet serious physicists have long been spellbound by the prospect of extra dimensions . For all their intangibility, they promise to resolve several big questions about the deepest workings of the universe. Besides, they can’t be ruled out simply because they are difficult to imagine and even harder to observe. “There’s no reason why it has to be three,” says Georges Obied at the University of Oxford. “It could have been two; it could have been four or 10.”

Why the laws of physics don't actually exist

Still, there comes a point when any self-respecting physicist wants hard evidence. Which is why it is so exciting that, over the past few years, researchers have developed a handful of techniques that could finally snare proof of extra dimensions. We might yet spot gravity leaking into them, for instance. We may see their subtle imprint on black holes or find their traces in particle accelerators.

But now, in an unexpected twist, Obied and others are making the case for an extra dimension that is radically unlike any we have concocted previously. This “dark dimension” would conceal particles from the dawn of time that could solve the mystery of dark matter , whose gravitational pull is thought to have shaped the cosmos. Crucially, it should also be relatively…

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This Tiny Particle Could Upend Everything We Know About Gravity—And the Universe—Scientists Say

A scientific breakthrough on the tiniest scale could soon help us answer the universe’s greatest mysteries.

EVERYWHERE YOU LOOK , you can see gravity’s fingerprint. It’s in the path the moon takes around Earth each night and the humbling thump when you wipe out on an icy patch of sidewalk.

For decades, scientists have dreamed of finding a way to reconcile both gravity’s effects on the classical and quantum scale through complex ideas like string theory or loop quantum gravity. A unified theory of gravity could be the key to solving other big questions in the universe as well—like how the Big Bang began or what makes up dark matter. Yet, while both ideas have their own merit in theory, actually being able to detect the small effects of gravity on the quantum level is another matter entirely.

That’s where new research published earlier this year in Science Advances comes into play. In this work, a research group from the U.K., Netherlands, and Italy designed an experiment so sensitive that it can measure a gravitational force equal to one-quintillionth of a Newton (on the scale of 1 attoNewton) on a particle weighing only 0.43 milligrams. For reference, the gravitational force of one Newton is roughly equivalent to the force of gravity pushing down on an apple sitting on a table.

Tjerk Oosterkamp, Ph.D, is a senior author on the paper and a professor of theoretical physics at Leiden University in the Netherlands. He says that even though the gravitational force his team measured was on a very tiny particle—in fact, the tiniest particle to date to have such a force measured—he stresses that this measurement is still “a million miles away” from demonstrating quantum gravity.

“What we’re saying is that this is a step on the way towards measuring quantum gravity effects,” Oosterkamp explains.

Being able to measure these effects could be an important first step toward a clearer understanding of quantum gravity —which could unlock secrets about the very origin of the universe itself.

YOU CAN THINK ABOUT gravitational effects like a sound wave. To detect a quieter noise, an audio recorder needs to be more sensitive and it needs to filter out background noise. Similarly, the smaller an object, the “quieter” its gravitational force.

To “hear” the gravitational force on their 0.43-milligram particle, Oosterkamp and his colleagues needed to design an experiment to listen very closely while filtering out non-gravitational vibrations, like the random motion of particles buzzing and colliding that creates thermal energy. The cooler the experiment, the fewer stray vibrations to remove.

To do this, the team relied on a combination of tools to increase sensitivity, including: a dilution refrigerator (similar to the kind used to cool down quantum computers ) to minimize thermal energy, a mass-spring system to absorb environmental vibrations, and a superconducting “trap” to levitate the small particle to isolate it from any lingering vibrations. A second 2.4-kilogram source mass was placed nearby to create a gravitational force for the levitating particle; two objects with mass are required in such an experiment so that one source’s gravitational force can act upon the other, much like Earth and the moon.

According to Oosterkamp, building this contraption to operate under such extremely cold conditions—very close to absolute zero , or -273.15 degrees Celsius—is what sets this result apart. It’s also why he thought the experiment might never take place to begin with.

“It was unexpected that this actually works,” Oosterkamp says. “I showed my efforts to a retired colleague when he revisited the lab, and he saw all these masses and springs suspended from this very cold plate in our dilution refrigerator, and he asked ‘Why do you expect you can even cool this Christmas tree?’”

Because of these precautions to eliminate excess vibrations, the team was able to measure a 30-attoNewton gravitational force on the levitating test particle.

Yasunori Nomura, Ph.D., is a professor of theoretical physics at UC Berkeley whose work focuses on quantum theory and quantum gravity. Nomura says that while this experimental design could play a role in isolating gravitational forces on even smaller particles, it may still have limitations when attempting to measure quantum gravity itself.

“This measurement is a step toward directly observing gravitational forces in a truly quantum regime,” Nomura says. However, one sticking point, he says, is that the effects of quantum gravity are thought to only become significant at extremely small scales. “Reaching these scales with current measurement techniques, including levitating a small mass in superconducting traps, is impossible,” Nomura says.

Nomura says there may also be other approaches to measuring quantum gravity that avoid directly measuring small particles at all.

WHILE OOSTERKAMP’S GRAVITY DETECTOR may not be measuring quantum gravity effects anytime soon, he hopes that it could soon play a role in detecting large gravity effects instead. In particular, he hopes to use it as a tool to increase the sensitivity of experiments looking for gravitational waves —the ripple effects in spacetime left behind by large gravitational events like colliding black holes. Experiments like the U.S.-based Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) and Italy-based Virgo gravitational wave observatory (VIRGO) are already detecting these ripples by measuring very small changes in the path of a laser across multiple kilometers.

“We’re hoping to build the successor to LIGO/VIRGO, which is called the Einstein Telescope ,” says Oosterkamp. This telescope is planned to be built in Europe in the mid-2030s and would be a next-generation gravitational wave detector. “They [the LIGO/VIRGO team] can teach us about even lower vibrations, and we tell them what we know about cooling things.”

Rana Adhikari, Ph.D., is a professor of physics at CalTech who has contributed to LIGO. He agrees that learning how to limit vibrations through cooling will play an important role in future gravitational wave detectors.

“The most interesting part [of this work] is how they are able to get the temperature so low and maintain such exquisitely low acceleration noises,” Adhikari says. “Future gravitational wave detectors operated [under cold conditions] will need to build on the foundation of this work. Being able to operate at such a low temperature would eliminate nearly all of the thermodynamic noise sources that we struggle with.”

And while Oosterkamp’s work may not yet pave a clear path toward measuring quantum gravity, Adhikari says that it’s likely one of many puzzle pieces that will unlock this world-changing scientific discovery.

“This [work] is a great example of how experimental ingenuity can lead to making measurements of the universe in a new way,” Adhikari says. “The road towards quantum gravity will be decorated with experiments of ever increasing sensitivity.”

Sarah is a science and technology journalist based in Boston interested in how innovation and research intersect with our daily lives. She has written for a number of national publications and covers innovation news at Inverse .

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• Published: 05 July 2024

Five books that put physics in context

Nature Reviews Physics volume  6 ,  page 401 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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To complement our Collection “Physics as a human endeavour”, we share some reading on the history and sociology of physics.

Quantum Legacies: Dispatches from an Uncertain World by David Kaiser (University of Chicago Press, 2020) . “The particularities of time and space can shape scientific research”, writes physicist and historian of science, David Kaiser, in the introduction to this collection of essays. Kaiser brings together his own writings from over the years that put scientists and scientific discoveries into their social and political contexts. Read about Dirac’s relationship with his father, how textbooks shape each generation of physicists and the impact of the Cold War on American physics. Part popular science, part popular history and part personal reflections, the book provides colour and context to the physics of the 20th century and opens up questions for the physics of the 21st.

The Alchemy of Us: How Humans and Matter Transformed One Another by Ainissa Ramirez (MIT Press, 2021) . Many people think of ‘culture’ as synonymous with the arts: painting, theatre and so on. But our day-to-day lives are shaped just as much by technology: think of how our relationship with our own faces has changed in the past 100 years, from when photographs were rare, expensive and carefully posed, to today’s era of the ubiquitous selfie. Technology, in turn, is shaped by materials science, which is constantly making new functions possible. In each chapter of The Alchemy of Us , Ramirez discusses the history of a technology, how it was enabled by developments in materials science, and how it has changed our lives. Ramirez also portrays the people — both famous and lesser-known — behind the technologies, resulting in a book that is both fascinating and very human.

When Science Meets Power by Geoff Mulgan (Polity, 2023) . There is no escaping politics in science. How the research landscape develops is shaped by political priorities. Yet politicians need science solutions. Geoff Mulgan explores this interdependence in When Science Meets Power . With some scientific and technological advances now threatening the survival of our species, he points out that political engagement to mitigate these threats depends on how we feel about what matters most. Mulgan proposes how to politicize science and scientize politics. He argues against scientific “objective detachment” and for the synthesis of science, politics and ethics. Then society as a whole can choose how to govern new technologies.

In a Flight of Starlings: The Wonder of Complex Systems by Giorgio Parisi (translated by Simon Carnell) (Penguin Press, 2023) . Parisi’s goal in writing this book is to help non-scientists trust science, by not simply saying “trust us” but showing concretely how scientific consensus is achieved. Part explanation of complex systems science, part personal account of what it’s like to do physics research, In a Flight of Starlings feels a bit like sitting at a conference dinner table where an Italian physics professor is holding forth. Although some of the physics explanations may require some background knowledge to understand them, the more autobiographical passages are accessible to all, and make for an entertaining read.

The Disordered Cosmos: A Journey into Dark Matter, Spacetime, and Dreams Deferred by Chanda Prescod-Weinstein (Bold Type Books, 2021) . There is no shortage of popular science books that explain how the universe works. But rather than an abstract tale of quarks and gluons, Prescod-Weinstein grounds the explanations of the Big Bang and the standard model within her own story of being a Black woman physicist. This book is as much about people as it is about physics. Through the structure of the universe, the structure of society is revealed, complete with racism, sexism, classism and ableism. In doing so, Prescod-Weinstein challenges the scientific community that prides itself on empiricism to value the experiences and intellect of Black women physicists.

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Five books that put physics in context. Nat Rev Phys 6 , 401 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42254-024-00737-w

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Published : 05 July 2024

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Theoretical physicists find Higgs boson does not seem to contain any harbingers of new physics

by Polish Academy of Sciences

The Higgs boson was discovered in the detectors of the Large Hadron Collider a dozen or so years ago. It has proved to be a particle so difficult to produce and observe that, despite the passage of time, its properties are still not known with satisfactory accuracy. Now we know a little more about its origin, thanks to the just-published achievement of an international group of theoretical physicists with the participation of the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences.

The research is published in the journal Physical Review Letters .

The scientific world is unanimous in its opinion that the greatest discovery made with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the famous Higgs boson. For twelve years, physicists have been trying to learn as precisely as possible about the properties of this very important elementary particle. The task is extremely difficult due to both the experimental challenges and numerous computational hurdles.

Fortunately, significant progress has just been made in theoretical research , thanks to a group of physicists from the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IFJ PAN) in Cracow, the RWTH Aachen University (RWTH) in Aachen and the Max-Planck-Institut für Physik (MPI) in Garching near Munich.

The Standard Model is a complex theoretical structure constructed in the 1970s to coherently describe the currently known elementary particles of matter (quarks, as well as electrons, muons, tau and the associated trinity of neutrinos) and electromagnetic forces (photons) and nuclear forces (gluons in the case of strong interactions, W and Z bosons in the case of weak interactions).

The icing on the cake in the creation of the Standard Model was the discovery, thanks to the LHC, of the Higgs boson, a particle that plays a key role in the mechanism responsible for giving masses to the other elementary particles. The finding of the Higgs was announced in mid-2012. Since then, scientists have been trying to gain as much information as possible about this fundamentally important particle.

"For a physicist, one of the most important parameters associated with any elementary or nuclear particle is the cross section for a specific collision. This is because it gives us information on how often we can expect the particle to appear in collisions of a certain type. We have focused on the theoretical determination of the Higgs boson cross section in gluon-gluon collisions. They are responsible for the production of about 90% of the Higgs, traces of whose presence have been registered in the detectors of the LHC accelerator," explains Dr. Rene Poncelet (IFJ PAN).

Prof. Michal Czakon (RWTH), co-author of the article, adds, "The essence of our work was the desire to take into account, when determining the active cross section for the production of Higgs bosons, certain corrections that, due to their apparently small contribution, are usually neglected, because ignoring them significantly simplifies the calculations. It's the first time we have succeeded in overcoming the mathematical difficulties and determining these corrections."

The importance of the role of higher-order corrections for understanding the properties of the Higgs bosons can be seen from the fact that the secondary corrections calculated in the paper, apparently small, contribute almost one-fifth to the value of the sought active cross section. This compares with third-order corrections of 3% (but which reduce the computational uncertainties to just 1%).

A novelty of the work was to take into account the effect of bottom-quark masses, leading to a small but noticeable shift of about 1%. It is worth recalling here that the LHC collides protons, i.e. particles consisting of two up quarks and one down quark. The temporary presence of quarks with larger masses inside protons, such as the beauty quark, is a consequence of the quantum nature of the strong interactions that bind quarks in the proton.

"The values of the active cross section for Higgs boson production found by our group and measured in previous beam collisions at the LHC are practically the same, naturally taking into account current computational and measurement inaccuracies. It therefore appears that no harbingers of new physics are visible within the mechanisms responsible for the formation of Higgs bosons that we are investigating—at least for the time being," Dr. Poncelet summarizes the team's work.

The widespread belief among scientists in the need for the existence of new physics stems from the fact that a number of fundamentally important questions cannot be answered with the Standard Model. Why do elementary particles have the masses they do? Why do they form families? What is dark matter made of, traces of which are so clearly visible in the cosmos? What is the reason for the predominance of matter over antimatter in the universe? The Standard Model also needs to be extended because it does not at all take into account gravity, which is such a common interaction.

Importantly, the latest achievement of theoretical physicists from the IFJ PAN, RWTH and MPI does not definitively rule out the presence of new physics in the phenomena accompanying the birth of the Higgs boson. Much may change when data from the gradually starting fourth research cycle of the Large Hadron Collider begin to be analyzed.

The increasing number of observations of new particle collisions may make it possible to narrow down the measurement uncertainties in such a way that the measured range of permissible cross sections for Higgs production no longer coincides with that defined by theory. Whether or not this will happen, physicists will find out in a few years.

For now, the Standard Model can feel safer than ever—and this fact is slowly starting to become the most surprising discovery made with the LHC.

Journal information: Physical Review Letters

Provided by Polish Academy of Sciences

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