essay for evolution

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Biology library

Course: biology library > unit 25.

Introduction to evolution and natural selection
Ape clarification
Natural selection and the owl butterfly
Darwin, evolution, & natural selection
Variation in a species
Natural selection and Darwin

Evidence for evolution

Key points:

Anatomy. Species may share similar physical features because the feature was present in a common ancestor ( homologous structures ).
Molecular biology. DNA and the genetic code reflect the shared ancestry of life. DNA comparisons can show how related species are.
Biogeography. The global distribution of organisms and the unique features of island species reflect evolution and geological change.
Fossils. Fossils document the existence of now-extinct past species that are related to present-day species.
Direct observation. We can directly observe small-scale evolution in organisms with short lifecycles (e.g., pesticide-resistant insects).

Introduction

Evolution happens on large and small scales.

Macroevolution , which refers to large-scale changes that occur over extended time periods, such as the formation of new species and groups.
Microevolution , which refers to small-scale changes that affect just one or a few genes and happen in populations over shorter timescales.

The evidence for evolution

Anatomy and embryology, homologous features, analogous features, determining relationships from similar features, molecular biology.

The same genetic material (DNA)
The same, or highly similar, genetic codes
The same basic process of gene expression (transcription and translation)
The same molecular building blocks, such as amino acids

Homologous genes

Biogeography, fossil record, direct observation of microevolution.

Before DDT was applied, a tiny fraction of mosquitos in the population would have had naturally occurring gene versions ( alleles ) that made them resistant to DDT. These versions would have appeared through random mutation , or changes in DNA sequence. Without DDT around, the resistant alleles would not have helped mosquitoes survive or reproduce (and might even have been harmful), so they would have remained rare.
When DDT spraying began, most of the mosquitos would have been killed by the pesticide. Which mosquitos would have survived? For the most part, only the rare individuals that happened to have DDT resistance alleles (and thus survived being sprayed with DDT). These surviving mosquitoes would have been able to reproduce and leave offspring.
Over generations, more and more DDT-resistant mosquitoes would have been born into the population. That's because resistant parents would have been consistently more likely to survive and reproduce than non-resistant parents, and would have passed their DDT resistance alleles (and thus, the capacity to survive DDT) on to their offspring. Eventually, the mosquito populations would have bounced back to high numbers, but would have been composed largely of DDT-resistant individuals.
Homologous structures provide evidence for common ancestry, while analogous structures show that similar selective pressures can produce similar adaptations (beneficial features).
Similarities and differences among biological molecules (e.g., in the DNA sequence of genes) can be used to determine species' relatedness.
Biogeographical patterns provide clues about how species are related to each other.
The fossil record, though incomplete, provides information about what species existed at particular times of Earth’s history.
Some populations, like those of microbes and some insects, evolve over relatively short time periods and can observed directly.

Attribution:

Works cited:.

Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. (2016, April 6). Retrieved May 15, 2016 from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_in_Biology_Makes_Sense_Except_in_the_Light_of_Evolution .
Wilkin, D. and Akre, B. (2016, March 23). Comparative anatomy and embryology - Advanced. In CK-12 biology advanced concepts . Retrieved from http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Biology-Advanced-Concepts/section/10.22/ .
Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., and Jackson, R. B. (2011). Anatomical and molecular homologies. In Campbell biology (10th ed., p. 474). San Francisco, CA: Pearson.
Chapman, B. R. and Bolen, E. G. (2015). Convergent evolution [Glossary entry]. In Ecology of North America (2nd ed., p. 311). West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Insulin. (2014, June 6). In UCSD signaling gateway . Retrieved from http://www.signaling-gateway.org/molecule/query?afcsid=A004315&type=orthologs&adv=latest .
Wilkin, D. and Akre, B. (2016, March 23). Evolution and the fossil record - Advanced. In CK-12 biology advanced concepts . Retrieved from http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Biology-Advanced-Concepts/section/10.21/ .
Reece, J. B., Taylor, M. R., Simon, E. J., and Dickey, J. L. (2011). Scientists can observe natural selection in action. In Campbell biology: Concepts & connections (7th ed., p. 259). Boston, MA: Benjamin Cummings.

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Introductory essay

Written by the educator who created What Makes Us Human?, a brief look at the key facts, tough questions and big ideas in his field. Begin this TED Study with a fascinating read that gives context and clarity to the material.

As a biological anthropologist, I never liked drawing sharp distinctions between human and non-human. Such boundaries make little evolutionary sense, as they ignore or grossly underestimate what we humans have in common with our ancestors and other primates. What's more, it's impossible to make sharp distinctions between human and non-human in the paleoanthropological record. Even with a time machine, we couldn't go back to identify one generation of humans and say that the previous generation contained none: one's biological parents, by definition, must be in the same species as their offspring. This notion of continuity is inherent to most evolutionary perspectives and it's reflected in the similarities (homologies) shared among very different species. As a result, I've always been more interested in what makes us similar to, not different from, non-humans.

Evolutionary research has clearly revealed that we share great biological continuity with others in the animal kingdom. Yet humans are truly unique in ways that have not only shaped our own evolution, but have altered the entire planet. Despite great continuity and similarity with our fellow primates, our biocultural evolution has produced significant, profound discontinuities in how we interact with each other and in our environment, where no precedent exists in other animals. Although we share similar underlying evolved traits with other species, we also display uses of those traits that are so novel and extraordinary that they often make us forget about our commonalities. Preparing a twig to fish for termites may seem comparable to preparing a stone to produce a sharp flake—but landing on the moon and being able to return to tell the story is truly out of this non-human world.

Humans are the sole hominin species in existence today. Thus, it's easier than it would have been in the ancient past to distinguish ourselves from our closest living relatives in the animal kingdom. Primatologists such as Jane Goodall and Frans de Waal, however, continue to clarify why the lines dividing human from non-human aren't as distinct as we might think. Goodall's classic observations of chimpanzee behaviors like tool use, warfare and even cannibalism demolished once-cherished views of what separates us from other primates. de Waal has done exceptional work illustrating some continuity in reciprocity and fairness, and in empathy and compassion, with other species. With evolution, it seems, we are always standing on the shoulders of others, our common ancestors.

Primatology—the study of living primates—is only one of several approaches that biological anthropologists use to understand what makes us human. Two others, paleoanthropology (which studies human origins through the fossil record) and molecular anthropology (which studies human origins through genetic analysis), also yield some surprising insights about our hominin relatives. For example, Zeresenay Alemsegad's painstaking field work and analysis of Selam, a 3.3 million-year old fossil of a 3-year-old australopithecine infant from Ethiopia, exemplifies how paleoanthropologists can blur boundaries between living humans and apes.

Selam, if alive today, would not be confused with a three-year-old human—but neither would we mistake her for a living ape. Selam's chimpanzee-like hyoid bone suggests a more ape-like form of vocal communication, rather than human language capability. Overall, she would look chimp-like in many respects—until she walked past you on two feet. In addition, based on Selam's brain development, Alemseged theorizes that Selam and her contemporaries experienced a human-like extended childhood with a complex social organization.

Fast-forward to the time when Neanderthals lived, about 130,000 – 30,000 years ago, and most paleoanthropologists would agree that language capacity among the Neanderthals was far more human-like than ape-like; in the Neanderthal fossil record, hyoids and other possible evidence of language can be found. Moreover, paleogeneticist Svante Pääbo's groundbreaking research in molecular anthropology strongly suggests that Neanderthals interbred with modern humans. Paabo's work informs our genetic understanding of relationships to ancient hominins in ways that one could hardly imagine not long ago—by extracting and comparing DNA from fossils comprised largely of rock in the shape of bones and teeth—and emphasizes the great biological continuity we see, not only within our own species, but with other hominins sometimes classified as different species.

Though genetics has made truly astounding and vital contributions toward biological anthropology by this work, it's important to acknowledge the equally pivotal role paleoanthropology continues to play in its tandem effort to flesh out humanity's roots. Paleoanthropologists like Alemsegad draw on every available source of information to both physically reconstruct hominin bodies and, perhaps more importantly, develop our understanding of how they may have lived, communicated, sustained themselves, and interacted with their environment and with each other. The work of Pääbo and others in his field offers powerful affirmations of paleoanthropological studies that have long investigated the contributions of Neanderthals and other hominins to the lineage of modern humans. Importantly, without paleoanthropology, the continued discovery and recovery of fossil specimens to later undergo genetic analysis would be greatly diminished.

Molecular anthropology and paleoanthropology, though often at odds with each other in the past regarding modern human evolution, now seem to be working together to chip away at theories that portray Neanderthals as inferior offshoots of humanity. Molecular anthropologists and paleoanthropologists also concur that that human evolution did not occur in ladder-like form, with one species leading to the next. Instead, the fossil evidence clearly reveals an evolutionary bush, with numerous hominin species existing at the same time and interacting through migration, some leading to modern humans and others going extinct.

Molecular anthropologist Spencer Wells uses DNA analysis to understand how our biological diversity correlates with ancient migration patterns from Africa into other continents. The study of our genetic evolution reveals that as humans migrated from Africa to all continents of the globe, they developed biological and cultural adaptations that allowed for survival in a variety of new environments. One example is skin color. Biological anthropologist Nina Jablonski uses satellite data to investigate the evolution of skin color, an aspect of human biological variation carrying tremendous social consequences. Jablonski underscores the importance of trying to understand skin color as a single trait affected by natural selection with its own evolutionary history and pressures, not as a tool to grouping humans into artificial races.

For Pääbo, Wells, Jablonski and others, technology affords the chance to investigate our origins in exciting new ways, adding pieces into the human puzzle at a record pace. At the same time, our technologies may well be changing who we are as a species and propelling us into an era of "neo-evolution."

Increasingly over time, human adaptations have been less related to predators, resources, or natural disasters, and more related to environmental and social pressures produced by other humans. Indeed, biological anthropologists have no choice but to consider the cultural components related to human evolutionary changes over time. Hominins have been constructing their own niches for a very long time, and when we make significant changes (such as agricultural subsistence), we must adapt to those changes. Classic examples of this include increases in sickle-cell anemia in new malarial environments, and greater lactose tolerance in regions with a long history of dairy farming.

Today we can, in some ways, evolve ourselves. We can enact biological change through genetic engineering, which operates at an astonishing pace in comparison to natural selection. Medical ethicist Harvey Fineberg calls this "neo-evolution". Fineberg goes beyond asking who we are as a species, to ask who we want to become and what genes we want our offspring to inherit. Depending on one's point of view, the future he envisions is both tantalizing and frightening: to some, it shows the promise of science to eradicate genetic abnormalities, while for others it raises the specter of eugenics. It's also worth remembering that while we may have the potential to influence certain genetic predispositions, changes in genotypes do not guarantee the desired results. Environmental and social pressures like pollution, nutrition or discrimination can trigger "epigenetic" changes which can turn genes on or off, or make them less or more active. This is important to factor in as we consider possible medical benefits from efforts in self-directed evolution. We must also ask: In an era of human-engineered, rapid-rate neo-evolution, who decides what the new human blueprints should be?

Technology figures in our evolutionary future in other ways as well. According to anthropologist Amber Case, many of our modern technologies are changing us into cyborgs: our smart phones, tablets and other tools are "exogenous components" that afford us astonishing and unsettling capabilities. They allow us to travel instantly through time and space and to create second, "digital selves" that represent our "analog selves" and interact with others in virtual environments. This has psychological implications for our analog selves that worry Case: a loss of mental reflection, the "ambient intimacy" of knowing that we can connect to anyone we want to at any time, and the "panic architecture" of managing endless information across multiple devices in virtual and real-world environments.

Despite her concerns, Case believes that our technological future is essentially positive. She suggests that at a fundamental level, much of this technology is focused on the basic concerns all humans share: who am I, where and how do I fit in, what do others think of me, who can I trust, who should I fear? Indeed, I would argue that we've evolved to be obsessed with what other humans are thinking—to be mind-readers in a sense—in a way that most would agree is uniquely human. For even though a baboon can assess those baboons it fears and those it can dominate, it cannot say something to a second baboon about a third baboon in order to trick that baboon into telling a fourth baboon to gang up on a fifth baboon. I think Facebook is a brilliant example of tapping into our evolved human psychology. We can have friends we've never met and let them know who we think we are—while we hope they like us and we try to assess what they're actually thinking and if they can be trusted. It's as if technology has provided an online supply of an addictive drug for a social mind evolved to crave that specific stimulant!

Yet our heightened concern for fairness in reciprocal relationships, in combination with our elevated sense of empathy and compassion, have led to something far greater than online chats: humanism itself. As Jane Goodall notes, chimps and baboons cannot rally together to save themselves from extinction; instead, they must rely on what she references as the "indomitable human spirit" to lessen harm done to the planet and all the living things that share it. As Goodall and other TED speakers in this course ask: will we use our highly evolved capabilities to secure a better future for ourselves and other species?

I hope those reading this essay, watching the TED Talks, and further exploring evolutionary perspectives on what makes us human, will view the continuities and discontinuities of our species as cause for celebration and less discrimination. Our social dependency and our prosocial need to identify ourselves, our friends, and our foes make us human. As a species, we clearly have major relationship problems, ranging from personal to global scales. Yet whenever we expand our levels of compassion and understanding, whenever we increase our feelings of empathy across cultural and even species boundaries, we benefit individually and as a species.

Get started

Zeresenay Alemseged

The search for humanity's roots, relevant talks.

Spencer Wells

A family tree for humanity.

Svante Pääbo

Dna clues to our inner neanderthal.

Nina Jablonski

Skin color is an illusion.

We are all cyborgs now

Harvey Fineberg

Are we ready for neo-evolution.

Frans de Waal

Moral behavior in animals.

Jane Goodall

What separates us from chimpanzees.

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21.1: Evidence of Evolution

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The evidence for evolution is compelling and extensive. Looking at every level of organization in living systems, biologists see the signature of past and present evolution. Darwin dedicated a large portion of his book, On the Origin of Species , to identifying patterns in nature that were consistent with evolution, and since Darwin, our understanding has become clearer and broader.

Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as those found today, and fossils show a progression of evolution. Scientists determine the age of fossils and categorize them from all over the world to determine when the organisms lived relative to each other. The resulting fossil record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form over millions of years. For example, scientists have recovered highly detailed records showing the evolution of humans and horses (Figure $\PageIndex{1}$).

Photo A shows a museum display of hominid skulls that vary in size and shape. Illustration B shows five extinct species related and similar in appearance to the modern horse. The species vary in size from that of a modern horse to that of a medium-sized dog.

Anatomy and Embryology

Another type of evidence for evolution is the presence of structures in organisms that share the same basic form. For example, the bones in the appendages of a human, dog, bird, and whale all share the same overall construction (Figure $\PageIndex{2}$) resulting from their origin in the appendages of a common ancestor. Over time, evolution led to changes in the shapes and sizes of these bones in different species, but they have maintained the same overall layout. Scientists call these synonymous parts homologous structures .

Illustration compares a human arm, dog and bird legs, and a whale flipper. All appendages have the same bones, but the size and shape of these bones vary.

Some structures exist in organisms that have no apparent function at all and appear to be residual parts from a past common ancestor. These unused structures without function are called vestigial structures . Other examples of vestigial structures are wings on flightless birds, leaves on some cacti, and hind leg bones in whales.

Another evidence of evolution is the convergence of form in organisms that share similar environments. For example, species of unrelated animals, such as the arctic fox and ptarmigan, living in the arctic region have been selected for seasonal white phenotypes during winter to blend with the snow and ice (Figure $\PageIndex{3}$). These similarities occur not because of common ancestry, but because of similar selection pressures—the benefits of not being seen by predators.

The left photo depicts an arctic fox with white fur sleeping on white snow, and the right photo shows a ptarmigan with white plumage standing on white snow.

Embryology , the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult form, also provides evidence of relatedness between now widely divergent groups of organisms. Mutational tweaking in the embryo can have such magnified consequences in the adult that embryo formation tends to be conserved. As a result, structures that are absent in some groups often appear in their embryonic forms and disappear by the time the adult or juvenile form is reached. For example, all vertebrate embryos, including humans, exhibit gill slits and tails at some point in their early development. These disappear in the adults of terrestrial groups but are maintained in adult forms of aquatic groups such as fish and some amphibians. Great ape embryos, including humans, have a tail structure during their development that is lost by the time of birth.

Biogeography

The geographic distribution of organisms (referred to as biogeography ) on the planet follows patterns that are best explained by evolution in conjunction with the movement of tectonic plates over geological time. Broad groups that evolved before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) are distributed worldwide. Groups that evolved since the breakup appear uniquely in regions of the planet, such as the unique flora and fauna of northern continents that formed from the supercontinent Laurasia and of the southern continents that formed from the supercontinent Gondwana . The presence of members of the plant family Proteaceae in Australia, southern Africa, and South America is best explained by their presence prior to the southern supercontinent Gondwana breaking up.

The great diversification of marsupials in Australia and the absence of other mammals reflect Australia’s long isolation. Australia has an abundance of endemic species—species found nowhere else—which is typical of islands whose isolation by expanses of water prevents species from migrating. Over time, these species diverge evolutionarily into new species that look very different from their ancestors that may exist on the mainland. The marsupials of Australia, the finches on the Galápagos, and many species on the Hawaiian Islands are all unique to their one point of origin, yet they display distant relationships to ancestral species on mainlands.

Molecular Biology

Like anatomical structures, the structures of the molecules of life reflect descent with modification. Evidence of a common ancestor for all of life is reflected in the universality of DNA as the genetic material and in the near universality of the genetic code and the machinery of DNA replication and expression. Fundamental divisions in life between the three domains are reflected in major structural differences in otherwise conservative structures such as the components of ribosomes and the structures of membranes. In general, the relatedness of groups of organisms is reflected in the similarity of their DNA sequences—exactly the pattern that would be expected from descent and diversification from a common ancestor.

DNA sequences have also shed light on some of the mechanisms of evolution. For example, it is clear that the evolution of new functions for proteins commonly occurs after gene duplication events that allow the free modification of one copy by mutation, selection, or drift (changes in a population’s gene pool resulting from chance), while the second copy continues to produce a functional protein.

Misconceptions of Evolution

Although the theory of evolution generated some controversy when it was first proposed, it was almost universally accepted by biologists, particularly younger biologists, within 20 years after the publication of On the Origin of Species . Nevertheless, the theory of evolution is a difficult concept, and misconceptions about how it works abound.

Evolution Is Just a Theory

Critics of the theory of evolution dismiss its importance by purposefully confounding the everyday usage of the word “theory” with the way scientists use the word. In science, a “theory” is understood to be a body of thoroughly tested and verified explanations for a set of observations of the natural world. Scientists have a theory of the atom, a theory of gravity, and the theory of relativity, each of which describes understood facts about the world. In the same way, the theory of evolution describes facts about the living world. As such, a theory in science has survived significant efforts to discredit it by scientists. In contrast, a “theory” in common vernacular is a word meaning a guess or suggested explanation; this meaning is more akin to the scientific concept of “hypothesis.” When critics of evolution say evolution is “just a theory,” they are implying that there is little evidence supporting it and that it is still in the process of being rigorously tested. This is a mischaracterization.

Individuals Evolve

Evolution is the change in the genetic composition of a population over time, specifically over generations, resulting from differential reproduction of individuals with certain alleles. Individuals do change over their lifetime, obviously, but this is called development and involves changes programmed by the set of genes the individual acquired at birth in coordination with the individual’s environment. When thinking about the evolution of a characteristic, it is probably best to think about the change of the average value of the characteristic in the population over time. For example, when natural selection leads to a beak size change in medium-ground finches in the Galápagos, this does not mean that individual beaks on living finches are changing. Instead, it means that if one measures the average beak size among all individuals in the population at one time and then measures the average beak size in the population several years later, the average value will be different as a result of evolution. Although some individuals may survive from the first time to the second, they will still have the same beak size; however, there will be many new individuals that contribute to the shift in average beak size.

Evolution Explains the Origin of Life

It is a common misunderstanding that evolution includes an explanation of life’s origins . The theory does not try to explain the origin of life. The theory of evolution explains how populations change over time and how life diversifies. It does not shed light on the beginnings of life including the origins of the first cells, which is how life is defined. The mechanisms of the origin of life on Earth are a particularly difficult problem because it occurred a very long time ago, and presumably, it just occurred once.

However, once a mechanism of inheritance was in place in the form of a molecule like DNA either within a cell or pre-cell, these entities would be subject to the principle of natural selection. More effective reproducers would increase in frequency at the expense of inefficient reproducers. So while evolution does not explain the origin of life, it may have something to say about some of the processes operating once pre-living entities acquired certain properties.

Organisms Evolve on Purpose

Statements such as “organisms evolve in response to a change in an environment” are quite common, but such statements can lead to two types of misunderstandings. First, the statement must not be understood to mean that individual organisms evolve. The statement is shorthand for “a population evolves in response to a changing environment.” However, a second misunderstanding may arise by interpreting the statement to mean that evolution is somehow intentional . A changed environment results in some individuals in the population, those with particular phenotypes, benefiting and therefore producing proportionately more offspring than other phenotypes. This results in a change in the population if the characteristics are genetically determined.

It is also important to understand that the variation that natural selection works on is already in a population and does not arise in response to an environmental change. For example, applying antibiotics to a population of bacteria will, over time, select a population of bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics. The resistance, which is caused by a gene, did not arise by mutation because of the application of the antibiotic. The gene for resistance was already present in the gene pool of the bacteria, likely at a low frequency. The antibiotic, which kills the bacterial cells without the resistance gene, strongly selects individuals that are resistant, since these would be the only ones that survived and divided. Experiments have demonstrated that mutations for antibiotic resistance do not arise as a result of antibiotics.

In a larger sense, evolution is not goal-directed. Species do not become “better” over time; they simply track their changing environment with adaptations that maximize their reproduction in a particular environment at a particular time. Evolution has no goal of making faster, bigger, more complex, or even smarter species, despite the commonness of this kind of language in popular discourse. What characteristics evolve in a species are a function of the variation present and the environment, both of which are constantly changing in a non-directional way. What trait is fit in one environment at one time may well be fatal at some point in the future. This holds equally well for a species of insect as it does the human species.

Evolution is the process of adaptation through mutation which allows more desirable characteristics to be passed to the next generation. Over time, organisms evolve more characteristics that are beneficial to their survival. For living organisms to adapt and change to environmental pressures, genetic variation must be present. With genetic variation, individuals have differences in form and function that allow some to survive certain conditions better than others. These organisms pass their favorable traits to their offspring. Eventually, environments change, and what was once a desirable, advantageous trait may become an undesirable trait and organisms may further evolve. Evolution may be convergent with similar traits evolving in multiple species or divergent with diverse traits evolving in multiple species that came from a common ancestor. Evidence of evolution can be observed by means of DNA code and the fossil record, and also by the existence of homologous and vestigial structures.

OpenStax , Biology. OpenStax CNX. June 23, 2020. https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:noBcfThl@7/Understanding-Evolution .

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evolution summary

Uncover the evidence for evolution and charles darwin and theodosius dobzhansky’s evolutionary theories.

evolution , Biological theory that animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types and that the distinguishable differences are due to modifications in successive generations. It is one of the keystones of modern biological theory. In 1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace jointly published a paper on evolution. The next year Darwin presented his major treatise On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , which revolutionized all later biological study. The heart of Darwinian evolution is the mechanism of natural selection. Surviving individuals, which vary ( see variation) in some way that enables them to live longer and reproduce, pass on their advantage to succeeding generations. In 1937 Theodosius Dobzhansky applied Mendelian genetics ( see Gregor Mendel ) to Darwinian theory, contributing to a new understanding of evolution as the cumulative action of natural selection on small genetic variations in whole populations. Part of the proof of evolution is in the fossil record, which shows a succession of gradually changing forms leading up to those known today. Structural similarities and similarities in embryonic development among living forms also point to common ancestry. Molecular biology (especially the study of genes and proteins) provides the most detailed evidence of evolutionary change. Though the theory of evolution is accepted by nearly the entire scientific community, it has sparked much controversy from Darwin’s time to the present; many of the objections have come from religious leaders and thinkers ( see creationism) who believe that elements of the theory conflict with literal interpretations of the Bible. See also Hugo de Vries, Ernst Haeckel , human evolution , Ernst Mayr, parallel evolution, phylogeny , sociocultural evolution, speciation .

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UC MUSEUM OF PALEONTOLOGY

Understanding Evolution

Your one-stop source for information on evolution

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Found 6 resources:

Evidencias de la Evolución: La ciencia de la evolución

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UC Museum of Paleontology

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Time: 30-40 minutes

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Similarities and differences: Understanding homology and convergent evolution

Online activity or lab

Time: 30 minutes

This interactive investigation explains what homologies are, how to recognize them, and how convergent traits evolve.

Lines of evidence: The science of evolution

The theory of evolution is broadly accepted by scientists — and for good reason! Learn about the diverse and numerous lines of evidence that support the theory of evolution.

Evo in the news: What has the head of a crocodile and the gills of a fish?

Evo in the News article

Time: 15 minutes

This news brief, from May 2006, reviews what is likely to be the most important fossil find of the year: Tiktaalik helps us understand how our own ancestors crawled out of the water and began to walk on dry land.

Born to Run: Artificial Selection Lab

Garland, Theodore
Classroom activity

Time: Four 45-minute periods

Students are introduced to the field of experimental evolution by evaluating skeletal changes in mice that have been artificially selected over many generations for the behavioral trait of voluntary exercise wheel running.

Webcast: Fossils, genes, and embryos

Howard Hughes Medical Institute
Video Lecture

Time: 60 minutes

In lecture three of a four part series, evolutionary biologist David Kingsley examines the original objections to Darwin's theory and shows how modern evidence supports the theory.

This lecture is available from Howard Hughes' BioInteractive website.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section The Evidence of Evolution

Introduction, general overviews.

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The Evidence of Evolution by Kenneth Olsen LAST REVIEWED: 12 April 2023 LAST MODIFIED: 13 January 2014 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199941728-0031

“ Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution .” This statement, the title of a 1973 essay by the evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky (b. 1900–d. 1975), encapsulates the central position that evolution holds in biology. While public understanding and acceptance of evolution is notoriously low, with fewer than half of adults in countries such as the United States and Turkey accepting evolution as fact (J. D. Miller, E. C. Scott, and S. Okamoto, Public acceptance of evolution, Science 313 (2006): 765–766), the overwhelming scientific consensus is that evolution is an incontrovertible component of our planet’s history and ongoing biology. Indeed, virtually all aspects of biology can be viewed in one way or another as providing evidence of evolution. Evolution is what accounts for the signs of shared biological ancestry that appear throughout our natural world, ranging from anatomy and development, to fossils, to genome structure and gene sequences. Evolution also explains the vast number of living species on the planet, as well as their adaptations into different ecological niches. Evolution can be defined as changes in lineages of organisms over successive generations . These changes may be described at the level of genes and genetic variation, or at the level of observable traits (phenotypes). Because evolution is a process that has both shaped the history of life on Earth and continues to operate today, the lines of evidence for evolution outlined in the sections below fall into two general categories: those documenting ongoing or very recent evolution ( Evolution Caused by Human Activity , Evolution in Wild Species , Human Evolution ), and those documenting shared ancestral origins of now-diverged lineages ( Evolution in the Fossil Record , Evidence of Shared Ancestry ).

The citations in this section provide overviews of evolutionary theory and evidence for evolution. Darwin 1859 provides the foundation, albeit incomplete, for all modern evolutionary theory. Because Darwin lacked an understanding of Mendelian inheritance, he was unable to adequately explain how traits favored under natural selection could be differentially transmitted over successive generations. The rediscovery of Mendel’s laws in the early 20th century, and the subsequent integration of Darwin’s theory with population genetics, systematics, paleontology, and other disciplines, led to the “Modern Synthesis” of the mid-20th century. With some modifications (such as to incorporate insights from molecular biology), the Modern Synthesis has continued to provide a basic framework for modern evolutionary theory. Mayr 1982 provides a useful scientific retrospective on the development of the Modern Synthesis. Jacob 1977 is important in articulating the idea that evolution does not create perfect adaptations, but rather generates workable solutions with available genetic and developmental materials. Losos, et al. 2013 provides a scholarly overview of evolutionary theory. With the growth in creationist attacks on evolution in the United States in the last three decades, most contemporary overviews of evolution that are written for nonscientists are oriented to provide counterarguments to creationist objections. Coyne 2009 and Dawkins 2009 provide two such examples. Carroll 2006 focuses specifically on genetic data as evidence, while Sober 2008 develops a formal philosophical argument in support of evolution.

Carroll, S. B. 2006. The making of the fittest: DNA and the ultimate forensic record of evolution . New York: W. W. Norton.

Written for the general audience by one of the foremost researchers in the field of evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo), this book uses lucid writing and accessible examples to explain why DNA provides clear evidence of shared common ancestry and evolution by natural selection.

Coyne, J. A. 2009. Why evolution is true . New York: Viking.

Another work for the general reader, written by an eminent evolutionary geneticist, this book provides an expansive discussion of the many diverse lines of support for evolution and the flaws in creationist arguments.

Darwin, C. 1859. On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or, the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life . London: Murray.

The foundation of evolutionary theory. Chapters 1–4 (pp. 7–130) clearly lay out Darwin’s mechanism of evolution by natural selection. Read the first edition, as later editions include convoluted attempts to describe inheritance.

Dawkins, R. 2009. The greatest show on earth: The evidence for evolution . New York: Free Press.

Not one to suffer fools gladly, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins uses clear writing and colorful examples to illustrate the abundance of evidence for evolution while skewering creationist thinking.

Jacob, F. 1977. Evolution and tinkering. Science 196:1161–1166.

DOI: 10.1126/science.860134

This article is the first to widely introduce the idea that evolution proceeds through the co-option of existing parts for new functions, producing imperfect but workable adaptive solutions. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Losos, J. B., D. A. Baum, D. J. Futuyma, H. E. Hoekstra, R. E. Lenski, and A. J. Mooreet al., eds. 2013. The Princeton guide to evolution . Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

Many chapters of this edited volume directly or indirectly provide evidence of evolution. Chapter I.3 (pp. 28–39, “The Evidence for Evolution,” by Gregory C. Mayer) focuses specifically on evidence of evolution.

Mayr, E. 1982. The growth of biological thought: Diversity, evolution, and inheritance . Cambridge, MA: Belknap.

An expansive work by one of the most influential evolutionary biologists of the 20th century. Chapter 12 (pp. 535–570) provides a comprehensive historical account of the development of the Modern Synthesis in the mid-20th century. Chapter 13 (pp. 571–627) examines further 20th-century developments within the paradigm of the Modern Synthesis.

Sober, E. 2008. Evidence and evolution: The logic behind the science . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511806285

Written by a philosopher of science, this book explores the epistemological underpinnings of evolutionary theory and flaws in creationist arguments based on intelligent design.

Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please subscribe or login .

Oxford Bibliographies Online is available by subscription and perpetual access to institutions. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here .

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Evolution is the process of heritable change in populations of organisms over multiple generations. Evolutionary biology is the study of this process, which can occur through mechanisms including natural selection, sexual selection and genetic drift.

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Musical instruments, tools, language and genetic data reveal ancient hunter-gatherer networks

Central Africa is home to the greatest number of hunter-gatherers remaining in the world, but the origins of their culture remain unclear. We compiled a dataset of Central African hunter-gatherer musical instruments, subsistence tools, specialized vocabulary and genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism data, which revealed ancient networks of cultural and linguistic exchange that spanned thousands of kilometres.

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Module 13: Theory of Evolution

Evidence for evolution, describe how the theory of evolution by natural selection is supported by evidence.

Learning Objectives

Outline physical evidence that supports the theory of evolution
Outline biological evidence that supports the theory of evolution
Refute common misconceptions about evolution

Physical Evidence

Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as those found today, and fossils show a progression of evolution. Scientists determine the age of fossils and categorize them from all over the world to determine when the organisms lived relative to each other. The resulting fossil record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form over millions of years (Figure 1a). For example, scientists have recovered highly detailed records showing the evolution of humans and horses (Figure 1b).

Figure 1. In this (a) display, fossil hominids are arranged from oldest (bottom) to newest (top). As hominids evolved, the shape of the skull changed. An artist’s rendition of (b) extinct species of the genus Equus reveals that these ancient species resembled the modern horse (Equus ferus) but varied in size.

Anatomy and Embryology

Figure 2. The similar construction of these appendages indicates that these organisms share a common ancestor.

Another type of evidence for evolution is the presence of structures in organisms that share the same basic form. For example, the bones in the appendages of a human, dog, bird, and whale all share the same overall construction (Figure 2) resulting from their origin in the appendages of a common ancestor. Over time, evolution led to changes in the shapes and sizes of these bones in different species, but they have maintained the same overall layout. Scientists call these synonymous parts homologous structures.

Some structures exist in organisms that have no apparent function at all, and appear to be residual parts from a past common ancestor. These unused structures without function are called vestigial structures. Some examples of vestigial structures are wings on flightless birds, leaves on some cacti, and hind leg bones in whales.

Another evidence of evolution is the convergence of form in organisms that share similar environments. For example, species of unrelated animals, such as the arctic fox and ptarmigan, living in the arctic region have been selected for seasonal white phenotypes during winter to blend with the snow and ice (Figure 3). These similarities occur not because of common ancestry, but because of similar selection pressures—the benefits of not being seen by predators.

Figure 3. The white winter coat of the (a) arctic fox and the (b) ptarmigan’s plumage are adaptations to their environments. (credit a: modification of work by Keith Morehouse)

Embryology, the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult form, also provides evidence of relatedness between now widely divergent groups of organisms. Mutational tweaking in the embryo can have such magnified consequences in the adult that embryo formation tends to be conserved. As a result, structures that are absent in some groups often appear in their embryonic forms and disappear by the time the adult or juvenile form is reached. For example, all vertebrate embryos, including humans, exhibit gill slits and tails at some point in their early development. These disappear in the adults of terrestrial groups but are maintained in adult forms of aquatic groups such as fish and some amphibians. Great ape embryos, including humans, have a tail structure during their development that is lost by the time of birth.

Biological Evidence

Biogeography.

The geographic distribution of organisms on the planet follows patterns that are best explained by evolution in conjunction with the movement of tectonic plates over geological time. Broad groups that evolved before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) are distributed worldwide. Groups that evolved since the breakup appear uniquely in regions of the planet, such as the unique flora and fauna of northern continents that formed from the supercontinent Laurasia and of the southern continents that formed from the supercontinent Gondwana. The presence of members of the plant family Proteaceae in Australia, southern Africa, and South America is best due to their appearance prior to the southern supercontinent Gondwana breaking up.

The great diversification of marsupials in Australia and the absence of other mammals reflect Australia’s long isolation. Australia has an abundance of endemic species—species found nowhere else—which is typical of islands whose isolation by expanses of water prevents species migration. Over time, these species diverge evolutionarily into new species that look very different from their ancestors that may exist on the mainland. The marsupials of Australia, the finches on the Galápagos, and many species on the Hawaiian Islands are all unique to their one point of origin, yet they display distant relationships to ancestral species on mainlands.

Molecular Biology

DNA sequences have also shed light on some of the mechanisms of evolution. For example, it is clear that the evolution of new functions for proteins commonly occurs after gene duplication events that allow the free modification of one copy by mutation, selection, or drift (changes in a population’s gene pool resulting from chance), while the other copy continues to produce a functional protein.

Evolution—It’s a Thing

This video defines evolution and discusses several varieties of evidence that support the Theory of Evolution:

Misconceptions of Evolution

Although the theory of evolution generated some controversy when it was first proposed, it was almost universally accepted by biologists, particularly younger biologists, within 20 years after publication of On the Origin of Species . Nevertheless, the theory of evolution is a difficult concept and misconceptions about how it works abound.

Evolution Is Just a Theory

Individuals Evolve

Evolution is the change in genetic composition of a population over time, specifically over generations, resulting from differential reproduction of individuals with certain alleles. Individuals do change over their lifetime, obviously, but this is called development and involves changes programmed by the set of genes the individual acquired at birth in coordination with the individual’s environment. When thinking about the evolution of a characteristic, it is probably best to think about the change of the average value of the characteristic in the population over time. For example, when natural selection leads to bill-size change in medium-ground finches in the Galápagos, this does not mean that individual bills on the finches are changing. If one measures the average bill size among all individuals in the population at one time and then measures the average bill size in the population several years later, this average value will be different as a result of evolution. Although some individuals may survive from the first time to the second, they will still have the same bill size; however, there will be many new individuals that contribute to the shift in average bill size.

Organisms Evolve on Purpose

Statements such as “organisms evolve in response to a change in an environment” are quite common, but such statements can lead to two types of misunderstandings. First, the statement must not be understood to mean that individual organisms evolve. The statement is shorthand for “a population evolves in response to a changing environment.” However, a second misunderstanding may arise by interpreting the statement to mean that the evolution is somehow intentional. A changed environment results in some individuals in the population, those with particular phenotypes, benefiting and therefore producing proportionately more offspring than other phenotypes. This results in change in the population if the characteristics are genetically determined.

In a larger sense, evolution is not goal directed. Species do not become “better” over time; they simply track their changing environment with adaptations that maximize their reproduction in a particular environment at a particular time. Evolution has no goal of making faster, bigger, more complex, or even smarter species, despite the commonness of this kind of language in popular discourse. What characteristics evolve in a species are a function of the variation present and the environment, both of which are constantly changing in a non-directional way. What trait is fit in one environment at one time may well be fatal at some point in the future. This holds equally well for a species of insect as it does the human species.

Evolution Explains the Origin of Life

It is a common misunderstanding that evolution includes an explanation of life’s origins. Conversely, some of the theory’s critics believe that it cannot explain the origin of life. The theory does not try to explain the origin of life. The theory of evolution explains how populations change over time and how life diversifies the origin of species. It does not shed light on the beginnings of life including the origins of the first cells, which is how life is defined. The mechanisms of the origin of life on Earth are a particularly difficult problem because it occurred a very long time ago, and presumably it just occurred once. Importantly, biologists believe that the presence of life on Earth precludes the possibility that the events that led to life on Earth can be repeated because the intermediate stages would immediately become food for existing living things.

In Summary: Evidence for Evolution

Since Darwin developed his ideas on descent with modification and the pressures of natural selection, a variety of evidence has been gathered supporting the theory of evolution. Fossil evidence shows the changes in lineages over millions of years, such as in hominids and horses. Studying anatomy allows scientists to identify homologous structures across diverse groups of related organisms, such as leg bones. Vestigial structures also offer clues to common ancestors. Using embryology, scientists can identify common ancestors through structures present only during development and not in the adult form.

Biogeography offers further clues about evolutionary relationships. The presence of related organisms across continents indicates when these organisms may have evolved. For example, some flora and fauna of the northern continents are similar across these landmasses but distinct from that of the southern continents. Islands such as Australia and the Galapagos chain often have unique species that evolved after these landmasses separated from the mainland. Finally, molecular biology provides data supporting the theory of evolution. In particular, the universality of DNA and near universality of the genetic code for proteins shows that all life once shared a common ancestor. DNA also provides clues into how evolution may have happened. Gene duplications allow one copy to undergo mutational events without harming an organism, as one copy continues to produce functional protein.

Many misconceptions exist about the theory of evolution—including some perpetuated by critics of the theory. First, evolution as a scientific theory means that it has years of observation and accumulated data supporting it. It is not “just a theory” as a person may say in common vernacular.

Another misconception is that individuals evolve, though in fact it is populations that evolve over time. Individuals simply carry mutations. Furthermore, these mutations neither arise on purpose nor do they arise in response to an environmental pressure. Instead, mutations in DNA happen spontaneously and are already present in individuals of a population when a selective pressure occurs. Once the environment begins to favor a particular trait, then those individuals already carrying that mutation will have a selective advantage and are likely to survive better and outproduce others without the adaptation.

Finally, the theory of evolution does not in fact address the origins of life on this planet. Scientists believe that we cannot, in fact, repeat the circumstances that led to life on Earth because at this time life already exists. The presence of life has so dramatically changed the environment that the origins cannot be totally produced for study.

Check Your Understanding

Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times.

Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section.

Introduction to Evidence for Evolution. Authored by : Shelli Carter and Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
Biology. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected] . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]
Evolution: It's a Thing - Crash Course Biology #20. Authored by : CrashCourse. Located at : https://youtu.be/P3GagfbA2vo . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

Support Our Work

The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

Human evolution evidence.

Early humans of various ages eating by a fire at night in front of a lake with mountains in the distance

Evidence of Evolution

Scientists have discovered a wealth of evidence concerning human evolution, and this evidence comes in many forms. Thousands of human fossils enable researchers and students to study the changes that occurred in brain and body size, locomotion, diet, and other aspects regarding the way of life of early human species over the past 6 million years. Millions of stone tools, figurines and paintings, footprints, and other traces of human behavior in the prehistoric record tell about where and how early humans lived and when certain technological innovations were invented. Study of human genetics show how closely related we are to other primates – in fact, how connected we are with all other organisms – and can indicate the prehistoric migrations of our species, Homo sapiens , all over the world. Advances in the dating of fossils and artifacts help determine the age of those remains, which contributes to the big picture of when different milestones in becoming human evolved.

Exciting scientific discoveries continually add to the broader and deeper public knowledge of human evolution. Find out about the latest evidence in our What’s Hot in Human Origins section.

Paleoanthropologist, Rick Potts surveying an archaeological site, kneeling holding a stone handaxe

Explore the evidence of early human behavior—from ancient footprints to stone tools and the earliest symbols and art – along with similarities and differences in the behavior of other primate species.

Australopithecus africanus; STS-5 fossil skull. Also known as "Mrs. Ples"

Human Fossils

From skeletons to teeth, early human fossils have been found of more than 6,000 individuals. Look into our digital 3-D collection and learn about fossil human species.

3/4 view of 3D scan of Homo sapiens Skhul V skull

3D Collection

Explore our 3D collection of fossils, artifacts, primates, and other animals.

Individual looking intently at a model of DNA double helix

Our genes offer evidence of how closely we are related to one another – and of our species’ connection with all other organisms.

Diagram of dating methods and early human fossils plotted on a timeline from 4.6 billion years to present

As plants and animals die, their remains are sometimes preserved in Earth’s rock record as fossils.

Human Evolution Interactive Timeline

Explore the evidence for human evolution in this interactive timeline - climate change, species, and milestones in becoming human.

Zoom in using the magnifier on the bottom for a closer look! This interactive is no longer in FLASH , it may take a moment to load.

Human Family Tree

The human family tree shows the various species that constitute the human evolutionary family.

Elder and younger individual sitting around a open fire at a burial scene

Snapshots in Time

In these video interactives, put together clues and explore discoveries the prehistoric sites of Swartkrans, South Africa, Olorgesailie, Kenya, and Shanidar Cave, Iraq.

Climate Effects on Human Evolution
Survival of the Adaptable
Human Evolution Timeline Interactive
2011 Olorgesailie Dispatches
2004 Olorgesailie Dispatches
1999 Olorgesailie Dispatches
Olorgesailie Drilling Project
Kanam, Kenya
Kanjera, Kenya
Ol Pejeta, Kenya
Olorgesailie, Kenya
Evolution of Human Innovation
Adventures in the Rift Valley: Interactive
'Hobbits' on Flores, Indonesia
Earliest Humans in China
Bose, China
Anthropocene: The Age of Humans
Fossil Forensics: Interactive
What's Hot in Human Origins?
Instructions
Carnivore Dentition
Ungulate Dentition
Primate Behavior
Footprints from Koobi Fora, Kenya
Laetoli Footprint Trails
Footprints from Engare Sero, Tanzania
Hammerstone from Majuangou, China
Handaxe and Tektites from Bose, China
Handaxe from Europe
Handaxe from India
Oldowan Tools from Lokalalei, Kenya
Olduvai Chopper
Stone Tools from Majuangou, China
Middle Stone Age Tools
Burin from Laugerie Haute & Basse, Dordogne, France
La Madeleine, Dordogne, France
Butchered Animal Bones from Gona, Ethiopia
Katanda Bone Harpoon Point
Oldest Wooden Spear
Punctured Horse Shoulder Blade
Stone Sickle Blades
Projectile Point
Oldest Pottery
Pottery Fragment
Fire-Altered Stone Tools
Terra Amata Shelter
Qafzeh: Oldest Intentional Burial
Assyrian Cylinder Seal
Blombos Ocher Plaque
Ishango Bone
Bone and Ivory Needles
Carved Ivory Running Lion
Female torso in ivory
Ivory Horse Figurine
Ivory Horse Sculpture
Lady of Brassempouy
Lion-Man Figurine
Willendorf Venus
Ancient Shell Beads
Carved Bone Disc
Cro-Magnon Shell Bead Necklace
Oldest Known Shell Beads
Ancient Flute
Ancient Pigments
Apollo 11 Plaque
Carved antler baton with horses
Geometric incised bone rectangle
Tata Plaque
Mystery Skull Interactive
Shanidar 3 - Neanderthal Skeleton
One Species, Living Worldwide
Human Skin Color Variation
Ancient DNA and Neanderthals
Swartkrans, South Africa
Shanidar, Iraq
Walking Upright
Tools & Food
Social Life
Language & Symbols
Humans Change the World
Introduction to Human Evolution
Nuts and bolts classification: Arbitrary or not? (Grades 6-8)
Comparison of Human and Chimp Chromosomes (Grades 9-12)
Hominid Cranial Comparison: The "Skulls" Lab (Grades 9-12)
Investigating Common Descent: Formulating Explanations and Models (Grades 9-12)
Fossil and Migration Patterns in Early Hominids (Grades 9-12)
For College Students
Why do we get goose bumps?
Chickens, chimpanzees, and you - what do they have in common?
Grandparents are unique to humans
How strong are we?
Humans are handy!
Humans: the running ape
Our big hungry brain!
Our eyes say it!
The early human tool kit
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The “Nutcracker”
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Why do paleoanthropologists love Lucy?
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Human Origins Program Team
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505 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best evolution topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on evolution, ✅ simple & easy evolution essay titles, 🔍 good research topics about evolution, 🎓 writing prompts about evolution, 📌 interesting topics to write about evolution, ❓ evolution essay questions.

The Rise and Evolution of the World of Islam Prophet Muhammad, who was was born and raised in Mecca, started spreading the teachings of Islam in Saudi Arabia and this marked the origin of Islam.
Land Transport – History, Evolution, and Development Essay The combination of the horse and the wheel made transportation system simple as it facilitated exchange of crops. This was the origin of movement of a large number of people in the 18th century.
International Organizations and Their Evolution In this context, it can be stated that this strategy of international politics recognizes the belief that organizations and institutions are key ways of promoting peace around the world.
The History and Evolution of the Visual Basic Programming Language It is a specific language that is used by users to have a flexible environment in which they interact easily with the computer it is the best programming language and the easiest to use.
Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments The development of computer technology is characterized by the change in the technology used in building the devices. The semiconductors in the computers were improved to increase the scale of operation with the development of […]
Principles & Concept of Total Quality Management Essay The second principle of TQM is that the problem in most companies is the processes but not the people. This was based on the fact that the quality of the products was determined by all […]
Importance of History and Evolution of Businesses to Managers Business managers are expected to organize, plan, control and oversee the implementation of business plans and strategies with the ultimate aim of accomplishing the goals and objectives of the firm.
Evolution of the Clock In this light, the paper tracks changes in the operation mechanisms of the clock in the quest to provide theoretical records of evolution of engineering.
The Evolution of the Automobile & Its Effects on Society This piece of work will give an exhaustive discussion of the evolution of the automobile and the effects it has had on the society.
The Times New Roman Font: Evolution and Readability The typography used in a newspaper represents a sample of the state of the medium. 7There is however, a strong tendency to ensure the legibility of the style and the readability of the writing, at […]
Evolution of Television Throughout the decade, the cable television was the means of transmission between the transmitters in television network premises and the receivers at the viewer’s home.
Nursing History and Theory Evolution This paper aims to offer a comprehensive view of the history of nursing, major influences on the profession, and the evolution of nursing theory.
Geography, its Evolution and Future Geography is the study of the earth and the natural features that characterize it. The revolution was related in some way, to the methods in which the researchers studied the earth and the processes occurring […]
Controversies on Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Although there are many theories which explain the origin of the earth, Darwin’s theory evokes strong responses due to the fact that it opposes religion and it does not meet all the requirements of a […]
History and Evolution of the Guitar Instrument According to Scott, one final and significant development in the evolution of the guitar is the increasing attention given to musical composers.
Evolution of Fire Fighting Gear The traditional shape of the helmet was created with a short brim on the front and a long brim on the back to keep embers and hot water from going down the back of the […]
Evolution of Amazon Business Model In this whole process, it will have to entice the customers to pay for the value and so it is a proposition of what the customer expects in terms of product, how they want it […]
The Evolution of Electricity In one of her works Diana Bocce observes, “The kite experiment helped Franklin establish a relationship between lightening and electricity, which led to the invention of the lightning rod” This is considered one of the […]
Co-Evolution: Angiosperms and Pollinating Animals The birds need nectar from the flowers, the plants that produce nectar consequently only do so to attract these birds and insects, for the process of drawing nectar from these plants to be possible, the […]
Horse Family and Its Evolution Fossil records reveal a wide study of the evolution of the horse. This paper examines the evolutionary trend of the horse.
“Why Evolution Is True?” by Jerry A. Coyne The reader is able to use this vivid substantiation of claims to understand the author’s need to introduce the aspect of God who is at the center of these natural happenings.
History of Hunting: Evolution and Improvement Contrary to the modern trend of hunting being more of a sport, during the pre-civilization era hunting was one of the main means of survival.
Sports Photography and Its Evolution The death of Niepce was announced in 1833, but the experiment was still been performed by Daguerre and he succeeded in the development of the daguerreotype finally in 1837.
The Evolution of Behavioral and Cognitive Development Theories of Crime Behavioral theory is based upon the principles of behavioral psychology and is the basis for behavior modification and change. This theory is founded on the belief that the way in which people organize their thoughts […]
Stellar Evolution The mass of the star is, however, the most essential and influential factor that determines its lifetime especially when other factors are kept to a constant.
English Language Evolution Because of the consolidation processes which England was experiencing in the course of the sixteenth century and the following strengthening of the empire, as well as the establishment of the relationships with other states of […]
Graphic Card Industry and Evolution A graphic card, usually, referred to as a video card or a graphic accelerator card is an electronic circuit installed on the motherboard inside the central power unit, mostly on Laptops and desktop computers.
Biosphere Evolution and Threats The biosphere, however, overlaps between all the spheres that include the lithosphere, which is found on the surface of the earth.
Earth Atmospheric Evolution It is believed that the different geological evolutions of the earth and the atmosphere have come up with very new species of animals following a transformation of the then existing animals, as well as extinction […]
Historical Evolution of Technology in Healthcare During the 18th century, the medical field was in disarray due to the lack of organization and deaths resulting from inefficiencies and negligence of doctors.
Human Circulatory System and Evolution The coronary circulation involves the movement of blood through the tissues of the heart while the systemic circulation involves taking blood to all the rest of the body tissues and back to the heart”.
Hebrew Monotheism: Origins and Evolution In the book of Exodus, Moses received the Ten Commandments from God and one of the commandments was to worship one God only.
The Evolution of Dragons in Fantasy Fiction One of the most significant figures among the range of the animals inhabiting the land of fantasy is a dragon, the symbol of wisdom and power.
Personal Computer Evolution Overview It is important to note that the first evolution of a personal computer occurred in the first century. This is because of the slowness of the mainframe computers to process information and deliver the output.
The American Military and the Evolution of Computer Technology From the Early 1940s to Early 1960s During the 1940s-1960, the American military was the only wouldriver’ of computer development and innovations.”Though most of the research work took place at universities and in commercial firms, military research organizations such as the Office […]
Evolution of Icon Painting: Hans Belting’s “Likeness and Presence” Alongside this, the themes depicted on the icons began to reflect human ethical ideals, as, for instance, the icons that presented the depiction of the Virgin implied the necessity of salvation.
Music, Its Definition and Evolution It is in a romantic era when different types and functions of music were developed, followed by 20th-century music, where there was an increase in music listening and the emergence of new technology which made […]
Neurophysiological and Evolutionary Theories While the brain plays a critical role in major processes of an individual, the concept of learning has occurred seamlessly throughout the lives of species. Hence, learning in this situation may depend on the power […]
4G Network Adaptation and Evolution In comparison to other networks, the functionality of 4G networks is distributed amongst a set of gateways and servers. It has also become easier to make video calls due to the speed and latency of […]
Artificial Intelligence: The Trend in the Evolution Thus, the lens of history is a great way to consider knowledge and understanding of society and technology from a different angle in terms of comprehending the dynamics of society and the importance of technology […]
Hominids and Stages of Human Evolution Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecines, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo Neanderthal are stages of human evolution with distinct physical appearances and behavior. The molars and premolars of Homo habilis were comparatively smaller than Ardipithecus and Australopithecus.
Computer Evolution, Its Future and Societal Impact In spite of the computers being in existence since the abacus, it is the contemporary computers that have had a significant impact on the human life.
Harry Winston Fashion Brand and Its Evolution Harry Winston Diamond Corporation was founded in the year 1932 and is headquartered in New York. Harry Winston has remained a powerful brand in the global jewelry industry.
Phonograph Invention and Evolution The time period the phonograph was invented and the circumstances that led to the invention. The invention and advancement of the phonograph and its operations has had a part to play on other inventions.
The Evolutionary Theory in the Context of Modern Sociology A theory is a connected system of general concepts, constructs, or propositions presenting a systematic view of phenomena through the specification of variables to explain the phenomena.
Nursing as a Discipline: Evolution and Education This paper aims at discussing and describing the evolution of the nursing profession to date, its mode of conduct, and the differences between associate nurses and Baccalaureate nurses.
The Evolution of Heavy Metal Rock Music in UK and US In the United States, the tempo of heavy metal music is slower than the heavy metal rock music in Great Britain.
Dove as a Brand and Its Evolution The brand is the world’s number one cleansing brand in the category of health and beauty. The brand was never to be put in the category of soaps in its history.
The Evolution Future Architecture The implication is that by the end of the year 2030, it will not be necessary to use fossil fuels in the construction and operation of buildings in the world.
The Evolution of Education in Hong Kong The intention of this research paper is to elaborate on the influence of culture in the Hong Kong on education system and give an account of the evolution of education in Hong Kong.
The Evolution of the Car Engine France and the Great Britain reinforced the notion of the electric powered cars in the late 1800s. At the beginning of the century, a number of 33,842 electric vehicles in the United States became registered.
The Evolution of the Personal Computer and the Internet Due to the complexity of the subject matter it is necessary to digress once more and discuss briefly the history of the World-Wide-Web so that there is a clearer understanding of what it is all […]
Evolution and Importance of Advertising in a Context of Modern Society It is difficult to overestimate the importance of advertising within the modern society as the main tool of persuasion of the audience and advancement of the companies and their products.Dr S.
Creationism vs. Evolution A piece of art showcases the aptitude of an artist, so does the earth and the universe that imply the reality and the potentiality of its stylist.
The Importance of Teaching Alternative Evolution Theories The theory of evolution should be the basis of the entire course of biology at school. The general representation of the leading alternative evolution concepts should be provided before the arguments for these theories implementation […]
The Evolution of Human Rights: France vs. America The Age of Enlightenment made human rights one of the major concerns of the world community, which led to the American and French Revolutions the turning points in the struggle for justice.
Greek Sculpture and Its Evolution Over Time The shape of the hands was sculptured to be held close to the sides of the statue; their fists were clenched, their knees were rigid, and their hair was stylized.
Technical Evolution of Automobiles In 1888, the practically of Benz’s car would come to test when his wife, Bertha, and their two sons embarked on a journey using a better version of the car.
The Evolution of Human Skin Color The amount of UV light depends on the latitude: the highest concentration is spread throughout the equator, while the areas close to the Earth’s poles had it in scarcity. Both folate and vitamin D contributed […]
Theories of Galaxy Formation and Evolution How the first galaxies were formed and the way that they have evolved and the physical processes that have resulted to diverse structures in the adjacent galaxies form the basis of the theories that attempt […]
Urbanism in Architecture: Definition and Evolution In general urbanism is a very wide concept that is used to describe an urban centre architectural system in its totality beyond the mere building structures and includes a city’s infrastructure system, economy, geography, social-cultural […]
Human Evolution and Animal Extinction The recent scholarly findings prove that invasions of Homo sapiens to the Austronesian and American continents were the major factors that conditioned the extinction of numerous animal species.
The History Of Drag Queens and The Evolution Of Drag In conclusion, drag has been a part of the social culture for centuries. As drag queens started to get more successful and recognized by mainstream media, it became crucial to examine the roots of drag […]
Charles Darwin: Evolution Theory The naturalist of the time believed that everything in the world had a key role in the economic of nature and the credit was given to an intelligent creator.
The FBI and Its Evolution Through the History To talk competently and properly about the start of the FBI, you need to know and understand the main purpose they are keeping to; “The mission of the FBI is to upload the law through […]
The Evolution of Music: Brief Review After the Classical Music era , music evolved into the Early Romantic Music era , the Late Romantic Music era , the Modern Music era and the Contemporary Music era .
Evolution of Warfare and Weapons The creation of kingdoms led to the creation of the first stage of warfare known as the Chariots Age. The Age of the Knight was the third warfare stage.
The Evolution of Philips Organization Reorganization in the 1990s demonstrated that the company’s effectiveness of Philips was earlier reduced due to the specific approach to the senior management selection.
The Theory of Evolution It must be admitted that the theory of evolution has a number of legit points and has all the rights to be considered the most valid theory of all existing.
The Instrumental Music of Baroque: Forms and Evolution Outstanding composers of the early Baroque period includes; Giovanni Gabriel, Johann Hermann Schein, Claudio Monteverdi and others The middle Baroque consisted the period of consolidation and happened around 1640 to 1690.
Technology Evolution in The Modern Society Service perspective – which holds that e-commerce constitute a tool that fulfills the needs and desires of companies, customers and management with aim of reducing the transaction costs while at the same time being able […]
Candy Evolution Through the History The evolution of candy similar to those of the organism, may explain the reason why candy has found a centre spot in celebrating Darwin’s days. Valentine candy was used in the past and presently with […]
The Evolution of American Slavery Overall, it is possible for us to advance a thesis that the origins of black slavery should be sought in the economic development of American colonies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and especially the […]
Global Evolution in “Midaq Alley” by Mahfouz Naguib First, since 1914, the world was featured by global integration and its changing patterns that led to: immense colonies and powers, the three worlds of Cold War eras, and the current interdependent and networked of […]
Internet Evolution and Structure The creation of the network was meant to be a security measure to ensure that data and information belonging to ARPA remained within the system.
Phyletic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium Evolution Theory The evolution happens very fast and in response to the effects of the toxicants present in the water of the rivers.
The Evolution of Nursing Overview When defining the notion of nursing in the context of the 21st century, many people fail to reflect on the historical precedents that contributed to the development of nursing as a separate qualification.
Evolution of Clothes and Fashion in Twentieth Century The first half of the century was notable for the development of artistic movements, which contributed to the emergence of new elements in clothes.
The Evolution of the Chinese Brush Painting Other ritual vessels in the country were decorated using the brush and ink; resulting in the flourishing of the brush painting in the country.
Scientist Charles Darwin & Evolution By the year 1846, Darwin had a number of publications relating to zoological and geological discoveries of his expedition works that catapulted him in the scientists front rank.
Evolution of Humans: The Human Evolutionary Theory The earliest best-known theory of evolution was propounded by Charles Darwin, whose main thesis was that life has evolved from simple single-celled organisms to multi-cellular, complex living things through the process of natural selection and […]
Soccer in America: Its History, Origin, Evolution, and Popularize This Sport Among Americans The coverage of the history of this game which is also popularly known as soccer is quite diverse and different ideas have been put across as to where the game originated and its evolution to […]
Communication Evolution and Media at the Wartime Modern revolutionary transformations in the system of communication involve the interplay of technology, human actors, and institutions. Similar to the industrial revolution, communication technology developments appear in response to human needs.
Tesla: Testing a Business Model at Its (R)Evolutionary Best To examine the sustainability of Tesla’s business model, one needs to get to the very core of what the company is actually doing on the market and in the business world.
The Private Security’ History and Evolution However, it was after this era when the parliament in the United States organized a number of security studies in order to expand the scope of security channels in various institutions including the inclusion of […]
Darwin’s Theory of Human Evolution Although Darwin seems to refute the religious claim on the origin of man, it is apparent that both religion and science share a common hypothesis that man has a distinct origin. Darwin is also concerned […]
The evolution of McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y in relation to the development of management theory The natural response of managers was to be more stringent and consequently the employees reacted to it, resulting in a viscous cycle.
Creationism and Evolution The bible in the book of Genesis describes the origin of heaven and earth and everything that is in it; God created everything.
Classical Symphonies: Investigating Style Evolution of Western Classical Music The formative period of classical music was between the 18th and 19th centuries. Beethoven wrote music slowly and purposely with the romantics’ guidance.
Modernist Movement in Music: Investigating Style Evolution of Western Classical Music The modernist movement in music seems appropriate for this paper because of the unique and exciting styles of composing modern-era music, such as jazz, pop, and rock.
Evolutionary Psychology and Christian Worldview Since psychology studies the human mind and behavior of people and thus it incorporates and implements various scientific fields and methods to do so.
The Automotive Technology Evolution This marked the beginning of the car industry, which ultimately led to the development of modern automobiles and opened the way for their production. The reliability and safety of automobiles have increased due to technological […]
Hominin Evolution: Biological and Cultural Aspects The brain capacity of Homo habilis creatures was greater compared to their ancestors enabling them to become more intelligent. The locomotion of Homo habilis was aided by their legs and forelimbs.
The Evolution of Boy and Girl Characters Through the Decades That depiction of the boy character reflects the expectations for boys in the 1940s, which were heavily influenced by the traditional values of the time.
The Juvenile Justice System Evolution Process The notion of due legal process, in turn, implies the maturity and autonomy of the person involved in the due process.
Linguistic Evolution: Language Development The ability to acquire new things and keep the brain active and healthy is greatly enhanced by acquiring a second language other than one’s native tongue. Identifying language as a tool for forming connections and […]
Unveiling the Evolution of Geography Much of the Middle Ages’ astronomy and geography may be traced back to the claims of Claudius Ptolemy, a Greek mathematician, astronomer, and geographer. He wrote about it in The Almagest, a book about the […]
Transhumanism and Its Impact on Human Evolution The same thoughts began to spread within the framework of eugenics in the early 20th century in the form of various conferences and meetings.
Human Evolution and Bio-Cultural Changes The concept of the human sphere was introduced in the 30s of the XX century simultaneously in different countries by several scientists.
The Origin of Man and Primates’ Evolution However, one can merely comprehend the origin of man if one considers history from the beginning of the evolution of the order of primates. Primates are masters of living in the trees due to their […]
The Evolution of Modern US Society: The US Foreign Policy The economy of the antebellum era was characterized by significant growth, which was attributed to the slave economy, which was common among the southerners and the family farms in the northern states, and the waged […]
The Evolution and Impact of Advertising in the Medical Sector The negative impact of advertising has often been a myth and has not been adapted to the specific influence in the area under consideration.
Telehealth’s Evolution: Navigating Health and Equality Across Pandemic Phases By offering estimates of the effect of improved access to telehealth services on the general public, this research adds to the larger body of work on telecare.
Aspects of Human Evolution and Progress The concepts of human evolution and progress have evolved throughout history leading to different perspectives on the scientific, agricultural, and language themes resulting in universal similarities that have shaped the nature of the world today.
The Evolution of Private and Public Unions Public sector unions first appeared in the 1900s, after private sector unions in the middle of the 1800s. Since the middle of the 20th century, the membership of unions in the public and commercial sectors […]
Primal Vocal Communication and Evolution of Speech The focus on primate vocal communication and its significance to the evolution of speech, the main form of human communication, led to the selection of a paper by Fischer J, “Primate Vocal Communication and the […]
Philosophizing About Music and Its Evolution Applying the cultural lens to the notion of music and the associated concepts implies revisiting the current understanding of the specified notions.
Theories of Galaxy Evolution: Looking at the Bigger Picture From the point of galaxy evolution, it means that the stellar mass of the galaxy also intensifies with time due to the existence of trends in the spectral energy distribution.
Evolution of Humans: The Main Theories The process of evolution is one of the closest to the human being as people constantly invent new technologies and expand their minds.
Evolution of Political Philosophy: Smith & Arendt The flowering of the ideas of political economy in the historical sense came in the works of the eighteenth-century English economist Adam Smith.
The Video Game Industry Evolution The first mention of the creation of such games dates back to the 1940s, but it was in 1952 that Alexander Shafto “Sandy” Douglas officially presented his dissertation at the University of Cambridge. One of […]
Social Darwinism: Evolutionary Explanations in Sociology In order to understand the reasons behind the failure of social Darwinism to describe society objectively, it is essential to review this ideology’s common arguments.
Hyper Evolution: The Rise of the Robots From the video, the robots look like real human beings, and they have been capacitated to act in a human way in what is known as machine learning technology powered by artificial intelligence. Hyper evolution […]
Evolutionary and Revolutionary Models of Change in Management At the same time, the rush and the absence of back-and-forth communication usually mean that revolutionary change has to be maintained to prevent the company from reverting to the old ways.
Evolutionary Psychology and Psychological Anthropology Coupled with the tendency to avoid uncertainty and the positive activation of the emotional system by fantasies about winning, humans’ reliance on crude calculations of odds makes lottery gambling something attractive.
Computer Usage Evolution Through Years In the history of mankind, the computer has become one of the most important inventions. The diagnostics and treatment methods will be much easier with the help of computer intervention.
Aggression in Nonhuman Primates and Human Evolution Comparing and analyzing the sources of aggression among chimpanzees and bonobos revealed that environmental factors, such as food availability, determined key differences of social structure and aggression patterns in chimps and bonobos.
The US Federal Authority: History and Evolution Moreover, according to Grodzins, the sheer force employed in persecuting African-Americans in their movements for Civil rights was also facilitated by Federalism.
Evolutionary Biology and Darwin The lack of knowledge about the laws of heredity, the genetic and ecological structure of species, and the lack of experimental evidence of natural selection served as the basis for the growth of critical attitudes […]
Early Evolution of Parole in the US In Chapter 3, there is a discussion on the early evolution of parole in the US, as well as its utilization in the current sentencing practices.
Study About the Greek Evolution Following the development of the polis, the Greeks initiated the formation of different political structures in the country. Athens played a vital role in the Persian war by defeating the Persians in the salamis and […]
Sociology: History, Early Theories, and Evolution In the middle of the first millennium BC, the awareness of the inevitability of social inequality resulted in a conceptual justification of its necessity.
Healthcare Evolution and Its Effect on the US Thus, presuming inequality in the fabric of the nation and lack of the feeling of “sameness” is one part of the reason for the lack of unified healthcare.
Materiality, Agency and Evolution of Lithic Technology The authors’ hypothesis is to conduct a re-assessment of materiality theory and to broadly re-articulate the debate about the evolution of the human species.
The Historical Evolution of Perceptions Towards Gender Some of the main questions of what is appropriate to the people of certain gender have been present and debated about for a long time.
Origin of the Earth: The Creation and Evolution Theory The Catholic Church believes in both the creation and evolution theory. According to the Catholics, all Christians believe in a unique creation carried out by God in six days, and there is a strong belief […]
Racism Evolution: Experience of African Diaspora As a result, distinct foundations fostered the necessity of inequality to establish effectiveness of inferiority and superiority complexes. To determine the effect of slavery and racism to modern society.
Emotional Evolution and Mental Problems in Postmodern Literature For the first time, the authors started talking about the horrors of war and the animal fear that a person experiences.
Researching of Evolution of Love Intimacy, as a component of the triangular theory of love, is the feeling of bondedness, connectedness, and closeness in a relationship.
Northwest Coast Masks: Evolution of Cultural Complexity According to Coupland, “the development of the Northwest Coast ethnographic pattern those uniquely complex ethnographic hunting-and-gathering societies has been the focus of many archaeological investigations on the Northwest Coast of North America”.
History: Evolution of Humans The first picture demonstrates the areas of the settlement of modern humans’ predecessors, namely, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens, as well as the times of the migration of Homo sapiens to different regions.
Evolutionary Ethics vs. Belief in God In addition, the disadvantage of the evolutionary theory is that moral and ethical norms cannot be determined only to a biological degree.
First Reptiles Adaptation: Amniotic Egg Evolution The amniotic egg evolution is an adaptation that allowed the first reptiles to thrive in a dry land the development occurred over 300 million years ago. The robust shell protects the egg from drying out, […]
Lenski’s Theory of Sociocultural Evolution An evaluation of the progression of crime, deviance, and social control through these stages is demonstrative of the theory’s applicability. The forms and means of crime and deviance were rudimentary during the pre-industrial age, and […]
Categorizing Human-Made Objects: How It Shaped the Evolution of Display Spaces Due to the introduction of museums and display spaces in the 1500s-1830s, the opportunity to apply the historical lens to historical objects has emerged, helping to discover and appreciate the information about the specifics of […]
The Evolution of Women’s Rights Through American History From the property-owning women of the late 18th century to the proponents of the women’s liberation in the 1960s, women always succeeded in using the influential political theories of their time to eventually make feminist […]
Aspects of Evolution and Creationism The adheres to the theory of divine spark and pays special attention to the ability of organisms to adapt to various conditions and the complexity of their structure.
Evolution of Construction Management From 1960s to Today Thus, the basic features of management within the scope of construction were visible already throughout the undertakings of the first people.
Evolution: Natural Selection in Action The population of these moths will have both dark and white moths at the starting point. The dark moths reproduced successfully due to lack of predation.
Evolution of Public Policies in Healthcare – Role and Impact of Nurses In California in the 1990s changes in health care delivery resulted in reduced nursing jobs and consequent higher stress for nurses, affecting the safety of patients.
Evolutionary Changes of Animals and Plants This presentation will show how animals and plants evolved with time passing. It is critical to examine the factors that underlie these processes and their outcomes.
Evolution of Autonomous Driving Technology The torpedo could travel hundreds of meters while maintaining underwater depth due to its pressurization system known as ‘The Secret.’ The Secret was a combination of hydrostatic and pendulum that gave the hydroplane stability to […]
Anthropology: Evolution of Human Language and Tongue According to the anatomical characteristics of humans the ability to produce speech was pursuant to them. They lived among hominids which noise and sounds they tried to come after.
Evolutionary and Socioemotional Selectivity Theories Namely, interpersonal relationships in the family are the basis of socialization and intellectual development as they connect a person with other people, allowing the developing of a personality and forming an identity.
Evolution: Taxonomy, Primate Physiology The bones in the snake are the last remaining parts of the pelvis though the snake’s bones however, the snake does not have bones.
American Popular Music and Its Evolution Compared to the country blues popular in the 1900s, classic female blues combines its features with urban theater music, and “Crazy Blues” is one of the first songs of this genre.
Nigeria’s Economic Evolution and Future Growth The Federal Republic of Nigeria is a country located in the western part of the African Continent. The paper is going to tackle the economic evolution and the current economic status of Nigeria.
On the Evolution of MTV and Music Videos The nature of the music industry had a great transformation with the birth of MTV and acquired a glory in the next several years.
The Evolution Of Cell Types: Evolution of a Menace Antibiotic resistance The capability of a bacterial species to survive the impact of the administration of chemicals that are designed to induce death is known as antibiotic resistance.
Organ System and Evolution The resistant bacteria can survive and continue to multiply even in the presence of the antibiotics that were once used to eradicate them.
“Molecular Insights Into Classic Examples of Evolution” Current research, as discussed by the symposium speakers explicitly cited in this article, reveals that genetics plays a fundamental role in evolution science and it is indeed the mutation of genes that actually allows organisms […]
Evolution of Community Correctional Programs One of the varieties of the sanctuary was applied to all members of the public while the other was reserved to the church members only.
Evolution of Understanding of Medical Ethics From Past to the Present A look at the concern about the treatment of human subjects, the history of human subjects, the current treatment of human subjects and the real impact of the treatment of human subjects and research done […]
Parasite Toxicity: Parasite Evolution and Host Adaptation The most devastating effects of a parasite to the host are related to the toxicity of the parasite. The phenomenon of natural selection leads to the molecular evolution and ultimately changes the chemical and biological […]
Parasites and Hosts Relations Over Evolutionary Time Subsequently, within the secondary host, the behavior of the parasite that makes the secondary host more at vulnerable risk to being consumed by the primary host would be anticipated to evolve.
How Biogeography Supports the Theory of Human Evolution This segment of the study reveals variation in biological communities of organisms in the lines of geographical gradients of elevation, habitat area, isolation, and latitude.
Emerging Infectious Disease: Epidemiology and Evolution of Influenza Viruses The chain of infection of H1N1 influenza is hard to break because it is transmitted through the respiratory system and contact. When a human being is infected with the H1N1 virus, is mainly due to […]
Humans Are Not the “Last Point” in the Evolution of Vertebrates This paper focuses on the evolution of animals and in precise the evolution of the vertebrates. It shows that the mammals were are not the highest evolution of the vertebrates but some more animals and […]
Impact of Specialization and Evolution in Law These changes include increased demand for legal services from the ever-expanding corporate world and individuals who were previously underrepresented, an increase in the number of female lawyers, and an increase in the number of minorities […]
“The Evolution of the New Environmental Metaparadigms of Nursing” by Kleffel
The Evolution of Probation, Parole, Prisons, Jails, and Sentencing
Evidence for Biological Evolution
The Theory of Evolution. Gene Responsible for Hairiness
Structure and Evolution of Plants
Evolution: Debunking Darwin’s and Lincoln’s Contributions
Biological Diversity Origin and Evolution Directionality
Evolutionary Theory: Misconceptions Analysis
Healthcare Evolution and Current Financial Decision-Making Situation
Healthcare Facilities’ Design Evolution
Summary Article and Video of Evolutionary Process
Evolution of Segmentation Among the Chordates, Annelids, and Arthropods
The Origin and Evolution of Segmentation by Davis and Patel
The Origin and Evolution of Segmentation: Analysis
Origin and Evolution of Segmentation
Finches and Worms’ Evolutionary Pattern
Technological Evolution in the Financial Industry
Evidence of the Evolutionary Process
Evolution Development: Introducing New Species
The Evolution of the Greek Temple
Patterns of Evolution in Humans and Other Organisms
The Evolution of Vertebrae Teeth
Evolutionary Analysis of Asymmetric Limits
Evolutionary Biology: Sleep Patterns in Mammals
Darwin’s Ideas of Natural Selection and Evolution
Evolution of Makkah as a City
Evolution of Computers in Commercial Industries and Healthcare
Society and Evolutionary History: The Question of the Origin of Life
Evolution and Natural Selection
The Evolution of Insect Wings
The Evolution of Communication Structures in Animals
Evolution of the Cichlid Fish Species in Lake Victoria
Prison Gangs’ Evolution and Solutions to Them
Evolution of the Caregiving Experience in the Initial 2 Years Following Stroke
Charitable Organizations and Trust Models: Duties and Ethics
Photosynthesis Rate Determination From the Oxygen Gas Evolution
Insect Evolution
Evolution: Three Different Modes of Selection
Medicare: Comparison With Medicaid and Its Evolution
Evolutionary Theory and Linguistics in Africa’s Historiography
Microeconomic Perspective on Poverty Evolution in Pakistan
How Customer Evolution Has Affected Airlines
The Evolution of Marketing Activities
Convergent Evolution of Health Information Management and Health Informatics
Transgenic Organisms and Evolution
Screen Readers’ Evolution and Their Current Usability
Hip Hop Evolution and Racial & Political Conditions
DNA and Evolution – What’s Similar
Creationism and Evolution Theories
Human Evolution: Electronic Immortality
Evolution of Mating by Charles Darwin
The Positive Evolution of Art in the Twentieth Century
Non-Aligned Movement History and Evolution
Primate Evolutionary Context
Criminal Justice System in the United States Evolution
Morality Evolution, Its Explanations, and Definitions
Franklin Roosevelt: The Evolution of an American Idea
“Why Evolution Is True” by J. A. Coyne
Evolution of Social Behaviour and Attitudes
History and Evolution of the Public Policy
Evolutionary Explanation for Sex and Gender Differences
“Evolution of Federal Cyber Security” by J. Roth
The Evolutionary Psychology Key Points
Evolutionary Paradigm Theory by Alan Malachowski
God and Darwin’s Evolution Theory: A Theological Approach
The Origin and Evolution of Religious Pro-sociality
Evolution Process and the Study of Hominids
The Evolution of Terrorism on the World Stage
The Super Continental Cycle and Evolution
Lamprell Company: Company’s Evolution
Tracing Our Roots: Early Human Evolution and Socioeconomic Practices
Child Development and Evolutionary Psychology
Judaism: Religious Beliefs Evolution
Understanding the Evolution of Trade Deficits
A Perspective on the Evolution Marketing Management
Intelligent Design and Evolution
Popular Culture in America Today: Evolution, Features, and Impact in Other Parts of the World
Evolution Essays and Their Components
Anthropology: Genus Homo and Human Birth Evolution
EPA and the Evolution of Federal Regulation
Biological Anthropology, Lamarck’s and Darwin’s View of Evolution
Evolution of Formal Organizations
Evolution of Chevrolet Camaro. Historical Analysis
Evolution: Different Types of Selection
Evolution and the Cognitive Neuroscience of Awareness and Consciousness
Evolution: Primate Locomotion and Body Configuration
Sociology. Evolution of Formal Organizations
Misconceptions About the Evolutionary Theory
Music: Evolution Factors of Technology and Drugs
Evolution: Gene Variations Among Different Species
Alternative Theories of Evolution
Stephen Jay Gould, Evolution, and Intelligent Design
Grandmothering and the Evolution of Homo Erectus
Television Systems: Innovation and Evolution
Science Provides Evidences to Idea of Evolution
Hominoid Evolution: Intelligence and Communication
Theory of Evolution and Religion
The Expression of the Bmp4 Gene and Its Role in the Evolutionary Process
Telemedicine: Evolution Today of This Form of Trade With Development of IT and E-Commerce
Scholars on Philosophy and Evolution
Outsourcing Evolution in Poland
The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: Origins and Evolution
“Why Evolution Is True” by Jerry Coyne
Evolution of a Media Sources
The Network and Architectural Issues of Enterprise System Evolution
Modern Corporate Marketing Departments Evolution
Bergson’s and Whitehead’s Philosophy of Evolution
Theology of the Old Testament. Religious Evolution
Evolution of Formal Organizations Paper
Mexico’s Economic, Social and Political Evolution
The Analysis of Tendencies of Evolution of Global Governance
Evolution of Limbs: Fossil and Genetic Information
“The Historical Evolution of Black Feminist Theory and Praxis” by Taylor
Film Music Evolution in the United States
Women’s Status in the Workforce and Its Evolution
The Turtle Evolution Concept
Cartesian Dualism and Human Evolution
Intelligent Design vs. Evolution Theory
Nursing Evolution Since Florence Nightingale
Learning Assessment Evolution and Current Trends
The Importance of Studying Creation and Evolution Theories for a Christian
Body Shape Evolution in African Sympatric Congeners
Web Form Evolution: From Web 1.0 to Web 3.0
Darwin, Evolution, and Modern History
Personal Legend and Journey of Evolution
Ponyboy’s Evolution in Hinton’s “The Outsiders”
Evolutionary Psychology and Natural Selection Theory
Tectonics and Geology: Landscape Evolution
Human Societies Evolution and the Role of Innovation
History and Evolution of Lipsticks
Contrast Evolutionary and Social Psychology
Instructional Design Approaches and Evolution
Russian Ideas’ Evolution in Politics and Economics
Anthropology: Homo Erectus in Evolution
Balanced Scorecard Evolution as a Management Tool
Evolution of Project Management Research
The Evolution of Software Attacks
Evolution With a Human Face: Biological and Cultural
The American Revolution and Political Legitimacy Evolution
Ardipithecus Ramidus in Language Evolution
Fibrous Aerosol Filters and Their Evolution
Fresh Fruit and Vegetables Supply Chains’ Evolution
The Evolution of Leadership Theory
Durkheim’s Labor Division Theory and Legal Evolution
Audre Lorde’s Role in the Black Aesthetics Evolution
Kent Flannery’s View on the Evolution of Civilisations
The Study of the Civilizations Evolution
Evolution of Psychology and Social Cognition
The US Foreign Politics Evolution
Globalization Evolution in the UAE
Emirate Post Group: the Pace of Evolution
Television, Its Invention and Technical Evolution
Evolutionary Theory in Biology and Anthropology
Human Brain Evolution: External & Internal Factors
Embedded Intelligence: Evolution and Future
Native Americans’ Evolution in the XIX Century
Human Brain Evolution and Shrinking
The Islam Nation Rise and Evolution
The Evolution of Finches and Their Feeding Habits
Evolution of Close Binary Stars
Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory and Creationism
Darwinism and Creationism in “Evolution” Documentary
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Evolution of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Evolutionary Time Lag and Good Genes Selection
Criticism and Discussion in Science Evolution
Jerry Coyne’s Book “Why Evolution Is True?”
An Evolutionary Window on the Worlds of Pornography and Romance
Modern City and Human Society Evolution
Languages, Their Evolution and Importance
From Classics to Our Time: the Evolution of the Cinema
Money Evolution in Ancient Times and Nowadays
Biodiversity, Its Evolutionary and Genetic Reasons
American Finance Evolution and Its Stages
Money Evolution in the 21st Century and Before
Nazi Anti-Jewish Policy and Its Evolution
Creationism, Evolution and Intelligent Design
Starbucks’ Brand Evolution and Redesign
Language: Evolution and Universal Features
The Evolution of Harriet Tubman
Parity Conditions and Country’s Evolution
American National Security and Technology Evolution
Process of Evolution: Organisms Structure Modifications
Distance Learning and Its Evolution
US Militia System Evolution to US Military
Evolution of a Firm: Linear Regression
The Process Market Relations Evolution in Modern World
Terrorism: the Evolution of ISIS
Evolutionary Driving Forces
Habeas Corpus: History, Evolution and Significance
US Policing Evolution Since 1963
Performance Measurement Evolution
Ecocide, Human Social Evolution, and Globalization
The Evolution of Lean Six Sigma by Pepper & Spedding
Automotive Industry Evolution
Anti-Defamation League: Evolution and Definition
Evolutionary Psychology: Science or Pseudoscience
The Solar System Formation and the Earth Evolution
Culture of Italy: History and Evolution
Social Networking Evolution: GeoCities Analysis
The Evolution of the Race Meaning
Evolution of Capitalism: Concept, Origin and Development
Evolutionary Theory and Genetics
Psychological Perspectives Evolution and Theories
Evolutionary Psychology: Cognition and Culture
The Future of Islam: Evolution and Changes
Why Evolution Is True?
The Evolution of Human Rights in Canada
Hotel Electronic Distribution Channel Strategy Evolution
Evolution and Speciation’s Four Forces
India and the UAE: Evolution Ways
History of the Race Evolution
“The Facts of Evolution” by Michael Shermer
The Concept of Design and Its Evolution
Why Medicine Needs a Dose of Evolution?
Athletic Training Evolution
Evolution Role in the Humanity and Planet Development
Cognitive Psychology Evolution Aspects
Celtic Christianity Evolution
Formal Organization Structure
Forbidden Archeology Against Mainstream Evolution Theories
Commoner, Darwin and Paley’ Theories on Humans Evolution
Culture and Human Evolution – Personal Psychology
Andy Clark on Human Mentality and Technology
Canadian Social Democracy Historical Evolution
The Evolution of the LGBT Rights
History: Evolution of the Scientific Revolution
Economic Issues: The Evolution of Usury
The Crime Fighting Evolution
The Human Morals Evolution
Evolution Process Definition
Mi’kmaq People: History and Evolution
Biological Anthropology: Hominid Evolution
The Evolution of Television
Evolution of Cognitive Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology: Short-term Mating in Men
Evolutionary Psychology: Definition and Key Concepts
Language Evolution in Human Being
Analysis: “Pandora’s Growing Box: Inferring the Evolution and Development of Hominin Brains from Endocasts” by Zollikofer and Ponce de Leo´n
The Evolution of Organizational Knowledge Creation Theory
Office Depot’s E-Commerce Evolution
Does Evolution Explain Why Men Rape
“The Link Between Fire Research and Process Safety” by Cadena and Munoz
Balanced Scorecard Concept Evolution
Plantinga’s Evolutionary Argument against Naturalism
Canadian Child Welfare System Evolution
Impressionism and Post-Impressionism: Technique Evolution
Human Computer Interface: Evolution and Changes
Industrial relations-Evolution of labor movements
Evolution and Revolution as Organizations Grow
Evolution of Planning and Design
Evolution of Organizational Knowledge Creation Theory
Evolutionary Psychology: Depression
History and Evolution of Health Care Economics
Evolution of Fire Protection Codes
Evolutionary Psychology Issues
How the Way of Reading Books Changed due to Rapid Evolution of Technology
Evolution of Imperial Rule in Japan and China
The Problem of People’s ‘Dangerous Evolutionary Baggage’
Evolution of Predator and Prey Pairings
The Reasons for Amazon’s Evolution of Supply Chain and Distribution Systems in the United States
Evolution of ERP system
Incident Command System History and Evolution
Human Evolution and Archaeology
The Four Forces of Evolution and Variation
The Individual and Game Theory Criticisms and the Evolutionary Theory
Childhood Evolution and History
Evolution of Charitable Self-Guidelines in Europe
Evolution of the Incidents Command System
History of the Gradual Radical Evolution in America
The Evolution of Gun Control Policy in College Campus: The Path to Better Policy Making
West Coast Jazz: History and Evolution
Major Historical Vents: Evolution or Revolution
The Concept and Effects of Evolution of Electronic Health Record System Software
Theories of the Language Evolution
Illustration’ Evolution in 20th Century
Evolution of the Chilean Government After the Ruthless Regime of Augusto Pinochet
How primary resources can debunk the misconception that Darwin proposed the first theory of evolution
Capitalism Concept Evolution
Evolution in the English Language
The background and evolution of British policy regarding the Palestine issue
The Evolution of Industrialized Workers in Chicago
The Evolutionary Genetics of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
Evolutionary Account of Female Mating Preferences
The Four Forces of Evolution
The Development and Evolution of the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology
Feminism and Evolution or Emergence of Psychology
Paleontology and The Evolutionary Theory
Women and the Evolution of World Politics
“The Indian Challenge: The Evolution of a Successful New Global Strategy in the Pharmaceutical Industry” by D. Jane Bower and Julian C. Sulez
The Evolution of the Division of Labor Theory Starting From Ancient Greek Economists to the Present
The Evolution of Woman’s Work From the 19th Century
Evolution of Solar Energy in US
Evolution of the IRA
Money: Evolution, Functions, and Characteristics
The Evolution of US Military Logistical Procurement
Does Evolution explain human nature?
The Evolution of the American Hero
Evolution and History of Fire Science
Evolution of Dogs from the Gray Wolf
Comparing Knauft’s Study on Violence and Sociality with Darwin’s Evolutionary Perspectives
Evolution of Power Production
Evolution of Photography: Trying to Seize the Moment
Evolution of Hospice Care
Natural Selection: Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
The Evolution of American Federalism
The Relevance of Evolutionary Psychology
The Evolution of the iPhone from Inception to Today’s iPhone 4
Are Economic Crises Inherent to Capitalist Evolution?
Are Spatial Planning Objectives Reflected in the Evolution of Urban Landscape Patterns?
Can Evolution and Creation Co-exist?
Can Evolution Ever Explain Why Men Rape?
Can Evolution Fit Into Christianity?
Did Climate Effect Human Evolution?
Did “Desert Storm” Represent a Revolution or Evolution in Air Power?
Does Evolution Make Reasoning Improve Learning?
Does Evolution Solve the Hold-up Problem?
Does Molecular and Structural Evolution Shape the Speedy Grass Stomata?
Ecological Rationality and Evolution: The Mind Works That Way?
Evolution Versus Creation: Does Biblical Religion Unravel the Mysteries That Science Forbids?
Host-Microbe Interactions as a Driver of Brain Evolution and Development?
How Does Bioarchaeology Reveal the Evolution of Disease?
How Do Body Plans Relate to Nervous System Evolution Biology?
How Did the Evolution of Oxygen-Releasing Photosynthesis?
How Did the Evolution of the Amniote Egg-Free Amniotes?
How Does Evolution Tune Biological Noise?
How Does Kin Selection Explain the Evolution of Altruism?
How Does Teilhard Justify Placing God Christ in Evolution?
How Does Transduction Contribute to the Rapid Evolution?
How Has Evolution Affected Our Lives Today?
How Did Evolution Transpire?
How Finding Yourself Comes Through the Evolution of Thought?
How Genetic Evolution Alters Brain Development?
How Has Mankind’s Perception of Evolution Impacted Society?
How Human Disease Impacted Our Evolution?
How Humans Became Athletes Through Evolution?
How Learning About Evolution Challenged My Religious Upbringing?
How Have Male and Female Gametophytes Changed During Evolution?
Human Nature Essay Titles
African Diaspora Ideas
Natural Disaster Topics
DNA Essay Ideas
Antibiotic Ideas
Biodiversity Research Topics
Developmental Psychology Essay Ideas
Environment Research Topics
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100 Evolution Essay Topics + Essay Writing Guide

Even though most of us know enough about evolution, finding a good and a unique topic can quickly become a challenge! The trick here is to determine a unique framework for your future paper, so you know what structure to follow to keep up with all the essay writing rules. Looking through the countless Biology and Life Sciences essays of the actual students and reading through essay revisions of college and university professors in our time, I have made a list of 100 excellent evolution essay topics and wrote down all the “Do’s” and “Don’t’s” of evolution essay writing.

Trust me, choosing a good topic becomes much easier when you understand how the evolution works and realize that it deals with much more than explaining how we all got here. It is not only about us, human beings, as evolution also deals with all flora and fauna and the changes that take place in our society. As you read through the topics below, think of evolution as of diversity in nature that provides a framework for the determination of the ways how the species develop their distinguishable differences!

Contents (Clickable)

What is an Evolution Essay?

Evolution essay is a paper that focuses on any aspect related to the evolution theory and diversity in nature. Since it is a scientific theory that is fundamental for the modern biological theory, an evolution essay also includes the facts, theories, hypotheses, and the history of the evolution theory among other topics. Evolution essay is first and foremost, a scientific work, therefore, it is extremely important to include verified facts, backed up with the help of academic journals and the books with a correct format and the references.

Evolution and Theory of Evolution

A bit more theory that will help you to understand the topics in a better way! Trust me; I’ll keep it short!

Evolution refers to changes in heritable characteristics in species over successive generations. This process ultimately results in the occurrence of biodiversity (this is the reason why the presence of Biodiversity in your research paper is so important!). In basic terms, evolution is a process that occurs in all species on Earth, which are currently estimated at mind-blowing 2 million . In other words, it means all the species, starting with miniscule bacteria and up to the evolution of human beings.

Theory of evolution refers to a scientific theory that explains the origin of different species by evolution. Charles Darwin is considered to be the father of the theory of evolution and the one behind the foundation of the theory explained in the famous On the Origin of Species book published in 1859.

Actual Research Essay Examples on Topic!

Before we move on to the list of 100 evolution essay topics, I want to share four actual essay examples related to evolution, biology, and the life sciences, so you can get a better idea about how particular ideas can be implemented in practice for the best results. Looking through our vast essay database written and shared by students, I came up with these diverse examples:

Global Warming: Fact or Fiction? – Evolution explored through the phenomenon of global warming. Is it a fact or a fiction? This essay’s author came up with an excellent research topic and argumentation!
Environmental Science Q&A – Here we have an example of environmental issues related to evolution and the changes that we can observe. See how the questions are addressed and how the structure is kept.
Genetically Modified Food – As surprising as it may be, it is also an issue related to evolution because the microorganisms and the species go through mutation, which is, essentially, an evolution process and a relevant social issue.
Geographical Characteristics of the Streams in Urban Areas and Forested Areas – see how the changes of evolution impact the geographical aspect in both urban and the forested areas.

As you can see from the examples, evolution is an expansive concept and a field of research, so you do not have to limit yourself with a strict list of biology or microorganisms-related topics. Be creative and try to make your evolution essay feel interesting and inspiring!

100 Evolution Essay Topics

Let us start with the human evolution, so we can see how broad and many-sided the evolution essay writing can be!

Human Evolution Essay Topics

Why do human beings laugh?
Why did human species develop to be dominant on the planet?
What distinguishes human brain from the other species?
Evolution of human eye.
Why do human beings perceive beauty?
How does evolution theory explain the existence of language and speech?
Recent mutations the humans underwent.
The current mutations humans are going through.
Geodakyan evolutionary theory of sex.
Evolution of sexual reproduction.
Red Queen hypothesis.
Evolution of human intelligence.
Evolution of monogamy.
Evolutionary medicine.
Social effects of evolutionary theory.
Evolution of immunity.
Evolution of the human nervous system.
Evolution of sex differences in cognition.
Sexual selection.
Sexual conflict.
Host-parasite coevolution in human malaria.
Variation in evolution.
Evolutionary stance on art.
Why did humans start walking on two feet?
What is the evolutionary benefit of forming the society?
As you can see from these examples, evolution is not only about biology and the life sciences!

Okay, so you want something more traditional? Here we go below:

Evolution of Flora and Fauna Essay Topics

Evolution of dogs/cats/whales/ or any other species of your choice.
Parallel evolution in the animal kingdom.
Earliest life forms.
Cladistics in the animal kingdom.
Evolutionary ecology of parasites.
Host-parasite coevolution in animals.
Evolution of birds.
An impact of climate on evolution.
Evolution of fungi.
The hair evolution.
Notable cases of adaptation.
Evolution of mimicry.
Natural selection in the animal kingdom.
Co-operation development.
Early animal evolution.
Polyps and medusas evolution.
“Savannah” hypothesis of early bilateral evolution.
Why the invertebrates became more complex?
Evolution of the animal genome.
Early evolution of neurons.
Plant population genetics and evolution.
Reconstruction of sexual modes throughout evolution.
The role of chromosomal change in plant evolution.
Evolution during the domestication of animals.

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Let’s continue with more biology-related topics!

Evolutionary Biology Essay Topics

Gene-centered view.
Theory of stellar evolution.
The social impact of evolutionary biology.
Evolution of multicellular organisms.
Genetic architecture of adaptation.
Evolutionary robotics.
Evolution of cooperation.
Paleobiology.
Bayesian inference of phylogeny and its impact on evolutionary biology.
Evolutionary biology of aging.
Neuroscience in evolutionary biology.
Optimality theory.
Morphometrics.
Biological conservation.
Evolutionary biology and ecology.
Evolutionary biology and immunology.
Conceptual issues in evolutionary biology.
Evolutionary biology and population genetics.
Evolutionary biology and phylogenetics.
Mathematical models in evolutionary biology.
The evolutionary perspective on sperm biology.
Plant speciation.
Marine speciation.
Morphological evolution.

Theory of Evolution Essay Topics

How did Darwin come up with his theory?
Theories that can potentially debunk an evolution theory.
Common misconceptions about evolution that everyone still believes.
Influence of Darwin’s theory on the science.
History of evolutionary thought.
Theories about evolution that existed before Darwin’s “ The Origin of Species”
Essentialism.
Tree of Life Concept.
Are we all related?
Adaptation theory.
Lamarck’s theory of evolution.
Evolution as fact and the theory.
Somatic selection.
Synthetic theory of evolution.
Why is evolution still considered a theory?
Evolution theory of a social change.
Evolutionary psychology.
Mutation theory by De Vries.
Neo-Darwinism.
The types of evolutionary theories.
The contribution of Alfred Wallace in the evolution theory.
Who should be credited for evolution theory – Wallace or Darwin?
Objections to evolution theory.
Proof of evolution.
How does evolution explain morality?

How to Write an Evolution Essay

1 Evolution Essay Structure

The structure of an evolution essay is what you should know even before you decide on a topic and there is a good reason for that! There are three major elements that your essay structure should include to make sure that your professor will not decrease your future grade:

Introduction . It provides the readers with a brief outlook on your topic, your essay structure, the elements included, and the main idea that you want to communicate. It is where your strong thesis statement or an argument go to! Make sure your introduction contains the following:
A strong hook sentence – an attention-grabbing element that is usually in the first 1-2 sentences of the essay. Since we have to write an essay about the evolution theory, we will choose a scientific fact or refer to an impressive discovery that refers to evolution. A reason why hook should be there is to capture your reader’s interest and attention!
Overview of your major argument and topic – let the readers know what they are about to find out and learn as they read your evolution essay!
A brief overview of the essay structure – explain how and in what order you are planning to develop each part of your paper.
Thesis statement – the main idea or the quintessence of your essay. Make sure to write several thesis statements and choose the one that not only sounds best but the one that you can back up and explain with the help of scientific data and credible references.
Body paragraph includes the consistent and logical sequence of paragraphs that reveal all the facts and arguments that you use to support your thesis statement.

Make sure to:

Use verified sources – evolution theory is a scientific theory that has plenty of evidence, so make sure that you include as many credible references as necessary!
Be logical and consistent – let your readers follow your logic easily. Remember that your audience may differ, so make sure to write a sentence or two that explains your vision and the concepts you are discussing. If it requires more work or a reference to a case study, make sure to include it in your paper.
Start every paragraph with a topic sentence – it will be much easier for you to write each section if you start writing them with a thesis that reflects the content of the paragraph.
Explain the facts included in the essay – demonstrate your understanding of the facts you use in the essay and their relevance to the main topic and thesis statement
Avoid plagiarism – copying someone else’s work without reference is not cool while using numerous sources to support your thought with an academic claim is entirely another thing that makes your essay look credible and professional!
Conclusion part is where you summarize the whole essay without the introduction of any new ideas . Remind your readers of the most important facts and the findings they should remember when they are done reading your essay. Restate your thesis statement in other words to make the essay sound logical and integrated.

2 Argumentative Essay on Evolution Writing Tricks

When you have to write an argumentative essay on evolution, there are some writing tricks that you should mind to avoid trouble with your paper and impress your college or university professor.

Include your own opinion on an issue that you discuss – an argumentative essay requires having your own stance on a problem or what most college professors call “a voice of the writer.” Ask yourself about how can YOU contribute to the issue since it is your paper and it has to stand out!
Defend your view on the issue using as many verified facts as you can!
Include the viewpoints that oppose yours – and prove them wrong . Do so with the facts and use strong reasoning.
Do not simply restate thesis statement in conclusion , but readdress it using the evidence you accumulated through the body paragraphs.
Use classic 5-paragraph essay format (if you are not required to do otherwise) – Introduction, 3 Body Paragraphs, and Conclusion. Such an approach will help you to see where all that information belongs!

Evolution Essay “Do’s and Dont’s”

Research your facts, the background of the issue, and the case studies (if relevant) as you choose your future topic and read the list of topic examples below.
Include scientific facts in your essay and use professional language.
Start your introduction with an interesting hook by stating why is the topic of choice relevant to you and society.
Use strong thesis statement as your guideline to make sure that you don’t deviate from the topic.
Double-check your facts and always back up your paper with academic journals and credible references.
Do not underestimate the use of drafts as you write the paper.
Do not use the same wording for the thesis statement as for your hook sentence. These are two different matters where one of them is an introduction, and the other one is the reason for your research.
Do not simply copy scientific information without your personal comment and consideration. If it has to be there, explain how and why.
Do not underestimate the importance of an outline, format, and the body structure.
Do not ignore the importance of proofreading because it will help you to eliminate typos, grammar mistakes, and accidental repeating of the same sentence.

Help! I’m Still Stuck!!!

Sometimes even the list of helpful topic ideas and the essay writing guides are still not enough because the deadline is coming up and you have not yet started. In other cases, it is way too difficult to find the right sources, and you need just a bit of help to get your paper done. It is exactly the moment when you need professional help and someone who can help you get out of this “I’m Stuck!” mode.

The help is already here for you as our skilled team of biology and life sciences experts, as well as professionals in the other fields of science, are ready to help you work through the most complex assignments and be there to make you come up with a great topic idea! All you have to do is tell us of your homework task, fill in the simple form, and we shall connect you with a skilled geek who knows how to help and do so timely! It is absolutely safe and confidential, let alone that it is fine to ask for help when you need it! Our team knows how much challenging all of these tasks are, so it is guaranteed that you will be guided through each problem and issue that you have to deliver a great final paper. No matter what your problem may be, we are ready to help you identify and deal with it!

I am sincerely hoping that my 100 evolution essay topics and the writing guide article have helped you to get an idea of how to write your paper. If not, remember what I have mentioned in a paragraph above! 🙂 In case you have something to add or want to share something important, feel free to post in the comments below! I wish you the best of luck and let us make an evolution with a truly awesome paper!

Essay on Human Evolution: Top 6 Essays | Biology

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Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Human Evolution’ for class 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Human Evolution’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Human Evolution

Essay Contents:

Essay on the Models of Human Evolution

Essay # 1. Introduction to Human Evolution:

Evolution as a process is composed of two parts:

1. An organism reproducing mechanism that provides variable organisms. Changes to the organism are largely random and effect future generations. They are made without regard to consequences to the organism.

2. A changing environment which screens organism changes. The environment provides stress on the variable organisms that selectively allows, through competition, certain changes to become dominant and certain others to be eliminated, without consideration for the future of the mechanism.

That same process provides mechanism (organism) disintegration if a strong screening environment is not present. Evolution is a two-way process which does not always work to the long term advantage of the organism and in fact often becomes quite deadly to a given species and thereby eradicates it.

The evolutionary process is bidirectional in its effect. It may, depending on the environment, either improve a given characteristic or decay it. Since the first step in the process is largely random and most organisms are quite complex, almost all of the variations are harmful.

A characteristic of a species advances if the environment is harsh, since most harmful variations to that characteristic will be eliminated through death and suffering at a rapid rate, leaving only the inconsequential and helpful changes in the lineage.

If the environment is benign with respect to the capability of the species then the harmful changes are not eliminated and the species will degenerate to a point of balance with the environment.

Human evolution is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species from other hominans, great apes and placental mammals. It is the subject of a broad scientific inquiry that seeks to understand and describe how this change occurred.

Mammals developed from primitive mammal-like reptiles during the Triassic Period, some 200-245 million years ago. After the terminal Cretaceous extinction (65 million years ago) eliminated the dinosaurs, mammals as one of the surviving groups, underwent an adaptive radiation during the Tertiary Period.

The major orders of mammals developed at this time, including the Primates to which humans belong. Other primates include the tarsiers, lemurs, gibbons, monkeys, and apes. Although we have significant differences from other primates, we share an evolutionary history that includes traits such as opposable thumbs, stereoscopic vision, larger brains, and nails replacing claws.

Primates are relatively unspecialized mammals- they have no wings, still have all four limbs, cannot run very fast, have generally weak teeth, and lack armor or thick protective hides. However, the combination of primate adaptations that include larger brains, tool use, social structure, stereoscopic color vision, highly developed forelimbs and hands, versatile teeth, and upright posture, place them among the most advanced mammals.

Approximately 20 million years ago central and east Africa was densely forested. Climatic changes resulting from plate tectonic movements and episodes of global cooling about 15 million years ago caused a replacement of the forest by a drier-adapted savanna mixed with open areas of forest. During the course of hominid evolution, periodic climate changes would trigger bursts of evolution and/or extinction.

Primates have modifications to their ulna and radius (bones of the lower arm) allowing them to turn their hand without turning their elbow. Many primates can also swivel or turn their arms at the shoulder. These two adaptations offer advantages to life in the trees.

Primates have five digits on their forelimbs. They are able to grasp objects with their forelimbs in what is known as a prehensile movement. A second modification makes one of the digits opposable, allowing the tips of the fingers and thumb to touch.

Placement of the eyes on the front of the head increases depth perception, an advantageous trait in tree-dwelling primates. Changes in the location of rods and cones in the eye adapted primates for color vision as well as peripheral vision in dim light.

Upright posture allows a primate to view its surroundings as well as to use its hands for some other task. Hominids, the lineage leading to humans, had changes in the shape and size of their pelvis, femur, and knees that allowed bipedalism (walking on two legs). The change from quadruped to biped happened in stages, culminating in humans, who can walk or run on two legs.

Several trends of primate evolution are evident in the teeth and jaw. First, change in the geometry of the jaw reduced the snout into a flat face. Second, changes in tooth arrangement and numbers increased the efficiency of those teeth for grinding food. Third, about 1.5 million years ago our diet changed from fruits and vegetables to include meat.

Essay # 2. Origin of Apes and Hominids:

The fossil record indicates primates evolved about approximately 30 million years ago in Africa. One branch of primates evolved into the Old and New World Monkeys, the other into the hominoids (the line of descent common to both apes and man).

Fossil hominoids occur in Africa during the Miocene epoch of the Tertiary period. They gave rise to an array of species in response to major climate fluxes in their habitats. However, the nature of those habitats leads to an obscuration of the line that leads to humans (the hominids).

Until a few years ago, the ramapiths were thought to have given rise to the hominids. We now consider ramapiths ancestral to the orangutang. The hominid line arose from some as-yet-unknown ancestor. Lacking fossil evidence, biochemical and DNA evidence suggests a split of the hominid from hominoid line about 6 to 8 million years ago.

Australopithecus afarensis, the first of the human-like hominids we know of, first appeared about 3.6-4 million years ago. This species had a combination of human (bipedalism) and apelike features (short legs and relatively long arms). The arm bones were curved like chimps, but the elbows were more human-like. Scientists speculate that A. afarensis spent some time climbing trees, as well as on the ground.

Australopithecus ramidus is an older species, about 4.4 million years, and is generally considered more anatomically primitive than A. afarensis. The relationship between the two species remains to be solved.

History of Man:

I. Ardipithicus ramidus- 5 to 4 million years ago

II. Australopithecus anamensis- 4.2 to 3.9 million years ago

III. Australopithecus afarensis- 4 to 2.7 million years ago

IV. Australopithecus africanus- 3 to 2 million years ago

V. Australopithecus robustus- 2.2 to 1.6 million years ago

VI. Homo habilis- 2.2 to 1.6 million years ago

VII. Homo erectus- 2.0 to 0.4 million years ago

VIII. Homo sapiens archaic- 400 to 200 thousand years ago

IX. Homo sapiens neandertalensis- 200 to 30 thousand years ago

X. Homo sapiens sapiens- 200 thousand years ago to present.

The role of A. afarensis as the stem from which the other hominids arose is in some dispute. About 2 million years ago, after a long million year period of little change, as many as six hominid species evolved in response to climate changes associated with the beginning of the Ice Age.

Two groups developed- the australopithecines, generally smaller brained and not users of tools; and the line that led to genus Homo, larger brained and makers and users of tools. The australopithecines died out 1 million years ago; Homo, despite their best efforts (atomic weapons, pollution) is still here!

With an incomplete fossil record, australopithecines, at least the smaller form, A. africanus, was thought ancestral to Homo. Recent discoveries however have caused a reevaluation of that hypothesis. One pattern is sure, human traits evolved at different rates and at different times, in a mosaic- some features (skeletal, dietary) establishing themselves quickly, others developing later (tool making, language, use of fire).

A cluster of species developed about 2-2.5 million years ago in Africa. Homo had a larger brain and a differently shaped skull and teeth than the australopithecines. About 1.8 million years ago, early Homo gave rise to Homo erectus, the species thought to have been ancestral to our own.

Soon after its origin (1.8 million but probably older than 2 million years ago) in Africa, Homo erectus appears to have migrated out of Africa and into Europe and Asia. Homo erectus differed from early species of Homo in having a larger brain size, flatter face, and prominent brow ridges. Homo erectus is similar to modern humans in size, but has some differences in the shape of the skull, a receding chin, brow ridges, and differences in teeth.

Homo erectus was the first hominid to:

1. Provide evidence the social and cultural aspects of human evolution.

2. Leave Africa (living in Africa, Europe, and Asia).

3. Use fire.

4. Have social structures for food gathering.

5. Utilize permanent settlements.

6. Provide a prolonged period of growth and maturation after birth Between 100,000 and 500,000 years ago, the world population of an estimated 1 million Homo erectus disappeared, replaced by a new species, Homo sapiens. How, when and where this new species arose and how it replaced its predecessor remain in doubt. Answering those questions has become a multidisciplinary task.

Two hypotheses differ on how and where Homo sapiens originated:

1. The Out-of-Africa Hypothesis proposes that some H. erectus remained in Africa and continued to evolve into H. sapiens, and left Africa about 100,000-200,000 years ago. From a single source, H. sapiens replaced all populations of H. erectus.

Human populations today are thus all descended from a single speciation event in Africa and should display a high degree of genetic similarity. Support for this hypothesis comes from DNA studies of mitochondria- since African populations display the greatest diversity of mitochondrial DNA, modern humans have been in Africa longer than they have been elsewhere. Calculations suggest all modern humans are descended from a population of African H. sapiens numbering as few as 10,000.

2. The Regional Continuity Hypothesis suggests that regional populations of H. erectus evolved into H. sapiens through interbreeding between the various populations. Evidence from the fossil record and genetic studies supports this idea.

Scientists can often use the same “evidence” to support contrasting hypotheses depending on which evidence (fossils or molecular clock/ DNA studies) one gives more weight to. The accuracy of the molecular clock, so key to the out-of-Africa hypothesis, has recently been questioned.

Recent studies on the Y-chromosome seem to weaken the regional continuity hypothesis by indicating a single point-of-origin for our species some 270,000 years ago. Continued study will no doubt reveal new evidence and undoubtedly new hypotheses will arise. It is a task for all of us to weigh the evidence critically and reach a supportable conclusion, whether we are scientists or not.

Essay # 3. H istory of the Primates:

Before Homo:

The evolutionary history of the primates can be traced back for some 85 million years, as one of the oldest of all surviving placental mammal groups. Most paleontologists consider that primates share a common ancestor with the bats, another extremely ancient lineage, and that this ancestor probably lived during the late Cretaceous, together with the last dinosaurs. The oldest known primates come from North America, but they were widespread in Eurasia and Africa as well, during the tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene.

With the beginning of modern climates, marked by the formation of the first Antarctic ice in the early Oligocene around 40 million years ago, primates went extinct everywhere but Africa and southern Asia. One such primate from this time was Notharctus.

Fossil evidence found in Germany 20 years ago was determined to be about 16.5 million years old, some 1.5 million years older than similar species from East Africa. It suggests that the primate lineage of the great apes first appeared in Eurasia and not Africa.

The discoveries suggest that the early ancestors of the hominids (the family of great apes and humans) migrated to Eurasia from Africa about 17 million years ago, just before these two continents were cut off from each other by an expansion of the Mediterranean Sea. These primates flourished in Eurasia and that their lineage leading to the African apes and humans —Dryopithecus—migrated south from Europe or Western Asia into Africa.

The surviving tropical population, which is seen most completely in the upper Eocene and lowermost Oligocene fossil beds of the Fayum depression southwest of Cairo, gave rise to all living primates—lemurs of Madagascar, lorises of Southeast Asia, galagos or “bush babies” of Africa, and the anthropoids; platyrrhines or New World monkeys, and catarrhines or Old World monkeys and the great apes and humans.

The earliest known catarrhine is Kamoyapithecus from uppermost Oligocene at Eragaleit in the northern Kenya rift valley, dated to 24 mya (millions of years before present). Its ancestry is generally thought to be close to such genera as Aegyptopithecus, Propliopithecus, and Parapithecus from the Fayum, at around 35 mya.

There are no fossils from the intervening 11 million years. No near ancestor to South American platyrrhines, whose fossil record begins at around 30 mya, can be identified among the North African fossil species, and possibly lies in other forms that lived in West Africa that were caught up in the still-mysterious transatlantic sweepstakes that sent primates, rodents, boa constrictors, and cichlid fishes from Africa to South America sometime in the Oligocene.

In the early Miocene, after 22 mya, many kinds of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa suggest a long history of prior diversification. Because the fossils at 20 mya include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the earliest cercopithecoid, the other forms are (by default) grouped as hominoids, without clear evidence as to which are closest to living apes and humans.

Among the presently recognised genera in this group, which ranges up to 13 mya, we find Proconsul, Rangwapithecus, Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus, Nacholapithecus, Equatorius, Nyanzapithecus, Afropithecus, Heliopithecus, and Kenyapithecus, all from East Africa.

The presence of other generalised non-cercopithecids of middle Miocene age from sites far distant—Otavipithecus from cave deposits in Namibia, and Pierolapithecus and Dryopithecus from France, Spain and Austria—is evidence of a wide diversity of forms across Africa and the Mediterranean basin during the relatively warm and equable climatic regimes of the early and middle Miocene.

The youngest of the Miocene hominoids, Oreopithecus, is from 9 mya coal beds in Italy.

Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons (family Hylobatidae) became distinct between 18 and 12 Ma, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) at about 12 Ma; we have no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so far unknown South East Asian hominid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by Ramapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey, dated to around 10 Ma.

It has been suggested that species close to last common ancestors of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece.

Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 mya, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzee (genus Pan) split off from the line leading to the humans; human DNA is 98.4 percent identical to the DNA of chimpanzees. We have no fossil record, however, of either group of African great apes, possibly because bones do not fossilize in rain forest environments.

Hominines, however, seem to have been one of the mammal groups (as well as antelopes, hyenas, dogs, pigs, elephants, and horses) that adapted to the open grasslands as soon as this biome appeared, due to increasingly seasonal climates, about 8 mya, and their fossils are relatively well known.

The earliest are Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7- 6 mya) and Orrorin tugenensis (6 mya), followed by:

1. Ardipithecus (5.5-4.4 mya), with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. Ramidus.

2. Australopithecus (4-2 mya), with species Au. anamensis, Au. afarensis, Au. africanus, Au. bahrelghazali, and Au. Garhi.

3. Kenyanthropus (3-2.7 mya), with species Kenyanthropus platyops.

4. Paranthropus (3-1.2 mya), with species P. aethiopicus, P. boisei, and P. robustus.

5. Homo (2 mya-present), with species Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, Homo ergaster, Homo georgicus, Homo antecessor, Homo cepranensis, Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo rhodesiensis, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens idaltu, Archaic Homo sapiens, Homo floresiensis.

Essay # 4. Genus of Homo:

The word homo is Latin for “human”, chosen originally by Carolus Linnaeus in his classification system. It is often translated as “man”, although this can lead to confusion, given that the English word “man” can be generic like homo, but can also specifically refer to males. Latin for “man” in the gender-specific sense is vir (pronounced weer), cognate with “virile” and “werewolf”. The word “human” is from humanus, the adjectival form of homo.

In modern taxonomy, Homo sapiens are the only extant species of its genus, Homo. Likewise, the ongoing study of the origins of Homo sapiens often demonstrates that there were other Homo species, all of which are now extinct. While some of these other species might have been ancestors of H. sapiens, many were likely our “cousins”, having speciated away from our ancestral line.

There is not yet a consensus as to which of these groups should count as separate species and which as subspecies of another species. In some cases this is due to the paucity of fossils, in other cases it is due to the slight differences used to classify species in the Homo genus. The Sahara pump theory provides an explanation of the early variation in the genus Homo.

i. Homo Habilis:

H. habilis lived from about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago (mya). H. habilis, the first species of the genus Homo, evolved in South and East Africa in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene, 2.5-2 mya, when it diverged from the Australopithecines.

H. habilis had smaller molars and larger brains than the Australopithecines, and made tools from stone and perhaps animal bones. One of the first known hominids, it was nicknamed ‘handy man’ by its discoverer, Louis Leakey. Some scientists have proposed moving this species out of Homo and into Australopithecus.

ii. Homo Rudolfensis and Homo Georgicus:

These are proposed species names for fossils from about 1.9 -1.6 mya, the relation of which with H. habilis is not yet clear. H. rudolfensis refers to a single, incomplete skull from Kenya. Scientists have suggested that this was just another habilis, but this has not been confirmed.

H. georgicus, from Georgia, may be an intermediate form between H. habilis and H. erectus, or a sub-species of H. erectus.

iii. Homo Ergaster and Homo Erectus:

The first fossils of Homo erectus were discovered by Dutch physician Eugene Dubois in 1891 on the Indonesian island of Java. He originally gave the material the name Pithecanthropus erectus based on its morphology that he considered to be intermediate between that of humans and apes.

H. erectus lived from about 1.8 mya to 70,000 years ago. Often the early phase, from 1.8 to 1.25 mya, is considered to be a separate species, H. ergaster, or it is seen as a subspecies of erectus, Homo erectus ergaster.

In the Early Pleistocene, 1.5-1 mya, in Africa, Asia, and Europe, presumably, Homo habilis evolved larger brains and made more elaborate stone tools; these differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, H. erectus. In addition H. erectus was the first human ancestor to walk truly upright.

This was made possible by the evolution of locking knees and a different location of the foramen magnum (the hole in the skull where the spine enters). They may have used fire to cook their meat.

A famous example of Homo erectus is Peking Man; others were found in Asia (notably in Indonesia), Africa, and Europe. Many paleoanthropologists are now using the term Homo ergaster for the non-Asian forms of this group, and reserving H. erectus only for those fossils found in the Asian region and meeting certain skeletal and dental requirements which differ slightly from ergaster.

iv. Homo Cepranensis and Homo Antecessor:

These are proposed as species that may be intermediate between H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis.

H. cepranensis refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000 years old.

H. antecessor is known from fossils from Spain and England that are 800,000-500,000 years old.

v. Homo Heidelbergensis:

H. heidelbergensis (Heidelberg Man) lived from about 800,000 to about 300,000 years ago. Also proposed as Homo sapiens heidelbergensis or Homo sapiens paleohungaricus.

vi. Homo Neanderthalensis:

H. neanderthalensis lived from about 250,000 to as recent as 30,000 years ago. Also proposed as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis- there is ongoing debate over whether the ‘Neanderthal Man’ was a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis, or a subspecies of H. sapiens.

While the debate remains unsettled, evidence from mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal DNA sequencing indicates that little or no gene flow occurred between H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens, and, therefore, the two were separate species.

vii. Homo Rhodesiensis, and the Gawis Cranium:

H. rhodesiensis, estimated to be 300,000-125,000 years old, most current experts believe Rhodesian Man to be within the group of Homo heidelbergensis though other designations such as Archaic Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens rhodesiensis have also been proposed.

In February 2006 a fossil, the Gawis cranium, was found which might possibly be a species intermediate between H. erectus and H. sapiens or one of many evolutionary dead ends. The skull from Gawis, Ethiopia, is believed to be 500,000-250,000 years old.

Only summary details are known, and no peer reviewed studies have been released by the finding team. Gawis man’s facial features suggest its being either an intermediate species or an example of a “Bodo man” female.

viii. Homo Sapiens:

H. sapiens (“sapiens” means wise or intelligent) has lived from about 250,000 years ago to the present. Between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle Pleistocene, around 250,000 years ago, the trend in cranial expansion and the elaboration of stone tool technologies developed, providing evidence for a transition from H. erectus to H. sapiens.

The direct evidence suggests that there was a migration of H. erectus out of Africa, then a further speciation of H. sapiens from H. erectus in Africa (there is little evidence that this speciation occurred elsewhere). Then a subsequent migration within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier dispersed H. erectus.

This migration and origin theory is usually referred to as the single- origin theory. However, the current evidence does not preclude multiregional speciation, either. This is a hotly debated area in paleoanthropology.

Current research has established that human beings are genetically highly homogenous, that is the DNA of individuals is more alike than usual for most species, which may have resulted from their relatively recent evolution or the Toba catastrophe. Distinctive genetic characteristics have arisen, however, primarily as the result of small groups of people moving into new environmental circumstances.

These adapted traits are a very small component of the Homo sapiens genome and include such outward “racial” characteristics as skin color and nose form in addition to internal characteristics such as the ability to breathe more efficiently in high altitudes.

H. sapiens idaltu, from Ethiopia, lived from about 160,000 years ago (proposed subspecies). It is the oldest known anatomically modern human.

ix. Homo Floresiensis :

H. floresiensis, which lived about 100,000-12,000 years ago has been nicknamed hobbit for its small size, possibly a result of insular dwarfism. H. floresiensis is intriguing both for its size and its age, being a concrete example of a recent species of the genus Homo that exhibits derived traits not shared with modern humans.

In other words, H. floresiensis share a common ancestor with modern humans, but split from the modern human lineage and followed a distinct evolutionary path. The main find was a skeleton believed to be a woman of about 30 years of age. Found in 2003 it has been dated to approximately 18,000 years old. Her brain size was only 380 cm 3 (which can be considered small even for a chimpanzee). She was only 1 meter in height.

However, there is an ongoing debate over whether H. floresiensis is indeed a separate species. Some scientists presently believe that H. floresiensis was a modern H. sapiens suffering from pathological dwarfism.

Use of Tools:

Using tools has been interpreted as a sign of intelligence, and it has been theorized that tool use may have stimulated certain aspects of human evolution—most notably the continued expansion of the human brain. Paleontology has yet to explain the expansion of this organ over millions of years despite being extremely demanding in terms of energy consumption.

The brain of a modern human consumes about 20 Watts (400 kilocalories per day), which is one fifth of the energy consumption of a human body. Increased tool use would allow for hunting and consuming meat, which is more energy-rich than plants. Researchers have suggested that early hominids were thus under evolutionary pressure to increase their capacity to create and use tools.

Precisely when early humans started to use tools is difficult to determine, because the more primitive these tools are (for example, sharp-edged stones) the more difficult it is to decide whether they are natural objects or human artifacts.

Stone Tools:

Stone tools are first attested around 2.6 million years ago, when H. habilis in Eastern Africa used so-called pebble tools, choppers made out of round pebbles that had been split by simple strikes.

This marks the beginning of the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. The Paleolithic is subdivided into the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age, ending around 350,000-300,000 years ago), the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age, until 50,000-30,000 years ago), and the Upper Paleolithic.

The period from 700,000-300,000 years ago is also known as the Acheulean, when H. ergaster (or erectus) made large stone hand-axes out of flint and quartzite, at first quite rough (Early Acheulian), later “retouched” by additional, more subtle strikes at the sides of the flakes.

After 350,000 BP (Before Present) the more refined so-called Levallois technique was developed. It consisted of a series of consecutive strikes, by which scrapers, slicers (“racloirs”), needles, and flattened needles were made. Finally, after about 50,000 BP, ever more refined and specialised flint tools were made by the Neanderthals and the immigrant Cro-Magnons (knives, blades, skimmers). In this period they also started to make tools out of bone.

Essay # 5. Evolution of Neanderthals :

Archaic H. sapiens lived from 500,000 to 30,000 years ago and combined features of H. sapiens with those of H. erectus. The Neanderthals, considered in this group, lived in Europe and western Asia between 100,000 and 30,000 years ago before their disappearance.

Neanderthals were larger-brained than modern humans, had a sloping forehead, prominent brow ridges and a receding chin. They had a very prominent nose and ranged in height from 5 foot 2 inches (average female) to 5 foot 6 inches (average male).

Despite their image as brutish simpletons, Neanderthals were the first humans to bury their dead with artifacts, indicating abstract thought, perhaps a belief in an after-life. They lived in free-standing settlements, as well as caves. Neanderthal tools were more sophisticated than H. erectus’ tools, employing handles to gain extra leverage.

Did Neanderthals evolve gradually into modern humans, or were they replaced by modern forms originating from a single population? The answer to that depends on the answer to the question of the origin of H. sapiens from H. erectus. The out-of-Africa hypothesis suggests Neanderthals were a separate species (H. neandertalensis) replaced as modern humans (H. sapiens) spread from Africa. The regional continuity hypothesis suggests Neanderthals were a subspecies (H. sapiens neandertalensis) that evolved into modern humans (H. sapiens sapiens).

Agriculture and Migrations :

Since the evolution of H. erectus, migrations have been a fact of human existence, helping to spread genetic diversity as well as technological innovation. The most recent innovations have not been physical, but rather cultural.

The Neolithic transition, about 10,000 years ago, involved the change from hunter-gatherer societies to agricultural ones based on cultivation of plants and domesticated animals. Evidence suggests this began in the Middle East and spread outward via migrations. Genetic studies suggest agriculture spread by the migration of farmers into hunter-gatherer societies. This would produce a genetic blurring as the farmers interbred with the indigenous peoples, a pattern supported by genetics.

Most anthropologists agree that the New World was populated by a series of three migrations over the temporary land connection between Asia and North America. The Immigrants spread southward, eventually reaching Tierra del Fuego in the southernmost part of South America.

Anthropological and linguistic studies find three groups of peoples:

1. The Amerinds, who spread across North and South America.

2. The Na-Denes, who occupied the northwestern region of North America.

3. The Eskaleuts, Eskimo and Aleut peoples who live in the far north.

Mitochondrial DNA studies find four distinct groups descended from peoples of Siberia. Amerind mtDNA suggests two waves of migration (one perhaps as old as 21-42 thousand years ago). The genetic model confirms the accepted ideas about human migration into the Americas and suggests a possible fourth wave.

Essay # 6. Models of Human Evolution:

Today, all humans are classified as belonging to the species Homo sapiens sapiens. However, this is not the first species of hominids- the first species of genus Homo, Homo habilis evolved in East Africa at least 2 million years ago, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time.

Homo erectus evolved more than 1.8 million years ago, and by 1.5 million years ago had spread throughout the Old World. Virtually all physical anthropologists agree that Homo sapiens evolved out of Homo erectus.

Anthropologists have been divided as to whether Homo sapiens evolved as one interconnected species from H. erectus (called the Multiregional Model, or the Regional Continuity Model), or evolved only in East Africa, and then migrated out of Africa and replaced H. erectus populations throughout the Old World (called the Out of Africa Model or the Complete Replacement Model).

Anthropologists continue to debate both possibilities, and the evidence is technically ambiguous as to which model is correct, although most anthropologists currently favor the Out of Africa model.

Multiregional Model :

Advocates of the Multiregional model, primarily Milford Wolpoff and his followers, have argued that the simultaneous evolution of H. sapiens in different parts of Europe and Asia would have been possible if there was a degree of gene flow between archaic populations.

Similarities of morphological features between archaic European and Chinese populations and modern H. sapiens from the same regions, Wolpoff argues, support a regional continuity only possible within the Multiregional model. Wolpoff and others further argue that this model is consistent with clonal patterns of phenotypic variation.

Out of Africa Model :

According to the Out of Africa Model, developed by Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews, modern H. sapiens evolved in Africa 200,000 years ago. Homo sapiens began migrating from Africa between 70,000 – 50,000 years ago and would eventually replace existing hominid species in Europe and Asia.

The Out of Africa Model has gained support by recent research using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). After analysing genealogy trees constructed using 133 types of mtDNA, they concluded that all were descended from a woman from Africa, dubbed Mitochondrial Eve.

A variation on this model involves the Southern dispersal theory, which has gained support in recent years from genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence. In this theory, there was a coastal dispersal of modern humans from the Horn of Africa around 70,000 years ago. This group helped to populate Southeast Asia and Oceania, explaining the discovery of early human sites in these areas much earlier than those in the Levant.

A second wave of humans dispersed across the Sinai peninsula into Asia, resulting in the bulk of human population for Eurasia. This second group possessed a more sophisticated tool technology and was less dependent on coastal food sources than the original group. Much of the evidence for the first group’s expansion would have been destroyed by the rising sea levels at the end of the Holocene era.

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Essays on Evolution

Do you need a hand with your evolution essay? See the evolution essay samples below for more information. Word evolution derived from Latin “evolutio”, which means “unrolling”. Evolution essays describe evolution as a process of change and development of nature and society, which consists of a gradual change. Some authors of essays on evolution define it as the movement in nature and society, a slow, gradual quantitative change, leading, under certain conditions, to a qualitative change by way of a leap, a break in gradualness, a revolution. Evolution was first introduced by English scientist Charles Darwin in 1859 when he established the ideas that representatives of the same species are different, traits pass through generations, evolution is gradual and done through natural selection. Many essays on the topic explore Darwinism. Check essay samples here for inspiration!

Evolution can be defined as the process by which change is accumulated over time. The change is gradual and leads to a more complex form. Charles Darwin who is a British is said to be the father of evolution theory, his theory of natural selection brought a great revolution in...

Words: 1096

Rationality can be defined as the ability to make sound decisions depending on one’s beliefs. Rationality relates what is true and what actions to take. It provides bases for actions taken by a person (Hale, 24). Human rationality can be identified by the logic deployed in their judgment. A rational...

There has been a lot of debate on the qualification of the concept of intelligent design in the science realm. While some scientists and philosophers argue that the arguments presented in the intelligent design context cannot be observed and tested and can only exist as a quasi-religious doctrine, others hold...

Words: 1356

A Psychosocial Theory Concept Paper – AnnotatedBibliography Dissanayake, E. (2017). Ethology, Interpersonal Neurobiology, and Play: Insights into the Evolutionary Origin of the Arts. American Journal of Play, 9(2), 143-168. The article provides a deep description of the theory of human evolution and its relation to ethology, which is the study of social...

Dissanayake, E. (2017). Ethology, Interpersonal Neurobiology, and Play: Insights into the Evolutionary Origin of the Arts. American Journal of Play, 9(2), 143-168. This article journal explores the theory of evolution tenet of ethology. Ethology is the study of behavior based on social contexts and adaptive significance. According to the author...

Words: 1815

Technology and the Evolution of Society Technology is advancing day to day following the scientist efforts and innovation skills globally. The theory of technological evolution has been clearly discussed by the various scientist who showed their interest in formulation of evolution perspectives like Gerhard Lenski, Leslie White and Alvin Toffler whom...

Words: 1384

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There is no doubt that evolution of human being is characterized by meat eating in various ways. Human’s digestive track is not obligatory. The body produces enzymes that are meant to digest meat, which aids in better physical growth and higher cephalization. Traditional practices were significantly based on the domestication...

Words: 2075

Over the decades, communication has been one of the most evolved aspect with reference to human life. Today, with the press of a button, any form of message is sent regardless of the physical location or distance form the sender of the recipient. This has been the case with today’s...

Words: 1433

Most creative people in history had their life organized around their work, but not their days.This is a paradox deemed true since they centered their life on their work but they did not have deadlines on when a job should be done. Take Einstein, for example, and he would doze...

Words: 1933

The future of humanity has been a topic of interest for most individuals as it is a mystery (Xue, online). In the past, natural selection and random mutation determined what lives and what dies such as through the cretaceous-tertiary extinction that occurred about 65 million years ago (Enriquez and Gullans,...

Words: 1305

Darwin's Theory and Controversy Darwin's theory claims that the ability of species to adapt makes it able to survive. A species can adapt in many ways like self-defense and its ability to survive under different environmental conditions. The theory was considered controversial because it ignored the role of God in creation....

Genetic Variation Genetic Variation is the differences in and among the human population, a situation where no two humans are genetically identical. The traits in human beings show significant variation between the population and sexes. A heritable trait may be acquired through genes that pass from parent to offspring, others through...

The state of AI in early 2024: Gen AI adoption spikes and starts to generate value

If 2023 was the year the world discovered generative AI (gen AI) , 2024 is the year organizations truly began using—and deriving business value from—this new technology. In the latest McKinsey Global Survey on AI, 65 percent of respondents report that their organizations are regularly using gen AI, nearly double the percentage from our previous survey just ten months ago. Respondents’ expectations for gen AI’s impact remain as high as they were last year , with three-quarters predicting that gen AI will lead to significant or disruptive change in their industries in the years ahead.

About the authors

This article is a collaborative effort by Alex Singla , Alexander Sukharevsky , Lareina Yee , and Michael Chui , with Bryce Hall , representing views from QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey, and McKinsey Digital.

Organizations are already seeing material benefits from gen AI use, reporting both cost decreases and revenue jumps in the business units deploying the technology. The survey also provides insights into the kinds of risks presented by gen AI—most notably, inaccuracy—as well as the emerging practices of top performers to mitigate those challenges and capture value.

AI adoption surges

Interest in generative AI has also brightened the spotlight on a broader set of AI capabilities. For the past six years, AI adoption by respondents’ organizations has hovered at about 50 percent. This year, the survey finds that adoption has jumped to 72 percent (Exhibit 1). And the interest is truly global in scope. Our 2023 survey found that AI adoption did not reach 66 percent in any region; however, this year more than two-thirds of respondents in nearly every region say their organizations are using AI. 1 Organizations based in Central and South America are the exception, with 58 percent of respondents working for organizations based in Central and South America reporting AI adoption. Looking by industry, the biggest increase in adoption can be found in professional services. 2 Includes respondents working for organizations focused on human resources, legal services, management consulting, market research, R&D, tax preparation, and training.

Also, responses suggest that companies are now using AI in more parts of the business. Half of respondents say their organizations have adopted AI in two or more business functions, up from less than a third of respondents in 2023 (Exhibit 2).

Gen AI adoption is most common in the functions where it can create the most value

Most respondents now report that their organizations—and they as individuals—are using gen AI. Sixty-five percent of respondents say their organizations are regularly using gen AI in at least one business function, up from one-third last year. The average organization using gen AI is doing so in two functions, most often in marketing and sales and in product and service development—two functions in which previous research determined that gen AI adoption could generate the most value 3 “ The economic potential of generative AI: The next productivity frontier ,” McKinsey, June 14, 2023. —as well as in IT (Exhibit 3). The biggest increase from 2023 is found in marketing and sales, where reported adoption has more than doubled. Yet across functions, only two use cases, both within marketing and sales, are reported by 15 percent or more of respondents.

Gen AI also is weaving its way into respondents’ personal lives. Compared with 2023, respondents are much more likely to be using gen AI at work and even more likely to be using gen AI both at work and in their personal lives (Exhibit 4). The survey finds upticks in gen AI use across all regions, with the largest increases in Asia–Pacific and Greater China. Respondents at the highest seniority levels, meanwhile, show larger jumps in the use of gen Al tools for work and outside of work compared with their midlevel-management peers. Looking at specific industries, respondents working in energy and materials and in professional services report the largest increase in gen AI use.

Investments in gen AI and analytical AI are beginning to create value

The latest survey also shows how different industries are budgeting for gen AI. Responses suggest that, in many industries, organizations are about equally as likely to be investing more than 5 percent of their digital budgets in gen AI as they are in nongenerative, analytical-AI solutions (Exhibit 5). Yet in most industries, larger shares of respondents report that their organizations spend more than 20 percent on analytical AI than on gen AI. Looking ahead, most respondents—67 percent—expect their organizations to invest more in AI over the next three years.

Where are those investments paying off? For the first time, our latest survey explored the value created by gen AI use by business function. The function in which the largest share of respondents report seeing cost decreases is human resources. Respondents most commonly report meaningful revenue increases (of more than 5 percent) in supply chain and inventory management (Exhibit 6). For analytical AI, respondents most often report seeing cost benefits in service operations—in line with what we found last year —as well as meaningful revenue increases from AI use in marketing and sales.

Inaccuracy: The most recognized and experienced risk of gen AI use

As businesses begin to see the benefits of gen AI, they’re also recognizing the diverse risks associated with the technology. These can range from data management risks such as data privacy, bias, or intellectual property (IP) infringement to model management risks, which tend to focus on inaccurate output or lack of explainability. A third big risk category is security and incorrect use.

Respondents to the latest survey are more likely than they were last year to say their organizations consider inaccuracy and IP infringement to be relevant to their use of gen AI, and about half continue to view cybersecurity as a risk (Exhibit 7).

Conversely, respondents are less likely than they were last year to say their organizations consider workforce and labor displacement to be relevant risks and are not increasing efforts to mitigate them.

In fact, inaccuracy— which can affect use cases across the gen AI value chain , ranging from customer journeys and summarization to coding and creative content—is the only risk that respondents are significantly more likely than last year to say their organizations are actively working to mitigate.

Some organizations have already experienced negative consequences from the use of gen AI, with 44 percent of respondents saying their organizations have experienced at least one consequence (Exhibit 8). Respondents most often report inaccuracy as a risk that has affected their organizations, followed by cybersecurity and explainability.

Our previous research has found that there are several elements of governance that can help in scaling gen AI use responsibly, yet few respondents report having these risk-related practices in place. 4 “ Implementing generative AI with speed and safety ,” McKinsey Quarterly , March 13, 2024. For example, just 18 percent say their organizations have an enterprise-wide council or board with the authority to make decisions involving responsible AI governance, and only one-third say gen AI risk awareness and risk mitigation controls are required skill sets for technical talent.

Bringing gen AI capabilities to bear

The latest survey also sought to understand how, and how quickly, organizations are deploying these new gen AI tools. We have found three archetypes for implementing gen AI solutions : takers use off-the-shelf, publicly available solutions; shapers customize those tools with proprietary data and systems; and makers develop their own foundation models from scratch. 5 “ Technology’s generational moment with generative AI: A CIO and CTO guide ,” McKinsey, July 11, 2023. Across most industries, the survey results suggest that organizations are finding off-the-shelf offerings applicable to their business needs—though many are pursuing opportunities to customize models or even develop their own (Exhibit 9). About half of reported gen AI uses within respondents’ business functions are utilizing off-the-shelf, publicly available models or tools, with little or no customization. Respondents in energy and materials, technology, and media and telecommunications are more likely to report significant customization or tuning of publicly available models or developing their own proprietary models to address specific business needs.

Respondents most often report that their organizations required one to four months from the start of a project to put gen AI into production, though the time it takes varies by business function (Exhibit 10). It also depends upon the approach for acquiring those capabilities. Not surprisingly, reported uses of highly customized or proprietary models are 1.5 times more likely than off-the-shelf, publicly available models to take five months or more to implement.

Gen AI high performers are excelling despite facing challenges

Gen AI is a new technology, and organizations are still early in the journey of pursuing its opportunities and scaling it across functions. So it’s little surprise that only a small subset of respondents (46 out of 876) report that a meaningful share of their organizations’ EBIT can be attributed to their deployment of gen AI. Still, these gen AI leaders are worth examining closely. These, after all, are the early movers, who already attribute more than 10 percent of their organizations’ EBIT to their use of gen AI. Forty-two percent of these high performers say more than 20 percent of their EBIT is attributable to their use of nongenerative, analytical AI, and they span industries and regions—though most are at organizations with less than $1 billion in annual revenue. The AI-related practices at these organizations can offer guidance to those looking to create value from gen AI adoption at their own organizations.

To start, gen AI high performers are using gen AI in more business functions—an average of three functions, while others average two. They, like other organizations, are most likely to use gen AI in marketing and sales and product or service development, but they’re much more likely than others to use gen AI solutions in risk, legal, and compliance; in strategy and corporate finance; and in supply chain and inventory management. They’re more than three times as likely as others to be using gen AI in activities ranging from processing of accounting documents and risk assessment to R&D testing and pricing and promotions. While, overall, about half of reported gen AI applications within business functions are utilizing publicly available models or tools, gen AI high performers are less likely to use those off-the-shelf options than to either implement significantly customized versions of those tools or to develop their own proprietary foundation models.

What else are these high performers doing differently? For one thing, they are paying more attention to gen-AI-related risks. Perhaps because they are further along on their journeys, they are more likely than others to say their organizations have experienced every negative consequence from gen AI we asked about, from cybersecurity and personal privacy to explainability and IP infringement. Given that, they are more likely than others to report that their organizations consider those risks, as well as regulatory compliance, environmental impacts, and political stability, to be relevant to their gen AI use, and they say they take steps to mitigate more risks than others do.

Gen AI high performers are also much more likely to say their organizations follow a set of risk-related best practices (Exhibit 11). For example, they are nearly twice as likely as others to involve the legal function and embed risk reviews early on in the development of gen AI solutions—that is, to “ shift left .” They’re also much more likely than others to employ a wide range of other best practices, from strategy-related practices to those related to scaling.

In addition to experiencing the risks of gen AI adoption, high performers have encountered other challenges that can serve as warnings to others (Exhibit 12). Seventy percent say they have experienced difficulties with data, including defining processes for data governance, developing the ability to quickly integrate data into AI models, and an insufficient amount of training data, highlighting the essential role that data play in capturing value. High performers are also more likely than others to report experiencing challenges with their operating models, such as implementing agile ways of working and effective sprint performance management.

About the research

The online survey was in the field from February 22 to March 5, 2024, and garnered responses from 1,363 participants representing the full range of regions, industries, company sizes, functional specialties, and tenures. Of those respondents, 981 said their organizations had adopted AI in at least one business function, and 878 said their organizations were regularly using gen AI in at least one function. To adjust for differences in response rates, the data are weighted by the contribution of each respondent’s nation to global GDP.

Alex Singla and Alexander Sukharevsky are global coleaders of QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey, and senior partners in McKinsey’s Chicago and London offices, respectively; Lareina Yee is a senior partner in the Bay Area office, where Michael Chui , a McKinsey Global Institute partner, is a partner; and Bryce Hall is an associate partner in the Washington, DC, office.

They wish to thank Kaitlin Noe, Larry Kanter, Mallika Jhamb, and Shinjini Srivastava for their contributions to this work.

This article was edited by Heather Hanselman, a senior editor in McKinsey’s Atlanta office.

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Moving past gen AI’s honeymoon phase: Seven hard truths for CIOs to get from pilot to scale

A thumb and an index finger form a circular void, resembling the shape of a light bulb but without the glass component. Inside this empty space, a bright filament and the gleaming metal base of the light bulb are visible.

A generative AI reset: Rewiring to turn potential into value in 2024

High-tech bees buzz with purpose, meticulously arranging digital hexagonal cylinders into a precisely stacked formation.

Implementing generative AI with speed and safety

How We Learned to Stop Worrying and Love AI: Analyzing the Rapid Evolution of Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (GPT) and its Impacts on Law, Business, and Society

77 Pages Posted: 22 Jul 2023 Last revised: 11 Sep 2023

Lawrence J. Trautman

Prairie View A&M University - College of Business; Texas A&M University School of Law (By Courtesy)

W. Gregory Voss

TBS Business School; Toulouse Business School; University of Toulouse - Toulouse Business School

Scott Shackelford

Indiana University - Kelley School of Business - Department of Business Law; Harvard Kennedy School Belfer Center for Science & International Affairs; Center for Applied Cybersecurity Research; Stanford Center for Internet and Society; Stanford Law School

Date Written: July 20, 2023

By March 2023, The Wall Street Journal reports that, “Bill Gates said he believes artificial intelligence [AI] is the most revolutionary technology he has seen in decades, on par with computers, cell phones, and the internet.” According to Mr. Gates blog post, “The development of AI is as fundamental as the creation of the microprocessor, the personal computer, the Internet, and the mobile phone… Entire industries will reorient around it. Businesses will distinguish themselves by how well they use it.” Questions provided by developments in artificial intelligence raise many novel issues of law and problems that will soon need to be addressed by policy makers and courts. Early to recognize these challenges, Professor Lawrence Solum asked the question, “Could an artificial intelligence become a legal person?” Professors Felten, Raj, and Seamans write, “consumer adoption of generative AI tools has been rapid. For example, ChatGPT is the fastest growing consumer application in history, having reportedly reached 100 million active users within two months of its public launch.” By the end of March 2023, “More than 1,000 technology leaders and researchers, including Elon Musk, have urged artificial intelligence labs to pause development of the most advanced systems, warning in an open letter that A.I. tools present ‘profound risks to society and humanity.”’ The U.S. National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence (NSCAI) warns, “America is not prepared to defend or compete in the AI era. This is the tough reality we must face. And it is this reality that demands comprehensive, whole-of-nation action.” Just like the compelling necessity to deal efficiently with cybersecurity threats, AI governmental crafted policy will require, “Committed partners in industry, academia, and civil society. And America needs to enlist its oldest allies and new partners to build a safer and freer world for the AI era.” Those readers new to this topic may be surprised to consider that machine learning and AI has been influencing our culture for several decades now. Prominent examples include consideration of user indicated preferences revealed in such applications as Facebook, Google, and Instagram. As a consumer searches for specific product information, like EV cars for example, the programs will “learn” from these inquiries and return future relevant information to the user. Other examples include those verbal questions asked of Amazon’s Alexa, Apple’s Siri, or Google’s voice assistant applications. The self-driving function pioneered-by and available now on Tesla automobiles is another useful example of “machine learning” from a very large data set. The promise of AI’s beneficial impact is significant. For example, the National Artificial Intelligence Research Resource Task Force (NAIRR) reports, “New AI and AI-driven discoveries and capabilities hold the potential to drive practical solutions to address critical global challenges such as food production, climate change, poverty, and cancer. We have only started to scratch the surface of what is possible, and cannot afford to miss out on seizing the opportunity for leveraging AI to serve the public good.”

Keywords: AGI, AI, Alphabet, Anthropic, artificial intelligence, Bard, Bing, C3.ai, chatbots, ChatGPT, China, CHIPS and Science Act, corporate governance, cybersecurity, deep fakes, deep learning, disruptive technologies, European Union, EUV, extreme-ultraviolet lithography, generation, generative, Google, Ge

JEL Classification: C53, C55, G11, G14, K2, K13, L78, L86

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Lawrence J. Trautman (Contact Author)

Prairie view a&m university - college of business ( email ).

Prairie View, TX United States

Texas A&M University School of Law (By Courtesy) ( email )

1515 Commerce St. Fort Worth, TX Tarrant County 76102 United States

TBS Business School ( email )

1 Place Alphonse Jourdain CS 66810 Toulouse Cedex 7, Occitanie 31068 France

Toulouse Business School ( email )

20, bd Lascrosses Toulouse, 31068 France

University of Toulouse - Toulouse Business School ( email )

20, bd Lascrosses BP 7010 Toulouse, 31068 France

Scott J. Shackelford

Indiana university - kelley school of business - department of business law ( email ).

Bloomington, IN 47405 United States

Harvard Kennedy School Belfer Center for Science & International Affairs ( email )

79 JFK Street Cambridge, MA 02138 United States

Center for Applied Cybersecurity Research ( email )

Wylie Hall 105 100 South Woodlawn Bloomington, IN 47405 United States

Stanford Center for Internet and Society ( email )

Palo Alto, CA United States

Stanford Law School ( email )

Stanford, CA 94305 United States

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Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Wrinkled ir-mnox nanospheres as ph-universal electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution reaction.

Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is an essential anode reaction paired with various energy conversion processes including hydrogen evolution, CO2 reduction and nitrate reduction under diverse pH conditions, and its sluggish kinetics limits the overall energy efficiencies of those processes due to the lack of highly efficient OER electrocatalysts. Herein, we report the wrinkled Ir-doped MnOx (Ir-MnOx) nanospheres as advanced OER electrocatalysts over a wide pH range (0-14). Benefiting from the wrinkled nanospherical morphology with large specific area and optimal electronic structure, the resulting Ir-MnOx show low overpotentials of only 270, 295, and 360 mV at 10 mA cm−2 under acidic, alkaline and neutral conditions, respectively. Specifically, the high Ir mass activity of 1335.7 A gIr−1 at 1.5 V vs RHE under acidic conditions can be achieved. Systematic experiments and operando spectroscopy characterizations as well as density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that integrating Ir into MnOx leads to modulated electronic structure for optimal intermediates adsorption, and their synergy prevents the migration/aggregation of Ir species and the peroxidation of MnOx substrates, jointly beneficial to improved OER activity and stability.

This article is part of the themed collections: Journal of Materials Chemistry A Emerging Investigators 2024 and Journal of Materials Chemistry A HOT Papers

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L. Quan, Y. Cao, J. Liu, B. Y. Xia, X. Zhao and B. You, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4TA02888K

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Stepwise structural evolution toward robust carboranealkynyl-protected copper nanocluster catalysts for nitrate electroreduction

Cai, Jinmeng
Ren, Kai-Xin
Zheng, Su-Jun
Wang, Zhao-Yang
Zang, Shuang-Quan

Atomically precise metal nanoclusters (NCs) are emerging as idealized model catalysts for imprecise metal nanoparticles to unveil their structure-activity relationship. However, the directional synthesis of robust metal NCs with accessible catalytic active sites remains a great challenge. In this work, we achieved bulky carboranealkynyl-protected copper NCs, the monomer Cu 13 ·3PF 6 and nido -carboranealkynyl bridged dimer Cu 26 ·4PF 6 , with fair stability as well as accessible open metal sites step by step through external ligand shell modification and metal-core evolution. Both Cu 13 ·3PF 6 and Cu 26 ·4PF 6 demonstrate remarkable catalytic activity and selectivity in electrocatalytic nitrate (NO 3 −) reduction to NH 3 reaction, with the dimer Cu 26 ·4PF 6 displaying superior performance. The mechanism of this catalytic reaction was elucidated through theoretical computations in conjunction with in situ FTIR spectra. This study not only provides strategies for accessing desired copper NC catalysts but also establishes a platform to uncover the structure-activity relationship of copper NCs. Robust carboranealkynyl-protected copper nanocluster catalysts for NO 3 RR were achieved by stepwise structural evolution.

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Atomically precise metal nanoclusters (NCs) are emerging as idealized model catalysts for imprecise metal nanoparticles to unveil their structure-activity relationship. However, the directional synthesis of robust metal NCs with accessible catalytic active sites remains a great challenge. In this work, we achieved bulky carboranealkynyl-protected copper NCs, the monomer Cu 13 ·3PF 6 and nido ...

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Evidence for evolution

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Introduction

The evidence for evolution

Homologous genes

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Zeresenay Alemseged

Spencer Wells

Svante Pääbo

Nina Jablonski

We are all cyborgs now

Harvey Fineberg

Frans de Waal

Jane Goodall

Margin Size

21.1: Evidence of Evolution

Anatomy and Embryology

Biogeography

Molecular Biology

Misconceptions of Evolution

Evolution Is Just a Theory

Individuals Evolve

Evolution Explains the Origin of Life

Organisms Evolve on Purpose

evolution summary

Understanding Evolution

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Evidencias de la Evolución: La ciencia de la evolución

Similarities and differences: Understanding homology and convergent evolution

Lines of evidence: The science of evolution

Evo in the news: What has the head of a crocodile and the gills of a fish?

Born to Run: Artificial Selection Lab

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The Evidence of Evolution by Kenneth Olsen LAST REVIEWED: 12 April 2023 LAST MODIFIED: 13 January 2014 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199941728-0031

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Module 13: Theory of Evolution

Learning Objectives

Physical Evidence

Anatomy and Embryology

Biological Evidence

Molecular Biology

Evolution—It’s a Thing

Misconceptions of Evolution

Evolution Is Just a Theory

Individuals Evolve

Organisms Evolve on Purpose

Evolution Explains the Origin of Life

In Summary: Evidence for Evolution

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The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

Evidence of Evolution

Human Fossils

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Human Evolution Interactive Timeline