thesis urban green space

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• Published: 06 February 2021

GIS-based multi‐criteria analysis for sustainable urban green spaces planning in emerging towns of Ethiopia: the case of Sululta town

• Eshetu Gelan 1  

Environmental Systems Research volume  10 , Article number:  13 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Urban green spaces are important components, contributing in different ways to the quality of human well-being. In the planning and management of urban centres, attention to the appropriate site selection of urban green spaces with regard to the importance that these spaces have from the perspectives of ecology, socioeconomic, mentality, etc., is an inevitable requirement. In present decades, land suitability mapping methods and GIS have been used to support urban green space planners in developed countries; however, its application and practices are limited in developing countries, like Ethiopia. Therefore, the aim of this study has to select potential sites for green spaces in Sululta town that assist an effective planning process of green areas in a sustainable way.

In this study, GIS-based Multi-criteria analysis (MCA) has been adopted to select suitable sites for urban green spaces. Existing land use, proximity to settlement, road and water body, population density, land ownership, topography, and scenic attractiveness were recognized as the key factor affecting urban green land suitability.

The results showed that 13.6%, 34%, 28%, and 18.9% of the study area are highly suitable, suitable, moderately suitable, and poorly suitable, respectively, for urban green spaces development. Furthermore, out of the total area of the study town 5.5% of the landmass is not suitable for urban green spaces development.

Conclusions

Therefore, the application of GIS-based MCA has provided an effective methodology to solve a complex decisional problem in urban green spaces site selection in the study town and urban planning all over the country.

Introduction

With more than 50 % of the global population now living in urban areas, the world has experienced unprecedented urban growth in recent decades (Wu  2014 ). The global urban population is projected to be 6.3 billion by 2050, almost double the global population of 3.5 billion urban dwellers in 2010 (SCBD  2012 ). This rapid urbanization has posed greater pressure on natural resources and the environment (Rees and Wackernagel  1996 ; Shi  2002 ) and the amount of land exploited for infrastructure development and buildings has increased at the expense of urban green spaces (Sandstrom  2002 ).

Urban green spaces are of crucial importance, especially in an urbanized world, as they are the key providers of ecosystem services and improve the quality of life of urban residents. For instance, by increasing water infiltration, it promotes the regulation of ecosystem services (Haase and Nuissl  2007 ; Pauleit and Duhme  2000 ) and has positive impacts on microclimate regulation (Gill et al. 2000 ; Hamada and Ohta  2010 ). It also provides benefits to city residents, such as exercise, socialization, interaction with nature and connection with places of rich cultural heritage (Crompton  2005 ; Cho et al.  2006 ; Sarev 2011). It is important to understand in this sense that green spaces are main components of urban environments (Tratalos et al. 2007 ) not only for their recreation but also for social contributions (Jones et al. 2013 ), health (Kimberlee et al. 2011) and environmental outcomes (Patel et al. 2009 ).

Despite the numerous aforementioned benefits, urban green spaces are unable to provide urban dwellers with the desirable facilities due to increased urbanization and unplanned urban growth (Wright and Nebel  2002 ), lack of proper site selection and planning and lack of attention to population thresholds (Ahmadi et al. 2016 ). As a result, both quality and quantity of urban green spaces are adversely affected and do not deliver what urban centres demand from urban green spaces as a living organism (Crompton  2001 ). Therefore, by taking into consideration environmental and social-economic factors, well planned, and well-designed green spaces within the reach of the community are mandatory in order to maximize the value that green spaces bring to urban residents and their environment in a sustainable way (Giles-Corti et al.  2005 ).

Land suitability analysis is vital in urban green spaces planning as it gives room for choosing the most suitable site from among various alternatives (Sahabo and Mohammed  2016 ). For suitable site selection, the multi-criteria analysis (MCA) approach that is integrated with the Geographical Information System (GIS) has been increasingly used (Uy and Nakagoshi  2008 ; Van Berkel et al.  2014 ; Ustaoglu, and Aydınoglu  2020 ). In order to determine different land problems considering the alternatives, MCA focuses on various parameters such as biophysical, socio-economic and policy-related factors in decision-making processes (Pramanik, 2016 ).

The MCA methods have been widely applied in both developed and developing countries to select agricultural sites, industrial sites, residential areas, landfill sites, wind farms, disaster area, health centres, and education centres (Rikalovic et al. 2014 ; Rahmati et al. 2016 ; Marsh et al. 2016 ; Demesouka et al. 2016 ; Vasileiou et al. 2017 ). However, the MCA methodology has not commonly used in developing countries such as Ethiopia to select suitable site for urban green spaces development and using MCA in urban planning, as decision-making tools are not practiced.

In parts of Europe, North America and Asia, MCA approach that is integrated with the GIS to identify suitable site for urban green spaces has been receiving more attention and it is considered as one of the essential tools for urban green spaces planning (Nowak et al. 2003 ; Ustaoglu and Aydinoglu  2020 ). In order to specifically analyse the characteristics of green areas and possible sites suitable for green spaces in either the European or overseas context, numerous studies were conducted (Kienast et al.  2012 ; La Rosa and Privitera  2013 ; Chandio et al.  2014 ; Morckel  2017 ; Merry et al.  2018 ; Ustaoglu and Aydınoglu  2020 ). However, in developing countries, while some green spaces studies have been performed, the available studies have concentrated largely on the evaluation of urban green spaces with less emphasis on the study of the suitability analysis for green spaces site selection. For instances, the studies in sub-Saharan African countries are primarily related to street trees’ abundance and composition (Kuruneri-Chitepo and Shackleton  2011 ), green space degradation (Mensah  2014 ), green space extent (McConnachie et al. 2008 ; McConnachie and Shackleton 2010 ) and planning aspects (Cilliers 2009 ; Fohlmeister et al. 2015 ).

This situation also occurs in the case of Ethiopia, which is one of the fastest growing countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Lamson-Hall et al. 2018 ), and studies have focused on the impacts of urban growth on green space (Abebe and Megento  2016 ; Gashu and Gebre-Egziabher  2018 ; Abo El Wafa et al.  2018 ), climate change adaptation (Lindley et al.  2015 ), the development of functional green infrastructure and ecosystem service (Woldegerima et al. 2017 ), planning aspect (Girma et al.  2019 ), green spaces depletion (Girma et al., 2019a ) and utilization pattern (Yeshewazerf  2017 ; Molla et al.  2017 ; Girma et al.  2019b ). However, the topic of suitability analysis for green space in the urban environment by using methods such as GIS-based Multi-criteria analysis has not discussed in these studies. This study therefore aimed to fill the existing research gap by applying GIS-based Multi-criteria analysis method to identify suitable sites for urban green space development in Sululta town.

Materials and methods

Description of the study area.

Sululta town is located in Sululta district of the previous North Shewa administrative zone of Oromia region, currently under Oromia special zone surrounding Finfinne. It is situated very close to the district capital town Chancho and Addis Ababa, which are far about 15 and 23 km in the north and south direction, respectively. Astronomically, the study area is located between 9° 30′ 00″ N to 9° 12′ 15″ N latitude and 38° 42′ 0″ E to 38° 46′ 45″ E longitude. The administrative area of the town is about 4471 hectares. Sululta has the same general climatologically characteristics as that of Addis Ababa. Globally it is a part of tropical humid climatic region, which is characterized by warm temperature and high rainfall. The soils of the zone are basically derived from mesozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The major soil types of Suluta area are Chromic Luvisols (Fig. 1 ).

Map of the study area

Factor map to make suitability analysis for urban green space

Urban green spaces have continuously played a significant role in enhancing the quality of life of urban inhabitants and in supporting urban metabolism. However, urban green spaces have experienced a physical and social decline, while its heterogeneity and richness is often neglected and its contribution to the well-being of a community ignored within current urban planning instruments in Sululta town (Girma et al.  2019 ; Girma et al.  2019a ). Under this circumstance, GIS-based multi-criteria land suitability analysis is becoming critical in determining the land resource that is suitable for urban green spaces (Cetin 2015). Continued development and refinement of suitability analysis, particularly with GIS technology, can enable urban planners to create a suitable urban green spaces system in the urban environment (Manlum 2003 ).

Several literatures have stated that MCA components are used in only a few GIS programs (e.g. IDRISI and ILWIS) to select appropriate places for different functions (Lesslie et al. 2008 ; Chen et al. 2001 ; Ozturk and Batuk  2011 ). MCA has not yet been implemented in the standard functions, according to the literatures, while ArcGIS is one of the most popular GIS applications. In this study, MCA has incorporated ArcGIS 10.2 as a method to select an appropriate location for the development of urban green space.

Therefore, this study proposed the application of GIS-based multi-criteria suitability analysis using analytical hierarchy process (AHP) to support the decision-making process on selecting an appropriate site for development urban green spaces. This approach will be used as a basis for the town’s administration and the planning authority to identify an appropriate and potential site for providing suitable, sufficient and accessible urban green spaces to the urban dwellers. Moreover, it will be used as a benchmark to guide the sustainable land use decision in the study area.

In this study, to select a suitable site for urban green spaces using GIS-based multi-criteria analysis the following five main steps were used:

Spatial and non-spatial data collection

Determination and rating of criteria and sub-criterion

Criteria standardization and factor map generation

Determination of weighting for factors and

Weighted overlay analysis.

Spatial and non‐spatial data collection

The primary data from the field survey were collected through interviews undertaken with different experts in the related field of study for identifying factors that are important for urban green spaces site selection. Various spatial data were also obtained from different secondary sources (Table  1 ). The data were analysed in ArcGIS 10.2 and ERDAS Imagine 2010 for further analysis and mapping purposes.

Determination and rating of criteria and sub‐criteria

In AHP process selection of criteria and their sub-criteria is a crucial stage as selection of criteria influences the judgment by segregating one criterion from other and at the same time, by giving more importance to one criterion over other (Ullah  2014 ). For urban green space planning, there were no universally agreed criteria and factors (Jabir and Arun 2014 ). Therefore, by synthesizing literature review, personal experiences, experts opinions and previous related studies conducted by different researchers (Manlun  2003 ; Uy and Nakagoshi  2008 ; Pantalone  2010 ; Ahmed et al.  2011 ; Kuldeep  2013 ; Heshmat et al.  2013 ; Elahe et al.  2014 ; Yousef et al. 2014 ; Abebe and Megento  2017 ; Li et al. 2018 ; Dagistanli et al.  2018 ; Ustaoglu and Aydinoglu 2020 ) 12 factors were considered for selection of suitable site for development of urban green spaces (Table  2 ). In this study, scientific standards review and personal experiences were used to ensure the reliability of the experts’ opinions.

Besides identifying appropriate criteria and sub-criteria to select a suitable site for urban green spaces the rating has been assigned for each factor. In order to assign a rating (score) for each criterion and sub-criteria, review of previous scientific experimental research findings and literature on parameters were undertaken. Furthermore, reviews were consolidated through consultations and discussion with experienced experts and researchers from various disciplines. Rating of factors has usually made in terms of five classes: highly suitable, suitable, moderately suitable, poorly suitable, and not suitable (FAO  2006 ).

Criteria standardization and factors map generation

In GIS-based multi-criteria decision-making analysis, there is a need to standardize the data in order to integrate the data measured in different units and mapped in different scale of measurement such as ordinal, interval, nominal and ratio scales (Pereira and Duckstein 1993 ). Even though there are different methods that can be used to standardize criterion maps, linear scale transformation is the most frequently used technique (Malczewski  2003 ). For criterion standardization in this study, all the vector maps of the criterion were converted to raster data formats. Afterward using the Spatial Analyst tool in ArcMap the raster maps were reclassified into five classes with the values that range from 1 to 5, where the value of 5 was taken as highly suitable while that of 1 was unsuitable for all factors considered. This approach will enable all measurements to have an equivalent value before any weights were applied. However, it was important to note that there were some variables that did not fulfil the whole range of the criteria. Once all the criteria maps were standardized, a weight of each criteria map was calculated using AHP.

Estimating weight for factors and sub‐factors

One component of GIS-Based multi-criteria decision-making analysis is assigning criteria weights for each factor maps. The purpose of weighing in this process is to express the importance or preference of each factor relative to another factor effect on urban green spaces. In this study, the AHP using pairwise comparison matrixes were used to calculate weights for the criteria maps. AHP is a widely used method in multi-criteria decision-making analysis and was introduced by Saaty ( 1980 ). In this study, the AHP was carried out in three steps. Firstly, pair-wise comparison of criteria was performed and results were put into a comparison matrix. A Pair-wise comparison is performed in the 9-degree preferences scale, which is suggested by Saaty ( 1980 ), each higher level of scale shows higher importance than the previous lower level (Table  3 ).

According to Saaty ( 1980 ), the values in the matrix need to be consistent, which means that if x is compared to y, it receives a score of 9 (strong importance), y to x should score 1/9 (little importance) and something compared to itself gets the score of 1 (equal importance). Experts are asked to rank the value of criterion map for pairwise matrix on a saaty’s scale. Moreover, the pairwise comparison matrices (Annexe 1) were developed by taking into account the information provided by the relevant literature (Uy and Nakagoshi  2008 ; Pantalone  2010 ; Elahe et al.  2014 ; Yousef et al. 2014 ; Abebe and Megento  2017 ; Dagistanli et al.  2018 ; Ustaoglu and Aydinoglu 2020 ).

The second step was calculating criterion weights, the weights are calculated by normalizing the eigenvector associated with the maximum eigenvalue of the (reciprocal) ratio matrix. In this study the computation of the criterion weights involves the following operations: (a) summing the values in each column of the pairwise comparison matrix (Annexe 1); (b) dividing each element in the matrix by its column total (the resulting matrix is referred to as the normalized pairwise comparison matrix, (Annexe 1)), and (c) computing the average of the elements in each row of the normalized matrix, that is, dividing the sum of normalized scores for each row by 12 (the number of criteria).

Once the pair-wise comparison was filled and the weight of the factor was determined, a consistency ratio (CR) was calculated to identify inconsistencies and develop the best-fit weights in the complete pair-wise comparison matrix. A consistency ratio was calculated for each pairwise comparison matrix to verify the degree of credibility of the relative weights, by using the following formula (Bunruamkaew and Yuji 2001).

where CR = Consistency ratio, CI = referred to as consistency index, RI = is the random inconsistency index whose value depends on the number (n) of factors being compared; as illustrated in Table  4 (Saaty 1980 ).

The consistency index (CI) was calculated by the following formula:

where n = the number of items being compared in the matrix, λ max  = Average value of the consistency vector.

Weighted overlay analysis

Once the criteria maps and weights have been developed and established, a decision rule of multi-criteria analysis was used. As pointed by Jiang and Eastman ( 2000 ) and Malczewski ( 2003 ) there are three common decision rules in multi-criteria analysis namely weighted linear overlay, Boolean overlay and ordered averaging. The weighted linear combination technique was applied to aggregate the standardized layers in this study. In weighted linear combination procedure, factors and parameters (Xi) are multiplied by the weight of the suitability parameters (Wi) to get composited weights and then summed. This can be expressed by using the following formula to derive the intended map i.e. urban green spaces suitability map for the towns.

where S = total suitability score, Wi = weight of the selected suitability criteria layer, Xi = assigned sub criteria score of suitability criteria layer i, n = total number of suitability criteria layer.

Result and discussion

Ahp weights.

The result of AHP shows that the derived factors have a different degree of influence on urban green spaces. As it is evident from Table  5 , the weight assigned to the factors reveals the relative importance of each parameter in exposing an area to urban green spaces evaluation. As a result shows, an area with high population density with the normalized weight of 0.22 has the highest priority. Proximity to settlement area with the weight of 0.21 is in the second priority. Slop with a normal weight of 0.13 has the third priority. Proximity to the road with a normal weight of 0/10 is in the fourth priority. Elevation with normal weight of 0/059 is of the fifth priority. The area with vegetation cover with normal weight of 0/048 is the next priority. The flood-prone area with the normal weight of 0/04 is in the low priority. Proximity to water sources, visibility and existing land with almost similar weight of 0/032, 0/032 and 0/039, respectively, have relatively lowest priority (Table  5 ). These imply that the higher the weight in the percentage of a factor, the more influence it has in suitable site selection for urban green spaces.

Saaty (2008) has shown that Consistency ratio of 0.1 or less is acceptable to continue the AHP analysis. But if it’s larger than 0.10, then there are inconsistencies in the evaluation process, and the AHP method may not yield a meaningful result. In this study, consistency ratio or CR of conducted comparisons has obtained 0.09, which is smaller than 0.1 and therefore the comparisons can be acceptable. The computation of consistency ratio is given in Table  5 , below.

Based on the result of this study, AHP is a highly efficient instrument for determining factor weights and is more beneficial than alternative approaches since the inconsistency of the factor weights’ pair-wise comparison matrix can be calculated and controlled by the Consistency Ratio (CR). In various studies (Dong et al.  2008 ; Tudes and Yigiter 2010 ; Kumar and Shaikh  2012 ; Bagheri et al.  2013 ; Romano et al.  2015 ; Abebe and Megento  2017 ; Ustaoglu and Aydinoglu 2020 ), this has been confirmed.

Suitability values of each factors

Studies have shown that current land use must be considered when choosing suitable sites for the development of urban green spaces and have identified the suitability of different land uses based on their use type (Uy and Nakagoshi  2008 ; Zhang et al. 2013 ; Malmir et al. 2016 ; Abebe and Megento 2017 ; Dagistanli et al. 2018 ). Open spaces and forest land were considered to be highly suitable for urban green spaces in this study, based on knowledge obtained from the analysis of literature and expert opinion. To rehabilitate the quarry area they are considered as suitable for urban green spaces. Additional, in this study, existing building area and water body has considered as moderately suitable for urban green spaces. In this study, agriculture is regarded as poorly suited to urban green spaces (Fig.  2 i; Table  2 ).

Various researchers have shown that low-slope areas are highly suitable for the development of urban green spaces (Heshmat et al. 2013 ; Mahdavi and Niknejad, 2014 ; Pramanik, 2016 ; Abebe and Megento, 2017 ; Dagistanli et al. 2018 ) and 0–10 slope areas are suitable for urban green spaces such as open spaces and parks. This study therefore considered the lower slope land to be more suitable than the higher slope land and area with slope of 0–5 %, 5–10 %, 10–15 % and 15–20 % has considered as highly suitable, suitable, moderately suitable, and poorly suitable, respectively, for identify suitable site for urban green spaces development. Area with the slope greater than 20 % considered as unsuitable for developing urban green spaces in this study (Fig.  2 d; Table  2 ).

In selecting suitable sites for urban green spaces, elevation have also significant role and should be considered as the major factor (Gül et al. 2006 ; Mahmoud and El-Sayed 2011 ; Li et al. 2018 ; Dagistanli et al. 2018 ). Based on the information acquired from literature review and expert opinion, in this study the elevations between 2550 and 2600m, 2600–26500m, 2650–2700m and 2700–2800m were considered as highly suitable, suitable, moderately suitable and poorly suitable, respectively. In this analysis, areas with elevations greater than 2800 m were considered to be unsuitable for the development of urban green spaces (Fig.  2 h; Table  2 ).

In any geographic analysis, proximity is always significant. Green spaces must be accessible to settlement areas in urban areas, since they have numerous ecological, social and economic benefits (Zhang et al. 2013 ; Malmir et al. 2016 ; Ustaoglu and Aydinoglu 2020 ). Hornsten and Fredman ( 2000 ) argued that a significant distance between settlement areas and green spaces had an adverse impact on users and reported that green spaces such as playground, parks and sport field closest to settlement areas are most popular. Therefore, the proximity of green spaces to the settlement area in terms of distance is very important to consider. In this research, the proximity of the settlement area has taken as a criterion. Based on this, areas that have identified within 500 m distances from the settlement area has considered as highly suitable by making Euclidian distances and the area with distances from 500 m to 1000 m has been considered suitable (Fig.  2 g; Table  2 ). In addition, the area with distances of 1000 m to 2000 m, 2000 m to 3000 m and greater than 3000 m form settlement area has considered to be moderately appropriate, poorly suited and unsuitable for the development of urban green spaces.

The road proximity also plays a vital role in providing convenient and feasible routes to the local population to reach local green areas in their surroundings (Bunruamkaew and Murayama 2011 ; Kienast et al. 2012 ; Morckel  2017 ). Elahe et al. ( 2014 ) and Ahmed et al. ( 2011 ) indicated that if it is situated at an acceptable distance from roads in order to access transport, the green space site is preferable. As a result, the road network proximity has been given due consideration as one aspect of infrastructural facilities in the mapping suitable site for urban green areas. Based on this, by making Euclidian distances, areas within the 400 m radius of the road network has considered as highly suitable, area within the 400 m-800 m range was considered suitable, and area within the 800 m-1000 m range was considered as moderately suitable. In addition, the area between 1000 m and 1500 m has considered as poorly suitable and the area more than 1500 m from the road network has considered as not suitable (Fig.  2 f; Table  2 ). Studies have also shown that the types of roads have an effect on the selection of suitable urban green spaces (Gül et al. 2006 ; 2011). Research conducted by Gül et al. ( 2006 ) and Chandio et al., ( 2011 ) found that areas with access to major roads are highly appropriate for the development of urban green spaces than areas with access to local roads such as gravel-soil roads, forest soil roads. Therefore, arterial and collector roads are considered to be highly suitable in this study for the selection of suitable locations for urban green spaces, as these types of roads are highly distributed in the town. In addition, main roads and local roads are regarded as suitable and moderately suitable, respectively (Fig.  2 j; Table  2 ).

Manlun ( 2003 ), Heshmat et al. ( 2013 ), Kuldeep ( 2013 ) and Abebe and Megento ( 2017 ) have noted that for the development of green space, lands closest to rivers, lakes and reservoirs are highly suitable. Therefore, on the basis of this claim, the distance less than 250 m from the river considered to be highly suitable and between 250 m and 500 m is considered as suitable in this study. Moreover, distances between 500 m and 1000 m and 1000 m to 1500 m is considered as moderately suitable and poorly suitable for urban green spaces, respectively. Whereas distance greater that 1500 m relatively considered as totally unsuitable (Fig.  2 e; Table  2 ).

Flood-prone areas have also introduced as parameters for the study of suitability. Studies found that the area within the lower flood-prone area has more suitable than the land with higher flood-prone area for urban green spaces development and they indicated that urban green spaces must be free from flood prone area as most as possible (Piran et al. 2013 ; Peng et al. 2016 ). Based on the information obtained from the literature review and expert opinion, high flood risk areas has considered as unsuitable for the development of urban green spaces in this study, and low and medium flood risk areas are considered as highly and moderately suitable (Fig.  2 a; Table  2 ).

Urban green space suitability assessment is directly or indirectly correlated with different socio-economic factors. Population density is known to be one of the socio-economic factors influencing the appropriate selection of green space in urban areas. Places with a higher number of people with crowded places near the high population density required access to the open green spaces (Schipperijn et al. 2010 ). Some researchers (Gül et al. 2006 ; Pantalone 2010 ; Ahmed et al. 2011 ; Heshmat et al. 2013 ; Elahe et al. 2014 ; Dagistanli et al. 2018 ) recommend that areas that have high population density are highly suitable for developing green space. On the basis of this claim, the study area is densely populated in the northwest, north, south and southeast, and it is considered as highly suitable for the development of urban green space. The eastern portion is sparsely populated and believed to be insufficiently suited to urban green spaces development. As it has a medium population density, the central and western parts of the town has considered as moderately suitable for urban green spaces development (Fig.  2 b; Table  2 ).

Environmental criteria are the most significant and important criteria for the evaluation of urban green spaces in any locality. Factor like vegetation cover plays an important role (Gül et al.  2006 ; Mahmoud, & El-Sayed  2011 ; Li et al. 2018 ; Dagistanli et al. 2018 ). Based on the information obtained from the literature review and expert opinion, in this study area with high vegetation cover has considered as highly suitable for urban green space development. Moreover, area with medium and low vegetation cover has considered as moderately and poorly suitable, respectively (Fig.  2 k; Table  2 ).

The availability of land is often considered as significant factor in the selection of appropriate sites for urban green spaces. Studies have shown that public land is highly suitable for urban green space development as compared to private land (Chandio et al. 2011 ). The study undertaken by Wang and Chan ( 2019 ) suggest that the situation with initial public land ownership status backed up by regulatory instruments is more advantageous for providing urban green spaces than that with the initial private land ownership status relying on market-based instruments. On the basis of this claim, in this study public land is considered as highly suitable and private land has considered as moderately suitable for selecting optimal location for urban green spaces in the town (Fig.  2 g, i Table  2 ).

In this study, as suggested by Gül et al. ( 2006 ) and Nur ( 2017 ), scenic beauty is also considered to decide the best or potentially acceptable sites for urban green space development. Based on the information obtained from the literature review and expert opinion, in this study area with high, moderate and low scenic attractiveness has considered as highly, moderately and poorly suitable for appropriate site selection of urban green space development, respectively.

Final suability analysis for urban green spaces

After weighting the criteria, as regards the relative importance of each criterion as well as suitability index, all the criterion maps were overlaid and final urban green spaces suitability map was prepared. According to GIS-based multi-criteria analysis, the final suitability maps have five classes for the study town that are highly suitable, suitable, moderately suitable, poorly suitable and unsuitable. Suitability maps of Sululta towns are demonstrated in Fig.  3 .

Final suitability map for urban green spaces

According to the overall suitability map, southern, central and south eastern part of the study area is more adequate for urban green space such as playground, sport field, parks and the like development purposes. It is because the lands mass in this area are fall in suitable and highly suitable classes.

Based on Table  6 , out of the total area of the Sululta, town, about 13.6 % (610.7 ha) area fall under the highly suitable category. The suitable area covers an area of 34 % (1523.9 ha) of Sululta town. The area which is shaded by blue colour covers 28 % (1276.6 ha) of Sululta town representing the moderately suitable class. Moreover, based on the Table 6, out of the total area 18.9 % (813 ha) of Sululta towns have been covered by poorly suitable class. Out of the total area 5.5 % of Sululta towns land mass is not suitable for urban green spaces.

The final suitability maps show a series of spaces following a pattern and connectivity. These can be adapted to form the urban green spaces system, complete with corridors and hubs within the study area. This can increase opportunities for residents and biodiversity to enjoy the nature and benefits of urban green spaces. Moreover, as the maps show the town have a high potential for developing the urban green spaces such as playground, sport field, parks and the like as more than half of the town’s lands mass are suitable. Therefore, the planning authority and the towns’ administration can take this approach as a benchmark to provide suitable, accessible, interconnected and sufficient urban green spaces in town under study.

Literature shows that many studies have used multi-criteria analysis based on GIS for land use planning in different countries. Ustaoglu and Aydinoglu (2020), for example, performed a site suitability study for the development of green space in the Pendik district of Turkey. Similar to this study, they considered geophysical factors, accessibility, blue and green amenities, settlement centres and land use/cover as the key factors affecting urban green land suitability and they also concluded that undertaking suitability analysis for green space through GIS based multi criteria analysis is mandatory for optimising land use planning and decision support. Giordano and Riedel ( 2008 ) conducted land suitability assessment of greenways in the city of Rio Claro, Brazil. They combined the AHP method with GIS for the analysis of land suitability, similar to this study. Uy and Nakagoshi ( 2008 ) used the ecological threshold factor approach and GIS in Hanoi, Vietnam, for land suitability study for green areas. Their research considered the concepts of landscape-ecology in the organisation of urban green spaces. Chandio et al. ( 2011 ) used GIS-integrated AHP strategy to evaluate factors such as land availability, land price/value, accessibility and socio-economic factors for the development of public parks in Larkana City, Pakistan. Similar to this study, Abebe and Megento ( 2017 ) also considered land use/cover, density, road network and river as the main factor undertake to site suitability analysis of urban green space development for the city of Addis Ababa.

In general, the factors used in this study to select suitable site for urban green spaces such as parks, play grounds and sport filed development is compliant with different studies undertaken in different part of the world. Moreover, similar to studies conducted by Giordano and Riedel ( 2008 ), Uy and Nakagoshi ( 2008 ), Chandio et al. ( 2011 ), Abebe and Megento ( 2017 ) and Ustaoglu and Aydinoglu (2020) the methodology applied in this study provide a base for future studies focusing on land suitability assessments. GIS-based multi criteria analysis suitability assessment technique can be utilised to produce land suitability maps regarding other land uses such as industrial, residential, landfill, urban land, water management and forest development. Moreover, the methodologies are complementary with the other green land assessment methods, such as landscape metrics analysis, landscape connectivity analysis, accessibility and network analysis and therefore can be used in green spaces planning to specify and quantify the suitable sites in line with the other approaches.

In this study, GIS-based multi-criteria analysis has been used to support the site selection process for the development of urban green spaces. The study results are very significant in evaluating the feasibility of the use of GIS-based multi-criteria analysis for the development of urban green space. Since, by using appropriate analytical methods, the evaluation of urban green space is necessary to recognize their potential and to better select the most suitable land uses to improve their integrity and maintain the benefits obtained from them.

In the present study, the sub-criteria for site suitability for urban green spaces in order of importance were area with high population density (22 %), Proximity to settlement area (21 %), Slop (13 %), Proximity to the road (10 %), elevation (5.9 %), vegetation cover (4.8 %), Proximity to water sources, visibility and existing land (3.2 %) and flood prone area (4 %). The GIS-based multi-criteria analysis performed in this study found that, in the current situation, the larger land mass (47 %) of the town is suitable for developing urban green spaces. The town, therefore, has great potential to develop adequate urban green spaces.

GIS technologies can play a crucial role in urban green space planning, as shown in this study, and AHP has been shown to be a flexible and realistic tool for selecting areas for urban green spaces in the study area. This can be attributed to participation of experts in the determination of the criteria and sub criteria using AHP. Furthermore, GIS may be used to support spatial decision-making, as it has excellent spatial problem solving capabilities. Therefore, this study can provide a framework for the planning process using GIS and AHP for Ethiopian County planning and the results can be useful in the planning of urban green space and future land use planning in study town.

Finally, future research should focus on assessing the suitable site selection for each urban green spaces component such as park, playground, sport field, and the like, independently. In this study, the same criteria and sub criteria were considered to select suitable site for all components of urban green space. Therefore, considering criteria and sub criteria for each component separately are necessary in order to provide a complete understanding of urban green space suitability analysis.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Gelan, E. GIS-based multi‐criteria analysis for sustainable urban green spaces planning in emerging towns of Ethiopia: the case of Sululta town. Environ Syst Res 10 , 13 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-021-00220-w

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• Multi‐criteria analysis
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Urban green spaces and social cohesion

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Research output : Thesis › Doctoral Thesis

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

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• Green Space Social Sciences 100%
• Social Integration Social Sciences 100%
• Theses Social Sciences 18%
• Conceptual Framework Social Sciences 18%
• Contribution Social Sciences 18%
• Surveys Social Sciences 18%
• Aggression Social Sciences 18%
• Investigation Social Sciences 9%

T1 - Urban green spaces and social cohesion

AU - Kazmierczak, A.

N2 - Green spaces provide numerous environmental, economic and social benefits to residents of urban areas. One particular notion is that green spaces contribute to social cohesion of urban communities. However, the extant evidence for this contribution is patchy and the mechanisms connecting social cohesion to green spaces are not well recognised. The aim of this thesis is to provide a conceptual framework linking urban green spaces and social cohesion. The critical literature review identified three hypothetical mechanisms that link green spaces to social cohesion: their role as free and accessible amenities; as social arenas enabling interactions between people; and as places relieving stress and aggression by providing contact with nature. These functions were investigated in a multi-method manner with the use of Geographical Information Systems, ecological surveys, questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions and statistical analysis of secondary data. Greater Manchester, UK, was used as a case study area. The results suggest that while green spaces were abundant in the area investigated, their accessibility was limited by unequal geographic distribution, problems with physical access and perceptions of their usability. They functioned as social arenas but this role was dependant on the presence of recreational facilities, qualities of the neighbouring area and personal characteristics of visitors. While contact with nature was valued by users, it was not seen as a priority and intensely managed settings were preferred by respondents. In conclusion, the research identified that a number of criteria need to be met for urban green spaces to contribute to social cohesion. The results have been combined into a conceptual framework of interrelated social and environmental factors affecting the potential of green spaces to provide this contribution. The thesis includes suggestions for further investigations into the socio-ecological functioning of urban green spaces and provides recommendations for green space planning and management.

AB - Green spaces provide numerous environmental, economic and social benefits to residents of urban areas. One particular notion is that green spaces contribute to social cohesion of urban communities. However, the extant evidence for this contribution is patchy and the mechanisms connecting social cohesion to green spaces are not well recognised. The aim of this thesis is to provide a conceptual framework linking urban green spaces and social cohesion. The critical literature review identified three hypothetical mechanisms that link green spaces to social cohesion: their role as free and accessible amenities; as social arenas enabling interactions between people; and as places relieving stress and aggression by providing contact with nature. These functions were investigated in a multi-method manner with the use of Geographical Information Systems, ecological surveys, questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions and statistical analysis of secondary data. Greater Manchester, UK, was used as a case study area. The results suggest that while green spaces were abundant in the area investigated, their accessibility was limited by unequal geographic distribution, problems with physical access and perceptions of their usability. They functioned as social arenas but this role was dependant on the presence of recreational facilities, qualities of the neighbouring area and personal characteristics of visitors. While contact with nature was valued by users, it was not seen as a priority and intensely managed settings were preferred by respondents. In conclusion, the research identified that a number of criteria need to be met for urban green spaces to contribute to social cohesion. The results have been combined into a conceptual framework of interrelated social and environmental factors affecting the potential of green spaces to provide this contribution. The thesis includes suggestions for further investigations into the socio-ecological functioning of urban green spaces and provides recommendations for green space planning and management.

M3 - Doctoral Thesis

PB - University of Salford

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Article Contents

Introduction, studies on ugs and health relationships, a conceptual framework for studying effects of ugs on human health, research needs in ugs–health relationships, supplementary material, acknowledgement.

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A conceptual framework for studying urban green spaces effects on health

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Liqing Zhang, Puay Yok Tan, Jessica A Diehl, A conceptual framework for studying urban green spaces effects on health, Journal of Urban Ecology , Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2017, jux015, https://doi.org/10.1093/jue/jux015

There is growing evidence that urban green space (UGS) can promote human health, but our research suggests there is still inadequate knowledge to direct planning and design of UGS for improved health outcomes. Given the urgency brought about by global urban health challenges, future research should progress from those that merely document the evidence of UGS benefits on health, to those that directly inform UGS planning and design. To guide such research, a holistic framework that clarifies the multiple determinants of health, multiple cause-effect pathways between UGS and health, and methodological challenges is needed. Through a review of 70 studies published between 2001 and 2015 across 40 cities and a review of current frameworks on the impacts of UGS on health, we developed a framework centered on the concept of ‘dose–response’. Dose refers to the exposure to certain UGS provision, and response refers to health outcomes arising from the exposure. There may be dose thresholds beyond which health response increases or even decreases. We also identified a range of moderators and mediators which can be used to explain the causal mechanisms leading to health responses. Using this framework, we identified four research needs, which are focused on improving methods measuring quantitative and qualitative attributes of UGS and health responses, the need to evaluate the multiple pathways in which UGS lead to improved health, the need to recognize scale effects on outcomes of studies, and the need to consider disservices from UGS and evaluate net benefits rather than positive benefits alone.

A consequence of the global phenomenon of urbanization is that humans are increasingly an urban species; this change is very rapid when considered in the evolutionary time-scale of human’s association with a much more natural environment. Prime among the many consequences of such a change is that humans are increasingly dissociated from contacts with the natural environment, which in turn leads to dramatically altered human–nature interactions, and phenomena such as ‘extinction of experience’ ( Pyle 1978 ; Miller 2005 ) and ‘environmental generational amnesia’ ( Kahn 2002 ). Diminished contact with nature not only leads to loss of health benefits, but it engenders less positive affective responses, attitudes, and behaviors towards the environment, which can further reduce the perceived need for exposure to nature in the urban environment.

Over and above this dissociation from the natural environment, sedentary lifestyles and an urban environment that is often stressful or polluted are key causes of health challenges in urban areas. Increasingly, non-communicable, chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, and diabetes are becoming the main causes of mortality in urban areas ( Nikolic et al. 2011 ). Given the growing proportion of urban populations worldwide, there is an increasing emphasis by cities to create urban environments that foster improved health of urban residents as a solution for managing rising health care burdens.

Urban green space (UGS), in particular, is increasingly promoted as an essential and inexpensive health promotion tool in urban areas because of its salutogenic benefits. UGS refers to the diverse forms of greenery in cities, such as green open spaces, parks, green roofs, woodlands, community gardens etc., that are widely recognized to be important in creating livable cities ( Tan et al. 2013 ). In fact, the 19th century urban planning movements to incorporate green open spaces in cities have a long-standing association with health promotion ( Ward Thompson 2011 ). In recent decades, increasing evidence demonstrates the wide-ranging long- and short-term health benefits of green spaces in cities. For example, green spaces have been found to be associated with lower mortality ( Hu et al. 2008 ; Richardson et al. 2010 ; Mitchell et al. 2011 ) and morbidity ( Maas et al. 2009b ; Mitchell et al. 2011 ). Green space is also related to improved physical and mental health ( De Vries et al. 2003 ; Maas et al. 2006 ; Beyer et al. 2014 ), as well as improved mental well-being ( White et al. 2013 ), which refers to positive state of thoughts and feelings, not just the absence of mental distress.

However, despite the mounting evidence of health benefits of UGS, we suggest that the science of improving health through UGS is still in its infancy. The most telling evidence is that few cities, if any at all, can claim to have successfully and systematically devoted resources to use UGS as a public health solution to the same extent that conventional health-care facilities are deemed as critical city services. This is perhaps because numerous questions still need resolution. For instance, a fundamental unknown is how much exposure to UGS is needed for health benefits to be obtained. Using the analogy of how responses to medication depend on the given dosage in medical science, health responses to green space exposure can also be seen to be triggered by a ‘dose’ of green space exposure. However, whether or not there is appropriate ‘dose’ of green space exposure for different types of health benefits is largely unknown. In addition, as demographic factors, such as ethnicity, age, education etc., are known to influence people’s use of the natural environment ( Furuseth and Altman 1991 ; Baas et al. 1993 ), does the influence of socio-cultural background also extend to health responses? Given that UGS is highly heterogeneous, ranging from the lawn, with a simple structure and plant composition, to the urban woodland, which is structurally complex and more biodiverse, how do the quantitative and qualitative attributes of green space influence health responses are still poorly understood. As green spaces are not the only elements of the urban environment, how do other attributes of the urban environment, such as built-density, population density, walkability, noise, influence the health outcomes of green space exposure are also uncertain.

Therefore, despite the considerable evidence that green spaces confer health benefits, we suggest that there are key knowledge gaps that prevent the systemic use of green spaces for health benefits. To progress from a general evidence that green space confers health benefits to actually planning and designing green spaces which are effective in producing health benefits, research producing actionable knowledge will be needed. Future research could address topics related to pathways and mechanisms through which health benefits are produced from green space exposure, which elements of the green space influence the extent of benefits, and how UGS should be designed to cater to needs of diverse population groups. A holistic framework which identifies possible pathways from exposure to benefits, as well as the range of factors which may influence health responses, will be needed.

This article presents a conceptual framework centered on the ‘dose–response’ concept. We developed the framework based on a review of the current state of knowledge of UGS–health relationships and a review of current frameworks. In the following sections, we summarize the key findings of our review, explain the framework, and suggest four key research areas for future studies to develop knowledge useful to guide implementation of green spaces for more positive health outcomes.

Selection of papers and geographic distribution

We reviewed peer-reviewed publications examining effects of UGS on health. The main objectives of the review were to assess the state of evidence of positive health effects of UGS and to identify possible reasons for inconsistencies or differences between studies. We used the key words ‘green space/parks/open space’, ‘health/psychological health/mental health;’ and ‘relationship’ to first shortlist relevant papers published from 2001 to 2015 in the SCOPUS database. The search retrieved 339 papers, which were further screened using the key criterion that the study incorporated quantitative assessment of the health effects of green spaces in urban areas. Only 21% of papers (70 papers) met the requirement and were included in our analysis.

Despite the dominance of qualitative studies in the initial search results, there is an upward trend in the number of studies in recent years ( Fig. 1 ). Forty cities and 18 countries were represented in our analysis. However, except for one study conducted in Singapore by Saw et al. (2015) , all studies were conducted in the temperate zone, with a higher representation in Europe, followed by North America and Australasia. This geographic distribution has not changed since the report by Richardson et al. (2012) . There is also a glaring paucity of studies conducted in developing countries. Additional information on five main aspects of these studies: study area, sample size and types of samples, measures of green space, measures of health, and results are provided in Supplementary material .

Number of studies included in the review by year.

Methods used in UGS–health studies

We summarized three aspects of the studies: how both health and UGS were assessed, and the main study approach(es) adopted ( Fig. 2 ). Thirty-two studies examined the effects of UGS on self-reported health ( Fig. 2a ), of which 13 focused on perceived mental health. These studies used a range of scales for measuring health, including the 12-item General Health Questionnaire ( Astell-Burt et al. 2014 ; Alcock et al. 2015 ), Kessler 6 instrument ( Francis et al. 2012 ), Mental Health Inventory ( De Vries et al. 2013 ), and the 36-Item Short Form Health Survey ( Paquet et al. 2013 ). Studies also assessed health-related symptoms including number of health-related complaints (headaches, nausea, dizziness, listlessness etc.) in last 14 days ( De Vries et al. 2003 , 2013 ; Van den Berg et al. 2010 ), and visits to mental health specialists and intake of medication ( Triguero-Mas et al. 2015 ). The other indicators used for health assessment were obesity (12 papers) and mortality (10 papers).

(a) Number of studies using different types of indicators of health responses; (b) number of studies using different indicators of UGS; c. number of studies using different study approaches.

UGS was assessed by quantity, accessibility and quality ( Fig. 2b ). UGS quantity was either measured by the proportion of UGS coverage area ( Roe et al. 2013 ; Jonker et al. 2014 ) or average normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) ( Dadvand et al. 2012 ). UGS accessibility was measured by the average distance by road network from all addresses in the neighborhood to the nearest green spaces ( Jonker et al. 2014 ) or travel time by car to the nearest green space ( Witten et al. 2008 ). UGS quality was measured by a weighted mean score of ten attributes (facilities, shade, water features etc.) ( Francis et al. 2012 ), audit tools ( Francis et al. 2012 ; Van Dillen et al. 2012 ; De Vries et al. 2013 ), or percentage of respondents who consider the quality of the green spaces as good ( Jonker et al. 2014 ).

Three main study approaches were used to examine the health effects of green space ( Fig. 2c ). A cross-sectional study was the most common approach, used in 54 studies. Second most common was a field experiment approach, used in 12 studies. These field experiments tested psychological and physiological responses after viewing greenery ( Tsunetsugu et al. 2013 ), walking ( Martens et al. 2011 ; Song et al. 2013 , 2014 ), or conducting physical activities ( Pretty et al. 2007 ; Barton and Pretty 2010 ) in natural environment. Four studies used longitudinal data sets to explore the relationship between green space and health ( Takano et al. 2002 ; White et al. 2013 ; Alcock et al. 2014 ; Astell-Burt et al. 2014 ).

Evidence that UGS improves health

Health outcomes are determined by a variety of factors. All studies that we reviewed considered the effects of confounders, which refer to the variables related to both UGS and health outcomes that can lead to false conclusions if not adequately addressed in the studies. There were four main categories of confounders considered: demographic factors (age, gender), socio-economic factors (type of employment, income), environmental factors (air quality, thermal comfort), and behavioral factors (smoking, drinking). Age, gender, income and education level were the most commonly considered confounders ( Maas et al. 2006 ; De Vries et al. 2013 ; Park et al. 2013 ; Putrik et al. 2014 ).

We used five results classes (positive, mixed, equivocal, no, negative) to describe the strength of the evidence for each study: ‘positive’, ‘no’ and ‘negative’ represent green spaces that have overall positive effects, no effects, or negative effects on health, respectively. For example, if the result was that green space negatively related to body mass index (BMI) or mortality, the study was defined as ‘positive’. ‘Mixed’ defined studies with at least two different results, and ‘weak’ defined studies with findings of a weak relationship.

Among the 70 studies reviewed, 51 studies showed positive relationships, 9 studies showed mixed relationships, 5 studies showed weak relationships, 5 studies showed no relationship at all and no studies found a completely negative result. Overall, 73% of studies found that the presence of UGS is correlated with improved health outcomes. For the other studies which did not show positive health effects, several reasons were suggested by the authors. These reasons included indicators being too crude for measuring UGS and health ( Bixby et al. 2015 ), lack of specification of UGS types ( Richardson et al. 2012 ; Bixby et al. 2015 ), that UGS quality was not considered ( Richardson et al. 2010 ; Bixby et al. 2015 ), lack of variation in exposure to UGS due to the ubiquitous greenery in study area ( Richardson et al. 2010 ; Vogt et al. 2015 ), and the choice of spatial scale of analysis ( Richardson et al. 2012 ; Bixby et al. 2015 ). These reasons suggest that UGS–health relationships are determined by various factors, interactions between them, as well as how factors were defined and measured. In fact, even in the studies which demonstrated positive relationships, there were still uncertainties on the specific nature of how UGS benefits health. For instance, it remains unclear how health benefits arising from UGS exposure compare with other open areas, as well as how other aspects of the built environment (walkability, thermal comfort, air quality) might influence UGS–health relationships.

From the review, it was difficult to develop satisfactory answers for how the results could be used to plan and design green spaces. For instance, knowledge is lacking on physical and designed attributes of UGS such as size, perceived quality, extent of vegetation cover, diversity of flora and fauna etc., and how such attributes can be combined effectively in the design of green spaces in urban areas. Attributes of UGS also interact with usage patterns and behavior, including frequency and length of usage, types of activities engaged in, and extent of social interaction while using UGS. Such interactions are further affected by climatic and seasonal effects. The scale of analysis also influences the strength of relationships between UGS and health, and it is still uncertain at which scale municipalities should promote greening of the environment for health benefits. Most importantly, a key issue that many studies highlighted was that the optimal UGS dose to deliver the most health benefits is currently unknown.

We propose that while there is strong positive evidence of health benefits of UGS, there are still critical knowledge gaps that prevent information generated from UGS–health studies to be implemented effectively. This arises from complex interactions between differing methods for quantifying UGS attributes and health outcomes, influence of scale, and presence of confounding factors which are socio-demographical and socio-cultural in nature.

The review described in the preceding sections highlights the complex relationship between UGS and health because of interactions between multiple factors. The multiple interactions present considerable challenges in comparative assessment between studies, particularly if the aim is to develop generalizations. Research on UGS should acknowledge these challenges and address them explicitly in the study methodology. A framework is useful to highlight the range of possible causal factors of health and interactions between factors that may lead to difficulties in unpacking actual causal pathways between UGS exposure and health. A comprehensive framework also helps to identify what we already know, current knowledge gaps, and directions for future studies.

To develop such a comprehensive conceptual framework, we referred to existing frameworks on various aspects of UGS–health interactions ( Lachowycz and Jones 2013 ; Hartig et al. 2014 ; James et al. 2015 ; Kuo 2015 ; Villanueva et al. 2015 ; Hegetschweiler et al. 2017 ). For example, the frameworks developed by Hartig et al. (2014) and James et al. (2015) highlight different pathways underlying how green spaces affect health through the change in air quality, promoting physical activities and social contacts, reducing stress, mitigating noise and regulating heat and humidity. Lachowycz and Jones (2013) developed a detailed framework to explain the underlying mechanisms of the effects of green space exposure on health. Mechanisms include the opportunity to use green space, personal drivers and motivation to use, and ease of use. Hegetschweiler et al. (2017) applied a ‘supply-demand’ concept for the development of a simplified framework. In their framework, ‘supply’ refers to the cultural services provided by the ecosystem, which are determined by the physical characteristics of the ecosystem, whereas ‘demand’ refers to people’s demand for ecosystem services, which is determined by demographic factors and people’s values. These frameworks contribute to the understanding of how UGS affects health, but with a narrow focus.

We propose that ‘dose–response’ can be a useful concept to further enhance studies on UGS effects on health. This concept has been applied in recent studies. The first explicit use of this concept for explaining the influence of green spaces on health was by Barton and Pretty (2010) . More recently, there has been increasing use of the ‘dose–response’ concept in nature and health studies ( Jiang et al. 2014 ; Shanahan et al. 2015 , , 2016 ; Cox et al. 2017a , b ).

However, most studies do not define ‘dose’ clearly. Jiang et al. (2014) defined ‘dose’ as the quantity of green space. Shanahan et al. introduced a definition of ‘dose’ as ‘nature exposure’, which incorporates intensity of nature exposure (quantity and quality of nature), frequency of exposure, and duration of exposure ( Shanahan et al. 2015 , 2016 ; Cox et al. 2017a ). A similar definition was used by Barton and Pretty (2010) , in which exercise intensity, exposure duration, and type of green space constitute the ‘dose’. Building on these definitions, we define ‘dose’ of UGS as users’ experience of green spaces, which combines the provision of UGS and the users’ exposure to UGS. In other words, dose is more than the physical provision of green spaces, but also depends on temporal attributes of green space exposure and the activities people undertake in green spaces.

An example of the relationship between UGS dose and health response is shown in Fig. 3 . Theoretically, there exists a wide range of dose–response curves (see Shanahan et al. 2015 ). Using this concept, we hypothesize that there is a threshold at which there is no health effect if UGS is below a certain level (G min in Fig. 3 ); similarly that when UGS reaches a certain high level (G max in Fig. 3 ), additional health benefits from increase of UGS become increasingly marginal. To experience health benefits beyond H max then requires a shift in the dose–response curve (yellow line in Fig. 3 ). Such shifts would arise primarily from changing the qualitative attributes of UGS, such as by implementing a landscape design that is more restorative, biophilic or which encourages more physical activities ( Hansmann et al. 2007 ; Sampson and Gifford 2010 ; Skärbäck 2007 ).

Dose–response curves for the relationship between UGS and health with two thresholds for UGS dose ( G min and G max ). Theoretically, it is possible to increase or decrease the maximum health response ( H max ) by changing other UGS attributes.

We present a dose–response framework to conceptualize relationships between the dose of green space and health outcomes ( Fig. 4 ). This framework is defined by a causal chain linking the dose of UGS and health responses, which is in turn, influenced by three other components, namely mediators, moderators, and spatial scales. We explain these components and their interrelationships in the following sections.

Conceptual framework of how the dose of UGS affects health. UGS dose consists of UGS provision and exposure; mediator explains causality and moderator can alter the strength of relationship; health response means the change of health outcome; spatial scale refers to the spatial context of UGS–health relationship.

The dose of UGS

The dose of UGS as defined earlier refers to the composite of the amount of UGS provided (‘UGS provision’) and temporal characteristics of exposure to UGS (‘UGS exposure’). UGS provision and UGS exposure are in turn, determined by multiple attributes. Quantity, quality, and accessibility of UGS are the three main attributes of UGS provision. The quantity of UGS refers to the amount or availability of UGS, commonly measured by coverage area, number, and size of UGS. Accessibility refers to spatial proximity, usually measured by the distance and the cost that people have to overcome to access the green space ( Koohsari et al. 2015 ). The quality of UGS refers to the attributes of UGS which may attract or deter usage, such as esthetics, safety, and attractiveness of facilities ( Lindholst et al. 2015 ).

Health benefits from UGS originate from exposure to UGS. Exposure of UGS comprises three main attributes: frequency, duration, and intensity. Frequency refers to the number of exposures during a certain period of time, duration refers to the time during each single exposure, and intensity of exposure refers to the level of interaction with UGS, from passive viewing to active use. These follow Pretty (2004) , who discerned three ways of interaction with UGS. The first is indirect contact by viewing the natural environment from the outside, such as through a window. The second is incidental engagement by being in the presence of nearby green space, such as passing by a road with street trees. The third is intentional interaction through active participation and involvement with green space, such as physical activities ( Pretty 2004 ; Pretty et al. 2005 ; Ward Thompson 2007 ).

Health response

The outcome of UGS exposure is health response. There are numerous health outcomes associated with UGS, such as morbidity, mortality, and life expectancy. These health outcomes can be arranged in a proximal-distal continuum and there is a causal pathway which links each proximal outcome to the next more distal health outcome ( Brenner et al. 1995 ). For example, clinical symptoms are more proximal health outcome, while longevity and life satisfaction are the distal health outcomes.

Mediators are variables that can explain the causal effect relationship between UGS dose and health response. In other words, mediators are the mechanisms in which health effects are actualized. Dose, as described earlier, is the composite between UGS provision and exposure, which is in turn mediated by the perception of individuals towards green spaces. Perception of UGS refers to the understanding and impression of the specific green spaces. It determines whether people like or dislike the UGS, thus affecting whether people will interact with UGS.

There are three main mediators which sit on the causal pathways between UGS exposure and health response. The detailed elements of each mediator are illustrated in Fig. 5 . The first type of mediators is environmental effects caused by the flora and fauna in UGS. Phytoncides and negative air ions released by the flora in UGS and the microorganisms in UGS can reduce blood pressure, depression and boost immune functioning ( Goel et al. 2005 ; Li et al. 2006 ; Lowry et al. 2007 ). Vegetation in UGS can also reduce health risks through mitigating air pollution and urban heat island effect ( James et al. 2015 ), as well as regulating other aspects of microclimate, such as humidity and wind. However, flora and fauna can also bring negative health effects. Some trees and plants can release volatile organic compounds, which can increase greenhouse gas emission and consequently decrease air quality ( Hartig et al. 2014 ; von Döhren and Haase 2015 ). Other negative impacts on health from UGS include allergic reactions caused by the pollen of some species, poisoning caused by plants, diseases brought by animals such as mosquitos, and attack risks arisen from animals and tree failures ( Escobedo et al. 2011 ). This group of mediators can be used to explain how, through an altered environment, health can be affected.

Mediators for the relationship between UGS dose and health.

The second type of mediators is the short-term psychological and psychological effects caused by the natural elements in UGS. Natural sights and sounds generated by flora and fauna can increase parasympathetic activation, which can reduce metabolism and promote relaxed and calm feelings ( Kuo 2015 ). Exposure to UGS can reduce health risk factors including inflammatory cytokines, blood glucose, and stress ( Alvarsson et al. 2010 ; Mao et al. 2012 ; Tsunetsugu et al. 2013 ). Interaction with UGS can also bring different psychological effects found to be associated with improved health, namely feeling of awe, improved vitality, and attention restoration ( Kuo 2015 ). UGS can also negatively affect health by evoking negative emotions, such as feelings of fear and danger caused by dense or unmaintained vegetation ( Sreetheran and Van Den Bosch 2014 ), and feelings of discomfort triggered by leaf litter, rotting logs, and animal excrements ( Lyytimäki and Sipilä 2009 ).

Last, other structures in UGS such as open space and playgrounds can encourage health behaviors through physical activities and social interaction, which have been shown to lead to positive health outcomes ( Maas et al. 2009a ; De Vries et al. 2013 ; Dadvand et al. 2016 ). Unfortunately, green spaces also have the potential to become the breeding ground for illegal and criminal activities, including drug dealing, illegal dumping, and gang rivalries, which can impose negative impacts on health ( Bogar and Beyer 2016 ).

Moderators are variables that can modify the strength or direction of the UGS–health relationship, which reduce the health effects of the actual dose from the optimum health benefits derived from the potential highest dose. Potential moderators shaping the relationship between UGS provision and UGS exposure include both environmental factors and factors peculiar to individuals. The local weather, such as sunny or rainy weather, can be either a facilitator or a barrier for using UGS. The microclimate within the UGS can also affect people’s decision to visit the UGS.

There are four main types of individual factors moderating the relationship between UGS provision and UGS exposure. UGS exposure can be different for people with different socio-demographic factors even when the UGS provision is the same. For instance, men and women may have a different preference for experiencing and using green space ( Prince et al. 2011 , 2012 ). An individual’s relatedness to nature indicates his or her cognitive, affective and physical relationship to nature, which can influence his or her usage pattern of UGS. People who have higher relatedness to nature are more likely to spend more time in nature ( Nisbet et al. 2009 ). An individual’s physical condition also has moderating effects. People with physical disabilities may tend to use UGS less than more able-bodied people ( Christensen et al. 2010 ). Another moderator is time available to use UGS; whether or not people have enough free time can alter their usage pattern.

Socio-demographic factors can also moderate the relationship between UGS exposure and health outcome. Studies have found that the relationship between green space and health is stronger for lower socio-economic status groups ( De Vries et al. 2003 ; Maas et al. 2006 , , 2009b ; James et al. 2015 ). In addition, this relationship can also be influenced by an individual’s behavioral factors, such as smoking, drinking alcohol, doing physical activities, and conducting social interaction. Another potential moderator is an individual’s physical condition. For example, the relationship between UGS exposure and health for people with or without chronical diseases may be different.

Spatial scale

The last component of the dose–response framework is the spatial context of UGS–health relationship. Such a relationship is applicable at different spatial scales, from smaller scale such as precinct or community, to larger scales extending from town and regional districts to city and country. These scales are nested within each other. In previous studies, a variety of different spatial scales have been used to measure the extent of UGS. Most empirical studies set a buffer to prescribe the range of green spaces. The buffer size is set based on the assumption that it represents a neighborhood environment ( Maas et al. 2009b ), or walking area ( Potestio et al. 2009 ; Parra et al. 2010 ; Villeneuve et al. 2012 ; Paquet et al. 2013 ). Buffer sizes vary from study to study, including 500 m ( Parra et al. 2010 ; Villeneuve et al. 2012 ), 800 m ( Potestio et al. 2009 ), 1 km ( Astell-Burt et al. 2013 ; Paquet et al. 2013 ), 3 km ( De Vries et al. 2003 ; Maas et al. 2009b ), and 5 km ( Huynh et al. 2013 ). Other studies have used administrative boundaries, such as neighborhood, census unit, or city scale for analysis ( Richardson et al. 2010 , 2012 ; Jonker et al. 2014 ; Bixby et al. 2015 ).

Most of the studies which assessed relationships at smaller scales, such as at the neighborhood scale, showed that UGS can positively affect health. However, studies using larger scales, such as city scale and census unit scale, have not found a clear positive relationship between green space and mortality ( Richardson et al. 2010 , 2012 ; Bixby et al. 2015 ). Interestingly, we did not see evidence that the strength of the relationship between UGS and health increases with decreasing spatial scale. These findings suggest that spatial scales used to measure UGS and health outcome need to be explicitly stated in UGS–health studies.

Through knowledge gaps and methodological issues identified in the literature review and the conceptual framework presented earlier, we identified four research needs for future studies to help advance knowledge in green space–health relationships. Particularly, we suggest that paying more attention to methodological issues can help to produce results that are more comparable, and unpack complex interactions between factors that mediate the relationship between green space exposure and health responses. The goal is to direct UGS–health studies for producing knowledge that can be translated into guidelines for developing more optimal UGS designs in order to maximize health benefits.

Develop more refined methods to measure UGS and health responses

In the majority of the studies we reviewed, UGS was treated generically. Most studies considered only one or more types of green spaces, which include large green open spaces, parks, and even nature reserves. Others relied on using plan-view or aerial indicators, such as coverage and NDVI ( Maas et al. 2009b ; Dadvand et al. 2012 ; Richardson et al. 2013 ; Beyer et al. 2014 ). Increasingly, remote sensing methods using satellite images are being used. However, satellite images depict aerial views of green spaces, which is different from what people view and experience on site. The coverage area of green spaces measured by satellite images overlooks other attributes of green spaces, such as species of plants, plant height, and distribution pattern. Yang et al. (2009) demonstrate that two green spaces with different appearances due to different tree heights can have the same overhead view shown by satellite images. Therefore, green spaces measured as vegetation cover or tree canopy cover may not demonstrate the real impacts of green spaces on health.

Our review also shows that most of the studies focus on the effects of UGS quantity on health, but there is limited understanding of which attribute(s) of UGS have a stronger influence on health outcomes. Thus, it is still unclear which type of greening intervention can be more effective in promoting health: increasing UGS amount, enhancing UGS accessibility, or improving UGS quality.

To overcome the above issues, we suggest that more refined methods for measuring UGS are needed. A clear definition of UGS with a both quantitative and qualitative description should be provided, given the multiple definitions of the term ( Taylor and Hochuli 2017 ). Studies should explicitly describe what UGS were included in the studies and how they were measured. To increase the representation of important attributes of green spaces, more refined methods for measuring green space attributes and data with higher resolution should be used to demonstrate the characteristics of UGS that are experienced by people. Such attempts can be seen in some studies focusing on the measurement of UGS. For instance, images of UGS have been captured through google street view or using a camera on-site to measure the amount of visible UGS at a user’s perspective ( Yang et al. 2009 ; Li et al. 2015 ). Liang et al. (2017) also used an unmanned aerial vehicle to measure 3D green space quantity. And, Liu et al. (2016) developed a new index to quantify UGS that considers not only the characteristics of UGS, but also the pattern of surrounding built-up areas and building height. These studies provide new insights for future studies to work on the effects of more specific UGS attributes on health.

In addition to measuring UGS provision quantitatively, the qualitative attributes of UGS should also be considered. Indicators of green space quality should be more specific when used in design disciplines like landscape architecture or urban design so as to facilitate the application of research results into practice. Vague or subjective terms should be avoided. For example, if we use perceived ‘beauty of green space’ to measure UGS and find that this attribute of UGS can positively affect health, it is difficult to apply the results to inform design because there is no direct instruction for how to make green spaces more beautiful.

We also suggest that it is useful to measure both qualitative and quantitative attributes of UGS to further understand their relative importance. In our review, several studies showed that quality of green space has a stronger relationship with health than quantity ( Fuller et al. 2007 ; Francis et al. 2012 ; De Vries et al. 2013 ), but such information is still limited. Future studies should thus seek to understand the relative roles of different UGS attributes in promoting different aspects of health, and especially to direct the research towards producing results that can be used to guide the design of UGS for improved health outcomes.

As the dependent variable, health response is a critical part of the whole analytical process. Our review revealed a large variety of indicators used to measure health. Many studies use distal health indicators to measure health outcomes, such as overall physical health, morbidity and mortality. However, distal health indicators are affected by other external factors ( Brenner et al. 1995 ), which may mask effects of UGS. Proximal indicators, on the other hand, may reveal stronger relationships, but may not capture long term health benefits adequately. It seems clear that both types of assessment are needed, despite the obvious added challenge to undertake such studies. Multiple evidences are useful to demonstrate both short and long-term impacts of UGS exposure. We also suggest that targeted health outcomes from corresponding attributes of UGS should be examined. For example, if the study focus is the visual quality of UGS in promoting health, it is logical to correlate the visual attributes with mental health rather than with physical outcomes.

Consider multiple causal pathways underlying specific UGS–health relationships

In our review, nearly 90% of studies explored the relationship between green space and health without explicitly investigating the mechanisms that lead to improved health benefits. Correlational analysis was used to infer the importance of UGS, which does not allow causal relationships to be demonstrated ( Bowler et al. 2010 ; Lachowycz and Jones 2013 ). As shown in the dose–response conceptual framework, the effects of UGS on health are derived from interactions of multiple UGS attributes through various pathways. Very few studies, such as studies by De Vries et al. (2013) and Shen and Lung (2016) , compared the strength of health benefits caused by different mechanisms. Consequently, there is limited knowledge about which mechanism plays a more important role in promoting certain aspects of health. Different pathways should theoretically trigger different ways for improving health. Without a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms, it is challenging to make interventions more precise or effective.

Summary of linkages between UGS features and positive health effects

a The number represents the number of relevant cases among studies reviewed.

b More ‘+’ means higher importance.

Our analysis of the literature indicates that very few mediators have been incorporated into studies of the influence of UGS on health ( Table 1 ). Physical activities, social interaction, and stress reduction have received more attention compared with other mediators. Future studies are encouraged to explore other relatively uninvestigated mediators and pathways, as well as their relative importance. In view of climate change, priority should also be given to some mediators. For instance, studies investigating the effects of UGS on mitigating urban heat island effect and how the reduced temperature improves health are needed in cities already experiencing severe urban warming, such as New Delhi and Tokyo. Cities like Beijing and Guangzhou, which experience poor air quality, could focus on the role of UGS in mitigating air pollution. In northern China and Korea, the effects of UGS on shielding human and households from cold winds could also be investigated. Priorities for studying different mediators should be context-specific in different areas.

We also suggest that more efforts should be taken to investigate the roles of different moderators. A good understanding of how moderators influence the UGS–health relationship can be helpful for generating more eplicit explanations for research results and can also be useful for developing people-oriented policies to derive more health benefits from UGS. For example, understanding the disparity of health benefits from green spaces for different socio-demographic groups is important for making targeted policies based on needs defined by socio-demographic characteristics.

Although our conceptual framework shows that there are various mediators and moderators involved in such UGS–health relationships, it is also extremely challenging, if not impossible to control for all confounding variables within a single study, as also suggested by Richardson et al. (2012) . The use of multi-year longitudinal or large cohort studies can help to obtain the statistical power to control for confounding factors, which is already common in the medical field. In addition, we suggest that a common definition of the key terms including indicators for health assessment, mediators and moderators should be adopted over multiple studies. In this way, meta-analysis of data from multiple studies could help identify the most important factors.

Examine and compare UGS–health relationships at multiple scales

It is clear from our review that the extent of benefits from UGS reported is dependent on scale. However, an important question remains—what should the spatial scale be to examine UGS–health relationship in urban areas? We suggest that two principles can the used. First, the localized scale, community, or neighborhood (or equivalent of census track) scale should be used as a basic unit of studies. Second, multi-scale studies are useful to reveal patterns not observable in a single scale and can provide richer information about UGS–health relationships such as those related to mechanisms, spatial and temporal variations.

Local scale should be used because green spaces that are used on a daily or frequent basis tend to those nearby rather than those further away, and health benefits from UGS should, therefore, decrease with increasing distance from households. This rationale should also extend to environmental benefits of UGS, such as from heat reduction and air quality improvement, which should similarly diminish with distance from potential beneficiaries. Assessment of UGS at the localized scale will also better reveal areas of improvement that are more directly applicable to the communities being studied. At smaller scales, it is also easier to decipher important aspects of green space design, composition of plants, or level of biodiversity that is present, all of which have contributory roles for human health. In addition, larger spatial scales tend to mask disparities in green space provision when compared with socio-economic and -demographic indicators ( Tan and Samsudin 2017 ), and therefore do not provide adequate evidence for policy interventions to correct possible disparities in the provision and geographical distribution of green spaces.

Multi-scale analysis can be used to increase our knowledge of scale effects on health effects, which have theoretical and practical significance. Scale effects is a dominant theme in spatial studies ( Flowerdew et al. 2008 ; Lee et al. 2008 ; Villanueva et al. 2015 ), often described as the uncertain geographic context problem (UGCoP) ( Kwan 2012 ). The UGCoP refers to the influence exerted by choice of spatial scale and extent of area-based independent variable (UGS) on dependent variable (health), and the temporal uncertainty in the timing and duration of people’s exposure to the area-based variable ( Kwan 2012 ). Assessment of scale effects on UGS–health relationships contributes to this general body of knowledge. In addition, it provides useful information that can guide policymakers on the specific scale at which UGS interventions for health promotion should be implemented, under the influence of different socio-economic and -demographic characteristics of the city.

Focus on net health benefits of UGS

It is well-recognized that ecosystems provide not only ecosystem services but also ecosystem disservices ( Lyytimäki 2014 ; Oosterbroek et al. 2016 ). Although the importance of UGS to promote health has been actively publicized, the negative impacts brought by UGS should also not be ignored. Although there are increasing studies on ecosystem disservices ( Lyytimäki et al. 2008 ; Lyytimäki and Sipilä 2009 ; Shackleton et al. 2016 ), in UGS and health studies, the disservices of UGS have largely been overlooked. To our knowledge, no attempt has been made to include both positive and negative effects in the investigation of the relationship between UGS and health in earlier studies.

The neglect of disservices in UGS and health studies can lead to two problems. First, the studies might yield incorrect conclusions from results that show no relationship between UGS and health, not necessarily because no relationship exists, but because positive benefits are nullified by negative benefits. This false conclusion prevents appropriate actions from being implemented to benefit urban dwellers. Second, it is also possible that the improvement of certain UGS attributes can simultaneously enlarge corresponding disservices. For instance, the increase of vegetation can lead to fear of crime, which can be a barrier for using UGS. Hence, in order to obtain a more comprehensive interpretation of the observational results and provide more reasonable advice for greening practice, future studies need to emphasize that it is the net rather than gross benefits of green spaces that are more important.

Summary of linkages between UGS features and negative health effects

When evaluating the negative effects from UGS, it is also useful to note that for certain UGS characteristics, a critical point may exist below which there are only positive effects on health, and above which UGS start to exert negative or marginal effects. In this situation, the gradient of the line in Fig. 3 will become negative. One example is the effects of vegetation density. When vegetation density reaches to a certain high level, there will be unsafe perception for people ( Jansson et al. 2013 ). Such a threshold may also be perceived differently by different segments of the population ( von Döhren and Haase 2015 ).

Through the literature review, we conclude that benefits from UGS are not automatically guaranteed by their provision alone, but it is dependent on their qualitative attributes, and the perceptional and behavioral attributes of the green space users. With this understanding, a dose–response conceptual framework was developed to untangle the intricate relationships between UGS and health. We suggest that future studies can regard this framework as a guide to design studies, as well as to explain the findings.

We identified knowledge gaps and research needs based on the five main domains identified in this framework: UGS dose, health response, mediators, moderators, and spatial scales. We currently do not have a thorough understanding of the mechanisms of how green space improves health, which in turn limits the ability to use the results to effectively inform the design of UGS. To guide future studies to address this gap, we propose that four research needs should be integrated to help delineate causal pathways underlying the relationship between UGS and health. First, it is important to develop more refined methods to describe quantitative and qualitative attributes of green spaces, and measure health responses. Second, it is necessary to consider and evaluate multiple pathways in which green space lead to improved health. The possible linkages listed in Tables 1 and 2 offer a collection of potential topics for future empirical studies. Third, the impacts of scale on assessment of health outcomes need to be considered explicitly in studies. Last, future studies should also consider the potential negative effects caused by UGS in the assessment of health benefits. Through comparative studies, the magnitude of the effects of different UGS features or attributes through different positive and negative mediators on different aspects of health outcome can be obtained. With a more holistic understanding of the effects of UGS on health encapsulated in the conceptual framework described, studies can also be more directed at producing results that can be translated into planning and design guidelines for the provision of green spaces to achieve better health outcomes. The conceptual framework and suggestions proposed in this article provide some guidance for this goal.

Supplementary material are available at JUECOL online.

We thank the reviewers for their constructive comments and valuable suggestions.

This work was supported by Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS) Seed Funding (R-295-000-132-646) from National University of Singapore (NUS) to T.P.Y.

Conflict of interest statement . None declared.

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Search for dissertations about: "thesis on urban green spaces"

Showing result 1 - 5 of 28 swedish dissertations containing the words thesis on urban green spaces .

1. Urban Ecosystem Services : The Value of Green Spaces in Cities

Author : Johannes Langemeyer ; Thomas Elmqvist ; Erik Gómez-Baggethun ; Kai Chan ; Stockholms universitet ; [] Keywords : NATURVETENSKAP ; NATURAL SCIENCES ; Urban ; ecosystem services ; valuation ; Sustainability Science ; vetenskap om hållbar utveckling ;

Abstract : In an ever more urban world, the role of green spaces in cities is increasingly highlighted for their capacity to provide ecosystem services for human well-being. Yet, the value of urban green spaces is still widely overlooked in urban policy and planning. READ MORE

2. Biodiversity and green infrastructure in urban landscapes

Author : Ulf G. Sandström ; Per Angelstam ; Abdul Khakee ; Kjell Nilsson ; Örebro universitet ; [] Keywords : NATURVETENSKAP ; NATURAL SCIENCES ; Biologi ; Birds in cities ; Communication between sciences ; Conservation planning ; Landscape ecology ; Swedish green planning ; Urban green space ; Urban planning ; Urban vegetation ; Biologi med ekologisk inriktning ; Biology ; Biologi ; Biologi med ekologisk inriktning ;

Abstract : In this thesis, I evaluate the extent to which biodiversity is affected, and taken into consideration by, urban planning. Based on landscape ecology, I apply an interdisciplinary approach. READ MORE

3. Wastelands of difference? Urban nature and more-than-human difference in Berlin and Gothenburg

Author : Mathilda Rosengren ; Matthew Gandy ; Maan Barua ; Steve Hinchliffe ; University of Cambridge ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; Berlin ; Gothenburg ; more-than-human ethnography ; multispecies ethnography ; more-than-human geography ; urban green space ; urban wastelands ; landscape architecture ; urban planning ; non-human agency ; affect ; Stadtbrachen ; Brachen ; Anita-Berber-Park ; St. Thomas Friedhof ; Natur-Park Südgelände ; Park am Gleisdreieck ; Göteborg ; Trollspisberget ; Högåsberget ; Frihamnen ; Mossen ; bostadsnära natur ; Urban studies ; Urbana studier ;

Abstract : This thesis explores more-than-human entanglements of contemporary urban environments in order to develop a rearticulation of urban landscapes as spaces decidedly beyond the exclusively human. Taking its cue from the question “How do we live with urban difference today?,” such spaces, the thesis argues, emerge through, as well as change with, a variety of socio-ecological entwinements. READ MORE

4. Towards Better Urban Spaces in Harmony with Microclimate: Urban design and planning regulations in hot dry Damascus, Syria

Author : Moohammed Wasim Yahia ; Boende och bostadsutveckling ; [] Keywords : HUMANIORA ; HUMANITIES ; Architecture ; Arid zones ; Built environment ; Climate ; Climatic design ; Damascus ; Hot dry regions ; Landscape elements ; Microclimate ; Planning regulations ; Thermal comfort ; Thermal indices ; Urban climate ; Urban design ; Urban planning ;

Abstract : This research is an attempt to develop further understanding of the relationship between microclimate, thermal comfort, urban design and outdoor space users in the hot dry city of Damascus. This is done by studying the impact of urban regulations on microclimate in different urban design patterns in Damascus. READ MORE

5. Planning Practices of Greening : Challenges for Public Urban Green Space

Author : Helene Littke ; Tigran Haas ; Göran Cars ; Douglas Kelbaugh ; KTH ; [] Keywords : TEKNIK OCH TEKNOLOGIER ; ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ; public urban green space ; public space ; ecological gentrification ; green city branding ; urban densification ; green cities ; biophilic cities ; Planering och beslutsanalys ; Planning and Decision Analysis ;

Abstract : Public urban green spaces are crucial parts of cities due to the many connections existing between urban greenery and well-being. Additionally, public urban green space represents a wide range of spatial concepts, such as parks, urban forests, commons, in-between-spaces, and gardens. READ MORE

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SEEDS OF CHANGE: EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL FOR GREENER SCHOOLYARDS IN INDIANAPOLIS

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Seeds of Change: Exploring the Potential for Greener Schoolyards in Indianapolis

Existing literature suggests that having gardens and trees in schoolyards has proven to be positive for student health. Tree canopies in schoolyards provide shade, mitigate urban heat island effects, reduce air, and noise pollution, and even improve mental well-being. Edible schoolyards can enhance children’s hands-on learning experience, foster stronger environmental stewardship, offer fresh food opportunities, and help develop healthier eating habits. However, the implementation of green and edible schoolyards in Indiana remains relatively low. This thesis aims to explore the current tree canopy and garden coverage within the school grounds to understand how these green spaces correlate with demographic factors such as race, income, and population density, aiming to identify potential inequities in the school environment creation. Moreover, it gathers green feature coverage data and staff perspectives to further investigate the potential of expanding different edible green features in schoolyards of the Indianapolis region.

This study included 167 public schoolyards in the research process. Geospatial data analytic and social science methods were utilized in this research. First, ArcGIS was used to analyze the spatial distribution pattern of school Tree Canopy Coverage (TCC) and garden existence. We also examined the relationships between TCC and garden existences to other demographic factors using R language to understand impact criteria and summarize future hurdles and opportunities. In the second method, online surveys were distributed to the same schools to understand the attitudes of school staff towards edible schoolyards. Some preliminary challenges were identified with the 35 responses collected, including funding mechanisms, collaboration limitations, and lack of integration into curriculums to allow valuable education. This research concludes with 2 case studies to represent two common typologies of schoolyards in Indianapolis, using interviews to gain a deeper understanding of further concerns and future working directions for green schoolyard advocates.

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• Master of Science
• Horticulture

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• West Lafayette

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Additional committee member 2, additional committee member 3, additional committee member 4, usage metrics.

• Landscape architecture

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Spatial analysis of the physical resilience of old urban neighborhoods against earthquakes: a case study of the old texture of Tehran

• Published: 31 May 2024
• Volume 89 , article number  118 , ( 2024 )

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• Abolfazl Meshkini   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3071-275X 1 ,
• Alireza Bozorgvar 2 &
• Somayeh Alipour 2  

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During their growth, cities reach a point where they need to renew their structures. At this stage of urban growth, part of the urban environment with less livability as well as non-compliance with the current needs of citizens gets to be known as urban old neighborhoods. These neighborhoods are always exposed to all kinds of damage due to physical decay, inappropriate access, poor service facilities and inefficient infrastructure. One of the most serious and destructive types of damage is the one caused by earthquakes, which not only affects the physical aspect of urban textures but also leads to social and economic crises. The aim of this research is to measure the physical-environmental resilience of old neighborhoods and analyze the factors affecting it. The sources of the data in this regard are the census of the Iranian Statistics Center, the Detailed Plan, the Organization of Urban Renovation, and the district municipalities in 2022. With the consensus of experts' opinions, 10 out of 23 indicators were selected to achieve the aims of the research. As the standard indicators were combined, an urban area with a cluster of 123 old neighborhoods was selected as the statistical population of the research. The entropy method was used to assess how important each indicator of physical-environmental resilience was. The rates of physical resilience and environmental resilience were determined through overlaying the corresponding layers by the GIS software, and the final resilience was calculated with the geometric mean values. The geographically weighted regression (GWR) method was also used to analyze the factors affecting the final resilience. The findings indicate that old urban neighborhoods have much lower physical resilience than the other urban textures, but the rate of resilience is different among old urban neighborhoods. Moreover, in each neighborhood, the physical resilience of housing and the environmental resilience are different, which is caused by the highly different conditions of the neighborhoods in terms of resilience indicators. Also, the finesse of residential units, distance from the fire station, and access to green and open public spaces emerged to be the factors that play major roles in physical-environmental resilience. Being aware of what causes the vulnerability of old textures can be useful to solve their problems, improve their resilience against earthquakes, and provide information to local stakeholders.

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In the Iranian system of urban and regional planning, old textures are those with worn-out appearances and infrastructures. In such textures, the buildings are older than 30 years with unsustainable materials, the facilities and municipal services are poor, and there is no easy access to certain public places. Tehran, the capital of Iran, is still faced with this situation. Old textures in Iran are of administrative, commercial and residential uses every day. The term ‘old texture’ is perceived differently in Iran, compared to the international literature. In this article, the term points to the characteristics of worn-out textures as specifically perceived in Iran. One of the main reasons for choosing this type of texture is the difference in how countries look at it, as well as the existence of such textures with a large size and population in Tehran as the political, administrative and commercial capital of Iran.

Ahern, J. (2011). From fail-safe to safe-to-fail: sustainability and resilience in the new urban world. Landsc Urban Plan, 100 (4), 341–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.02.021

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Aldrich, D. P., & Meyer, M. A. (2014). Social capital and community resilience. American Behavioral Scientist, 59 (2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764214550299

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Chart of population growth rate of Tehran metropolis in the years (1554–2023)

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Meshkini, A., Bozorgvar, A. & Alipour, S. Spatial analysis of the physical resilience of old urban neighborhoods against earthquakes: a case study of the old texture of Tehran. GeoJournal 89 , 118 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-024-11101-x

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Environment | neighborhoods see a larger disparity in wildlife in chicago than other cities, study shows.

“You can spot turtles, you can spot herons, you can sometimes get lucky and there’s mink, and river otter,” Weitekamper said. “We can, of course, see ducks and geese, and there’s a time when the frogs hatch and start jumping around.”

Weitekamper sees most of this wildlife at the West Ridge Nature Park , an urban habitat walking distance from his house. But, that kind of space isn’t available to many people in Chicago.

A new study from Lincoln Park Zoo found low-income Chicago neighborhoods see around five fewer mammal species than wealthier areas, according to Mason Fidino, a senior quantitative ecologist at the Urban Wildlife Institute at Lincoln Park Zoo.

Fidino published the study alongside other researchers around the country and looked specifically at how changing demographics in a neighborhood can affect wildlife.

Fidino said researchers used the census definition of gentrification to compare neighborhoods, using changes in racial makeup, education levels and housing prices, to determine whether a neighborhood was gentrified. Fidino then compared the number of mammals in gentrified and nongentrified neighborhoods.

“We know systemic racism can have an influence on the ecology of cities,” Fidino said. “We wanted to more closely examine how gentrification may be tied to variation in wildlife diversity.”

Fidino and his team distributed camera traps around the city and measured how many and which kind of mammals were observed in certain neighborhoods over three years. Researchers noticed a particular difference in Chicago. While most cities, including other large urban areas such as Seattle and Los Angeles, saw a difference of one to two species between neighborhoods, Chicago neighborhoods saw differences of three to five mammal types.

“We do see an increase in species richness in gentrified neighborhoods across the board,” Fidino said. “It’s usually not that big of a bump. But there are some cities where we actually saw a much larger effect, and that was specifically true in Chicago.”

Fidino said the team observed raccoons, coyotes, deer, squirrels, foxes and other mammals in neighborhoods throughout the Chicago area.

Still, many Chicago residents said they weren’t surprised by the disparities revealed in the study’s findings.

Anthony Moser, for example, lived in the McKinley Park neighborhood for more than a decade starting in 2008. He lives just a few blocks over in Brighton Park now and said he hasn’t seen much wildlife in either neighborhood.

Moser said he thinks that is likely because of a long history of pollution in the area. McKinley Park borders the Central Manufacturing District, the city’s first planned industrial district, created in 1905.

While the six-story buildings of the old manufacturing district remain largely empty and abandoned today, McKinley Park has remained the site of industrial development. After an asphalt plant was built near his home in 2018, Moser said pollution in the area got even worse.

“I could hear it every morning when I woke up, without even opening a window,” Moser said. “You could just smell it in your home. But this isn’t about one plant. It represented a larger history of placing industrial facilities and heavy polluting facilities in communities like ours.”

Winifred Curran, a geography professor at DePaul University, specializes in environmental gentrification. She said Moser’s experience is part of a bigger pattern –– industrial sites have historically been placed in lower-income neighborhoods, leading to noise, odor and pollution.

All of that could be affecting the amount of wildlife in those neighborhoods, she said. Many lower-income communities also tend to have less green space and more asphalt, which perpetuates the issue, she added.

But, Curran said, resolving that issue is difficult. When lower-income communities try to add green spaces, they often attract real estate developers, who begin housing projects that price residents out of the places they’ve been living for decades.

“The neighborhoods most likely to gentrify are those that have some kind of environmental amenity,” Curran said. “We see that there is a lot more attention paid to green space, to trees, to wildlife, to habitat restoration.”

A 2022 investigation by the Chicago Tribune found the city tended to plant trees and greenery in wealthier, whiter neighborhoods. Local organizations such as Openlands, a nature conservation organization, have since established initiatives and grants to help remedy those disparities and bring tree canopies to underserved neighborhoods.

In extreme heat, trees can help cool neighborhoods. But a Tribune investigation found the city has planted more trees in wealthier, whiter areas

Fidino said the study proves the need for urban green space development and solutions for environmental pollution that do not spur gentrification, specifically in low-income neighborhoods. He added that he hopes his study helps lead to environmental policies that equitably prioritize access to nature in the coming years.

“Urban green space should be considered a very key part of just city maintenance, rather than an economic development strategy,” Fidino said. “And it should never price people out of neighborhoods. The question is, how can we come up with a process that leads to just outcomes both environmentally and socially?”

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People with disability 'bear the brunt' of extreme heat. Experts tell us what will help

2023 was officially confirmed as the hottest year on record . By early December we had already endured several heatwaves in Australia. And this year is expected to be possibly even warmer .

Many people with disabilities are at the front lines of the effects of heatwaves, and extreme heat can impact in many ways.

So, how can we prepare to stay safe during heatwaves? I spoke to climate, heat and disaster risk experts, and an occupational therapist to find out.

Extreme heat can be intimidating, debilitating and isolating

"Extreme heat is one of the climatic stressors that we face, with adverse impacts on our bodies and lives … and our most-at risk populations bear the brunt of the impacts," says Professor Petra Tschakert from Curtin University, who researches the intersections of climate, health and mobility justice.

For instance, people living with neurological conditions, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), experience a worsening of symptoms during hot weather , explains occupational therapist Sarah Coutinho.

"We see lots of people with difficulty maintaining thermoregulation. It's called thermoregulatory dysfunction. This can mean difficulties with extreme cold or hot temperatures, or the change from hot to cold," says Ms Coutinho from MSWA, a not-for-profit organisation that provides services to people living with neurological conditions.

"We know that 60 to 80 per cent of people with MS experience temperature sensitivity — it also worsens other MS symptoms which can really affect our clients.

"It's also about impacts like increased fatigue, reduced cognitive capacity or 'brain fog', difficulties with memory, and increased muscle weakness.

"It's a flow-on effect with symptoms that add to the day-to-day."

Managing symptoms and dealing with heatwaves often means staying indoors for several days at a time. This is where social isolation comes in. Local not-for-profit organisations that support people with disabilities can bring hope and connection to communities.

'It's unacceptable that people die because of extreme heat'

"I find it unacceptable that people die because of extreme heat in Australia every year, but it happens. We should not accept this," says heat expert Professor Sebastian Pfautsch from the Urban Transformations Research Centre at Western Sydney University.

"Air temperature influences our human thermal comfort, but surface temperature makes a huge difference in safety, accessibility, and its contribution to the overall warming of our cities, towns and neighbourhoods.

"It's very important because [urban] planning decisions can impact on the thermal comfort of persons with disabilities."

That's where trees come in.

"Trees shade and therefore keep surface temperatures low," he says. "When you have tree shade of high quality, so a [tree with a] very dense crown, like a fig tree, underneath you'll find that air temperature is [cool] … and you experience great thermal comfort."

More disadvantaged suburbs have less access to leafy areas and green infrastructure, Professor Pfautsch explains, which means in a lot of communities, people are "separated from many public spaces during extreme heat because they can't be used anymore".

"The problem comes down to using the wrong materials, and not providing sufficient shade or other means of cooling."

With last year's landmark report into loneliness finding one in three people feel lonely in Australia, the need for public green spaces  for keeping social connections during heatwaves has never been greater.

'We need to change this trajectory'

Professor Pfautsch highlights the urgency in which we need to address urban planning processes in order to work towards equity for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and inclusion.

"The way we design our suburbs and where climate change will take us in the next 50 years, the little [tree] canopy that will be left in our cities — we need to change this trajectory.

"I want to see more trees coming back into our cities instead of the current trend where we see them disappearing.

"We can work with airflows, ventilation, irrigation for green places that will become cool refuges where we could spend a nice and beautiful afternoon on a 30-degree summer day."

How to prepare for extreme heat

"Temperature projections for the summer can be intimidating for a lot of clients, but there's help," Ms Coutinho says.

She recommends seeking help from disability support organisations like MSWA that provide people with support groups and services such as counselling and in-home care tasks like cleaning and meal prep.

"There are other simple options most of our clients already consider, like wearing suitable clothing and staying in cooler areas of the house, lifestyle changes and seeing your doctor as part of your thermoregulatory support."

Tackling heatwaves requires teamwork but also needs to be person-centred, explains associate professor Michelle Villeneuve, who is the deputy director at the Centre for Disability Research and Policy at The University of Sydney.

"When we prepare ourselves, we can support others who may need us when there's an emergency," she says.

"I would encourage people to take an all-hazards approach to their preparedness and draw on resources like the Person-Centred Emergency Preparedness (P-CEP) toolkit ."

She explains the P-CEP approach "helps people with tailoring their own emergency preparedness by learning from other people with disability and chronic health conditions".

"Step two of P-CEP is about knowing your level of preparedness and guides people to learn about their risks, including heatwaves and what they can do about it."

Wildaliz De Jesús is a Boricua writer living with multiple sclerosis. She is currently based on Whadjuk Noongar Land/Perth.

The ABC is partnering with International Day of People with Disability to recognise the contributions and achievements of the 4.4 million Australians with disability.  

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The Gold Coast’s Largest Green Space Is Coming–Have Your Say And Win $500

By [email protected]

3rd Jun 2024

The Gold Coast is getting a new recreational mecca and your input is needed to make it a standout hub for all things enjoyment.  To ensure that they have the current Coasties covered, the City of Gold Coast is giving away a bunch of $500 gift cards. All that you have to do is share your thoughts on the proposed plans to go in the running to win. 

Nestled between the city’s beaches and hinterland, Greenheart will be the largest open space destination in the region. Marking the biggest recreational facility project ever undertaken by The City, this stretch of green is no joke. Think 4 AFL fields and upwards of 200 hectares big, now that is a whole lot of room for activity. 

With sun, surf, and seriously stand-out coffee, we locals can agree that life on the Coast is pretty damn good. Set to elevate all things sport, culture, tourism, and events, Greenheart is here to not only give us an additional leg up in the lifestyle Olympics but also ensure that our longstanding title of be ing the nation’s ‘Largest Playground’ is not going anywhere. 

No day on the Gold Coast is complete without soaking up some Vitamin D and getting the body moving. With endless opportunities for leisurely activity no matter your age, interests or abilities, this Merrimac space provides you and the young ones with a one-stop shop to keep your health and wellness in check. All that you have to do is hop five minutes down the road and take some much-deserved time to switch off and enjoy the wonders of some old-fashioned fresh air. 

As the Gold Coast recruits more and more awesome people, The City wants to make sure that they provide the perfect high-quality space for everyone of all abilities  to spread their wings and enjoy. With A-level infrastructure and improved environmental outcomes for the community high on the project's hit list, from what we have seen so far, Greenheart has nailed the brief. 

With an array of proposed ideas for the space, the master plan is to make the bustling coastal paradise we call home the place to be for all things community connection, well-being and, of course, play. The best part? You get to be involved. 

How To Have Your Say And Win 

The City of Gold Coast is giving away several $500 gift cards to some lucky survey participants.  To be in the running, simply fill in the 5-minute survey, and enter your details for the comp when prompted. 

For all the details on the Gold Coast's hottest new green space known more formally as the Greenheart project and to complete the survey, head over here.

Editor’s note: This article is sponsored by Gold Coast City Council and proudly endorsed by The Urban List. To find out more about who we work with and why read our editorial policy here .

Image credit: Supplied.

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