research topics about stress

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• HHS Author Manuscripts

STRESS AND HEALTH: Psychological, Behavioral, and Biological Determinants

Stressors have a major influence upon mood, our sense of well-being, behavior, and health. Acute stress responses in young, healthy individuals may be adaptive and typically do not impose a health burden. However, if the threat is unremitting, particularly in older or unhealthy individuals, the long-term effects of stressors can damage health. The relationship between psychosocial stressors and disease is affected by the nature, number, and persistence of the stressors as well as by the individual’s biological vulnerability (i.e., genetics, constitutional factors), psychosocial resources, and learned patterns of coping. Psychosocial interventions have proven useful for treating stress-related disorders and may influence the course of chronic diseases.

INTRODUCTION

Claude Bernard (1865/1961) noted that the maintenance of life is critically dependent on keeping our internal milieu constant in the face of a changing environment. Cannon (1929) called this “homeostasis.” Selye (1956) used the term “stress” to represent the effects of anything that seriously threatens homeostasis. The actual or perceived threat to an organism is referred to as the “stressor” and the response to the stressor is called the “stress response.” Although stress responses evolved as adaptive processes, Selye observed that severe, prolonged stress responses might lead to tissue damage and disease.

Based on the appraisal of perceived threat, humans and other animals invoke coping responses ( Lazarus & Folkman 1984 ). Our central nervous system (CNS) tends to produce integrated coping responses rather than single, isolated response changes ( Hilton 1975 ). Thus, when immediate fight-or-flight appears feasible, mammals tend to show increased autonomic and hormonal activities that maximize the possibilities for muscular exertion ( Cannon 1929 , Hess 1957 ). In contrast, during aversive situations in which an active coping response is not available, mammals may engage in a vigilance response that involves sympathetic nervous system (SNS) arousal accompanied by an active inhibition of movement and shunting of blood away from the periphery ( Adams et al. 1968 ). The extent to which various situations elicit different patterns of biologic response is called “situational stereotypy” ( Lacey 1967 ).

Although various situations tend to elicit different patterns of stress responses, there are also individual differences in stress responses to the same situation. This tendency to exhibit a particular pattern of stress responses across a variety of stressors is referred to as “response stereotypy” ( Lacey & Lacey 1958 ). Across a variety of situations, some individuals tend to show stress responses associated with active coping, whereas others tend to show stress responses more associated with aversive vigilance ( Kasprowicz et al. 1990 , Llabre et al. 1998 ).

Although genetic inheritance undoubtedly plays a role in determining individual differences in response stereotypy, neonatal experiences in rats have been shown to produce long-term effects in cognitive-emotional responses ( Levine 1957 ). For example, Meaney et al. (1993) showed that rats raised by nurturing mothers have increased levels of central serotonin activity compared with rats raised by less nurturing mothers. The increased serotonin activity leads to increased expression of a central glucocorticoid receptor gene. This, in turn, leads to higher numbers of glucocorticoid receptors in the limbic system and improved glucocorticoid feedback into the CNS throughout the rat’s life. Interestingly, female rats who receive a high level of nurturing in turn become highly nurturing mothers whose offspring also have high levels of glucocorticoid receptors. This example of behaviorally induced gene expression shows how highly nurtured rats develop into low-anxiety adults, who in turn become nurturing mothers with reduced stress responses.

In contrast to highly nurtured rats, pups separated from their mothers for several hours per day during early life have a highly active hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical axis and elevated SNS arousal ( Ladd et al. 2000 ). These deprived rats tend to show larger and more frequent stress responses to the environment than do less deprived animals.

Because evolution has provided mammals with reasonably effective homeostatic mechanisms (e.g., baroreceptor reflex) for dealing with short-term stressors, acute stress responses in young, healthy individuals typically do not impose a health burden. However, if the threat is persistent, particularly in older or unhealthy individuals, the long-term effects of the response to stress may damage health ( Schneiderman 1983 ). Adverse effects of chronic stressors are particularly common in humans, possibly because their high capacity for symbolic thought may elicit persistent stress responses to a broad range of adverse living and working conditions. The relationship between psychosocial stressors and chronic disease is complex. It is affected, for example, by the nature, number, and persistence of the stressors as well as by the individual’s biological vulnerability (i.e., genetics, constitutional factors) and learned patterns of coping. In this review, we focus on some of the psychological, behavioral, and biological effects of specific stressors, the mediating psychophysiological pathways, and the variables known to mediate these relationships. We conclude with a consideration of treatment implications.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF STRESS

Stressors during childhood and adolescence and their psychological sequelae.

The most widely studied stressors in children and adolescents are exposure to violence, abuse (sexual, physical, emotional, or neglect), and divorce/marital conflict (see Cicchetti 2005 ). McMahon et al. (2003) also provide an excellent review of the psychological consequences of such stressors. Psychological effects of maltreatment/abuse include the dysregulation of affect, provocative behaviors, the avoidance of intimacy, and disturbances in attachment ( Haviland et al. 1995 , Lowenthal 1998 ). Survivors of childhood sexual abuse have higher levels of both general distress and major psychological disturbances including personality disorders ( Polusny & Follett 1995 ). Childhood abuse is also associated with negative views toward learning and poor school performance ( Lowenthal 1998 ). Children of divorced parents have more reported antisocial behavior, anxiety, and depression than their peers ( Short 2002 ). Adult offspring of divorced parents report more current life stress, family conflict, and lack of friend support compared with those whose parents did not divorce ( Short 2002 ). Exposure to nonresponsive environments has also been described as a stressor leading to learned helplessness ( Peterson & Seligman 1984 ).

Studies have also addressed the psychological consequences of exposure to war and terrorism during childhood ( Shaw 2003 ). A majority of children exposed to war experience significant psychological morbidity, including both post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressive symptoms. For example, Nader et al. (1993) found that 70% of Kuwaiti children reported mild to severe PTSD symptoms after the Gulf War. Some effects are long lasting: Macksound & Aber (1996) found that 43% of Lebanese children continued to manifest post-traumatic stress symptoms 10 years after exposure to war-related trauma.

Exposure to intense and chronic stressors during the developmental years has long-lasting neurobiological effects and puts one at increased risk for anxiety and mood disorders, aggressive dyscontrol problems, hypo-immune dysfunction, medical morbidity, structural changes in the CNS, and early death ( Shaw 2003 ).

Stressors During Adulthood and Their Psychological Sequelae

Life stress, anxiety, and depression.

It is well known that first depressive episodes often develop following the occurrence of a major negative life event ( Paykel 2001 ). Furthermore, there is evidence that stressful life events are causal for the onset of depression (see Hammen 2005 , Kendler et al. 1999 ). A study of 13,006 patients in Denmark, with first psychiatric admissions diagnosed with depression, found more recent divorces, unemployment, and suicides by relatives compared with age- and gender-matched controls ( Kessing et al. 2003 ). The diagnosis of a major medical illness often has been considered a severe life stressor and often is accompanied by high rates of depression ( Cassem 1995 ). For example, a meta-analysis found that 24% of cancer patients are diagnosed with major depression ( McDaniel et al. 1995 ).

Stressful life events often precede anxiety disorders as well ( Faravelli & Pallanti 1989 , Finlay-Jones & Brown 1981 ). Interestingly, long-term follow-up studies have shown that anxiety occurs more commonly before depression ( Angst &Vollrath 1991 , Breslau et al. 1995 ). In fact, in prospective studies, patients with anxiety are most likely to develop major depression after stressful life events occur ( Brown et al. 1986 ).

DISORDERS RELATED TO TRAUMA

Lifetime exposure to traumatic events in the general population is high, with estimates ranging from 40% to 70% ( Norris 1992 ). Of note, an estimated 13% of adult women in the United States have been exposed to sexual assault ( Kilpatrick et al. 1992 ). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association 2000 ) includes two primary diagnoses related to trauma: Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) and PTSD. Both these disorders have as prominent features a traumatic event involving actual or threatened death or serious injury and symptom clusters including re-experiencing of the traumatic event (e.g., intrusive thoughts), avoidance of reminders/numbing, and hyperarousal (e.g., difficulty falling or staying asleep). The time frame for ASD is shorter (lasting two days to four weeks), with diagnosis limited to within one month of the incident. ASD was introduced in 1994 to describe initial trauma reactions, but it has come under criticism ( Harvey & Bryant 2002 ) for weak empirical and theoretical support. Most people who have symptoms of PTSD shortly after a traumatic event recover and do not develop PTSD. In a comprehensive review, Green (1994) estimates that approximately 25% of those exposed to traumatic events develop PTSD. Surveys of the general population indicate that PTSD affects 1 in 12 adults at some time in their life ( Kessler et al. 1995 ). Trauma and disasters are related not only to PTSD, but also to concurrent depression, other anxiety disorders, cognitive impairment, and substance abuse ( David et al. 1996 , Schnurr et al. 2002 , Shalev 2001 ).

Other consequences of stress that could provide linkages to health have been identified, such as increases in smoking, substance use, accidents, sleep problems, and eating disorders. Populations that live in more stressful environments (communities with higher divorce rates, business failures, natural disasters, etc.) smoke more heavily and experience higher mortality from lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder ( Colby et al. 1994 ). A longitudinal study following seamen in a naval training center found that more cigarette smoking occurred on high-stress days ( Conway et al. 1981 ). Life events stress and chronically stressful conditions have also been linked to higher consumption of alcohol ( Linsky et al. 1985 ). In addition, the possibility that alcohol may be used as self-medication for stress-related disorders such as anxiety has been proposed. For example, a prospective community study of 3021 adolescents and young adults ( Zimmerman et al. 2003 ) found that those with certain anxiety disorders (social phobia and panic attacks) were more likely to develop substance abuse or dependence prospectively over four years of follow-up. Life in stressful environments has also been linked to fatal accidents ( Linsky & Strauss 1986 ) and to the onset of bulimia ( Welch et al. 1997 ). Another variable related to stress that could provide a link to health is the increased sleep problems that have been reported after sychological trauma ( Harvey et al. 2003 ). New onset of sleep problems mediated the relationship between post-traumatic stress symptoms and decreased natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity in Hurricane Andrew victims ( Ironson et al. 1997 ).

Variations in Stress Responses

Certain characteristics of a situation are associated with greater stress responses. These include the intensity or severity of the stressor and controllability of the stressor, as well as features that determine the nature of the cognitive responses or appraisals. Life event dimensions of loss, humiliation, and danger are related to the development of major depression and generalized anxiety ( Kendler et al. 2003 ). Factors associated with the development of symptoms of PTSD and mental health disorders include injury, damage to property, loss of resources, bereavement, and perceived life threat ( Freedy et al. 1992 , Ironson et al. 1997 , McNally 2003 ). Recovery from a stressor can also be affected by secondary traumatization ( Pfefferbaum et al. 2003 ). Other studies have found that multiple facets of stress that may work synergistically are more potent than a single facet; for example, in the area of work stress, time pressure in combination with threat ( Stanton et al. 2001 ), or high demand in combination with low control ( Karasek & Theorell 1990 ).

Stress-related outcomes also vary according to personal and environmental factors. Personal risk factors for the development of depression, anxiety, or PTSD after a serious life event, disaster, or trauma include prior psychiatric history, neuroticism, female gender, and other sociodemographic variables ( Green 1996 , McNally 2003 , Patton et al. 2003 ). There is also some evidence that the relationship between personality and environmental adversity may be bidirectional ( Kendler et al. 2003 ). Levels of neuroticism, emotionality, and reactivity correlate with poor interpersonal relationships as well as “event proneness.” Protective factors that have been identified include, but are not limited to, coping, resources (e.g., social support, self-esteem, optimism), and finding meaning. For example, those with social support fare better after a natural disaster ( Madakaisira & O’Brien 1987 ) or after myocardial infarction ( Frasure-Smith et al. 2000 ). Pruessner et al. (1999) found that people with higher self-esteem performed better and had lower cortisol responses to acute stressors (difficult math problems). Attaching meaning to the event is another protective factor against the development of PTSD, even when horrific torture has occurred. Left-wing political activists who were tortured by Turkey’s military regime had lower rates of PTSD than did nonactivists who were arrested and tortured by the police ( Basoğlu et al. 1994 ).

Finally, human beings are resilient and in general are able to cope with adverse situations. A recent illustration is provided by a study of a nationally representative sample of Israelis after 19 months of ongoing exposure to the Palestinian intifada. Despite considerable distress, most Israelis reported adapting to the situation without substantial mental health symptoms or impairment ( Bleich et al. 2003 ).

BIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO STRESSORS

Acute stress responses.

Following the perception of an acute stressful event, there is a cascade of changes in the nervous, cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems. These changes constitute the stress response and are generally adaptive, at least in the short term ( Selye 1956 ). Two features in particular make the stress response adaptive. First, stress hormones are released to make energy stores available for the body’s immediate use. Second, a new pattern of energy distribution emerges. Energy is diverted to the tissues that become more active during stress, primarily the skeletal muscles and the brain. Cells of the immune system are also activated and migrate to “battle stations” ( Dhabar & McEwen 1997 ). Less critical activities are suspended, such as digestion and the production of growth and gonadal hormones. Simply put, during times of acute crisis, eating, growth, and sexual activity may be a detriment to physical integrity and even survival.

Stress hormones are produced by the SNS and hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical axis. The SNS stimulates the adrenal medulla to produce catecholamines (e.g., epinephrine). In parallel, the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus produces corticotropin releasing factor, which in turn stimulates the pituitary to produce adrenocorticotropin. Adrenocorticotropin then stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol. Together, catecholamines and cortisol increase available sources of energy by promoting lipolysis and the conversion of glycogen into glucose (i.e., blood sugar). Lipolysis is the process of breaking down fats into usable sources of energy (i.e., fatty acids and glycerol; Brindley & Rollan 1989 ).

Energy is then distributed to the organs that need it most by increasing blood pressure levels and contracting certain blood vessels while dilating others. Blood pressure is increased with one of two hemodynamic mechanisms ( Llabre et al.1998 , Schneiderman & McCabe 1989 ). The myocardial mechanism increases blood pressure through enhanced cardiac output; that is, increases in heart rate and stroke volume (i.e., the amount of blood pumped with each heart beat). The vascular mechanism constricts the vasculature, thereby increasing blood pressure much like constricting a hose increases water pressure. Specific stressors tend to elicit either myocardial or vascular responses, providing evidence of situational stereotypy ( Saab et al. 1992 , 1993 ). Laboratory stressors that call for active coping strategies, such as giving a speech or performing mental arithmetic, require the participant to do something and are associated with myocardial responses. In contrast, laboratory stressors that call for more vigilant coping strategies in the absence of movement, such as viewing a distressing video or keeping one’s foot in a bucket of ice water, are associated with vascular responses. From an evolutionary perspective, cardiac responses are believed to facilitate active coping by shunting blood to skeletal muscles, consistent with the fight-or-flight response. In situations where decisive action would not be appropriate, but instead skeletal muscle inhibition and vigilance are called for, a vascular hemodynamic response is adaptive. The vascular response shunts blood away from the periphery to the internal organs, thereby minimizing potential bleeding in the case of physical assault.

Finally, in addition to the increased availability and redistribution of energy, the acute stress response includes activation of the immune system. Cells of the innate immune system (e.g., macrophages and natural killer cells), the first line of defense, depart from lymphatic tissue and spleen and enter the bloodstream, temporarily raising the number of immune cells in circulation (i.e., leukocytosis). From there, the immune cells migrate into tissues that are most likely to suffer damage during physical confrontation (e.g., the skin). Once at “battle stations,” these cells are in position to contain microbes that may enter the body through wounds and thereby facilitate healing ( Dhabar & McEwen 1997 ).

Chronic Stress Responses

The acute stress response can become maladaptive if it is repeatedly or continuously activated ( Selye 1956 ). For example, chronic SNS stimulation of the cardiovascular system due to stress leads to sustained increases in blood pressure and vascular hypertrophy ( Henry et al. 1975 ). That is, the muscles that constrict the vasculature thicken, producing elevated resting blood pressure and response stereotypy, or a tendency to respond to all types of stressors with a vascular response. Chronically elevated blood pressure forces the heart to work harder, which leads to hypertrophy of the left ventricle ( Brownley et al. 2000 ). Over time, the chronically elevated and rapidly shifting levels of blood pressure can lead to damaged arteries and plaque formation.

The elevated basal levels of stress hormones associated with chronic stress also suppress immunity by directly affecting cytokine profiles. Cytokines are communicatory molecules produced primarily by immune cells (see Roitt et al. 1998 ). There are three classes of cytokines. Proinflammatory cytokines mediate acute inflammatory reactions. Th1 cytokines mediate cellular immunity by stimulating natural killer cells and cytotoxic T cells, immune cells that target intracellular pathogens (e.g., viruses). Finally, Th2 cytokines mediate humoral immunity by stimulating B cells to produce antibody, which “tags” extracellular pathogens (e.g., bacteria) for removal. In a meta-analysis of over 30 years of research, Segerstrom & Miller (2004) found that intermediate stressors, such as academic examinations, could promote a Th2 shift (i.e., an increase in Th2 cytokines relative to Th1 cytokines). A Th2 shift has the effect of suppressing cellular immunity in favor of humoral immunity. In response to more chronic stressors (e.g., long-term caregiving for a dementia patient), Segerstrom & Miller found that proinflammatory, Th1, and Th2 cytokines become dysregulated and lead both to suppressed humoral and cellular immunity. Intermediate and chronic stressors are associated with slower wound healing and recovery from surgery, poorer antibody responses to vaccination, and antiviral deficits that are believed to contribute to increased vulnerability to viral infections (e.g., reductions in natural killer cell cytotoxicity; see Kiecolt-Glaser et al. 2002 ).

Chronic stress is particularly problematic for elderly people in light of immunosenescence, the gradual loss of immune function associated with aging. Older adults are less able to produce antibody responses to vaccinations or combat viral infections ( Ferguson et al. 1995 ), and there is also evidence of a Th2 shift ( Glaser et al. 2001 ). Although research has yet to link poor vaccination responses to early mortality, influenza and other infectious illnesses are a major cause of mortality in the elderly, even among those who have received vaccinations (e.g., Voordouw et al. 2003 ).

PSYCHOSOCIAL STRESSORS AND HEALTH

Cardiovascular disease.

Both epidemiological and controlled studies have demonstrated relationships between psychosocial stressors and disease. The underlying mediators, however, are unclear in most cases, although possible mechanisms have been explored in some experimental studies. An occupational gradient in coronary heart disease (CHD) risk has been documented in which men with relatively low socioeconomic status have the poorest health outcomes ( Marmot 2003 ). Much of the risk gradient in CHD can be eliminated, however, by taking into account lack of perceived job control, which is a potent stressor ( Marmot et al. 1997 ). Other factors include risky behaviors such as smoking, alcohol use, and sedentary lifestyle ( Lantz et al. 1998 ), which may be facilitated by stress. Among men ( Schnall et al. 1994 ) and women ( Eaker 1998 ), work stress has been reported to be a predictor of incident CHD and hypertension ( Ironson 1992 ). However, in women with existing CHD, marital stress is a better predictor of poor prognosis than is work stress ( Orth-Gomer et al. 2000 ).

Although the observational studies cited thus far reveal provocative associations between psychosocial stressors and disease, they are limited in what they can tell us about the exact contribution of these stressors or about how stress mediates disease processes. Animal models provide an important tool for helping to understand the specific influences of stressors on disease processes. This is especially true of atherosclerotic CHD, which takes multiple decades to develop in humans and is influenced by a great many constitutional, demographic, and environmental factors. It would also be unethical to induce disease in humans by experimental means.

Perhaps the best-known animal model relating stress to atherosclerosis was developed by Kaplan et al. (1982) . Their study was carried out on male cynomolgus monkeys, who normally live in social groups. The investigators stressed half the animals by reorganizing five-member social groups at one- to three-month intervals on a schedule that ensured that each monkey would be housed with several new animals during each reorganization. The other half of the animals lived in stable social groups. All animals were maintained on a moderately atherogenic diet for 22 months. Animals were also assessed for their social status (i.e., relative dominance) within each group. The major findings were that ( a ) socially dominant animals living in unstable groups had significantly more atherosclerosis than did less dominant animals living in unstable groups; and ( b ) socially dominant male animals living in unstable groups had significantly more atherosclerosis than did socially dominant animals living in stable groups. Other important findings based upon this model have been that heart-rate reactivity to the threat of capture predicts severity of atherosclerosis ( Manuck et al. 1983 ) and that administration of the SNS-blocking agent propranolol decreases the progression of atherosclerosis ( Kaplan et al. 1987 ). In contrast to the findings in males, subordinate premenstrual females develop greater atherosclerosis than do dominant females ( Kaplan et al. 1984 ) because they are relatively estrogen deficient, tending to miss ovulatory cycles ( Adams et al. 1985 ).

Whereas the studies in cynomolgus monkeys indicate that emotionally stressful behavior can accelerate the progression of atherosclerosis, McCabe et al. (2002) have provided evidence that affiliative social behavior can slow the progression of atherosclerosis in the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit. This rabbit model has a genetic defect in lipoprotein clearance such that it exhibits hypercholesterolemia and severe atherosclerosis. The rabbits were assigned to one of three social or behavioral groups: ( a ) an unstable group in which unfamiliar rabbits were paired daily, with the pairing switched each week; ( b ) a stable group, in which littermates were paired daily for the entire study; and ( c ) an individually caged group. The stable group exhibited more affiliative behavior and less agonistic behavior than the unstable group and significantly less atherosclerosis than each of the other two groups. The study emphasizes the importance of behavioral factors in atherogenesis, even in a model of disease with extremely strong genetic determinants.

Upper Respiratory Diseases

The hypothesis that stress predicts susceptibility to the common cold received support from observational studies ( Graham et al. 1986 , Meyer & Haggerty 1962 ). One problem with such studies is that they do not control for exposure. Stressed people, for instance, might seek more outside contact and thus be exposed to more viruses. Therefore, in a more controlled study, people were exposed to a rhinovirus and then quarantined to control for exposure to other viruses ( Cohen et al. 1991 ). Those individuals with the most stressful life events and highest levels of perceived stress and negative affect had the greatest probability of developing cold symptoms. In a subsequent study of volunteers inoculated with a cold virus, it was found that people enduring chronic, stressful life events (i.e., events lasting a month or longer including unemployment, chronic underemployment, or continued interpersonal difficulties) had a high likelihood of catching cold, whereas people subjected to stressful events lasting less than a month did not ( Cohen et al. 1998 ).

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

The impact of life stressors has also been studied within the context of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) spectrum disease. Leserman et al. (2000) followed men with HIV for up to 7.5 years and found that faster progression to AIDS was associated with higher cumulative stressful life events, use of denial as a coping mechanism, lower satisfaction with social support, and elevated serum cortisol.

Inflammation, the Immune System, and Physical Health

Despite the stress-mediated immunosuppressive effects reviewed above, stress has also been associated with exacerbations of autoimmune disease ( Harbuz et al. 2003 ) and other conditions in which excessive inflammation is a central feature, such as CHD ( Appels et al. 2000 ). Evidence suggests that a chronically activated, dysregulated acute stress response is responsible for these associations. Recall that the acute stress response includes the activation and migration of cells of the innate immune system. This effect is mediated by proinflammatory cytokines. During periods of chronic stress, in the otherwise healthy individual, cortisol eventually suppresses proinflammatory cytokine production. But in individuals with autoimmune disease or CHD, prolonged stress can cause proinflammatory cytokine production to remain chronically activated, leading to an exacerbation of pathophysiology and symptomatology.

Miller et al. (2002) proposed the glucocorticoid-resistance model to account for this deficit in proinflammatory cytokine regulation. They argue that immune cells become “resistant” to the effects of cortisol (i.e., a type of glucocorticoid), primarily through a reduction, or downregulation, in the number of expressed cortisol receptors. With cortisol unable to suppress inflammation, stress continues to promote proinflammatory cytokine production indefinitely. Although there is only preliminary empirical support for this model, it could have implications for diseases of inflammation. For example, in rheumatoid arthritis, excessive inflammation is responsible for joint damage, swelling, pain, and reduced mobility. Stress is associated with more swelling and reduced mobility in rheumatoid arthritis patients ( Affleck et al. 1997 ). Similarly, in multiple sclerosis (MS), an overactive immune system targets and destroys the myelin surrounding nerves, contributing to a host of symptoms that include paralysis and blindness. Again, stress is associated with an exacerbation of disease ( Mohr et al. 2004 ). Even in CHD, inflammation plays a role. The immune system responds to vascular injury just as it would any other wound: Immune cells migrate to and infiltrate the arterial wall, setting off a cascade of biochemical processes that can ultimately lead to a thrombosis (i.e., clot; Ross 1999 ). Elevated levels of inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein (CRP), are predictive of heart attacks, even when controlling for other traditional risk factors (e.g., cholesterol, blood pressure, and smoking; Morrow & Ridker 2000 ). Interestingly, a history of major depressive episodes has been associated with elevated levels of CRP in men ( Danner et al. 2003 ).

Inflammation, Cytokine Production, and Mental Health

In addition to its effects on physical health, prolonged proinflammatory cytokine production may also adversely affect mental health in vulnerable individuals. During times of illness (e.g., the flu), proinflammatory cytokines feed back to the CNS and produce symptoms of fatigue, malaise, diminished appetite, and listlessness, which are symptoms usually associated with depression. It was once thought that these symptoms were directly caused by infectious pathogens, but more recently, it has become clear that proinflammatory cytokines are both sufficient and necessary (i.e., even absent infection or fever) to generate sickness behavior ( Dantzer 2001 , Larson & Dunn 2001 ).

Sickness behavior has been suggested to be a highly organized strategy that mammals use to combat infection ( Dantzer 2001 ). Symptoms of illness, as previously thought, are not inconsequential or even maladaptive. On the contrary, sickness behavior is thought to promote resistance and facilitate recovery. For example, an overall decrease in activity allows the sick individual to preserve energy resources that can be redirected toward enhancing immune activity. Similarly, limiting exploration, mating, and foraging further preserves energy resources and reduces the likelihood of risky encounters (e.g., fighting over a mate). Furthermore, decreasing food intake also decreases the level of iron in the blood, thereby decreasing bacterial replication. Thus, for a limited period, sickness behavior may be looked upon as an adaptive response to the stress of illness.

Much like other aspects of the acute stress response, however, sickness behavior can become maladaptive when repeatedly or continuously activated. Many features of the sickness behavior response overlap with major depression. Indeed, compared with healthy controls, elevated rates of depression are reported in patients with inflammatory diseases such as MS ( Mohr et al. 2004 ) or CHD ( Carney et al. 1987 ). Granted, MS patients face a number of stressors and reports of depression are not surprising. However, when compared with individuals facing similar disability who do not have MS (e.g., car accident victims), MS patients still report higher levels of depression ( Ron & Logsdail 1989 ). In both MS ( Fassbender et al. 1998 ) and CHD ( Danner et al. 2003 ), indicators of inflammation have been found to be correlated with depressive symptomatology. Thus, there is evidence to suggest that stress contributes to both physical and mental disease through the mediating effects of proinflammatory cytokines.

HOST VULNERABILITY-STRESSOR INTERACTIONS AND DISEASE

The changes in biological set points that occur across the life span as a function of chronic stressors are referred to as allostasis, and the biological cost of these adjustments is known as allostatic load ( McEwen 1998 ). McEwen has also suggested that cumulative increases in allostatic load are related to chronic illness. These are intriguing hypotheses that emphasize the role that stressors may play in disease. The challenge, however, is to show the exact interactions that occur among stressors, pathogens, host vulnerability (both constitutional and genetic), and such poor health behaviors as smoking, alcohol abuse, and excessive caloric consumption. Evidence of a lifetime trajectory of comorbidities does not necessarily imply that allostatic load is involved since immunosenescence, genetic predisposition, pathogen exposure, and poor health behaviors may act as culprits.

It is not clear, for example, that changes in set point for variables such as blood pressure are related to cumulative stressors per se, at least in healthy young individuals. Thus, for example, British soldiers subjected to battlefield conditions for more than a year in World War II showed chronic elevations in blood pressure, which returned to normal after a couple of months away from the front ( Graham 1945 ). In contrast, individuals with chronic illnesses such as chronic fatigue syndrome may show a high rate of relapse after a relatively acute stressor such as a hurricane ( Lutgendorf et al. 1995 ). Nevertheless, by emphasizing the role that chronic stressors may play in multiple disease outcomes, McEwen has helped to emphasize an important area of study.

TREATMENT FOR STRESS-RELATED DISORDERS

For PTSD, useful treatments include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), along with exposure and the more controversial Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing ( Foa & Meadows 1997 , Ironson et al. 2002 , Shapiro 1995 ). Psychopharmacological approaches have also been suggested ( Berlant 2001 ). In addition, writing about trauma has been helpful both for affective recovery and for potential health benefit ( Pennebaker 1997 ). For outpatients with major depression, Beck’s CBT ( Beck 1976 ) and interpersonal therapy ( Klerman et al. 1984 ) are as effective as psychopharmacotherapy ( Clinical Practice Guidelines 1993 ). However, the presence of sleep problems or hypercortisolemia is associated with poorer response to psychotherapy ( Thase 2000 ). The combination of psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy seems to offer a substantial advantage over psychotherapy alone for the subset of patients who are more severely depressed or have recurrent depression ( Thase et al. 1997 ). For the treatment of anxiety, it depends partly on the specific disorder [e.g., generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, social phobia], although CBT including relaxation training has demonstrated efficacy in several subtypes of anxiety ( Borkovec & Ruscio 2001 ). Antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors also show efficacy in anxiety ( Ballenger et al. 2001 ), especially when GAD is comorbid with major depression, which is the case in 39% of subjects with current GAD ( Judd et al. 1998 ).

BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS IN CHRONIC DISEASE

Patients dealing with chronic, life-threatening diseases must often confront daily stressors that can threaten to undermine even the most resilient coping strategies and overwhelm the most abundant interpersonal resources. Psychosocial interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral stress management (CBSM), have a positive effect on the quality of life of patients with chronic disease ( Schneiderman et al. 2001 ). Such interventions decrease perceived stress and negative mood (e.g., depression), improve perceived social support, facilitate problem-focused coping, and change cognitive appraisals, as well as decrease SNS arousal and the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex. Psychosocial interventions also appear to help chronic pain patients reduce their distress and perceived pain as well as increase their physical activity and ability to return to work ( Morley et al. 1999 ). These psychosocial interventions can also decrease patients’ overuse of medications and utilization of the health care system. There is also some evidence that psychosocial interventions may have a favorable influence on disease progression ( Schneiderman et al. 2001 ).

Morbidity, Mortality, and Markers of Disease Progression

Psychosocial intervention trials conducted upon patients following acute myocardial infarction (MI) have reported both positive and null results. Two meta-analyses have reported a reduction in both mortality and morbidity of approximately 20% to 40% ( Dusseldorp et al. 1999 , Linden et al. 1996 ). Most of these studies were carried out in men. The major study reporting positive results was the Recurrent Coronary Prevention Project (RCPP), which employed group-based CBT, and decreased hostility and depressed affect ( Mendes de Leon et al. 1991 ), as well as the composite medical end point of cardiac death and nonfatal MI ( Friedman et al. 1986 ).

In contrast, the major study reporting null results for medical end points was the Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease (ENRICHD) clinical trial ( Writing Committee for ENRICHD Investigators 2003 ), which found that the intervention modestly decreased depression and increased perceived social support, but did not affect the composite medical end point of death and nonfatal MI. However, a secondary analysis, which examined the effects of the psychosocial intervention within gender by ethnicity subgroups, found significant decreases approaching 40% in both cardiac death and nonfatal MI for white men but not for other subgroups such as minority women ( Schneiderman et al. 2004 ). Although there were important differences between the RCPP and ENRICHD in terms of the objectives of psychosocial intervention and the duration and timing of treatment, it should also be noted that more than 90% of the patients in the RCPP were white men. Thus, because primarily white men, but not other subgroups, may have benefited from the ENRICHD intervention, future studies need to attend to variables that may have prevented morbidity and mortality benefits among gender and ethnic subgroups other than white men.

Psychosocial intervention trials conducted upon patients with cancer have reported both positive and null results with regard to survival ( Classen 1998 ). A number of factors that generally characterized intervention trials that observed significant positive effects on survival were relatively absent in trials that failed to show improved survival. These included: ( a ) having only patients with the same type and severity of cancer within each group, ( b ) creation of a supportive environment, ( c ) having an educational component, and ( d ) provision of stress-management and coping-skills training. In one study that reported positive results, Fawzy et al. (1993) found that patients with early stage melanoma assigned to a six-week cognitive-behavioral stress management (CBSM) group showed significantly longer survival and longer time to recurrence over a six-year follow-up period compared with those receiving surgery and standard care alone. The intervention also significantly reduced distress, enhanced active coping, and increased NK cell cytotoxicity compared with controls.

Although published studies have not yet shown that psychosocial interventions can decrease disease progression in HIV/AIDS, several studies have significantly influenced factors that have been associated with HIV/AIDS disease progression ( Schneiderman & Antoni 2003 ). These variables associated with disease progression include distress, depressed affect, denial coping, low perceived social support, and elevated serum cortisol ( Ickovics et al. 2001 , Leserman et al. 2000 ). Antoni et al. have used group-based CBSM (i.e., CBT plus relaxation training) to decrease the stress-related effects of HIV+ serostatus notification. Those in the intervention condition showed lower distress, anxiety, and depressed mood than did those in the control condition as well as lower antibody titers of herpesviruses and higher levels of T-helper (CD4) cells, NK cells, and lymphocyte proliferation ( Antoni et al. 1991 , Esterling et al. 1992 ). In subsequent studies conducted upon symptomatic HIV+ men who were not attempting to determine their HIV serostatus, CBSM decreased distress, dysphoria, anxiety, herpesvirus antibody titers, cortisol, and epinephrine ( Antoni et al. 2000a , b ; Lutgendorf et al. 1997 ). Improvement in perceived social support and adaptive coping skills mediated the decreases in distress ( Lutgendorf et al. 1998 ). In summary, it appears that CBSM can positively influence stress-related variables that have been associated with HIV/AIDS progression. Only a randomized clinical trial, however, could document that CBSM can specifically decrease HIV/AIDS disease progression.

Stress is a central concept for understanding both life and evolution. All creatures face threats to homeostasis, which must be met with adaptive responses. Our future as individuals and as a species depends on our ability to adapt to potent stressors. At a societal level, we face a lack of institutional resources (e.g., inadequate health insurance), pestilence (e.g., HIV/AIDS), war, and international terrorism that has reached our shores. At an individual level, we live with the insecurities of our daily existence including job stress, marital stress, and unsafe schools and neighborhoods. These are not an entirely new condition as, in the last century alone, the world suffered from instances of mass starvation, genocide, revolutions, civil wars, major infectious disease epidemics, two world wars, and a pernicious cold war that threatened the world order. Although we have chosen not to focus on these global threats in this paper, they do provide the backdrop for our consideration of the relationship between stress and health.

A widely used definition of stressful situations is one in which the demands of the situation threaten to exceed the resources of the individual ( Lazarus & Folkman 1984 ). It is clear that all of us are exposed to stressful situations at the societal, community, and interpersonal level. How we meet these challenges will tell us about the health of our society and ourselves. Acute stress responses in young, healthy individuals may be adaptive and typically do not impose a health burden. Indeed, individuals who are optimistic and have good coping responses may benefit from such experiences and do well dealing with chronic stressors ( Garmezy 1991 , Glanz & Johnson 1999 ). In contrast, if stressors are too strong and too persistent in individuals who are biologically vulnerable because of age, genetic, or constitutional factors, stressors may lead to disease. This is particularly the case if the person has few psychosocial resources and poor coping skills. In this chapter, we have documented associations between stressors and disease and have described how endocrine-immune interactions appear to mediate the relationship. We have also described how psychosocial stressors influence mental health and how psychosocial treatments may ameliorate both mental and physical disorders. There is much we do not yet know about the relationship between stress and health, but scientific findings being made in the areas of cognitive-emotional psychology, molecular biology, neuroscience, clinical psychology, and medicine will undoubtedly lead to improved health outcomes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Preparation of this manuscript was supported by NIH grants P01-MH49548, P01- HL04726, T32-HL36588, R01-MH66697, and R01-AT02035. We thank Elizabeth Balbin, Adam Carrico, and Orit Weitzman for library research.

LITERATURE CITED

• Adams DB, Bacelli G, Mancia G, Zanchetti A. Cardiovascular changes during naturally elicited fighting behavior in the cat. Am. J. Physiol. 1968; 216 :1226–1235. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Adams MR, Kaplan JR, Koritnik DR. Psychosocial influences on ovarian, endocrine and ovulatory function in Macaca fascicularis . Physiol. Behav. 1985; 35 :935–940. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Affleck G, Urrows S, Tennen H, Higgins P, Pav D, Aloisi R. A dual pathway model of daily stressor effects on rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Behav. Med. 1997; 19 :161–170. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV-TR. 4th ed. Washington, DC: Am. Psychiatr. Assoc.; 2000. [ Google Scholar ]
• Angst J, Vollrath M. The natural history of anxiety disorders. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1991; 84 :446–452. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Antoni MH, Baggett L, Ironson G, LaPerriere A, Klimas N, et al. Cognitive behavioral stress management intervention buffers distress responses and elevates immunologic markers following notification of HIV-1 seropositivity. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 1991; 59 :906–915. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Antoni MH, Cruess DG, Cruess S, Lutgendorf S, Kumar M, et al. Cognitive behavioral stress management intervention effects on anxiety, 24-hour urinary catecholamine output, and T-cytotoxic/suppressor cells over time among symptomatic HIV-infected gay men. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2000a; 68 :31–45. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Antoni MH, Cruess S, Cruess DG, Kumar M, Lutgendorf S, et al. Cognitive-behavioral stress management reduces distress and 24-hour urinary free cortisol output among symptomatic HIV-infected gay men. Ann. Behav. Med. 2000b; 22 :29–37. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Appels A, Bar FW, Bar J, Bruggeman C, de Bates M. Inflammation, depressive symptomatology, and coronary artery disease. Psychosom. Med. 2000; 62 :601–605. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ballenger JC, Davidson JRT, Lecrubier Y, Nutt DJ, Borkovec TD, et al. Consensus statement on generalized anxiety disorder from the international consensus group on depression and anxiety. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2001; 62 :53–58. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Başoğlu M, Parker M, Parker Ö, Özmen E, Marks I, et al. Psychological effects of torture: a comparison of tortured with non-tortured political activists in Turkey. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1994; 151 :76–81. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Baum A. Stress, intrusive imagery, and chronic distress. Health Psychol. 1990; 9 :653–675. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Beck AT. Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. New York: Int. Univ. Press; 1976. [ Google Scholar ]
• Berlant JL. Topiramate in posttraumatic stress disorder: preliminary clinical observations. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2001; 62 :60–63. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bernard C. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine. Transl. HC Greene. New York: Collier; 18651961. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bleich A, Gelkopf M, Solomon Z. Exposure to terrorism, stress-related mental health symptoms, and coping behaviors among a nationally representative sample in Israel. JAMA. 2003; 290 :612–620. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Borkovec TD, Ruscio AM. Psychotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2001; 61 :37–42. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P, Peterson E. Sex differences in depression: a role for preexisting anxiety. Psychiatr. Res. 1995; 58 :1–12. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brindley D, Rollan Y. Possible connections between stress, diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and altered lipoprotein metabolism that may result in atherosclerosis. Clin. Sci. 1989; 77 :453–461. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brown GW, Bifulco A, Harris T, Bridge L. Life stress, chronic subclinical symptoms and vulnerability to clinical depression. J. Affect. Disord. 1986; 11 :1–19. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brownley KA, Hurwitz BE, Schneiderman N. Cardiovascular psychophysiology. In: Cacioppo JT, Tassinary LG, Berntson GG, editors. Handbook of Psychophysiology. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge Univ.; 2000. pp. 224–264. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cannon WB. Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton; 1929. [ Google Scholar ]
• Carney RM, Rich MW, Tevelde A, Saini J, Clark K, Jaffe AS. Major depressive disorder in coronary artery disease. Am. J. Cardiol. 1987; 60 :1273–1275. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cassem EH. Depressive disorders in the medically ill: an overview. Psychosomatics. 1995; 36 :S2–S10. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cicchetti D. Child maltreatment. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2005; 1 :409–438. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Classen C, Sephton SE, Diamond S, Spiegel D. Studies of life-extending psychosocial interventions. In: Holland J, editor. Textbook of Psycho-Oncology. New York: Oxford Univ. Press; 1998. pp. 730–742. [ Google Scholar ]
• Clinical Practice Guidelines. No. 5. Depression in Primary Care. Vol. 2: Treatment of Major Depression. Rockville, MD: US Dept. Health Hum. Serv., Agency Health Care Policy Res.; 1993. AHCPR Publ. 93-0551.
• Cohen S, Frank E, Doyle WJ, Skoner DP, Rabin BS, Gwaltney JM., Jr Types of stressors that increase susceptibility to the common cold in healthy adults. Health Psychol. 1998; 17 :214–223. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cohen S, Tyrrell DA, Smith AP. Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991; 325 :606–612. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Colby JP, Linsky AS, Straus MA. Social stress and state-to-state differences in smoking-related mortality in the United States. Soc. Sci. Med. 1994; 38 :373–381. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Conway TL, Vickers RR, Ward HW, Rahe RH. Occupational stress and variation in cigarette, coffee and alcohol consumption. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1981; 22 :156–165. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Danner M, Kasl SV, Abramson JL, Vaccarion V. Association between depression and elevated C-reactive protein. Psychosom. Med. 2003; 65 :347–356. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dantzer R. Cytokine-induced sickness behavior: Where do we stand? Brain Behav. Immun. 2001; 15 :7–24. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• David D, Mellman TA, Mendoza LM, Kulick-Bell R, Ironson G, Schneiderman N. Psychiatric morbidity following Hurricane Andrew. Int. Soc. Trauma. Stress Stud. 1996; 9 :607–612. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dhabar FS, McEwen BS. Acute stress enhances while chronic stress suppresses cell-mediated immunity in vivo: a potential role for leukocyte trafficking. Brain Behav. Immun. 1997; 11 :286–306. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dusseldorp E, van Elderen T, Maes S, Meulman J, Kraaij V. A meta-analysis of psychoeducational programs for coronary heart disease patients. Health Psychol. 1999; 18 :506–519. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eaker ED. Psychosocial risk factors for coronary heart disease in women. Cardiovasc. Clin. 1998; 16 :103–111. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Esterling BA, Antoni MH, Schneiderman N, Carver CS, LaPerriere A, et al. Psychosocial modulation of antibody to Epstein-Barr viral capsid antigen and herpes virus type-6 HIV-1 infected and at-risk gay men. Psychosom. Med. 1992; 54 :354–371. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Faravelli C, Pallanti S. Recent life events and panic disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1989; 146 :622–626. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fassbender K, Schmidt R, Mossner R, Kischka U, Kuhnen J, et al. Mood disorders and dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in multiple sclerosis: associations with cerebral inflammation. Arch. Neurol. 1998; 55 :66–72. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fawzy FI, Fawzy NW, Hyun CS, Elashoff R, Guthrie D, et al. Malignant melanoma. Effects of an early structured psychiatric intervention, coping and affective state on recurrence and survival 6 years later. Arch. Gen. Psychol. 1993; 50 :681–689. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferguson RG, Wikby A, Maxson P, Olsson J, Johansson B. Immune parameters in a longitudinal study of a very old population of Swedish people: a comparison between survivors and nonsurvivors. J. Gerontol. 1995; 50 :B378–B382. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Finlay-Jones R, Brown GW. Types of stressful life events and the onset of anxiety and depressive disorders. Psychol. Med. 1981; 11 :803–815. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Foa EB, Meadows EA. Psychosocial treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: critical review. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 1997; 48 :449–480. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Frasure-Smith N, Lespérance F, Gravel G, Masson A, Juneau M, et al. Social support, depression, and mortality during the first year after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2000; 101 :1919–1924. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Freedy JR, Shaw DL, Jarrell MP, Masters CR. Towards an understanding of the psychological impact of natural disasters: an application of the conservation of resources stress model. J. Trauma. Stress. 1992; 5 :441–454. [ Google Scholar ]
• Friedman M, Thoresen CE, Gill JJ, Ulmer D, Powell LH, et al. Alteration of type A behavior and its effects on cardiac recurrences in post myocardial patients: summary results of the Recurrent Coronary Prevention Project. Am. Heart J. 1986; 112 :653–665. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Garmezy N. Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty. Am. Behav. Sci. 1991; 34 :416–430. [ Google Scholar ]
• Glanz MD, Johnson JL. Resilience and Development: Positive Life Adaptations. New York: Kluwer Acad./Plenum; 1999. [ Google Scholar ]
• Glaser R, MacCallum RC, Laskowski BF, Malarkey WB, Sheridan JF, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. Evidence for a shift in the Th-1 to Th-2 cytokine response associated with chronic stress and aging. J. Gerontol. 2001; 56 :M477–M482. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Graham JDP. High blood pressure after battle. Lancet. 1945; 248 :239–240. [ Google Scholar ]
• Graham NMH, Douglas RB, Ryan P. Stress and acute respiratory infection. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1986; 124 :389–401. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Green BL. Psychosocial research in traumatic stress: an update. J. Trauma. Stress. 1994; 7 :341–362. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Green BL. Traumatic stress and disaster: mental health effects and factors influencing adaptation. In: Mak FL, Nadelson C, editors. International Review of Psychiatry. Washington, DC: Am. Psychiatr. Press; 1996. pp. 177–211. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hammen C. Stress and depression. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2005; 1 :293–319. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Harbuz MS, Chover-Gonzalez AJ, Jessop DS. Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and chronic immune activation. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2003; 992 :99–106. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Harvey AG, Bryant RA. Acute stress disorder: a synthesis and critique. Psychol. Bull. 2002; 128 :886–902. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Harvey AG, Jones C, Schmidt DA. Sleep and posttraumatic stress disorder: a review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2003; 23 :377–407. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Haviland MG, Sonne JL, Woods LR. Beyond posttraumatic stress disorder: object relations and reality testing disturbances in physically and sexually abused adolescents. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry. 1995; 34 :1054–1059. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Henry JP, Stephens PM, Santisteban GA. A model of psychosocial hypertension showing reversibility and progression of cardiovascular complications. Circ. Res. 1975; 36 :156–164. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hess WR. Functional Organization of the Diencephalons. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1957. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hilton SM. Ways of viewing the central nervous control of the circulation—old and new. Brain Res. 1975; 87 :213–228. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ickovics JR, Hamburger ME, Vlahov D, Schoenbaum EE, Schumm P, Boland RJ. Mortality, CD4 cell count decline, and depressive symptoms among HIV-seropositive women. JAMA. 2001; 285 :1466–1474. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ironson GH. Job stress and health. In: Cranny CJ, Smith PC, Stone EF, editors. Job Satisfaction: How People Feel About Their Jobs and How It Affects Their Performance. New York: Lexington; 1992. pp. 219–239. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ironson GH, Freund B, Strauss JL, Williams J. Comparison of two treatments for traumatic stress: a community-based study of EMDR and prolonged exposure. J. Clin. Psychol. 2002; 58 :113–128. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ironson GH, Wynings C, Schneiderman N, Baum A, Rodriguez M, et al. Posttraumatic stress symptoms, intrusive thoughts, loss, and immune function after Hurricane Andrew. Psychosom. Med. 1997; 59 :128–141. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Judd LL, Kessler RC, Paulus MP, Zeller PV, Whittchen HU, Kunovac JL. Comorbidity as a fundamental feature of generalized anxiety disorders: results from the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS) Acta Psychiatr. Scand. Suppl. 1998; 393 :6–11. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kaplan JR, Adams MR, Clarkson TB, Koritnik DR. Psychosocial influences on female “protection” among cynomolgues macaques. Atherosclerosis. 1984; 53 :283–295. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kaplan JR, Manuck SB, Adams MR, Weingard KW, Clarkson TB. Inhibition of coronary atherosclerosis by propranolol in behaviorally predisposed monkeys fed an atherogenic diet. Circulation. 1987; 76 :1364–1372. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kaplan JR, Manuck SB, Clarkson TB, Lusso FM, Taub DM. Social status, environment and atherosclerosis in cynomolgus monkeys. Arteriosclerosis. 1982; 2 :359–368. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Karasek RA, Theorell TG. Healthy Work. New York: Basic Books; 1990. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kasprowicz AL, Manuck SB, Malkoff SB, Krantz DS. Individual differences in behaviorally evoked cardiovascular response: temporal stability and hemodynamic patterning. Psychophysiology. 1990; 27 :605–619. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kendler KS, Gardner CO, Prescott CA. Personality and the experience of environmental adversity. Psychol. Med. 2003; 33 :1193–1202. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kendler KS, Hettema JM, Butera F, Gardner CO, Prescott CA. Life event dimensions of loss, humiliation, entrapment and danger in the prediction of onsets of major depression and generalized anxiety. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2003; 60 :789–796. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kendler KS, Karkowski LM, Prescott CA. Causal relationship between stressful life events and the onset of major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1999; 156 :837–841. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kessing LV, Agerbro E, Mortensen PB. Does the impact of major stressful life events on the risk of developing depression change throughout life? Psychol. Med. 2003; 33 :1177–1184. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1995; 52 :1048–1060. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kiecolt-Glaser JK, McGuire L, Robles TF, Glaser R. Psychoneuroimmunology: psychological influences on immune function and health. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2002; 70 :537–547. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kilpatrick DG, Edmunds CN, Seymour AK. Rape in America: A Report to the Nation. Arlington, VA: Natl. Victims Cent.; 1992. [ Google Scholar ]
• Klerman GL, Weissman MM, Rounsaville BJ, Chevron ES. Interpersonal Psycho-Therapy of Depression. New York: Basic Books; 1984. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lacey JI. Somatic response patterning and stress: some revisions of activation theory. In: Appleyo MH, Trumble R, editors. Psychological Stress. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1967. p. 14. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lacey JL, Lacey BC. Verification and extension of the principle of autonomic response stereotyping. Am. J. Psychol. 1958; 71 :50–73. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ladd CO, Huot RL, Thrivikraman P, Nemeroff CB, Meaney MJ, Plotsky PM. Long-term behavioral and neuroendocrine adaptations to adverse early experience. Prog. Brain Res. 2000; 122 :79–101. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, Williams DR, Mero RP, Chen J. Socioeconomic factors, health behaviors, and mortality: results from nationally representative prospective study of US adults. JAMA. 1998; 279 :1703–1708. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Larson SJ, Dunn AJ. Behavioral effects of cytokines. Brain Behav. Immun. 2001; 15 :371–387. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lazarus RS, Folkman S. Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer; 1984. [ Google Scholar ]
• Leserman J, Pettito JM, Golden RN, Gaynes BN, Gu H, Perkins DO. The impact of stressful life events, depression, social support, coping and cortisol on progression to AIDS. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2000; 57 :1221–1228. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Levine S. Infantile experience and resistance to physiological stress. Science. 1957; 126 :405–406. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Linden W, Stossel C, Maurice J. Psychosocial interventions for patients with coronary artery disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 1996; 156 :745–752. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Linsky AS, Strauss M. Social Stress in the United States: Links to Regional Patterns in Crime and Illness. Dover, MA: Auburn House; 1986. [ Google Scholar ]
• Linsky AS, Strauss MA, Colby JP. Stressful events, stressful conditions, and alcohol problems in the United States: a partial test of the Bales theory of alcoholism. J. Stud. Alcohol. 1985; 46 :72–80. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Llabre MM, Klein BR, Saab PG, McCalla JB, Schneiderman N. Classification of individual differences in cardiovascular responsivity. The contribution of reactor type controlling for race and gender. Int. J. Behav. Med. 1998; 5 :213–229. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lowenthal B. The effects of early childhood abuse and the development of resiliency. Early Child Dev. Care. 1998; 142 :43–52. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lutgendorf S, Antoni MH, Ironson G, Fletcher MA, Penedo F, Van Riel F. Physical symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome are exacerbated by the stress of Hurricane Andrew. Psychiatr. Med. 1995; 57 :310–325. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lutgendorf S, Antoni MH, Ironson G, Klimas N, Fletcher MA, Schneiderman N. Cognitive processing style, mood, and immune function following HIV seropositivity notification. Cogn. Ther. Res. 1997; 21 :157–184. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lutgendorf S, Antoni MH, Ironson G, Starr K, Costello N, et al. Changes in cognitive coping skills and social support mediate distress outcomes in symptomatic HIV-seropositive gay men during a cognitive behavioral stress management intervention. Psychosom. Med. 1998; 60 :204–214. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Macksound M, Aber J. The war experience and psychosocial development of children in Lebanon. Child Dev. 1996; 67 :70–88. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Madakasira S, O’Brien KF. Acute post-traumatic stress disorder in victims of a natural disaster. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 1987; 175 :286–290. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Manuck SB, Kamarack TW, Kasprowica AS, Waldstein SR. Stability and patterning of behaviorally evoked cardiovascular reactivity. In: Blascovich J, Katkin ES, editors. Cardiovascular Reactivity to Psychological Stress and Disease. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.; 1993. pp. 111–134. [ Google Scholar ]
• Manuck SB, Kaplan JR, Clarkson TB. Behaviorally induced heart rate reactivity and atherosclerosis in cynomolgus monkeys. Psychosom. Med. 1983; 45 :95–108. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Marmot M. Social resources and health. In: Kessel F, Rosenfield PL, Anderson NB, editors. Expanding the Boundaries of Health and Social Science. New York: Oxford Univ. Press; 2003. pp. 259–285. [ Google Scholar ]
• Marmot MG, Bosma H, Hemingway H, Brunner EJ, Stansfeld S. Contribution of job control and other risk factors to social variations in coronary heart disease incidence. Lancet. 1997; 350 :235–239. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McCabe PM, Gonzalez JA, Zaias J, Szeto A, Kumar M, et al. Social environment influences the progression of atherosclerosis in the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit. Circulation. 2002; 105 :354–359. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McDaniel JS, Musselman DL, Porter MR, Reed DA, Nemeroff CB. Depression in patients with cancer. diagnosis biology and treatment. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1995; 2 :89–99. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McEwen BS. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1998; 338 :171–179. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McEwen BS, Steller E. Stress and the individual: mechanisms leading to disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 1993; 153 :2093–2101. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McMahon SD, Grant KE, Compas BE, Thurm AE, Ey S. Stress and psychopathology in children and adolescents: Is there evidence of specificity? J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry. 2003; 44 :107–133. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McNally RJ. Psychological mechanisms in acute response to trauma. Biol. Psychiatry. 2003; 53 :779–788. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meaney MJ, Bhatnagan S, Dioria J, Larogue S, Francis D, et al. Molecular basis for the development of individual differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal stress response. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 1993; 13 :321–347. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mendes de Leon CF, Powell LH, Kaplan BH. Change in coronary-prone behaviors in the recurrent coronary prevention project. Psychosom. Med. 1991; 53 :407–419. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meyer RJ, Haggerty RJ. Streptococcal infection in families. Pediatrics. 1962; 29 :539–549. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Miller GE, Cohen S, Ritchey AK. Chronic psychological stress and regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines: a glucocorticoid-resistance model. Health Psychol. 2002; 21 :531–541. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mohr DC, Classen C, Barrera M. The relationship between social support, depression and treatment for depression in people with multiple sclerosis. Psychol. Med. 2004; 34 :533–541. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mohr DC, Hart SL, Julian L, Cox D, Pelletier D. Association between stressful life events and exacerbation in multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis. Br. Med. J. 2004; 328 :731. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Morley S, Eccleston C, Williams A. Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of cognitive behavior therapy and behavior therapy for chronic pain in adults, excluding headache. Pain. 1999; 80 :1–13. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Morrow DA, Ridker PM. C-reactive protein, inflammation, and coronary disease. Med. Clin. North Am. 2000; 81 :149–161. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nader KO, Pynoos RS, Fairbanks LA, al Ajeel M, al-Asfour A. A preliminary study of PTSD and grief among the children of Kuwait following the Gulf crisis. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 1993; 32 :407–416. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Norris FH. Epidemiology of trauma: frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 1992; 60 :409–418. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O’Donnell ML, Creamer M, Bryant RA, Schnyder U, Shalev A. Posttraumatic disorders following injury: an empirical and methodological review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2003; 23 :587–603. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Orth-Gomér K, Wamala SP, Horsten M, Schenk-Gustafsson K, Schneiderman N, Mittleman MA. Marital stress worsens prognosis in women with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2000; 284 :3008–3014. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Patton GC, Coffey C, Posterino M, Carlin JB, Bowes G. Life events and early onset depression: cause or consequence? Psychol. Med. 2003; 33 :1203–1210. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Paykel ES. Stress and affective disorders in humans. Semin. Clin. Neuropsychiatry. 2001; 6 :4–11. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pennebaker JW. Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychol. Sci. 1997; 8 :162–164. [ Google Scholar ]
• Peterson C, Seligman MEP. Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: theory and evidence. Psychol. Rev. 1984; 91 :347–374. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pfefferbaum B, Sconzo GM, Flynn BW, Kearns LJ, Doughty DE, et al. Case finding and mental health services for children in the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing. J. Behav. Health Serv. Res. 2003; 30 :215–227. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Polusny MA, Follette VM. Long-term correlates of childhood sexual abuse: theory and review of the empirical literature. Appl. Prev. Psychol. 1995; 4 :143–166. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pruessner JC, Hellhammer DH, Kirschbaum C. Low self-esteem, induced failure and the adrenocortical stress response. Personal. Individ. Differ. 1999; 27 :477–489. [ Google Scholar ]
• Roitt I, Brostoff J, Male D. Immunology. 5th ed. London: Mosby Int.; 1998. p. 125. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ron M, Logsdail S. Psychiatric morbidity in multiple sclerosis: a clinical and MRI study. Psychol. Med. 1989; 19 :887–895. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ross R. Atherosclerosis—an inflammatory disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999; 340 :115–126. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Saab PG, Llabre MM, Hurwitz BE, Frame CA, Reineke LJ, et al. Myocardial and peripheral vascular responses to behavioral changes and their stability in black and white Americans. Psychophysiology. 1992; 29 :384–397. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Saab PG, Llabre MM, Hurwitz BE, Schneiderman N, Wohlgemuth W, et al. The cold pressor test: vascular and myocardial response patterns and their stability. Psychophysiology. 1993; 30 :366–373. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schnall PL, Landsbergis PA, Baker D. Job strain and cardiovascular disease. Annu. Rev. Public Health. 1994; 15 :381–411. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schneiderman N. Pathophysiology in animals. In: Dembroski TM, Schmidt TH, Blümhen G, editors. Biobehavioral Bases of Coronary Heart Disease. Basel: Karger; 1983. pp. 304–364. [ Google Scholar ]
• Schneiderman N, Antoni MH. Learning to cope with HIV/AIDS. In: Kessel F, Rosenfield PL, Anderson NB, editors. Expanding the Boundaries of Health and Social Science. New York: Oxford Univ. Press; 2003. pp. 316–347. [ Google Scholar ]
• Schneiderman N, Antoni MH, Saab PG, Ironson G. Health psychology: psychosocial and biobehavioral aspects of chronic disease management. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2001; 52 :555–580. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schneiderman N, McCabe P. Psychophysiologic strategies in laboratory research. In: Schneiderman N, Weiss SM, Kaufmann PG, editors. Handbook of Research Methods in Cardiovascular Behavioral Medicine. New York: Plenum; 1989. pp. 349–364. [ Google Scholar ]
• Schneiderman N, Saab PG, Catellier DJ, Powell LH, DeBusk RF, et al. Psychosocial treatment within gender by ethnicity subgroups in the enhancing recovery in coronary heart disease (ENRICHD) clinic trial. Psychosom. Med. 2004; 66 :475–483. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schnurr PP, Friedman J, Bernardy NC. Research on posttraumatic stress disorder: epidemiology, pathophysiology and assessment. Psychother. Pract. 2002; 58 :877–889. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Segerstrom SC, Miller GE. Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analysis of 30 years of inquiry. Psychol. Bull. 2004; 130 :601–630. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Selye H. The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1956. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shalev AY. What is posttraumatic stress disorder? J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2001; 62 :4–10. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shapiro F. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Procedures. New York: Guilford; 1995. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shaw JA. Children exposed to war/terrorism. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 2003; 6 :237–246. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Short JL. The effects of parental divorce during childhood on college students. J. Divorce Remarriage. 2002; 38 :143–156. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stanton JM, Balzer WK, Smith PC, Parra LF, Ironson G. A general measure of work stress: the stress in general scale. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 2001; 61 :866–888. [ Google Scholar ]
• Thase ME. Treatment of severe depression. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2000; 61 :17–25. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Thase ME, Greenhouse JB, Frank E. Treatment of major depression with psychotherapy or psychotherapy-pharmacotherapy combinations. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1997; 54 :1009–1015. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Voordouw BC, van der Linden PD, Simonia S, van der Lei J, Sturkenboom MC, Stricker BH. Influenza vaccination in community-dwelling elderly: impact on mortality and influenza-associated morbidity. Arch. Intern. Med. 2003; 163 :1089–1094. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Welch SL, Doll HA, Fairburn CG. Life events and the onset of bulimia nervosa: a controlled study. Psychol. Med. 1997; 27 :515–522. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Writing Committee for ENRICHD Investigators. Effects of treating depression and low perceived social support on clinical events after myocardial infarction: the Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease patients (ENRICHD) randomized trial. JAMA. 2003; 289 :3106–3116. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zimmerman P, Wittchen HU, Hofler M, Pfister H, Kessler RC, Lieb R. Primary anxiety disorders and the development of subsequent alcohol use disorders: a 4-year community study of adolescents and young adults. Psychol. Med. 2003; 33 :1211–1222. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

Recent developments in stress and anxiety research

• Published: 01 September 2021
• Volume 128 , pages 1265–1267, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Urs M. Nater 1 , 2  

5526 Accesses

2 Citations

Explore all metrics

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Stress and anxiety are virtually omnipresent in today´s society, pervading almost all aspects of our daily lives. While each and every one of us experiences “stress” and/or “anxiety” at least to some extent at times, the phenomena themselves are far from being completely understood. In stress research, scientists are particularly grappling with the conceptual issue of how to define stress, also with regard to delimiting stress from anxiety or negative affectivity in general. Interestingly, there is no unified theory of stress, despite many attempts at defining stress and its characteristics. Consequently, the available literature relies on a variety of different theoretical approaches, though the theories of Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984 ) or McEwen ( 1998 ) are relatively pervasive in the literature. One key issue in conceptualizing stress is that research has not always differentiated between the perception of a stimulus or a situation as a stressor and the subsequent biobehavioral response (often called the “stress response”). This is important, since, for example, psychological factors such as uncontrollability and social evaluation, i.e. factors that may influence how an individual perceives a potentially stressful stimulus or situation, have been identified as characteristics that elicit particularly powerful physiological stressful responses (Dickerson and Kemeny 2004 ). At the core of the physiological stress response is a complex physiological system, which is located in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the body´s periphery. The complexity of this system necessitates a multi-dimensional assessment approach involving variables that adequately reflect all relevant components. It is also important to consider that the experience of stress and its psychobiological correlates do not occur in a vacuum, but are being shaped by numerous contextual factors (e.g. societal and cultural context, work and leisure time, family and dyadic systems, environmental variables, physical fitness, nutritional status, etc.) and dispositional factors (e.g. genetics, personality, resilience, regulatory capacities, self-efficacy, etc.). Thus, a theoretical framework needs to incorporate these factors. In sum, as stress is considered a multi-faceted and inherently multi-dimensional construct, its conceptualization and operationalization needs to reflect this (Nater 2018 ).

The goal of the World Association for Stress Related and Anxiety Disorders (WASAD) is to promote and make available basic and clinical research on stress-related and anxiety disorders. Coinciding with WASAD’s 3rd International Congress held in September 2021 in Vienna, Austria, this journal publishes a Special Issue encompassing state-of-the art research in the field of stress and anxiety. This special issue collects answers to a number of important questions that need to be addressed in current and future research. Among the most relevant issues are (1) the multi-dimensional assessment that arises as a consequence of a multi-faceted consideration of stress and anxiety, with a particular focus on doing so under ecologically valid conditions. Skoluda et al. 2021 (in this issue) argue that hair as an important source of the stress hormone cortisol should not only be taken as a complementary stress biomarker by research staff, but that lay persons could be also trained to collect hair at the study participants’ homes, thus increasing the ecological validity of studies incorporating this important measure; (2) the incongruence between psychological and biological facets of stress and anxiety that has been observed both in laboratory and field research (Campbell and Ehlert 2012 ). Interestingly, there are behavioral constructs that do show relatively high congruence. As shown in the paper of Vatheuer et al. ( 2021 ), gaze behavior while exposed to an acute social stressor correlates with salivary cortisol, thus indicating common underlying mechanisms; (3) the complex dynamics of stress-related measures that may extend over shorter (seconds to minutes), medium (hours and diurnal/circadian fluctuations), and longer (months, seasonal) time periods. In particular, momentary assessment studies are highly qualified to examine short to medium term fluctuations and interactions. In their study employing such a design, Stoffel and colleagues (Stoffel et al. 2021 ) show ecologically valid evidence for direct attenuating effects of social interactions on psychobiological stress. Using an experimental approach, on the other hand, Denk et al. ( 2021 ) examined the phenomenon of physiological synchrony between study participants; they found both cortisol and alpha-amylase physiological synchrony in participants who were in the same group while being exposed to a stressor. Importantly, these processes also unfold over time in relation to other biological systems; al’Absi and colleagues showed in their study (al’Absi et al. 2021 ) the critical role of the endogenous opioid system and its relation to stress-related analgesia; (4) the influence of contextual and dispositional factors on the biological stress response in various target samples (e.g., humans, animals, minorities, children, employees, etc.) both under controlled laboratory conditions and in everyday life environments. In this issue, Sattler and colleagues show evidence that contextual information may only matter to a certain extent, as in their study (Sattler et al. 2021 ), the biological response to a gay-specific social stressor was equally pronounced as the one to a general social stressor in gay men. Genetic information is probably the most widely researched dispositional factor; Kuhn et al. show in their paper (Kuhn et al. 2021 ) that the low expression variant of the serotonin transporter gene serves as a risk factor for increased stress reactivity, thus clearly indicating the important role of dispositional factors in stress processing. An interesting factor combining both aspects of dispositional and contextual information is maternal care; Bentele et al. ( 2021 ) in their study are able to show that there was an effect of maternal care on the amylase stress response, while no such effect was observed for cortisol. In a similar vein, Keijser et al. ( 2021 ) showed in their gene-environment interaction study that the effects of FKBP5, a gene very closely related to HPA axis regulation, and early life stress on depressive symptoms among young adults was moderated by a positive parenting style; and (5) the role of stress and anxiety as transdiagnostic factors in mental disorders, be it as an etiological factor, a variable contributing to symptom maintenance, or as a consequence of the condition itself. Stress, e.g., as a common denominator for a broad variety of psychiatric diagnoses has been extensively discussed, and stress as an etiological factor holds specific significance in the context of transdiagnostic approaches to the conceptualization and treatment of mental disorders (Wilamowska et al. 2010 ). The HPA axis, specifically, is widely known to be dysregulated in various conditions. Fischer et al. ( 2021 ) discuss in their comprehensive review the role of this important stress system in the context of patients with post-traumatic disorder. Specifically focusing on the cortisol awakening response, Rausch and colleagues provide evidence for HPA axis dysregulation in patients diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (Rausch et al. 2021 ). As part of a longitudinal project on ADHD, Szep et al. ( 2021 ) investigated the possible impact of child and maternal ADHD symptoms on mothers’ perceived chronic stress and hair cortisol concentration; although there was no direct association, the findings underline the importance of taking stress-related assessments into consideration in ADHD studies. As the HPA axis is closely interacting with the immune system, Rhein et al. ( 2021 ) examined in their study the predicting role of the cytokine IL-6 on psychotherapy outcome in patients with PTSD, indicating that high reactivity of IL-6 to a stressor at the beginning of the therapy was associated with a negative therapy outcome. The review of Kyunghee Kim et al. ( 2021 ) also demonstrated the critical role of immune pathways in the molecular changes due to antidepressant treatment. As for the therapy, the important role of cognitive-behavioral therapy with its key elements to address both stress and anxiety reduction have been shown in two studies in this special issue, evidencing its successful application in obsessive–compulsive disorder (Ivarsson et al. 2021 ; Hollmann et al. 2021 ). Thus, both stress and anxiety are crucial transdiagnostic factors in various mental disorders, and future research needs elaborate further on their role in etiology, maintenance, and treatment.

In conclusion, a number of important questions are being asked in stress and anxiety research, as has become evident above. The Special Issue on “Recent developments in stress and anxiety research” attempts to answer at least some of the raised questions, and I want to invite you to inspect the individual papers briefly introduced above in more detail.

al’Absi M, Nakajima M, Bruehl S (2021) Stress and pain: modality-specific opioid mediation of stress-induced analgesia. J Neural Transm. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02401-4

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Bentele UU, Meier M, Benz ABE, Denk BF, Dimitroff SJ, Pruessner JC, Unternaehrer E (2021) The impact of maternal care and blood glucose availability on the cortisol stress response in fasted women. J Neural Transm (Vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02350-y

Article   Google Scholar  

Campbell J, Ehlert U (2012) Acute psychosocial stress: does the emotional stress response correspond with physiological responses? Psychoneuroendocrinology 37(8):1111–1134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.12.010

Denk B, Dimitroff SJ, Meier M, Benz ABE, Bentele UU, Unternaehrer E, Popovic NF, Gaissmaier W, Pruessner JC (2021) Influence of stress on physiological synchrony in a stressful versus non-stressful group setting. J Neural Transm (Vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02384-2

Dickerson SS, Kemeny ME (2004) Acute stressors and cortisol responses: a theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychol Bull 130(3):355–391

Fischer S, Schumacher T, Knaevelsrud C, Ehlert U, Schumacher S (2021) Genes and hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in post-traumatic stress disorder. What is their role in symptom expression and treatment response? J Neural Transm (vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02330-2

Hollmann K, Allgaier K, Hohnecker CS, Lautenbacher H, Bizu V, Nickola M, Wewetzer G, Wewetzer C, Ivarsson T, Skokauskas N, Wolters LH, Skarphedinsson G, Weidle B, de Haan E, Torp NC, Compton SN, Calvo R, Lera-Miguel S, Haigis A, Renner TJ, Conzelmann A (2021) Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy in children and adolescents with obsessive compulsive disorder: a feasibility study. J Neural Transm. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02409-w

Ivarsson T, Melin K, Carlsson A, Ljungberg M, Forssell-Aronsson E, Starck G, Skarphedinsson G (2021) Neurochemical properties measured by 1 H magnetic resonance spectroscopy may predict cognitive behaviour therapy outcome in paediatric OCD: a pilot study. J Neural Transm. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02407-y

Keijser R, Olofsdotter S, Nilsson WK, Åslund C (2021) Three-way interaction effects of early life stress, positive parenting and FKBP5 in the development of depressive symptoms in a general population. J Neural Transm. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02405-0

Kuhn L, Noack H, Skoluda N, Wagels L, Rohr AK, Schulte C, Eisenkolb S, Nieratschker V, Derntl B, Habel U (2021) The association of the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism and the response to different stressors in healthy males. J Neural Transm (Vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02390-4

Kyunghee Kim H, Zai G, Hennings J, Müller DJ, Kloiber S (2021) Changes in RNA expression levels during antidepressant treatment: a systematic review. J Neural Transm. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02394-0

Lazarus RS, Folkman S (1984) Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publisher Company Inc, New York

Google Scholar  

McEwen BS (1998) Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med 338(3):171–179

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Nater UM (2018) The multidimensionality of stress and its assessment. Brain Behav Immun 73:159–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2018.07.018

Rausch J, Flach E, Panizza A, Brunner R, Herpertz SC, Kaess M, Bertsch K (2021) Associations between age and cortisol awakening response in patients with borderline personality disorder. J Neural Transm. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02402-3

Rhein C, Hepp T, Kraus O, von Majewski K, Lieb M, Rohleder N, Erim Y (2021) Interleukin-6 secretion upon acute psychosocial stress as a potential predictor of psychotherapy outcome in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Neural Transm (Vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02346-8

Sattler FA, Nater UM, Mewes R (2021) Gay men’s stress response to a general and a specific social stressor. J Neural Transm (Vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02380-6

Skoluda N, Piroth I, Gao W, Nater UM (2021) HOME vs. LAB hair samples for the determination of long-term steroid concentrations: a comparison between hair samples collected by laypersons and trained research staff. J Neural Transm (Vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02367-3

Stoffel M, Abbruzzese E, Rahn S, Bossmann U, Moessner M, Ditzen B (2021) Covariation of psychobiological stress regulation with valence and quantity of social interactions in everyday life: disentangling intra- and interindividual sources of variation. J Neural Transm (Vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02359-3

Szep A, Skoluda N, Schloss S, Becker K, Pauli-Pott U, Nater UM (2021) The impact of preschool child and maternal attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms on mothers’ perceived chronic stress and hair cortisol. J Neural Transm (Vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02377-1

Vatheuer CC, Vehlen A, von Dawans B, Domes G (2021) Gaze behavior is associated with the cortisol response to acute psychosocial stress in the virtual TSST. J Neural Transm (Vienna). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02344-w

Wilamowska ZA, Thompson-Hollands J, Fairholme CP, Ellard KK, Farchione TJ, Barlow DH (2010) Conceptual background, development, and preliminary data from the unified protocol for transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders. Depress Anxiety 27(10):882–890. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20735

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Urs M. Nater

University Research Platform ‘The Stress of Life – Processes and Mechanisms Underlying Everyday Life Stress’, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Urs M. Nater .

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Nater, U.M. Recent developments in stress and anxiety research. J Neural Transm 128 , 1265–1267 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02410-3

Download citation

Accepted : 13 August 2021

Published : 01 September 2021

Issue Date : September 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02410-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Stress in Childhood and Adulthood Have Combined Impact on Hormones and Health

Adults who report high levels of stress and who also had stressful childhoods are most likely to show hormone patterns associated with negative health outcomes.

Research Topic: Stress

APS has updated its publicly available collection of journal research pertaining to trauma and disasters. [updated February 14, 2023]

Collective Trauma and Stress Following Disasters: APS Journal Articles Publicly Available

Mariana Furtado explores how unhealthy competition among students can shape their graduate-school experience and affect their mental health.

Student Notebook: Clinical Psychology Graduate Student Adaptation—Living and Learning

Fostering children’s psychological well-being could help reduce their risk for heart conditions as adults, according to findings from a longitudinal study of British people born in 1958.

Protecting Children’s Psychological Well-being Could Help Strengthen Their Hearts as Adults 

Health behaviors and emotional stressors can alter the body’s ability to develop an immune response to vaccines, including—potentially—the new COVID-19 vaccines.

How Depression and Stress Could Dampen Efficacy of COVID-19 Vaccines

Nearly 2 years into the COVID-19 pandemic, an emerging body of literature is revealing the pandemic’s mental health impact on children, adolescents, and adults, including those who had previously been diagnosed with a mental illness.

Mental Health in a Global Pandemic: Lessons Learned From Psychological Science

Cell phones and social media can help teens cope with stressful events—as long as they strike the right balance between spending time online and pursuing other coping activities.

Stressed Teens Benefit from Coping Online, but a Little Goes a Long Way

New research proposes lifestyle, social, and psychological factors may increase the risk of contracting COVID-19. [July 9, 2020]

Contracting COVID-19: Lifestyle and Social Connections May Play a Role

By providing wider access to emotion words, creating the potential for more optimism, and enhancing social relations, the Spanish language may influence how individuals build emotion schemas and appraise stress, influencing cardiovascular reactivity and recovery.

¡Hola! Cómo estás? Speaking Spanish May Protect Your Heart

This industrial-organizational psychologist works with teams across the fields of healthcare, space exploration, and the military.

Careers Up Close: Marissa Shuffler on the Principles of Teamwork

Being in sync with physical signs of stress is linked with greater psychological and physical well-being.

People Who Are Attuned to Physical Signs of Stress Have Higher Well-Being

Psychological scientists have long known that psychological and social factors can affect our responses to viral infections and vaccinations, but that critical connection seems to have eluded many of the public health officials and others charged with leading the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic in its early days.

Psychology Meets Biology in COVID-19: Past, Present, and the Road to Recovery 

Academic life is not just about discovery and excitement. Seven scholars share some common negative experiences in academia that no one talks about.

The Dark Side of Academia: Common Negative Experiences No One Talks About

Brain imaging research suggests that our ability to do “cold” math calculations may be connected with our ability to regulate “hot” emotions.

Mental Flexibility May Buffer Against Emotional Stress

Reduced access to rewards may influence brain development, contributing to the increased prevalence of mental health disorders in children living in economically impoverished environments.

Living in Deprived Neighborhoods May Hinder Reward Anticipation, Moderating Mental Health

Which social skills go out the window when folks become groggy? What stressors make for lousy sleep?

Sleep and Social Stress: A Two-Way Street

Psychological scientists have uncovered an alarming link between chronic stress and cellular aging. The length of our telomeres, the protective caps at the tips of our chromosomes, may foretell health risks.

The Long and the Short of It

How people respond to health threats can influence their own health and, when people are facing communal risks, even their community’s health. This interview explores how reducing fear may jeopardize health behaviors.

Can Coping With COVID Make Things Worse?

Psychological research confirms that smartphones are indeed creating a new kind of stress for people at home, at work, and in social settings.

The Psychological Toll of the Smartphone

Teaching teens that social and personality traits can change helps them cope with social challenges such as bullying, which can help mitigate stress and improve academic performance.

For Teens, Learning That Personalities Change Buffers Against Stress

Providing help to friends, acquaintances, and even strangers can mitigate the impact of daily stressors on our emotions and our mental health, according to research published in Clinical Psychological Science, a journal of the Association

Helping Others Dampens the Effects of Everyday Stress

Men and women both provide strong support to their partners, but women tend to do a better job of being supportive under stressful situations.

Stress Affects How Men and Women Provide Support to Partners

You probably don’t need statistics to appreciate the pervasive role of stress in American life, but the numbers are there if you do. A recent Stress in America survey found that a quarter of adults

The Roots of Stress

Researchers find that the impact of stress on decision-making, including risk aversion and antisocial behavior, increases over the course of the first hour after a stressful event.

How Stress Drains Decision-Making Over Time

Scientists find that simply encouraging people to reframe the signs of stress before public speaking was a surprisingly effective way of handling stage fright.

Reframing Stress: Stage Fright Can Be Your Friend

When people under stress are making a difficult decision, they may pay more attention to the upsides of the alternatives they’re considering and less to the downsides, studies show..

Under Stress, We Ignore the Negative Possibilities

Natural resilience may not be as common as once thought -- data suggests that many people confronted with a major life-altering event can struggle considerably and for longer periods of time.

Natural Resilience to Major Life Stressors Not So Common

Expecting employees to take a one-size-fits-all approach to emotional labor can quickly lead to burnout without the right support systems in place.

What ‘Service With a Smile’ Means for Employee Well-Being

Feeling pressure may impair performance for people who score high on measures of neuroticism, a study has found.

Can Personality Traits Predict Who Chokes Under Pressure?

Can simply describing your feelings at stressful times make you less afraid and less anxious? Researchers investigate.

‘That Giant Tarantula Is Terrifying, but I’ll Touch It’ – Expressing Your Emotions Can Reduce Fear

What do we know about the prevalence of mental health difficulties among psychological scientists? APS member Sarah Victor, a clinical psychologist and professor at the Texas Tech University, joined APS’s Ludmila Nunes to discuss mental health among psychologists.

A Paradox in the Field: Mental-Health Disorders Among Psychologists

Chronic stress seems to dampen people’s neurological ability to bounce back from negative situations—causing even more stress.

Burnout Leaves its Mark on the Brain

Children often show remarkable resilience, but survey data shows that repeated exposure to adversity in childhood can have a significant impacts on health and well-being later in life.

Childhood Adversity Is Linked with Risky Health Behaviors and Negative Life Outcomes

Findings from a longitudinal study suggest that childhood bullying may lead to long-lasting health consequences, impacting psychosocial risk factors for cardiovascular health well into adulthood.

Childhood Bullying Linked to Health Risks in Adulthood

Privacy overview.

EDITORIAL article

Editorial: stress and stress management – pushing back against existing paradigms.

• 1 School for Professional Studies, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, United States
• 2 Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States
• 3 Department of Psychology, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, Canada
• 4 Department of Psychology, Meredith College, Raleigh, NC, United States

Editorial on the Research Topic Stress and Stress Management – Pushing Back Against Existing Paradigms

When we originally set out this special issue, the goal was to identify assumptions, claims, and inferences within existing work stress paradigms that may not be evidence based even though they have become accepted within the field as valid or true. Additionally, we sought to get a sense of new or innovative ways in which researchers may be considering the domain of stress in organizations. To that end, we put out a call for articles, and the special issue ended up with five compelling articles, ranging from theoretical ( Horan et al. and Pindek fall into this domain) to empirical ( Cropley and Collis ; Huang et al. ; Sonnentag and Nieesen fall into this domain) contributions. When looking across the articles in this issue, we identified three broad contributions.

Appraisals of Stress are Unique Rather Than Universal

There is often an assumption that assessing work environment stressors objectively or universally is a superior way to understand employee stress. When it comes to understanding employee stress, however, a psychological approach that centers appraisals in the stress process is critical. This contribution was evident in all five of the articles but really emphasized in the articles presented by Horan et al. and Pindek . Pindek's article focuses on job underperformance as a potential stressor, whereas Horan et al. provides a review of the Challenge-Hindress Stress Model (CHM), but both strongly emphasized the role of appraisals in the experience of stress. Pindek argued that while objective measures of performance exist, it is how individuals appraise their performance, whether acutely or chronically, that may result in increased stress. This is a useful contribution to occupational health research approaches that often conceptualize feedback as a positive resource driving work engagement ( Bakker and Demerouti, 2017 ). Yet the nature of the feedback in relation to performance expectations can be a driving force behind negative motivational and emotional outcomes for employees.

Horan et al. argue that an a priori classification of challenge or hindrance stressors ignores the relevance of appraisals. That is, there is often an assumption of some work demands being almost universally motivating (time pressure, workload) given they facilitate growth or performance, whereas others can be demoralizing or distressing given they are perceived as obstacles to performance (bureaucratic red tape, interruptions). But this classification strategy for demands ignores important contextual information (e.g., person, environment) that can change those appraisals for employees. Moreover, treating these appraisals as mutually exclusive and static has also undermined our knowledge and study designs in this area. People can and do see the same demand as both a challenge and a hindrance, and these perceptions can change over time.

When and Why Thinking About Work Helps or Hurts

Beyond understanding actual work demands or stressors in the workplace, our ongoing thoughts about work, long after we leave the workplace, are also important. Cropley and Collis and Sonnetag and Niessen provide insights into both when and why thinking about work helps or hurts. Mentally, switching off from work is often considered an overwhelmingly good thing - an important recovery process critical to our health ( Sonnentag and Fritz, 2015 ). But this may not always be the case. Sonnetag and Niessen focus on the issue of psychological detachment from work in a sample of students and employees. Although they indeed found that detachment is a useful way to reduce post-work negative affect, detachment also resulted in lower post-work positive affect.

Additionally, it is often assumed that thinking about work is necessarily unhealthy, but thoughts about work are not always negative. Unsurprisingly, Sonnetage and Niessen found that thinking negatively about work was the worst for both positive and negative affect. However, they also found that thinking positively about the workday resulted in similar levels of reduced negative affect and higher levels of positive affect as did detachment. Thus, cutting our thoughts off from work when things are going well may not be best for us.

Cropley and Collis also challenged our assumptions of why employees may be experiencing negative thoughts about work (or rumination). We often assume these thoughts arise from high job demands, more fatigue, or poor sleep. However, their two studies found that a better explanation may be a decrease in executive function, specifically with regard to the ability to shift focus and attention away from work thoughts. This has important implications for developing interventions that target both increasing focus and inhibition to avoid negative thoughts.

Leadership Matters for Work Engagement

It is often assumed that stress levels are primarily the result of work characteristics, but the article by Huang et al. suggests the social aspect of work, specifically as it relates to leadership, plays an important role as well. They find that employee perceptions of transformational, ethical, and participative leadership may be important for stimulating work engagement among employees and may help to minimize the likelihood of counterproductive work behaviors. Perceptions of leadership may have implications for both acute and chronic underperformance. As noted by Pindek , those who are more engaged may be less likely to experience recurring issues of underperformance. It is also possible that such relationships could play a role in some of the issues discussed by Horan et al. , specifically in terms of the way subordinates appraise demands as either challenges or hindrances, which could then have consequences for engagement or counterproductive work behaviors.

Concluding Thoughts

Here, we discussed what we identified as three broad contributions made by the articles in this special topic. Although at first they might seem to be unrelated to each other, the issues discussed in one article often pose implications for issues discussed in one or more of the other articles. The appraisal process has direct implications for how people make sense of their participation in the workplace. Further, employees' understanding of their workplace experiences are shaped through their relationships with leaders that signal key workplace values. Although the articles in this topic help to broaden our understanding of the stress process, there is more work to be done. Whether through the lens of the Job Demands-Resources Model ( Demerouti et al., 2001 ; Bakker and Demerouti, 2017 ), Conservation of Resources theory ( Hobfoll, 1989 ), or some other theoretical perspective, we expect future research will be able to build off of the theoretical and empirical claims put forth in this issue to better refine our understanding of the stress process.

Author Contributions

ML and JM assisted in refining the article. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The editors would like to thank all those who contributed articles to this special topic.

Bakker, A. B., and Demerouti, E. (2017). Job demands–resources theory: taking stock and looking forward. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 22, 273–285. doi: 10.1037/ocp0000056

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., and Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. J. Appl. Psychol. 86, 499–512. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress. Am. Psychol. 44, 513–524. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513

Sonnentag, S., and Fritz, C. (2015). Recovery from job stress: the stressor-detachment model as an integrative framework. J. Organ. Behav. 36, S72–S103. doi: 10.1002/job.1924

Keywords: stress, stress response, appraisals, wellbeing, editorial

Citation: Grawitch MJ, Barber LK, Leiter MP and Mazzola JJ (2022) Editorial: Stress and Stress Management – Pushing Back Against Existing Paradigms. Front. Psychol. 13:859660. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.859660

Received: 21 January 2022; Accepted: 02 February 2022; Published: 25 February 2022.

Edited and reviewed by: Daisy Mui Hung Kee , Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia

Copyright © 2022 Grawitch, Barber, Leiter and Mazzola. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Matthew J. Grawitch, matt.grawitch@slu.edu

† These authors share first authorship

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Research Topics & Ideas: Mental Health

100+ Mental Health Research Topic Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring mental health topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of mental health-related research topics and ideas.

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Mental Health Topic Ideas

• Mood disorders
• Anxiety disorders
• Psychotic disorders
• Personality disorders
• Obsessive-compulsive disorders
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Neurodevelopmental disorders
• Eating disorders
• Substance-related disorders

Mood Disorders

Research in mood disorders can help understand their causes and improve treatment methods. Here are a few ideas to get you started.

• The impact of genetics on the susceptibility to depression
• Efficacy of antidepressants vs. cognitive behavioural therapy
• The role of gut microbiota in mood regulation
• Cultural variations in the experience and diagnosis of bipolar disorder
• Seasonal Affective Disorder: Environmental factors and treatment
• The link between depression and chronic illnesses
• Exercise as an adjunct treatment for mood disorders
• Hormonal changes and mood swings in postpartum women
• Stigma around mood disorders in the workplace
• Suicidal tendencies among patients with severe mood disorders

Anxiety Disorders

Research topics in this category can potentially explore the triggers, coping mechanisms, or treatment efficacy for anxiety disorders.

• The relationship between social media and anxiety
• Exposure therapy effectiveness in treating phobias
• Generalised Anxiety Disorder in children: Early signs and interventions
• The role of mindfulness in treating anxiety
• Genetics and heritability of anxiety disorders
• The link between anxiety disorders and heart disease
• Anxiety prevalence in LGBTQ+ communities
• Caffeine consumption and its impact on anxiety levels
• The economic cost of untreated anxiety disorders
• Virtual Reality as a treatment method for anxiety disorders

Psychotic Disorders

Within this space, your research topic could potentially aim to investigate the underlying factors and treatment possibilities for psychotic disorders.

• Early signs and interventions in adolescent psychosis
• Brain imaging techniques for diagnosing psychotic disorders
• The efficacy of antipsychotic medication
• The role of family history in psychotic disorders
• Misdiagnosis and delayed treatment of psychotic disorders
• Co-morbidity of psychotic and mood disorders
• The relationship between substance abuse and psychotic disorders
• Art therapy as a treatment for schizophrenia
• Public perception and stigma around psychotic disorders
• Hospital vs. community-based care for psychotic disorders

Personality Disorders

Research topics within in this area could delve into the identification, management, and social implications of personality disorders.

• Long-term outcomes of borderline personality disorder
• Antisocial personality disorder and criminal behaviour
• The role of early life experiences in developing personality disorders
• Narcissistic personality disorder in corporate leaders
• Gender differences in personality disorders
• Diagnosis challenges for Cluster A personality disorders
• Emotional intelligence and its role in treating personality disorders
• Psychotherapy methods for treating personality disorders
• Personality disorders in the elderly population
• Stigma and misconceptions about personality disorders

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders

Within this space, research topics could focus on the causes, symptoms, or treatment of disorders like OCD and hoarding.

• OCD and its relationship with anxiety disorders
• Cognitive mechanisms behind hoarding behaviour
• Deep Brain Stimulation as a treatment for severe OCD
• The impact of OCD on academic performance in students
• Role of family and social networks in treating OCD
• Alternative treatments for hoarding disorder
• Childhood onset OCD: Diagnosis and treatment
• OCD and religious obsessions
• The impact of OCD on family dynamics
• Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Causes and treatment

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Research topics in this area could explore the triggers, symptoms, and treatments for PTSD. Here are some thought starters to get you moving.

• PTSD in military veterans: Coping mechanisms and treatment
• Childhood trauma and adult onset PTSD
• Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR) efficacy
• Role of emotional support animals in treating PTSD
• Gender differences in PTSD occurrence and treatment
• Effectiveness of group therapy for PTSD patients
• PTSD and substance abuse: A dual diagnosis
• First responders and rates of PTSD
• Domestic violence as a cause of PTSD
• The neurobiology of PTSD

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

This category of mental health aims to better understand disorders like Autism and ADHD and their impact on day-to-day life.

• Early diagnosis and interventions for Autism Spectrum Disorder
• ADHD medication and its impact on academic performance
• Parental coping strategies for children with neurodevelopmental disorders
• Autism and gender: Diagnosis disparities
• The role of diet in managing ADHD symptoms
• Neurodevelopmental disorders in the criminal justice system
• Genetic factors influencing Autism
• ADHD and its relationship with sleep disorders
• Educational adaptations for children with neurodevelopmental disorders
• Neurodevelopmental disorders and stigma in schools

Eating Disorders

Research topics within this space can explore the psychological, social, and biological aspects of eating disorders.

• The role of social media in promoting eating disorders
• Family dynamics and their impact on anorexia
• Biological basis of binge-eating disorder
• Treatment outcomes for bulimia nervosa
• Eating disorders in athletes
• Media portrayal of body image and its impact
• Eating disorders and gender: Are men underdiagnosed?
• Cultural variations in eating disorders
• The relationship between obesity and eating disorders
• Eating disorders in the LGBTQ+ community

Substance-Related Disorders

Research topics in this category can focus on addiction mechanisms, treatment options, and social implications.

• Efficacy of rehabilitation centres for alcohol addiction
• The role of genetics in substance abuse
• Substance abuse and its impact on family dynamics
• Prescription drug abuse among the elderly
• Legalisation of marijuana and its impact on substance abuse rates
• Alcoholism and its relationship with liver diseases
• Opioid crisis: Causes and solutions
• Substance abuse education in schools: Is it effective?
• Harm reduction strategies for drug abuse
• Co-occurring mental health disorders in substance abusers

Choosing A Research Topic

These research topic ideas we’ve covered here serve as thought starters to help you explore different areas within mental health. They are intentionally very broad and open-ended. By engaging with the currently literature in your field of interest, you’ll be able to narrow down your focus to a specific research gap .

It’s important to consider a variety of factors when choosing a topic for your dissertation or thesis . Think about the relevance of the topic, its feasibility , and the resources available to you, including time, data, and academic guidance. Also, consider your own interest and expertise in the subject, as this will sustain you through the research process.

Always consult with your academic advisor to ensure that your chosen topic aligns with academic requirements and offers a meaningful contribution to the field. If you need help choosing a topic, consider our private coaching service.

You Might Also Like:

Good morning everyone. This are very patent topics for research in neuroscience. Thank you for guidance

What if everything is important, original and intresting? as in Neuroscience. I find myself overwhelmd with tens of relveant areas and within each area many optional topics. I ask myself if importance (for example – able to treat people suffering) is more relevant than what intrest me, and on the other hand if what advance me further in my career should not also be a consideration?

This information is really helpful and have learnt alot

Phd research topics on implementation of mental health policy in Nigeria :the prospects, challenges and way forward.

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Print Friendly

• MEMBER LOGIN
• MEDIA RELATIONS

Military Stress

• ASSESSMENTS
• DOCUMENTARIES

Stress Research

“The difficulty in science is often not so much how to make the discovery but rather to know that one has made it.”

– J.D. Bernal

Causes & Sources of Stress

Living conditions, the political climate, financial insecurity, and work issues are some stressors US adults cite as the cause of their stress. Ineffective communications increase work stress to the point of frustration that workers want to quit. These stressors, unfortunately, are not something people can just ignore. Quitting a job would result in debt and financial instability which, in turn, would be added stressors.

• 35% of workers say their boss is a cause of their workplace stress.
• 80% of US workers experience work stress because of ineffective company communications.
• 39% of North American employees report their workload the main source of the work stress.
• 49% of 18 – 24 year olds who report high levels of stress felt comparing themselves to others is a stressor.
• 71% of US adults with private health insurance say the cost of healthcare causes them stress while 53% with public insurance say the same.
• 54% of Americans want to stay informed about the news but following the news causes them stress.
• 42% of US adults cite personal debt as a source of significant stress.
• 1 in 4 American adults say discrimination is a significant source of stress.
• Mass shootings are a significant source of stress across all races; 84% of Hispanic report this, the highest among the races.

Stress Statistics

Two years after the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic, inflation, money issues and the war in Ukraine have pushed U.S. stress to alarming levels, according to polls conducted for the American Psychological Association.

A late-breaking poll, fielded March 1-3 by The Harris Poll on behalf of APA, revealed striking findings, with more adults rating inflation and issues related to the invasion of Ukraine as stressors than any other issue asked about in the 15-year history of the Stress in AmericaTM poll. This comes on top of money stress at the highest recorded level since 2015, according to a broader Stress in America poll fielded last month.

Top sources of stress were the rise in prices of everyday items due to inflation (e.g., gas prices, energy bills, grocery costs, etc.) (cited by 87%), followed by supply chain issues (81%), global uncertainty (81%), Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (80%) and potential retaliation from Russia (e.g., in the form of cyberattacks or nuclear threats) (80%).

Adults also reported separation and conflict as causes for straining and/or ending of relationships. Half of adults (51%, particularly essential workers at 61%) said they have loved ones they have not been able to see in person in the past two years as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Strikingly, more than half of all U.S. adults (58%) reported experiencing a relationship strain or end as a result of conflicts related to the COVID-19 pandemic, including canceling events or gatherings due to COVID-19 concerns (29%); difference of opinion over some aspect of vaccines (25%); different views of the pandemic overall (25%); and difference of opinion over mask-wearing (24%).

• 30% of Us adults eat comfort food “more than the usual” when faced with a challenging or stressful event.
• 51% of US adults engage in prayer—a routine activity—when faced with a challenge or stressful situation.
• Coping mechanisms of Gen Z and Millenials experiencing stress in the US 44% of Gen Z and 40% of Millenials sleep in while exercising counts for 14% and 20% respectively.
• 49% of US adults report enduring stressful situations as a coping behavior to handle stress.
• Less than 25% of those with depression worldwide have access to mental health treatments.

Sources: CompareCamp, American Psychological Association

Stress Management Statistics

A look at the stress management techniques employed by US adults to deal with their stress, an overwhelming majority are self-care practices. Though very helpful, it does not address the stressor at the root of the problem. Stress management programs would be beneficial not only for employees but for the company in the long run.

Stress Research from the National Library of Medicine

• Stress and Cardiovascular Disease
• Stress and Cancer
• Stress and Diabetes
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Stress and Aging
• Stress in Adolenscents
• Stress and Meditation
• Stress and Yoga
• Workplace Stress

Cardiac Coherence and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Combat Veterans 

Jay P. Ginsberg, Ph.D.; Melanie E. Berry, M.S.; Donald A Powell, Ph.D.

Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, A Peer-Reviewed Journal, 2010;16 (4):52-60. PDF version of the complete paper: Cardiac Coherence and PTSD in Combat Veterans

The Effect of a Biofeedback-based Stress Management Tool on Physician Stress: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial

Jane B. Lemaire, Jean E. Wallace, Adriane M. Lewin, Jill de Grood, Jeffrey P. Schaefer

Open Medicine 2011; 5(4)E154. PDF version of the complete paper

Coherence Training In Children With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Cognitive Functions and Behavioral Changes

Anthony Lloyd, Ph.D.; Davide Brett, B.Sc.; Ketith Wesnes, Ph.D.

Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, A Peer-Reviewed Journal, 2010; 16 (4):34-42. PDF version of the complete paper

Coherence and Health Care Cost – RCA Actuarial Study: A Cost-Effectiveness Cohort Study

Woody Bedell; Mariette Kaszkin-Bettag, Ph.D.

Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, A Peer-Reviewed Journal, 2010;16 (4):26-31. PDF version of the complete paper

261 Stress Topics & Research Questions

Need a well-formulated topic for an essay or research paper about stress and anxiety? We want to share creative titles and research questions about stress with you. Discover the intricacies of psychological, physiological, and societal factors and shed light on the causes of stress. Assess the significance of mental well-being with these stress-related topics!

😞 TOP 10 Stress Topics

🏆 thought-provoking stress essay topics, 👍 creative titles for stress essays, 🌶️ hot stress research questions, 🎓 interesting anxiety topics to write about, ❓ more research questions about stress, 💡 simple anxiety research topics, ✍️ stress essay topics for college.

• How to Manage Stress as a Student: Essay Example
• Academic Stress Among Students
• How to Relax: Avoiding Stress
• The Effects of Stress on Individuals
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Vladek From “Maus” by Art Spiegelman
• Stress Effect on Physical and Mental Health
• Negative Effects of Stress on a College Student
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Its Features
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the Fearless Film
• Stress and Solutions for Working Students
• Coping with Stress at University Stress is one of the major challenges that students face in universities. Many institutions of higher education do not help students cope with stress and stress-related problems.
• A Stress Management Program for the Military The military authorities should address mental illnesses such as stress due to work conditions to ensure the service members’ holistic well-being.
• Motivation, Job Satisfaction, Involvement, Stress Motivating personnel and the assessment of job satisfaction, including the degree of involvement and stress impact, are the essential aspects of leadership practice in the group.
• How Greek Mythology Subdued the Stress of Natural Phenomena The ancient Greeks created numerous engaging stories to explain such natural phenomena as volcanic eruptions, floods, and thunderstorms.
• Parental Stress and Its Effects on Children In the current paper, the author analyses literature dedicated to parental stress and child development and behavior and tests the previously mentioned hypothesis.
• Causes and Management of Stress at Work Stress is a condition that arises when an individual’s resources are inadequate to deal with the responsibilities and pressures of the situation.
• Lady Gaga’s Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness that affects those who have experienced or witnessed a horrific tragedy.
• Real-Life Story of Post-traumatic Stress Disease Philips’s case is an actual representation of the manifestation and intervention of PTSD, a piece of evidence the condition is treatable.
• Self-Esteem Role in Stress Management The paper explores the role of self-esteem in promoting and resolving stress, and the effects of stress on relationships, values, and meaningful purpose in life.
• Factors of Stress Among Young Adults Stress among young adults is caused by numerous factors, including family problems, work-related issues, health concerns, and psychological trauma.
• Workplace Stress: The Coping Strategies The research will uncover management-applicable strategies for assisting workers who may experience tension in or outside the workplace.
• Stress Management at the Workplace This article examines the aspects of stress management at the workplace from the point of view of the position of the manager, and considers collective stress.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: The Case Study Elaine, a 65-year-old woman, experienced posttraumatic stress disorder due to an accident involving a subway train collision.
• Transactional Model of Stress and Coping and the Effect of the Pandemic on Nurses’ Well-being Naturally, health care is one of the sectors, which was affected the most by the pandemic. Nurses play a pivotal role in this system, being the cornerstone of health care service delivery.
• Health Psychology and Stress: Correlations Health psychology deals with the enhancement of the whole personality identifying and eliminating the biopsychosocial causes that lead to disease.
• Group Dynamics, Managing Conflict, and Managing Stress and Employee Job Satisfaction This paper discusses of whether a high cohesiveness in a group leads to higher group productivity, or not. Analysis of the effect of the quality of decision-making within the group.
• Stress Factors: Work, Financial, Social Issues The significant causes of stress identified by scholarly studies are problems at work, financial issues, social pressure, and relationship difficulties.
• Reducing Stress in Filipino Care Workers in Japan The source will help to explain psychological stressors for Filipino caregivers in Japan and possible ways of improving their experiences.
• Stress and Performance in the Sport Constructive stress is necessary for good mental and physical health. This article will explain the positive and negative pre-performance stressors in sports.
• Stress Tolerance: New Challenges for Millennial College Students College with its numerous assignments, hectic schedule, and exams requiring total commitment and concentration is more or less stressful for everyone who enters tertiary education.
• Stress and Happiness in Personal Experience The notion of happiness is quite philosophical and sometimes can be complicated yet it refers to a feeling and a state of partial or complete pleasure.
• The Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Case Study The post-traumatic stress disorder is a health condition the patient struggles with when having faced a stressful experience that later affects one’s cognitive-behavioral patterns.
• Biopsychosocial Factors of Stress Stress is a biopsychosocial phenomenon, as it affects a person’s physical well-being, emotional stability, and social interactions.
• Impact of Physical Exercise on Anxiety and Stress This study aims to demonstrate how vulnerable persons who experience stress and anxiety are, and how physical exercise and stress are related.
• Impact of Job Stress on Employee Work-Life Balance Postmodern society is anchored on the emphasis on work to achieve a fulfilling life. This review analyses the center of work-life balance.
• Organizational Stress Management: Why It Is Important The concept of stress management, which goes side by side with the problem of coping with stress in the workplace, is now becoming more common.
• Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction The purpose of this work is to investigate one of the mindfulness-based interventions, mindfulness-based stress reduction, and evaluate its efficiency.
• Stress Level and Work in Team The study is focused on determining differences in people’s productivity, affecting stress levels and attitudes toward working in teams.
• Stress Management and Lifestyle Modification The continued strain on the body from strain over time may lead to serious health problems such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and mental disorders like depression and anxiety.
• Benefits of Stress Management and Obstacles of Implementation Stress management strategies are a focal point for people working in the health industry. They are among the most exposed to high levels of stress.
• Bullying and Work-Related Stress in the Irish Workplace One of the best analyses of relationships between workplace stress and bullying has been done in the research study called “Bullying and Work-Related Stress in the Irish Workplace.”
• Stress Management in the Work Environment Stress has a severe negative effect on the mental and physical health of employees, and the boss should provide an appropriate system of protection.
• Stress and Time Management The data is supported by Svedberg’s current information that highlights that an individual can lower the level of anxiety when there is a possibility of sound sleep.
• Stress: Causes and Possible Consequences This article has attempted to show that even what we consider to be “minor anomalies” or diseases can be the root cause of stress.
• Stress and Emotional Management While the stress management outlined above has been shown to work on reducing stress, they are only guidelines and cannot work positively on everybody.
• Causes and Management of Stress The paper, defines what stress is, looks on the kinds of biological stress. Stress can be defined as failure of body to respond to demand made on it.
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Veterans Both in the military and civilian life, people encounter traumatic occurrences that challenge their perception of the world or themselves.
• Nurses Stress Reduction Strategies This paper is an implementation plan to eliminate or lessen nurse stress and burnout. The proposed solution entails stress reduction strategies.
• Psychological Therapy of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a distressing condition that leads to brain disturbance due to exposure to dreadful situations.
• Correctional Officer Stress: A Phenomenological Study The current study seeks to expand existing knowledge about the stress of correctional officers. An interview was conducted within the qualitative phenomenological research design.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder’s Treatment The paper present bibliography which review different psychotherapy interventions that can be applied in treating Post Traumatic Stress Disorder among adults.
• Occupational Stress Management in Healthcare Occupational stress is one of the most widespread problems that employees face at the workplace. This paper discusses occupational stress in healthcare and its management.
• Case Study for Agnes: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder According to the case scenario, Agnes is most certainly suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). She was traumatized by the previous account of the storm.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Military Militants experience a significant number of traumatic events that subject them to PTSD. The culture of the military plays a significant role in promoting veteran mental wellness.
• Stress in Law: Reasons and Solutions The paper identifies the factors that result in stress by law enforcers and proposes ways in which the stress and by extension the negative effects it brings, can be mitigated.
• The Chronic Psychological Stress It is proven that chronic psychological stress causes diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, coronary heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.
• Improving Stress Resistance in Agricultural Crops The essay suggests that stress-resistant crops are needed to ensure yield stability under stress conditions and to minimize the environmental impacts of crop production.
• Article Synthesis: “Stress” by Simon The effect of stress on the body is disturbing and could affect people in many ways. Pronounced stress initiates speedy changes throughout the body.
• Combat Stress and Operational Stress Management Combat and operational stress is emotional and physiological stress which is a direct result of dangers faced in combat or the mere tension of being in combat.
• Strategies in Stress Management My chosen technique is a unique combination of standing and stretching exercises. There is a need to establish a practice or a set of activities that can help the body fight stress and its ill-effects.
• Stress-Reducing Measures and Activities To reduce the negative effects of stress, every individual must try to identify stress-reducing activities, it being one of the primary remedies of dealing with stress.
• Alertness, Relaxation, and Stress Correlation This essay explores the correlation between high alpha levels in brains and their states of relaxedness and alertness; the development of low alpha levels in stressful conditions.
• Stress in the Military A study conducted by the Careercast.com in 2013 indicated that the military working environment was characterized by numerous stressors.
• The Tibetan Culture Views on Stress Management This paper seeks to analyze the Tibetan culture with respect to stress and the mind coupled with looking at various theoretical postulations on the issue. The management of fear will be covered.
• Stress and Cognitive Appraisal Cognitive appraisal means the internal interpretation that a person gives to external changes. The role of cognitive appraisal in stress can be significant.
• Stress: Causes and Consequences from a Sociological Perspective The sociological analysis of stress and the underlying causes of it, as well as its devastating effects, is required as a tool for vulnerable groups.
• Theories in Epidemiology. Stress and Heart Disease The impact of stress on heart diseases is highly controversial among scientists. Various studies support the hypothesis that stress is highly associated with heart disease.
• Community Based Stress Management Programs and Interventions Organizations with supportive supervisors’ processes are highly productive. Studies with the best results came from organizations that embrace effective leadership principles.
• Corrections Officers Stress: Causes and Outcomes This paper analyses the effective ways that can be implemented by the administrators for the prevention and treatment of the stress affecting correction officers.
• “Work Stress Among Newly Graduated Nurses” by Blomberg The article by Blomberg et al. is an experimental cross-sectional comparative study aimed to investigate occupational stress among newly graduated nurses.
• My Experiences Handling Stress at High School The most challenging part of implementing my program was self-control. It can be very tempting to “cheat” and reward yourself without making an actual effort.
• Stress Management: The Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale To stay healthy, stress must be avoided at different levels, and only an integrated approach will allow people to become genuinely confident and calm.
• Stress Management: Personal Stress Techniques Stress is any reaction of the human body when a demand that is likely to cause pressure to it is made usually it results in tension and conflict of the mind and body as a whole.
• Stress Effects and Management Report Stress is the feeling which results from situations that are overwhelming which the body or mind are not used to. When someone is under stress, a feeling of insecurity is evident.
• Relationship Between Critical Thinking, Problem-Solving, Decision-Making, and Stress Management in Nursing In nursing practice, many care providers and leaders have to encounter high-stress levels due to the nature of their work.
• Breathe: Stress Management for Nurses Program The approaches to the problem of burnouts and similar mental health issues in nurses operating in the staff shortage settings have an impressive history in nursing literature.
• Shortage-Related Stress in Nursing Workforce The problem of shortages in nursing and among nurse practitioners has been discussed by the public, the media, policymakers, and nurse practitioners for more than ten years now.
• Stress and Coping: Social Support and Social Ties In this paper, the notions of social ties and social support will be defined, and how social support might depend on the cultural background a person has will be discussed.
• How Universities Fail to Help Students Deal with Stress Numerous research studies have found out that a certain amount of stress is inevitable when students make a transition from high school to university.
• Anxiety, Depression, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Currently, many people experience anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder that affect their general health.
• Antisocial Personality Disorder and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder The patient has an antisocial personality disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder owing to the experience of the brutal murder of his mother at a tender age.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder During and After World War I The paper examines the causes and manifestations of PTSD during and after World War I, despite the absence of this term at that time, and how diagnosis and treatment are made.
• Maternal Stress in Pregnancy: Effects on Fetal Development The study seeks to find out if the development of the nervous system of the fetus is closely influenced by the psychological wellbeing of the mother.
• Midlife Crisis and Its Effect on Women’s Stress This paper aims to focus on the psychological problem of stress among this section of the population, its effects on women, and how it can be solved.
• Strain-Stress Shielding in the Proximal Tibia of a Stemmed Knee Prosthesis In this paper, we review work that has been done about stress shielding and knee prosthesis, compare them and outline the recommendations given in these papers.
• Research on Stress Levels During Scheduled Sleep Behavior Different studies have revealed that there are several strategies used to reduce stress. Most scholars agree that there is a relationship between sleep and stress.
• Stress Consequences, Causes, and Further Actions There are physiological, mental, and emotional signs of stress, and whenever signs of one or more of such symptoms are observed, the individual should take quick remedial measures.
• Case Study: Constant Stress The case study analysis depicts Michael’s stress sufferings at work; being a 40 year old experienced airline pilot, the man completely devoted himself to his work.
• Stress Reduction Programs for Pregnant Women Mental distress during pregnancy is very common, and it might lead to a wide range of negative consequences for women and their children.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Life Quality The paper revolves around post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), its primary symptoms, consequences, and approaches to treatment aimed at the improvement of patients’ lives.
• Work Stress and Burnout Among Nurses The paper reviews the concept of continuing quality improvement, the role of nurses in the process of CQI, and the relations between CQI, work stress, and burnout.
• Work-Related Stress Management in Professional Nurses The PICOT statement formulated within the frame of the research project refers to implementing strategies aimed at reducing work-related stress.
• “Job Stress and Burnout in Hospital Employees” by Chou et al. The work of health professionals is stressful as they have to react to the requirements of patients and their family members urgently, and any medical flaw can be costly.
• Stress Influence in Emergency Nursing Working as a nurse in emergency departments is particularly stressful, as patients who are there need urgent medical assistance or they can die.
• Social Workers’ Benefits from Stress Management This essay evaluates the benefits for social workers from the stress management. They involve finances, security, personal health, and communities without violence.
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Concept Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PSTD), a type of anxiety disorders, is a mental health condition that occurs as a result of terrifying, distressing or stressful events.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Diagnosis People who work in risky environments have a high propensity of developing PTSD than their counterparts in safer working environments.
• The Role of Stress Hormones: Physiology The correct care for youngsters from conception onwards guarantees that the child’s brain develops healthily and to its maximum potential.
• Workplace Stress: Impact on Employee Health and Productivity Workplace stress refers to harmful psychological and physical outcomes occurring when job requirements mismatch with workers’ needs, resources, and capacities.
• Stress Response Plan for Massachusetts Respondent’s stress is one of the unpleasant consequences of emergency events. People who are the first to experience such crises, feel psychological and physical pressure.
• Parents With Pediatric Terminal Patients: Stress Management Certain family-centered care principles should be used by healthcare providers in order to mitigate parental stress in the situations where their child battles terminal illness.
• Treatment Options for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Using psychological interventions as treatment is a productive tool that is used everywhere. Trauma-focused therapy has reduced PTSD symptoms.
• Why Women Experience Stress Throughout Life Females may experience more significant difficulties and anxiety as they age than individuals previously believed.
• Hypnotherapy in the Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder refers to a behavioral disorder that occurs as a result of being subject to a shocking event or situation.
• Videogames & Stress Level Reduction Among Students To deal with stress, students do activities that include video games. Video games became available due to technological advances in recent decades.
• Racism, Ethnoviolence, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder The paper states that experiencing racism can induce post-traumatic stress disorder. Most people do not draw a link between racism and PTSD.
• Stress Reduction Education Targeting the Mental Health Patients with mental health illnesses such as stress and related disorders need to be taught approaches to reduce the latter.
• Epidemiology of Stress in the United Kingdom This report explores the context and current situation related to the prevalence, morbidity, and epidemiology of stress in the UK.
• Stress Management Memo: Creative Arts Interventions Research and analysis of current scientific research and previous practice experience show several strategies for stress control.
• Stress in Pregnant Women Due to COVID-19 Pandemic Pregnancy is a particularly crucial time for the mental health of a woman. The high levels of stress have been linked to exposure to the pandemic.
• Stress and Stress Management Discussion It is crucial to distinguish acute and chronic stress and the risk factors associated with them to ensure timely intervention to manage stress and prevent long-term damage.
• Impacts of Stress of Low Income on the Risk of Depression in Children Socioeconomic hardships lead to a decline in the quality of parenting and the development of psychological and behavioral problems in children.
• Physiology of Stress and Its Effects on Aging Process Assessment of the biological factors that influence anxiety and resilience might assist in identifying possible neurobiological systems as targets.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Critical Perspective Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a relatively common condition affecting individuals who have experienced severe trauma.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in a Raped Girl The patient has a strained connection with her cocaine-addicted mother, who has been emotionally and physically abusive to her since she was three years old.
• Stress and Anxiety and How to Cope With Them The research utilizes a reverse Stroop experiment to evaluate the mental performance of individuals when subjected to either up-regulation or down-regulation.
• Correctional Nursing Stress Theory of Adaptation and Resilience Correctional Nursing Stress Theory guides correctional nurses, improve their knowledge about stress, and help them manage stress with the help of adaptation and inner strength.
• Migration Crisis & Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Trump’s anti-migration actions have significantly affected the psychological state of the people striving to get protection from the US.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Substance Addiction Treatment The paper presents the case study of a client struggling with PTSD and substance addiction, including disposition, suggested treatment protocol, and resources for treatment.
• Psychological Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Traumatized people are more likely to acquire PTSD, a condition in which the victim’s consciousness is dominated by the recollection of the traumatic incident.
• Ways To Cope Emotions and Stress There are several theories on how people experience emotions that have been put forward throughout the years, all attributing emotions to separate causes.
• Oncology: Caregiving Burden, Stress, and Health Effects The illness selected for this paper is cancer, which is a serious disease that sometimes can also be chronic. Caring for cancer patients is difficult.
• Assessing and Treating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders The paper discusses the treatment of PTSD and the pharmacokinetics of various antidepressants such as fluoxetine, citalopram, paroxetine, and sertraline.
• Discussion of Stress Response in Human The article examines the topic of stress response in humans, and attempt to find an answer to people having to endure traumatic events.
• Stress and Its Negative Influence on Health Current research explores the negative influences of stress on health, accenting neurological, cardiovascular, and immune systems dangers.
• Stress Management on the Job The paper discusses principles in the corporate culture, which help combat stress among employees to bring more value to the company.
• Stress Management Program for Health Workers The paper proposed to use the stress management program for the health workers based on the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) technique.
• Stress at the Workplace: Controlling and Preventing Stress at the workplace is inevitable because of workers’ dynamism. Distress in an employment environment can be related or not linked to the job.
• Preventing Workplace Stress: Effective Methods Effective methods of preventing stress in the workplace will help to avoid unpleasant consequences. This paper aims to discuss such methods.
• Navigating PTSD: Diagnostic Approaches and Tools Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a serious mental health condition that needs treatment due to its potential negative implications.
• Combating Stress: Methods for Combating Stress General stress in student life can be caused by anxiety about the future, heavy learning burden, exams, and other factors. This paper discusses methods for combating stress.
• Personal Management Plans: Managing Stress, Nutrition This paper discusses personal management plans: Managing stress, fitness, nutrition, plans for disease prevention, and getting life in order in preparation for dying.
• Prevalence of Combat Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Among Veterans The paper argues combative nature of military personnel contributes to the Post-traumatic Stress disorder experienced by officers.
• Psychophysiological Aspects of Stress Stress has become a serious issue, especially considering the way of life of an average person in the contemporary world, which elevates different disorders.
• Stress at the Workplace and Strategies of Its Reduction Job stress has become a growing concern among managers and supervisors in organizations. This is because of the adverse effects on both employees and the company.
• Post-traumatic Stress and Growth Post-traumatic growth (PTG) refers to positive changes that a person makes after experiencing an extremely disturbing event.
• Stress and Somatic Symptoms: Healing Environment In summary, a healing environment is vital for modern people since they live in conditions that subject that to stress daily.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Various Populations In this paper, the authors explore the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder among different populations. They compare this prevalence between genders and veterans.
• Anxiety and Stress Affect Pain Relief The study aims to reduce pain and monitor patient response in related areas such as relaxation, anxiety. The role of massage in the treatment of pain has been noted successfully.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Pharmacological Treatment Approved medications can help treat PTSD symptoms and improve patient outcomes. SSRIs, such as sertraline, have been shown to reduce anxiety and increase concentration.
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Characteristics Central Nervous System associated disorders represent one of the health issues globally. The description is aimed at highlighting research related to Posttraumatic stress disorder
• A Collaborative Stress Management Initiative for Mothers of Cancer Children The article explored the psychological stress experienced by mothers who have cancerous children. The research is current and relevant to contemporary health issues.
• PTSD: Coping Mechanisms and Recovery Paths The purpose of this paper is to discuss PTSD. Also, this paper introduces the assessment and factors associated with PTSD.
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Triggers, Clinical Manifestations, and Therapy Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental condition that originates from experiencing terrifying events and getting haunted by them long after they happened.
• Stress in Women Before and After Myocardial Infarction The study uses two interviews with women suffering an MI; interviews were taken in two different hospitals with a sample size of twenty and 14 respondents, before and after the MI.
• Stress in Nursing Practice Stress can be attributed to many factors in the nursing profession, the principal one being extended work schedules. In the medical field, such errors could be fatal.
• Mindful Meditation as Reducing College Students Stress The study answers the question of what is the reported effect of mindfulness meditation on reducing stress in teenage college students and its overall effectiveness.
• Investigating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Most people experience traumatic events during their lifetime. For the first time, the phenomenon of post-traumatic stress disorder was examined among the participants of the wars
• The Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Many people suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder, and it is very important to know more about its symptoms and treatment.
• Utilization and Effectiveness of Coping Strategies in Job-Related Stress among Nurses Nursing is a discipline that is constantly evolving and requires professionals to use their skills and evidence-based practices to achieve good outcomes in their responsibilities.
• Incidence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder After Motor Vehicle Accidents In recent years, a global surge in the number of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occasioned by motor vehicle accidents has been witnessed in the United States of America.
• “Sources of Stress in Nursing Students” by Pulido This is a critique of the paper titled “Sources of stress in nursing students: a systematic review of quantitative studies” by three University of Jaen scholars.
• Coping Strategies in Job Related Stress in Nurses Job-related stress among nurses is an issue that has raised massive concern among contemporary scholars. Nurses are forced to undergo very traumatizing environmental factors.
• Trends and Issues in Nursing: Workload Stress Stress at the employment place reduces the competence of the employee. In nursing workplace, stress results in deprived service delivery and might affect the fitness of the patient.
• Reducing Stress in Student Nurses: Article Critique In Galbraith and Brown’s quantitative systematic review, “Assessing the intervention effectiveness for reducing stress in student nurses,” the aim is clearly articulated.
• Issue of Stress in Nursing Practice The issues of stress caused by workplace violence in nursing practice require special consideration because of their direct relation to the quality of health care services.
• How Depression and Stress in College Have Helped Me Be a Better and Stronger Person?
• How Are Effective Non-monetary Incentives in Relieving Stress?
• How Does Stress Affect Our Health?
• What Are the Causes of Stress at Work?
• How Differently Men and Women Cope With Stress at Work?
• How Does Stress Affect the Immune System?
• What is Post-traumatic Stress Disorder?
• What Triggers Stress and the Importance of Reducing It?
• What Works Stress Management?
• What Are the Health and Emotional Implications of Stress?
• How Different Approaches and Power of Leadership Manage Organizational Stress?
• What Are the Best Treatments for the Posttraumatic Stress Disorders in Veterans?
• How Does Stress Affect Child Development?
• How Ethnic Identity Mediates Acculturation Stress Depending?
• What Are the Causes of School-Related Stress in Student-Athletes?
• How Exercise Helps Reduce Stress?
• How Does Stress Affect the Human Body?
• How Does Burn Out Differ From Stress?
• What Are the Causes and Effects of Students’ Stress?
• What Are the Negative Effects of Stress?
• How Does Blood Pressure Relate to the Level of Stress?
• How Does Stress Affect One‘s Health?
• How Does Stress Make Students Struggle?
• What Are the Causes of Stress for Teenagers?
• How Does Stress Affect Appetite?
• How Does Chronic Stress Affect the Body?
• How Does Stress Affect College Students?
• How Does Stress Help Facilitate Potential Positive?
• How Does the Stress Affect Our Lives?
• How Does Stress Affect a Student’s Life?
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Approaches and Symptoms
• Therapeutic Massage and the Reduction of Overall Stress and Anxiety
• Article Summary “Maternal Stress and Sensitivity: Moderating Effect of Positive Affect”
• Stress, Adaptation, Coping Methods & Strategies
• Airport Security Environment and Passenger Stress
• The Influence of the Stress on Our Health: How To Cope With Stress
• Janet Tomiyama’s “Stress and Obesity” Summary
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Risk Factors
• Dealing With Procrastination: Stress-Related Techniques
• Stress and Its Influence Employees’ Well-Being
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Diagnostic Categorization
• Stress Affecting First-Year Students
• Analysis of Pre-Conditions and Ways for Reducing the Stress
• Organizational Problems: Stress and Burnout of Employees
• Stress Has Become One of the Most Serious Health Issues
• Stress and Its Effects at the Workplace and Home
• Combat Fatigue or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Soldiers
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and Causes
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Combat Veterans
• Implications of Educational Attainment on Stress Level in Job
• Psychology. Stress Management Approaches
• Impact of Stress on Performance
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Children
• Strategies of Preventing Stress
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Children After Tsunami
• Psychological Stress and Nicotine Intake
• “Depression and Ways of Coping With Stress” by Orzechowska et al.
• Relationship Between Stress and Nicotine Intake in Middle Age Adults
• Nursing Stress Solutions: Benefits and Support
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Diagnosis and Tratment
• Individuals With Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Training, Stress and Performance: Study Findings
• Holmes & Rahe Stress Inventory and Management
• Stress After Leaving Home in Students
• New Life and Stress Factors at High School
• Breast Cancer and Stress Heightening
• The Stress-Buffering Hypothesis Test in a Mexican Sample
• Stress Control Measures to Prevent Nursing Burnout
• The Problem of Nursing Stress
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Definition and Diagnosis
• Humour and Stress in Male and Female Students
• Stress Migraine in Women After Menopause
• Stress Reduction in Healthcare Students
• Stress on Law Enforcement Officers and Available Programs
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Substance Use
• Ontario Post Traumatic Stress Legislation for Employees
• Emotion Perception and Gender Factor in Stress
• Stress as a Fundamental Concept for Nursing
• Stress Control Strategies for Nurses
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Systemic Psychotherapy
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Diagnostics
• Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Stress and Burnout Among Nurses
• Cumulative Career Traumatic Stress: Law Enforcement
• The Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Anti-Stress Workplace Interventions for Nurses
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Group Therapy
• Stress-Coping Strategies in Nurses
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Treatment Centers
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Case Analysis
• Workplace Stress Control Among Nurses
• “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” by Bisson et al.
• Women’s Stress Caused by Social Networks
• Veterans’ Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: How a Game Can Help?
• Mitigate Stress Exercise Program at the Work
• Handling Cultural Stress in the United Arab Emirates
• Management of Organizational Stress: Positive or Negative?
• Stress and Wellness – Psychology
• Stress Impacts on Psychological and Physiological Health
• Psychology Issues: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Psychological Treatment: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• What Is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder?
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Cognitive Therapy
• Potential of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy in the Treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Psychology Issues: Stress Management Skills

Cite this post

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 261 Stress Topics & Research Questions. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/stress-essay-topics/

"261 Stress Topics & Research Questions." StudyCorgi , 9 Sept. 2021, studycorgi.com/ideas/stress-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2021) '261 Stress Topics & Research Questions'. 9 September.

1. StudyCorgi . "261 Stress Topics & Research Questions." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/stress-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "261 Stress Topics & Research Questions." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/stress-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "261 Stress Topics & Research Questions." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/stress-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Stress were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 21, 2024 .

Appointments at Mayo Clinic

• Stress management

Positive thinking: Stop negative self-talk to reduce stress

Positive thinking helps with stress management and can even improve your health. Practice overcoming negative self-talk with examples provided.

Is your glass half-empty or half-full? How you answer this age-old question about positive thinking may reflect your outlook on life, your attitude toward yourself, and whether you're optimistic or pessimistic — and it may even affect your health.

Indeed, some studies show that personality traits such as optimism and pessimism can affect many areas of your health and well-being. The positive thinking that usually comes with optimism is a key part of effective stress management. And effective stress management is associated with many health benefits. If you tend to be pessimistic, don't despair — you can learn positive thinking skills.

Understanding positive thinking and self-talk

Positive thinking doesn't mean that you ignore life's less pleasant situations. Positive thinking just means that you approach unpleasantness in a more positive and productive way. You think the best is going to happen, not the worst.

Positive thinking often starts with self-talk. Self-talk is the endless stream of unspoken thoughts that run through your head. These automatic thoughts can be positive or negative. Some of your self-talk comes from logic and reason. Other self-talk may arise from misconceptions that you create because of lack of information or expectations due to preconceived ideas of what may happen.

If the thoughts that run through your head are mostly negative, your outlook on life is more likely pessimistic. If your thoughts are mostly positive, you're likely an optimist — someone who practices positive thinking.

The health benefits of positive thinking

Researchers continue to explore the effects of positive thinking and optimism on health. Health benefits that positive thinking may provide include:

• Increased life span
• Lower rates of depression
• Lower levels of distress and pain
• Greater resistance to illnesses
• Better psychological and physical well-being
• Better cardiovascular health and reduced risk of death from cardiovascular disease and stroke
• Reduced risk of death from cancer
• Reduced risk of death from respiratory conditions
• Reduced risk of death from infections
• Better coping skills during hardships and times of stress

It's unclear why people who engage in positive thinking experience these health benefits. One theory is that having a positive outlook enables you to cope better with stressful situations, which reduces the harmful health effects of stress on your body.

It's also thought that positive and optimistic people tend to live healthier lifestyles — they get more physical activity, follow a healthier diet, and don't smoke or drink alcohol in excess.

Identifying negative thinking

Not sure if your self-talk is positive or negative? Some common forms of negative self-talk include:

• Filtering. You magnify the negative aspects of a situation and filter out all the positive ones. For example, you had a great day at work. You completed your tasks ahead of time and were complimented for doing a speedy and thorough job. That evening, you focus only on your plan to do even more tasks and forget about the compliments you received.
• Personalizing. When something bad occurs, you automatically blame yourself. For example, you hear that an evening out with friends is canceled, and you assume that the change in plans is because no one wanted to be around you.
• Catastrophizing. You automatically anticipate the worst without facts that the worse will happen. The drive-through coffee shop gets your order wrong, and then you think that the rest of your day will be a disaster.
• Blaming. You try to say someone else is responsible for what happened to you instead of yourself. You avoid being responsible for your thoughts and feelings.
• Saying you "should" do something. You think of all the things you think you should do and blame yourself for not doing them.
• Magnifying. You make a big deal out of minor problems.
• Perfectionism. Keeping impossible standards and trying to be more perfect sets yourself up for failure.
• Polarizing. You see things only as either good or bad. There is no middle ground.

Focusing on positive thinking

You can learn to turn negative thinking into positive thinking. The process is simple, but it does take time and practice — you're creating a new habit, after all. Following are some ways to think and behave in a more positive and optimistic way:

• Identify areas to change. If you want to become more optimistic and engage in more positive thinking, first identify areas of your life that you usually think negatively about, whether it's work, your daily commute, life changes or a relationship. You can start small by focusing on one area to approach in a more positive way. Think of a positive thought to manage your stress instead of a negative one.
• Check yourself. Periodically during the day, stop and evaluate what you're thinking. If you find that your thoughts are mainly negative, try to find a way to put a positive spin on them.
• Be open to humor. Give yourself permission to smile or laugh, especially during difficult times. Seek humor in everyday happenings. When you can laugh at life, you feel less stressed.
• Follow a healthy lifestyle. Aim to exercise for about 30 minutes on most days of the week. You can also break it up into 5- or 10-minute chunks of time during the day. Exercise can positively affect mood and reduce stress. Follow a healthy diet to fuel your mind and body. Get enough sleep. And learn techniques to manage stress.
• Surround yourself with positive people. Make sure those in your life are positive, supportive people you can depend on to give helpful advice and feedback. Negative people may increase your stress level and make you doubt your ability to manage stress in healthy ways.
• Practice positive self-talk. Start by following one simple rule: Don't say anything to yourself that you wouldn't say to anyone else. Be gentle and encouraging with yourself. If a negative thought enters your mind, evaluate it rationally and respond with affirmations of what is good about you. Think about things you're thankful for in your life.

Here are some examples of negative self-talk and how you can apply a positive thinking twist to them:

Practicing positive thinking every day

If you tend to have a negative outlook, don't expect to become an optimist overnight. But with practice, eventually your self-talk will contain less self-criticism and more self-acceptance. You may also become less critical of the world around you.

When your state of mind is generally optimistic, you're better able to handle everyday stress in a more constructive way. That ability may contribute to the widely observed health benefits of positive thinking.

There is a problem with information submitted for this request. Review/update the information highlighted below and resubmit the form.

From Mayo Clinic to your inbox

Sign up for free and stay up to date on research advancements, health tips, current health topics, and expertise on managing health. Click here for an email preview.

Error Email field is required

Error Include a valid email address

To provide you with the most relevant and helpful information, and understand which information is beneficial, we may combine your email and website usage information with other information we have about you. If you are a Mayo Clinic patient, this could include protected health information. If we combine this information with your protected health information, we will treat all of that information as protected health information and will only use or disclose that information as set forth in our notice of privacy practices. You may opt-out of email communications at any time by clicking on the unsubscribe link in the e-mail.

Thank you for subscribing!

You'll soon start receiving the latest Mayo Clinic health information you requested in your inbox.

Sorry something went wrong with your subscription

Please, try again in a couple of minutes

• Forte AJ, et al. The impact of optimism on cancer-related and postsurgical cancer pain: A systematic review. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 2021; doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2021.09.008.
• Rosenfeld AJ. The neuroscience of happiness and well-being. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2019;28:137.
• Kim ES, et al. Optimism and cause-specific mortality: A prospective cohort study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2016; doi:10.1093/aje/kww182.
• Amonoo HL, et al. Is optimism a protective factor for cardiovascular disease? Current Cardiology Reports. 2021; doi:10.1007/s11886-021-01590-4.
• Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. 2nd ed. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://health.gov/paguidelines/second-edition. Accessed Oct. 20, 2021.
• Seaward BL. Essentials of Managing Stress. 4th ed. Burlington, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2021.
• Seaward BL. Cognitive restructuring: Reframing. Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies for Health and Well-Being. 8th ed. Burlington, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2018.
• Olpin M, et al. Stress Management for Life. 5th ed. Cengage Learning; 2020.
• A very happy brain
• Being assertive
• Bridge pose
• Caregiver stress
• Cat/cow pose
• Child's pose
• COVID-19 and your mental health
• Does stress make rheumatoid arthritis worse?
• Downward-facing dog
• Ease stress to reduce eczema symptoms
• Ease stress to reduce your psoriasis flares
• Forgiveness
• Job burnout
• Learn to reduce stress through mindful living
• Manage stress to improve psoriatic arthritis symptoms
• Mayo Clinic Minute: Meditation is good medicine
• Mountain pose
• New School Anxiety
• Seated spinal twist
• Standing forward bend
• Stress and high blood pressure
• Stress relief from laughter
• Stress relievers
• Support groups
• Tips for easing stress when you have Crohn's disease

Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.

• Opportunities

Mayo Clinic Press

Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic Press .

• Mayo Clinic on Incontinence - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic on Incontinence
• The Essential Diabetes Book - Mayo Clinic Press The Essential Diabetes Book
• Mayo Clinic on Hearing and Balance - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic on Hearing and Balance
• FREE Mayo Clinic Diet Assessment - Mayo Clinic Press FREE Mayo Clinic Diet Assessment
• Mayo Clinic Health Letter - FREE book - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic Health Letter - FREE book
• Healthy Lifestyle
• Positive thinking Stop negative self-talk to reduce stress

We’re transforming healthcare

Make a gift now and help create new and better solutions for more than 1.3 million patients who turn to Mayo Clinic each year.

420 Stress Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

To write a stress essay, you’ll need a good idea to start your research and writing process. We have some for you to check.

📑 Aspects to Cover in a Stress Essay

🏆 best stress topic ideas & essay examples, 🥇 most interesting stress topics to write about, 🎓 simple & easy stress essay topics, 📌 research titles about stress, 👍 good stress essay topics, 💡 interesting topics to write about stress, ❓ stress research questions.

As a student, you’re likely familiar with the subject already. Yet, you may struggle to choose between composing about stress management or mental health issues. That’s why our team has prepared this list of stress essay topics. Look through them to consider every possible title and pick the most suitable one.

Stress has become one of the most common problem individuals experience today. It is possible to say that everyone has felt stressed out at least once in their life.

Stress essays are challenging and engaging assignments that can help students to learn more about the issue. We are here to help you write an outstanding essay on stress.

Let us start by choosing the subject for your paper. We would suggest choosing one of the following stress essay topics and titles:

• Stress management techniques and their significance

The effects of stress on the body

• How bullying increases stress among students
• Causes and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (you can choose another mental health disorder, too)
• Benefits of leisure activities to reduce the level of stress
• The link between nutrition and stress
• Consequences of workplace stress
• Common causes of stress among students

Note that you can select one of the other stress essay titles, too. You can search for them online. Remember to only use online examples as an inspiration for your paper and avoid copying the information you will find.

Once you have chosen one of the topics, you are ready to work on your outstanding essay. Here are the aspects you should cover in your paper on stress:

• Think about what you already know about the subject you had selected. Check out stress essay examples online if you are not sure that your topic is relevant. Research the information about the issue, using credible sources (Wikipedia is not one of them!).
• Select the sources that you cite in your paper. The general rule is that you should use peer-reviewed articles and scholarly books. Ask your professor about the sources in advance.
• A well-developed stress essay outline is important. Include an introductory paragraph, several body paragraphs (we would recommend writing at least three), and a conclusion.
• Think about the purpose of your paper. Do you want to help the reader to minimize stress? Should your essay provide statistical data? Do you want to address workplace stress or school-related stress? Consider these questions while working on the essay.

A thesis statement is a must. Generally, it should be present in the last sentence of your introduction. Here is how a thesis can look like:

Nutrition is directly linked to the level of stress in an individual. / Workplace stress can lead to depression among employees.

• Define stress. Provide a dictionary definition of stress or select one from the articles you have studied. Your reader should understand the concept of stress clearly. Remember that there are different types of stress based on its causes.
• Discuss the consequences of stress, referring to the sources you have selected. Address the physical and emotional outcomes of stress.
• Discuss the potential ways of dealing with stress. According to the purpose of your paper, address one or several methods in detail. What are the positive changes an individual can feel after these interventions? Reflect on this question, too.
• Remember to support your claims with evidence from the sources you have studied. Cite the literature properly using the citation style guide.
• Your concluding paragraph should restate the main arguments of the paper. Avoid adding new information or in-text citations in this section.

Please feel free to analyze our free samples and get the best ideas for your essay!

• Time Management and Its Effect in Reducing Stress among Students One of the causes of stress among high school students and college students is the difficulty in interacting with a completely new set of students and an even larger social group within the body of […]
• Effects of Stress on Human Health There are numerous theories and researches on stress and health, they all agree that stress has an adverse effect on human health; the statement goes “a stressed man is an unhealthy man”.
• How to Manage Stress at Work Essay Work stress is one of the ailments that are acknowledged worldwide to be affecting the healthiness of the organization and the health or workers.
• Stress Among College Students: Causes, Effects and Overcomes Due to stress, college students may experience such adverse outcomes as the decreased levels of cognitive functioning, the impaired ability to study, and, consequently, lower academic performance.
• Stress Management While undertaking the survey on management of stress in organizations, I came to realize that the sources of stress to employees are many and vary from one employee to another.
• Factors and Consequences of a Plane Crash: Traumatic Stress The effects from air crash are determined by among other things, the cause of the crash, the altitude and its speed at the time of crash.
• How to Cope with Stress Essay The identification of the stressor also opens a window for an individual to explore other adaptation methods, which can be of help in the future such as avoidance.
• Yoga for Stress Management For instance, Karma yoga, which is one of Yoga types, aids in controlling stress through the development of appropriate attitudes in relation to work environment coupled with enhancing the ability to respond positively to professional […]
• How to Beat Stress? Stress seems to follow us everywhere and every minute, so that it is not always possible for people to find the time and think of the ways to beat stress and live quietly with no […]
• Stress: Definition and Different Types of Stress Many believe that individual or team performance is susceptible to the effects of stress as there is a requirement for teams to maintain acceptable performance.
• Work Stress and Its Effects on Individuals Managers of leading companies have long realized that this phenomenon is dangerous to both employees and companies, and one of their priorities is to remove the causes of work stress and or at least minimize […]
• Teen Stress: How to Help Them Manage It? The physiologic changes of the body, the first steps are taken in search of the individuality, examinations, and tests in school or college, the pressure from the parent’s side, the issues in the relationships, diffidence, […]
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Case Conceptualization Samuel, an 8-year-old black male, lives in an adopted white family consisting of the father, incarcerated for domestic violence charges, the mother, the primary caretaker and the only home provider, and the older sibling.
• Frustration and Stress Managing The stress that is a result of waiting and anticipation is a kind of stress that can be controlled. Humor is one of the many forms that can be used to blow up stress.
• Working Conditions That Lead to Stress at Amazon For example, among the methods for evaluating the efficiency of warehouse employees is the indicator of the number of processed packages per hour.
• Pre-Stressed Concrete The aim of this paper is to discuss the historical developments of pre-stressed concrete, the basic concepts of pre-stressed concrete, and the manufacturing of the pre-stressed concrete.
• Comparison of Stress Level Among Traditional Learning and Online Learning College Students The distance learners have been perceived to be enjoying a suitable environment of learning as opposed to the traditional classroom learners who experience high levels of stress.
• How Does Stress Affect the Body? Especially after the pandemic of COVID-19 has made the levels of stress in people worldwide skyrocket, the significance of studying the levels of stress on the human body has grown tremendously.
• Emotions, Stress and Ways to Cope with Them This means that strong emotions will trigger complex brain patterns and physiological responses due to the nature of hormones the body releases.
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorders: Psychological Assessment PTSD was adopted by experts in the third revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders to replace terms like “shell shock, nervous shock, and combat fatigue” that described the response to traumatic […]
• Academic Stress and Its Impact on Teenagers Another possible solution is raising awareness about the harms of stress to human health to educate students and their parents on the risks associated with stress.
• Improving Stress Resistance in Agricultural Crops The biotechnology involved in producing such crops faces many difficulties and there are a lot of considerations of the methods used to improve the crop’s resistance that need to be assessed.
• Exam Stress: Effective Management It is important for a child to get enough rest for the relaxation of the mind and body. In line with Hemmings, it is important for parents to analyze the mood of a child who […]
• Stress: causes and effects This is due to the research methods used in the process of analyzing and finding solutions to the global psychological challenges and problems.
• Acute Stress and Attachment Theory At the point of stress, the person will feel vulnerable or in danger and will need something to offer them security.
• People Should Consider Owning a Pet Because Doing So Can Relieve Stress These are great techniques, but the issue of having a pet as a best friend is unique and one of the recently discovered best practices of relieving work-related strains or stress.
• Understanding and Addressing Family Stress: Parental Responses and Impact on Children The spousal relationship, employment, a lack of structure in the household, and psychological suffering all contribute to stress. They are regarded as potent mediators, and therefore, offending elders indicates disrespecting the father and may lead […]
• Transactional Model of Stress and Coping in Intravenous Drug Users The purpose of this paper is to explain how the transactional model of stress and coping can be used to explain and assess the process of coping in a group of intravenous users at risk […]
• Stress in College Students, Its Causes and Effects Recognizing the cause and effect of stress in college students is an important aspect in college management and leadership as it will lead to a better understanding and development of the appropriate methods for intervention.
• The Relationship Between Self-Efficacy and Perceived Stress The last hypothesis is that there is a significant gender difference in the measures of self-efficacy, emotional intelligence, and perceived stress.
• The Problem of Workplace Stress Stress at work can be defined as “the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of a job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker”. A variety of […]
• Stress and Its Effects on Health The effects of stress on the cardiovascular system are explained in a review by Kivimaki & Steptoe to determine the impact of stress on the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases.
• Time and Stress Management for Better Productivity Procrastination is the forwarding of events that have to be done at a specific time to another time in the future.
• Stress and Deviance in College Education The other concept of the connection between deviance and stress is the stress factors. Management of stressors and the consequent effects on deviance among college students is yet to be investigated.
• Stress Management for Patients With Arthritis The study’s primary objectives were to substantiate the hypothesis of the relation between RA activity and stress and find the evidence for the basis of further decisions.
• Heat Stress in Flight Cockpits in the Desert Climate The results show that heat stress has physiological and psychological effects on aviators and that the cockpit had different sources of heat depending on the amake’ of the aircraft and the climate.
• Great Recession Impact on Workplace Stress The recent recession directly increased the level of stress that people experienced in the US and other countries in the following ways. The responses of businesses to the recession affected employees’ stress levels in the […]
• Stress related to workplace conditions Physical factors are those related to the ability of the body to function correctly in the work environment. Unpredictability and uncertainty of work situations are recognized as the main causes of stress in the workplace.
• Stress and Burnout in the Workplace This paper investigates the causes of stress and burnout in the workplace and suggests ways of minimizing stress and burnout. This will also result in stress and burnout, ultimately affecting the performance of the workers.
• Burnout Stress in Nursing Related With Lazarus and Folkman’s Theory According to Lazarus and Folkman, stress is the relationship existing between a person and the environment that compels the individual beyond resources and consequently endangering life. The theory of stress and coping helps individuals to […]
• Stress Management in Work Environment Leka, Griffiths and Cox are of the opinion that work related stress arises from the disparity between the demands of the job and the pressure on the employee on one hand and the mismatch between […]
• Stress and Burnout in Organizations Stress may refer to a state of psychological and physical discomfort of an individual, which is derivative of the interaction of external and biological factors. This paper discusses the organizations’ and workers’ challenges related to […]
• The Relationship between Stress Management and Criminal Recidivism Employment tends to increase the social capital of individuals, what is usually referred to as the networks of shared norms and values, which augments the access to the much-needed necessities.
• The Effect of Stress on the Immunity With an increase in the concentration of glucocorticoids, the thymus decreases in size and the formation of immune cells is disrupted.
• Stress Reduction Among College Students In conclusion, “Calm” is useful in mindfulness meditation to decrease stress and enhance self-compassion and mindfulness among students. However, there is constrained information regarding the palatability and effectiveness of delivering mindfulness meditation interventions through mobile […]
• ANOVA Analysis: The Influence of Physical Activity on Stress Levels The independent variable of this research is the degree of physical activity, while the independent variable is the level of stress.
• Stress Management in University Students The purpose of this systematic review is to investigate how stress management research techniques have changed in the PICOS framework and tendencies in stress levels and stress factors in the period of the last ten […]
• Stress Management in the Adulthood To effectively handle stress, an individual must be able to recognize the symptoms of stress and understand the possible cause which is easy as stress changes an individual’s happiness level, health, and behavior.
• Solutions for Students to Reduce Stress in University Life The six major solutions university students can apply in reducing stress include avoiding unnecessary stress, altering the situation, adapting to the stressor, accepting things that cannot be changed, making time for relaxation and fun and […]
• Stress Management in the Hospitality Industry In the event of such aspects the body tries to bring its system to a balance by building adequate energy as well as staying alert to face any possibility of the threat happening.
• Stresses of Being a Student Eustress is a form of stress which is normally thrilling and fun and a good example of this is when one is rushing to meet a deadline for an assignment submission.
• Social Impact of Stress in Childhood Stress in childhood can profoundly affect the cognitive and social development of a person. They can have a life-long impact on the behavior and identify of a person.
• Defining The Stress Response Across Scientific Disciplines To capture the varying levels of stress among different patients, Holmes and Rahe use percentages to explain the different degrees of a person’s stress level.
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: History and Symptoms This essay looks into the history, the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, and the individuals who are likely to suffer from this condition, psychological problems associated with this condition and the treatment of the disorder.
• Stress Among Criminal Justice Workers The criminal justice system is aware of the seriousness of the current problem and is trying to adapt to the emerging trend.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Substance Use Disorder The hypothesis of self-medication is one of the mechanisms that can expound the comorbidity between post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety illness.
• “Stress: How It Affects Us”: Critical Analysis As the name suggests, the article is related to stress and how it affects our day-to-day workings as well as our health in general.
• A Healthy Way To Cope With Stress According to Seaward, stress is “the experience of a perceived threat to one’s mental, physical or spiritual well-being, resulting from a series of physiological responses and adaptations”.
• Positive Psychology and Academic Stress With the rising cases of academic stress among students in the United States, the federal government has introduced positive psychology programs in schools across the country.
• Stress, Its Causes and Effects Relationship Understanding the diverse nature of the causes of the stress is crucial to the effective elimination of its effects, as these two factors heavily depend on each other.
• Anger, Stress and Aggression in Violent Offenders The intentions of the aggressor and the nature of the aggression offer the description of that form of aggression. Thus, understanding the relationship between anger, stress and aggression is important to the practitioners involved in […]
• Definition of Fiscal Stress The state government and local authorities may use different services they provide to the public to measure the level of fiscal stress.
• Problem Solving: What Can We Do About Our Stress? Since we can decide on what to believe or think, we posses the aptitude on how we can respond to the exigent events and circumstances in our daily lives.
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) as a Health Issue in the Society The treatment is aimed at relieving the symptoms that the patient seems to be experiencing so that the individual can be able to deal with the traumatic experience.
• Stress Reduction Programs in an Organization There are different approaches to reducing stress levels in an organization. To choose the appropriate program, it is necessary to assess the available options based on a range of criteria.
• Mindfulness Meditation to Reduce Nursing Stress Levels This project will discuss nurse stress and the implementation of mindfulness meditation sessions as a main intervention for its reduction. Nurse stress should no longer be ignored, and the effect of mindfulness meditation may be […]
• Relationship Between Stress and Greying of the Hair The main topic of this study was the study of the influence of a negative psychological state of a person on the increase in the number of gray hairs.
• Stress and Its Influence on Human Body Prolonged exposure to stress worsens the body’s resistance and the immune and vegetative systems of a person and disrupts the functioning of hormonal glands and metabolism.
• Aspects of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder They include direct or indirect exposure to stressors, intrusion symptoms, the persistent avoidance of trauma-related stressors, negative alterations in mood and the development of mental health comorbidities, aggression, and self-destructive behavior, the duration for not […]
• Family Health Assessment: Child Poverty, Toxic Stress Because of the nature of their work, and the fact that the two were working even during the pandemic, the father was at one point exposed to Covid-19. The model that will help the family […]
• Dogs: The Stress Coping Mechanisms When the arousal level increases, it helps the body prepare for action and deal with the cause of the stress. The hormone helps them to cope with the stress and to recover from it more […]
• Self-Reported PTSD (Posttraumatic Stress) Symptoms and Social Support At the same time, multiple authors prove that social support and connectedness with family members, relatives, friends, and other members of the community contribute to PTG and the minimization of the signs of PTSD in […]
• Coronary Heart Disease Caused by Stress It is essential to study the degree of influence of stress on the development of coronary heart disease since, in this way, it will be possible to prevent it more successfully.
• Self SWOT: Stress Resistance as the Main Strength However, the irrationality of my organization of time and schedule is a big threat that I will begin to lose control over my studies, which may affect my future career and its trajectory.
• Stress and Its Adverse Health Effects The article’s topic is Stress and Health: A Review of Psychobiological Processes. For instance, when stress increases or is prolonged, the dangers of mental health challenges and medical complications arise.
• Stress Management in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients The study also covered the epidemiological and pathophysiology of RA and looked at data linking psychological trauma to the emergence and aggravation of the clinical disease.
• The Effect of Emotional Freedom Techniques on Nurses’ Stress The objectives for each of the three criteria are clearly stated, with the author explaining the aims to the reader well throughout the content in the article’s title, abstract, and introduction.
• Pathophysiology of Stress, Processed Foods, and Risky Alcohol Consumption The body starts to see the fats, sugars, and salt in ultra-processed foods as rewards, which leads to increased cravings and overeating.
• Teachers Wellbeing: Becoming Aware of Work-Relate Stress Teachers who are aware of these stressors early in their careers may be able to minimize their risk of burnout and experience a sense of well-being.
• The Traumas from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Measuring the prevalence and incidence of PTSD requires excellent knowledge of epidemiology and biostatistics. The prevalence and incidence of PTSD have increased since 2000.
• Stress and Related Risks in Vulnerable Communities The case study family is between the ages of five and thirty-five years and consists of a father, a mother, and two male children. My rationale behind the ranking is the impact of the risks […]
• COVID-19, Secondary Traumatic Stress and Burnout The second part of the hypothesis states that the levels of STS and BO among caretakers during the pandemic will be higher than before it.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Preliminary Care Coordination The personal character of trauma and how the patient reacts to it justifies the need to design patient-centered interventions to address this healthcare problem.
• Circumstances Causing Stress in Adolescence Hold one’s breath for many seconds and gently exhale via the mouth to evacuate the lungs, hence easing the body of stress. The more one is stressed, the more difficult and nervous it is to […]
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Causes and Symptoms The article by Smith entitled Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is valuable because it offers important information on the causes and symptoms of PTSD and ways of recognizing and treating the condition.
• Mishele’s Theory Applied to Pediatric Medical Traumatic Stress In other words, the theory addresses the problem of the subjective perception of the treatment outcomes and diseases under the prism of uncertainty.
• Major Depressive Disorder and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Her sleep is turbulent, she has rape nightmares, her mood is depressed, and her affect is congruent and constrained. Her mental process is rational and linear, and her mental faculties are largely intact.
• Meditation Effects on Anxiety and Stress My goal in this exercise was to use meditation to manage anxiety and stress and improve my general mental well-being. I am not accustomed to meditation and had to turn to YouTube for guidance.
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Case Presentation Report Date of initial assessment: N/A PSEUDO Name: Ana Ana is a self-referred and re-occurring client who entered counseling after the case of domestic violence. As a result, Ana expressed feelings of anxiety and fear […]
• Panel: Women’s Stress and COVID-19 It is vital to examine what is known about the connection of women’s stress to COVID-19. Overall, the link between COVID-19 and women’s stress is apparent.
• Effects of Support on Stress in School Principals Threats to living standards and wellbeing, the strain on families and the escalation of injustices, changes in teaching techniques and the role of technology, and the disruption of higher learning and scholarship are among the […]
• The DSM-5 Criteria for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder The inference is backed by the fact that Victor’s traumatic situation is persistently manifesting intrusion symptoms such as nightmares, flashbacks, unwanted upsetting memories, and a lack of willingness to share previous hurtful events. Victor displays […]
• Early Life Stress: Resilience Development in Children For their own and the children’s sake, school counselors may be assigned to a particular institution in primary schools. An attempt to harness the unique qualities and capabilities that evolve in a high-stress setting is […]
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Treatment Research Therefore, the advantage of qualitative research, in this case, relates to the ability to investigate patients’ PTSD treatment experiences and uncover their meanings.
• Coping with Stress in Clinical Neuropsychiatry Joseph should be able to identify what is stressing him most, which in this case it is financial issues and the fact that his wife is always annoyed with him because he is always around, […]
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Misapprehension A significant proportion of civilians are affected by post-traumatic stress but ignore the symptoms and fail to seek early interventions influenced by misconceptions about how PTSD develops and its symptoms.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Opioid Use in Veterans This study examined the proportion of United States veterans who had PTSD and engaged in the use of illegal opioids to cope with it or had done so in the past.
• The Impact of Chronic Stress on Pathological Conditions Long-term stress is hazardous, as it damages the mechanisms of self-regulation of the body, leading to constant fluctuations in the level of hormones and unhealthy rhythms of breathing and heartbeat.
• Toxic Stress and Its Negative Effects The experience of toxic stress in the early years of life also negatively affects school performance and the physical development of children.
• Sex-Specific Effects of Music Listening on Couples’ Stress in Everyday Life Wuttke-Linnemann et al.also highlight the presence of gender-specific differences as to how specifically music listening can impact stress among men and women.
• Stress as an Important Psychological Issue The ability to complete work on time, learn new skills at the first request of the bosses, and the need to work overtime – all this is among the constant needs of a modern working […]
• Traumatic Stress Disorders & Treatment It will be based on the hypothesis that trauma has a detrimental impact on a person’s identity and is likely to result in adverse consequences in the future.
• Smoking and Stress Among Veterans The topic is significant to explore because of the misconception that smoking can alleviate the emotional burden of stress and anxiety when in reality, it has an exacerbating effect on emotional stress.
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in A Journal for Jordan Considering the loss of her husband in the war, Dana had not recovered, and the expression of irate reaction is a symptom of PTSD.
• Stress Management Benefits for Health Therefore, stress management strategies are crucial to eliminating the adverse impact of tension and anxiety. Physical activity and socializing are the techniques I have successfully applied to manage stress.
• Nurses’ Mental Health and Stress at Workplace This is the first research to present the viewpoints of mental health nurses on a resilience program. Theoretical ideas of resilience and understanding of mental health nurses’ resilience emerged through constant comparative study and integration […]
• The Relationship Between Stress and Health: Article Summary The implications of the study allow for stating that the increased exposure to stress at work leads to worsened health of the stressed individuals.
• Improving Nurses’ Stress Response During the COVID-19 The article is dedicated to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the overall health of nurses. It is necessary to study the mental health of nurses further and develop ways to level the negative […]
• Stress Management Skills of Student-Athletes Their responses will then be categorized as “low perceived stress,” “moderate perceived stress,” and “high perceived stress”. The students will then be qualified as possessing superior, above-average, average, or below-average stress management skills.
• Coping with Stress and Physical Health Problems In this regard, Julie, first of all, needs to accept the situation as it is, to appreciate the things and the context that she is no longer able to change.
• A Theorist View of Stress, Human Body and Mind As one can see, both K bler-Ross and Frankl focus on human stress as a form of suffering in the face of insurmountable life troubles, such as death or suffering.
• Employee Stress and Burnout at the Workplace This is done by giving outbreaks to those actively involved in the manufacture of the products and giving leaves for some time; the company has also created shift sessions that allow specified workers to take […]
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Development Avoidance of objects that remind you of the traumatic incident is another symptom of PTSD. Identifying erroneous and unreasonable beliefs about the incident and replacing them with a more balanced image is also part of […]
• Stress Management Techniques for Students: Yoga Yoga’s most major benefits are its capacity to relieve stress and exhaustion, to stimulate and revive, and to be used for anti-aging and calming treatment.
• Sexual Aversion and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder This aspect causes difficulties in prescribing therapy, since the latter requires a thorough study of the psychological nature of the problems. In the treatment of sexual aversion disorder, a doctor needs to investigate a complex […]
• Thoughts on Stress Management and Happiness Although she has all her financial needs met overwhelmingly, her failure to proceed with her studies and get employment makes her feel unsatisfied.
• Workplace Stress Among American Nurses During the Coronavirus Pandemic In this systematic review paper, the researcher seeks to discuss workplace stress among American nurses during the peak of the coronavirus pandemic in the country.
• Secondary Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Children The relationship between parents’ experiences and interactions with the onset of PTSD in children will be explored. There is vast information on the management of treatment and prevention of PTSD in children.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Parenting Style On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being lowest and 10 being highest, how much do you believe that kids need to learn early who the boss is in the family?
• Heat Stress at Provincial, Federal, and International Levels It formulates the purpose of the report, namely the comparison of norms and regulations for safe work at the provincial, federal and international levels.
• Durations of Vowels: Effect of Stress, Lexical Focus, and Segmental Focus The article in question addresses the correlation between the duration of a vowel and the type of focus or stress. De Jong and Zawaydeh address this phonetic issue on the basis of the Arabic language, […]
• Healthcare Workers’ Stress Coping Strategies This is especially relevant for the mental health domain, as the major flows of resources in the healthcare sectors all over the globe are directed towards combating the main adverse physical consequences of the infection.
• Stress and Depression Among Nursing Students The study aims to determine how different the manifestations of stress and depression are among American nursing students compared to students of other disciplines and what supports nursing students in continuing their education.
• The Stress of Working with Families There is an intricate shared history that is interpreted in different ways by different members, and the boundaries, psychological distances, and roles within and between family subsystems are constantly shifting.
• Coping with Stress: Stress and Health In terms of physical, emotional, and behavioral signs, Julia is experiencing severe stress, which requires the help of specialists and the introduction of various techniques that contribute to the normalization of all aspects of life.
• “Poverty, Toxic Stress, and Education…” Study by Kelly & Li Kelly and Li are concerned with the lack of research about poverty and toxic stress affecting the neurodevelopment of preterm children.
• Prefrontal Cortex and Effects of Stress Exposure However, the inability to control the stressor can reduce the prefrontal cortex’s capacity to regulate stress responses. Exposure to stress noticeably weakens the effectiveness of the prefrontal cortex while stimulating more primitive responses of the […]
• Stress as a Result of Combining Work and Family At the same time, it is difficult to say that such a life on a constant clear schedule contributes to the psychological health of a person.
• Analysis of Stress Management Aspects In the science of stress management, there are a number of practices aimed at strengthening the mental health of the student, thus improving their response to potentially stressful events.
• Phonetics and Phonology of English Word Stress People have trouble pronouncing some words in their L2 due to the influence of their L1 accent. Many students find it challenging to accurately pronounce words in their second language due to the influence of […]
• Adaptation to Stress of Endocrine and Sympathetic Nervous System Stress is a non-specific body reaction that occurs under the action of various extreme factors that threaten the violation of homeostasis and is characterized by stereotypical changes in the function of the nervous and endocrine […]
• The Resilience Handbook: Approaches to Stress and Trauma I was surprised to learn that music is not just the words but also the lyrics in the heart and mind.
• Assessing the Personal Stress Levels To ascertain the levels of stress in my everyday life, I have used several assessment tools. Implementing the “Symptoms of Stress” methodology, I have discovered that the occurrence of stress in my life is quite […]
• Stress Management Techniques The proposed strategies and examples should help students to understand different situations and overcome stress disregarding settings and external factors.
• Occupational Health: Workplace Stress To avoid noise-related stress, Ruth handles her job with a positive attitude and this makes it easy to enjoy work. In conclusion, work-related stress is a major cause of poor performance by employees due to […]
• Humor as the Leading Strategy of Stress Relief The purpose of this paper is to discuss the importance of humor as one of the leading stress management strategies. In other words, it does not suffice to know the sources of stress, as the […]
• Workplace Stress and Absenteeism in the Ship-Repair Industry: A Case Study This qualitative exploratory case study sought to discover techniques that production and project managers of a ship-repair company in the maritime industry use to minimize.
• Stress Patterns in Police Work: A Longitudinal Study The research problem identified by the investigator relates to the prevalence of distress in the police occupation. The primary variable of the study was the mean stress measure, which was derived from the Langner-22 list […]
• Occupational Stress: Patient Teaching Plan Physical exercise is helpful for the patients with work-related stress and anxiety. Physical exercise helps alleviate work and stress-related pains in different parts of the body.
• Stress Among Secondary and Tertiary Students The results of the study by Pascoe et al.demonstrate that the majority of students report high levels of stress and negative effects on their mental and physical health.
• Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction in the Workplace What are the weakness of the study and how can it be improved. According to I/O psychologist work is done to obtain productivity and to improve the quality of life of the clients.
• Free Radicals, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidants The presence of ROS in excess causes oxidative stress in the body, leading to the oxidation of proteins and lipids and the transformation of their structures and roles in the body.
• Stress From a Biblical Perspective The Bible, in that case, provides a sense of hope and relief which leads to relaxation. In 1 Samuel 30:1-31, Amalekites exploited the opportunity of David and his men’s absence in the south city of […]
• Dealing With Stress: What Makes One’s Life Complete Carrying the burden of stress, I became rather reserved and unwilling to socialize, which led to certain misconceptions among my friends and me.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Pathophysiology Sakellariou and Stefanatou, further link threat responsiveness and fear regulation with the signalling of 5-HT within the amygdala; this is an area within the brain deemed essential in comprehending the reaction to fear and aetiology […]
• Workplace Yoga Reducing Stress in Employees Since the key idea of a project is to sell the yoga and meditation practice program to the other departments of a firm, it is important to understand the expected benefits.
• Cross-National Job Stress: A Quantitative and Qualitative Study That is why, in order to fill the substantial research gap, the exploratory study of Liu et al.examines the perceptions of job stress in two culturally dissimilar countries the United States and China using both […]
• The Effectiveness of Occupational Stress Management However, as it relates to analyzing the shipbuilding and ship-repair industries, the level of occupational stress is higher in comparison to other sectors of the economy, and the effectiveness of managing the problem is lower.
• Coping With Stress in Breast Cancer Patients Therefore, it is important for research experts to ensure and guarantee adherence to methodologies and guidelines that define scientific inquiry. However, various discrepancies manifest with regard to the initiation and propagation of research studies.
• Changes in Life and Psychological Stress Assessment The vagueness of the evaluation system and the lack of precision in terms of results assessment, however, beg the question whether psychological assessments can be trusted.
• Nursing Work Stress Level During Pandemics In the case of this project, the DNP student was able to review at length the issue of occupational stress in nursing.
• Stress Management Through Transcendental Meditation Thus, to improve productivity and the general wellbeing of its employees, a company ought to offer stress management program. However, transcendental meditation seems to be the most beneficial as it enables people to deal with […]
• Stress Analysis of Thin Walled Structures and Results This consideration takes the priority of the passengers’ safety to ensure they do not experience the effects of either deformation or heat dissipated by the parts involved in the impact.”At the same time other structural […]
• Advanced Stress Analysis – Characteristic of Model The choice of approach is done in the preliminary stages of structural design of shapes. 893Kg/mm3 The density of the envelope is 1.
• The Unified Trauma Theory of High-Stress Level Fatigue a Case of Loyola University The steps of this process are outlined, concluding with definitions and a description of the middle range theory of unified trauma theory of high-stress fatigue, which was developed.
• Stress Sources in a Detective’s Life One of the morale issues that can result from the behavior of the detective is the segregation of the detective by his workmates and none of them might want to work with him.
• Effects of Obesity on Neuroendocrine, and Immune Cell Responses to Stress All the participants of the experiment including obese and non-obese women were scheduled to days one to ten by their menstrual cycle. Statistic and comparative analyses were performed to compare the results of obese and […]
• Health and Wellness: Stress, Diabetes and Tobacco Related Problems Emotional health and well being refers to our ability to deal with our emotions as well as the emotions of those around us.
• Effective Use of Prazosin for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder All the traditional agents have shown to have several side effects and cannot be fully relied on in treatment of PTSD.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Diagnostics and Screening Do you observe a headache from the early morning? Do you have a headache when you sleep well?
• Effect of Stress Hormones on Brain Cells
• BMI and Stress Levels Among Students in the US
• Conger’s Stress and Family With Children
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Dealing With Grief – Stress Factors
• Stress at Work: Creating Healthy Organisations
• Wholeness Meeting to Deal With Stress in School
• Family Nursing and Stress Theory
• Adult Life Stress: Assessment Tools Analysis
• Personal Stress Management and Relaxation Techniques
• Relation Work – Stress – Health
• Stress, Emotional Intelligence, and Job Performance Correlation in Nursing
• Managing Stress Through Communication Skills in Nursing
• The Effectiveness of ICU Nurses in Reducing Stress among Family Members
• Mindfulness-Based Stress and Burnout Reduction in Nurses
• Stress-Strain Relation of Stainless Steel After Exposure to Fire
• Identifying Causes of Stress among Nurses
• Definition and Concept of Stress in Nursing
• Nursing Burnout: Increased Stress Experienced by Nurses
• Emotions and Stress on the Job
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Among Vets
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Overview
• Nurses and Stress: Mindfulness Meditation Program
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Treatment in Intellectually Disabled Patients: The Promise of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy
• Women in the West Who Are Put Under Stress Due to Social Media
• Stress in the Teaching Fraternity
• Work Related Stress: Symptoms and Management
• Stress at Work: Main Aspects, Globalization Influence
• Client Diagnosis: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Stress Test Process to a Community Issue
• Employees’ Stress and Burnout
• Disaster Crisis: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms
• Yoga and Stress Reduction
• Managing Stress: A Reflection of Personal Experience
• Personal & Professional Development: Managing Stress
• Stress Symptoms and Management
• Living With Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
• How Stress Affects Learning in Middle School
• Motivation, Emotion, Stress, Health and Work
• The Role of Stress in Our Everyday Life
• Employee Stress Causes in Different Countries
• Socio-Cultural and Stress Models in Diagnosis
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder After Rape Attempt
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Causes and Consequences
• Posttraumatic Stress Symptom Disease
• Stress, Depression and Psychoneuroimmunology
• How Can College Students Cope With Stress
• Stress, Its Effects on Health
• Causes and Effects of Marital Stress on the Health of Women
• Academic Related Sicknesses: Stress in Medical Students
• Stress Management and Wellness Programs by Corporate Sector
• Work Stress: Coping Through Work-Life Programs
• The Relationship Between Emotion Regulation Suppression and the Academic and Life Stress Levels
• Health and Stress in College Students
• Stress: Causes, Sources and Symptoms
• Sources of Stress Among African American Students
• Stress and Medical Students’ Lifes
• Impact of Stress on Intimate Relationship
• Stress of Police Officers and How They Cope With It
• Educational Psychology: Student Learning and Stress
• Acute and Post Traumatic Stress Disorders
• Impacts of High Stress Levels on Teachers
• Stress Management Under Organizational Psychology
• Stress and Higher Education Student: A Critical Review
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: German Researches
• Preventing Burnout in Preschool Teachers
• Can Stress Be Fattening: Discussion
• Sports Demands and Stress Management in Athletics
• Holmes and Rahe Stress Test and Coping Strategies
• Reducing Nurses’ Stress: A Web-Based Management Program
• Depression and Anxiety Due to School and Work-Related Stress
• Mental Healthcare in Louisiana: Growth in Stress Rates
• Student Loans and Financial Stress
• How Nurses Cope with Job Stress
• Family Stress and Crisis: We Got Through It
• Stress Among African American College Students
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Veteran Community
• Evidence-Based Procedures That Reduce Stress and Promote Health
• UAE: Stress Management and Organizational Performance
• Organizational Concern: Job Stress and Burnout
• “Emotional Freedom Technique and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” by Rebecca L. Fahey
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Treatment Effectiveness
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Missouri Veterans
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Management in Children
• College Student Work Habits, Interruptions, and Stress
• Stress Factors in the Queer Community
• Chronobiology and Stress in Horses
• Horse Transportation and Stress-Reducing Strategies
• Employment and Stress Management
• Spiritual Life: Avoiding Stress Burnout
• Interviewing the Patient: Stress and Anxiety Reasons
• Productivity and Work-Related Stress in the UAE
• Workplace Stress and Labor Law in the United Kingdom
• Stress Management: Personal Success Plan
• Does Locus of Control and Motivation Predict Occupational Stress?
• Modern Workplace Issues: Stress, Conflict, Quality
• Occupational Stress in the Maritime Industry
• Racial Disparities in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Treatment
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Hispanic Teenager
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Treatment in Soldier
• Stress Impact on Self-Esteam and Personal Growth
• Employee Motivation, Termination, and Work Stress
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Modality Treatment Plan
• Anxiety Disorder: Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction
• Crisis Intervention Model and Critical Stress Management
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Its Theories
• Emotion Regulation and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Workplace Stress and Mitigating Measures
• Stress Factors in the Fire Service
• Early-Life Stress and Adult Inflammation: Fagundes & Way’s Study
• Stress, Conflict and Misunderstandings in the Workplace
• Stress Increases the Desire to Eat Sweets
• How Coffee Affects Stress?
• Burnout, Compassion Fatigue and Stress at Workplace
• Organisational Stress and Its Possible Transformations
• Stress Assessment Questionnaire Ethical Usage
• Stress in Policing: Reasons and Effects
• Meditation as a Way to Alleviate Stress
• Stress Management for Life
• Sexual Harassment and Psychological Stress
• Prenatal Maternal Stress Outcomes
• Discretion, Job Stress, and Other Policing Issues
• Workplace Stress Management Programs
• Kant’s and Mill’s Ideas for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Intimate Partner Violence and Maternal Stress
• Stress Statistics, Definition, and Perception
• Physiological Mechanism of Stress
• Post-Traumatic Stress and Evidence-Based Practice
• Stress as a Risk Factor for Inflammation
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Assets and Facilities
• Minority Stress and Health: Societal Issues
• Housewives’ Compensation and Stress Factors
• Stress and Eating Behavior
• Ways to Manage Stress and Enhance Well-Being for Students
• Police Stress Within Law Enforcement
• To Better Cope With Stress, Listen to Your Body
• “Stress” Video and “A Natural Fix for ADHD” Article
• Organizational Stress and Job Satisfaction Relationships
• The Effect Job Stress on Satisfaction with Life
• Ethics Code for Human Participation in Stress Reduction
• Office 2010 Transformation: Stress Management Plan
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder or Combat Fatigue
• Genentech Inc.’s Workplace Stress Management
• Stress, Depression, and Responses to Them
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Caucasian Girl’ Case
• Students’ Stress Levels in Kean University
• Acute Stress Disorder: Cynthia’s Treatment Case
• Food and Stress Relationship: Psychological Factor
• Stress Management Strategies in Applied Psychology
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Soldiers
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Gender Variations
• Stress Impacts on the Human Development
• Stress Levels and Stress Management Methods
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Joseph Wolpe Treatment Theory
• Reducing Stress: Cognitive Patterns and Behaviors Changing
• Stress: Effects and Management Proposal
• Health Psychology: Eating and Stress’ Relations
• Stress and Recovery After Rape
• The Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Inventory – Psychology
• Mood and Stress Psychology: Causes, Effects and Treatments
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder – Psychology
• Managing Stress and Depression at Work Places – Psychology
• Job’ Stress and Depression
• Stress and Burnout in Law Enforcement
• Police and Corrections Officers’ Stress – Psychology
• Stress and Strains in the Renaissance Society
• Infidelity as a Cause of Divorce and Stress Disorder
• Walmart Company: Reducing Employee Stress
• Stress Reduction at Work
• Stress’ Definition and Effects
• Suggestions on Stress Management
• Correlation Study of the Relationship Between Individual Resilience, Hope, Stress and Humour
• Stress & Its Effects on the Brain and Body
• Ability to Manage Stress as the Most Important Skill of Effective Communicators
• Stress Management and Work Performance in the UK
• The Relationship Between Employee Productivity and Work Related Stress
• The Caregiver Burnout and Long-Term Stress
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Principles and Types
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Veterans
• The Effects of Forgiveness Therapy on Depression, Anxiety and Posttraumatic Stress for Women After Spousal Emotional Abuse
• Critical Evaluation of Stress Management Approaches
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Causes, Symptoms and Treatments
• Effect of Stress on Relations and Marriage
• Critical Review of a Mental Disorder: The Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in DSM-IV-TR
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Its Treatment
• Stress Management and Work Performance in the United Kingdom
• Underlying Issues Associated with Sleep Disorders and Stress
• How College Athletes Deal with Stress and Manage Time
• Impact and Strategies of Fiscal Stress on States and Municipalities
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Abused Women
• Acute Stress Reaction and Acute Stress Disorder
• Biological Factors Involved in Stress
• Posttraumatic stress. The Case of Mary
• Stress Management among Customer Service Employees: Antecedents & Interventions
• Depression: Law Enforcement Officers and Stress
• The Impact of Stress & Unpleasant Feelings on People
• The Causes of Stress in the Contemporary Society
• Earthquakes as a Cause of the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Workplace Stress Problem
• Reducing Stress in Al-Khobar
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Developed in Repeated War Zones Deployment
• Towards Understanding Stress-Related Issues Affecting First Year Students on Their Transition Into University Culture
• Stress and Injury in Sports
• Family, Stress and Delinquency among Adolescent
• Effects of stress on physical health
• Stress at the Workplace for Correctional Officers
• Human Stress and Dale Carnegie
• “Denial: A Memoir” a Book by Jessica Stern
• Adjustment in Psychology: Stress
• Reaction to Stress: Flight or Fight
• Conflict and Stress: Their Potential Impact on a Project
• How Stress Affects Different Personality Types
• Abnormal Psychology: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Diverse Effects of the Work Related Stress
• Problems of the Employee Stress in Organizations
• Managing Time and Stress
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Tim O’Brien’s “In the Lake of Woods”
• Randomized Trial of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders in Adult Female Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse
• How Stress Affects Your Physical Health?
• The Experiment to Prove the Fact That Psychological Stress Causes Headache
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Assessment and Treatment Strategies
• Controlling Stress and Tension
• Research Application of How College Athletes Deal with Stress and Manage Time
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Veterans and How Family Relationships Are Affected
• Self Efficacy, Stress & Coping, and Headspace Program
• Characteristics and Treatments of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Analysis of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Personnel
• Work-Related Stress: Impeding Organization’s Success
• The Study of Human Behavior and Stress
• Does Cardiorespiratory Fitness Buffer Stress Reactivity and Stress Recovery in Police Officers?
• What Does Stress Really Stress?
• Where Does Stress Come From and How Does It Affect a Pregnant Mother and Her Unborn Child?
• Can Stress Cause Severe Headache?
• Does Compressing High School Duration Affect Students’ Stress and Mental Health?
• Does Regular Exercise Reduce Stress Levels?
• How Long Does Birth Trauma Last?
• Does Telework Stress Employees Out?
• Can Detox Tea Relieve Stress?
• Are Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Avoidant Coping Inhibitory Factors?
• What makes Stress and Burnout?
• Can Stress Cause Coronary Heart Disease?
• Can Local Stress Enhancement Induce Stability in Fracture Processes?
• What Cause Students Stress?
• Does Practical Parenting Stress You Out?
• What Does Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Truly Mean?
• Does Elevated Job Stress Affect Smoking Levels?
• What Causes Psychological Stress?
• Does Prolonged Stress Increase the Likelihood of a Stroke?
• Can Music Therapy Improve Stress Anxiety?
• Does Emotional Intelligence Buffer the Effects of Acute Stress?
• Whether Stress Have Any Effect on the Productivity of Employees in an Organization?
• Can Simulated Green Exercise Improve Recovery From Acute Mental Stress?
• Can Social Support Alleviate Stress While Shopping in Crowded Retail Environments?
• Can the Attention Training Technique Reduce Stress in Students?
• Are Certain Personalities More Prone to Stress?
• Can Stress Trigger Diseases?
• Does Acute Stress Impact Declarative and Procedural Learning?
• Does Prenatal Stress Shape Postnatal Resilience?
• Are Quebecers More Stressed Out at Work Than Others?
• Mental Illness Research Topics
• Human Development Research Ideas
• Abnormal Psychology Paper Topics
• Cognitive Development Essay Ideas
• Depression Essay Topics
• Health Promotion Research Topics
• Mindfulness Research Ideas
• Positive Psychology Titles
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 29). 420 Stress Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-essay-examples/

"420 Stress Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 29 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-essay-examples/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '420 Stress Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 29 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "420 Stress Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-essay-examples/.

1. IvyPanda . "420 Stress Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-essay-examples/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "420 Stress Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-essay-examples/.

Psychological and Brain Sciences

Faculty conducting research on stress.

Alan Kim Johnson

Susan Lutgendorf

Isaac Petersen

Jason Radley

Emily Thomas

NOTICE: The University of Iowa Center for Advancement is an operational name for the State University of Iowa Foundation, an independent, Iowa nonprofit corporation organized as a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt, publicly supported charitable entity working to advance the University of Iowa. Please review its full disclosure statement.

An official website of the United States government

Here’s how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

• Heart-Healthy Living
• High Blood Pressure
• Sickle Cell Disease
• Sleep Apnea
• Information & Resources on COVID-19
• The Heart Truth®
• Learn More Breathe Better®
• Blood Diseases and Disorders Education Program
• Publications and Resources
• Blood Disorders and Blood Safety
• Sleep Science and Sleep Disorders
• Lung Diseases
• Health Disparities and Inequities
• Heart and Vascular Diseases
• Precision Medicine Activities
• Obesity, Nutrition, and Physical Activity
• Population and Epidemiology Studies
• Women’s Health
• Research Topics
• Clinical Trials
• All Science A-Z
• Grants and Training Home
• Policies and Guidelines
• Funding Opportunities and Contacts
• Training and Career Development
• Email Alerts
• NHLBI in the Press
• Research Features
• Past Events
• Upcoming Events
• Mission and Strategic Vision
• Divisions, Offices and Centers
• Advisory Committees
• Budget and Legislative Information
• Jobs and Working at the NHLBI
• Contact and FAQs
• NIH Sleep Research Plan
• Health Topics
• < Back To High Blood Pressure
• Causes and Risk Factors
• What Is High Blood Pressure?
• Living With High Blood Pressure
• Pregnancy and High Blood Pressure

MORE INFORMATION

High Blood Pressure Causes and Risk Factors

Language switcher, what are the risk factors.

Many factors raise your risk of high blood pressure. You can change some risk factors, such as unhealthy lifestyle habits. A healthy lifestyle can lower your risk for developing high blood pressure.

Other risk factors, such as age, family history and genetics, race and ethnicity, and sex, cannot be changed. But, you can still take steps to reduce your risk of high blood pressure and its complications .

Blood pressure tends to rise with age. Blood vessels naturally thicken and stiffen over time. These changes increase the risk for high blood pressure.

However, the risk of high blood pressure is rising for children and teens, possibly because more children and teens have overweight or obesity .

Family history and genetics

High blood pressure often runs in families. Much of what we know about high blood pressure has come from genetic studies. Many  genes are linked to small increases in high blood pressure risk. Research suggests that as an unborn baby grows in the womb, some DNA changes may also raise the risk for high blood pressure later in life.

Some people have a high sensitivity to salt in their diet, which can play a role in high blood pressure. This can also run in families.

Lifestyle habits

Lifestyle habits can increase the risk of high blood pressure, including if you:

• Eat unhealthy foods often, especially foods that are high in salt and low in potassium. Some people, including Black people, older adults, and people who have chronic kidney disease, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome, are more sensitive to salt in their diet.
• Drink too much alcohol or caffeine
• Don’t get enough physical activity
• Don’t get enough good-quality sleep
• Experience high-stress situations
• Use substances such as cocaine, methamphetamine, “bath salts,” or other stimulants

Some medicines can make it harder for your body to control your blood pressure. Antidepressants, decongestants (medicines to relieve a stuffy nose), hormonal birth control pills, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin or ibuprofen can all raise your blood pressure.

Other medical conditions

Other medical conditions change the way your body controls fluids, sodium, and  hormones in your blood. Other conditions that can cause high blood pressure include:

• Some tumors 
• Chronic kidney disease
• Metabolic syndrome
• Overweight and obesity
• Sleep apnea
• Thyroid problems

Race or ethnicity

High blood pressure is more common in Black adults than in White, Hispanic, or Asian adults. Compared with other racial or ethnic groups, Black people tend to have higher average blood pressure numbers and get high blood pressure earlier in life. Also , some high blood pressure medicines may not work as well for Black people.

During pregnancy , Black women are more likely than White women to develop preeclampsia . Preeclampsia is a pregnancy disorder that causes sudden high blood pressure and problems with the kidneys and liver.

Men are more likely than women to develop high blood pressure throughout middle age. But in older adults, women are more likely than men to develop high blood pressure.

Women who have high blood pressure during pregnancy are more likely to have high blood pressure later in life. Research shows that medicines used to control high blood pressure during pregnancy lower the chance of pregnancy complications and won’t harm the developing baby.

Social and economic factors

Research shows that factors such as income, education level, where you live, and the type of job you have, as well as stressors on the job may raise your risk of high blood pressure. Working early or late shifts is one example of a social factor that can raise your risk.

Experiencing discrimination and poverty has been linked to high blood pressure. Also , some research has shown that experiencing stress, danger, harm, or trauma as a child may raise the risk of high blood pressure.

Can High Blood Pressure be prevented?

How to prevent high blood pressure.

A heart-healthy lifestyle can help prevent high blood pressure and its complications.

• Choose heart-healthy foods that are lower in salt (sodium) and are rich in potassium. Fruits and vegetables are high in potassium. For more ways to limit your sodium, visit the DASH Eating Plan page or print out the Tips to Reduce Salt and Sodium handout.
• Avoid or limit alcohol.
• Get regular physical activity . Even modest amounts can make a difference. Reducing the amount of time you sit each day can help lower your blood pressure.
• Aim for a healthy weight .
• Quit smoking .
• Control your cholesterol and blood sugar levels. To learn some tips to help manage your cholesterol level, read our booklet Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes to Lower Cholesterol .
• Manage stress .
• Get enough good-quality sleep .

share this!

May 3, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

trusted source

Research discovers plants utilize drought stress hormone to block snacking spider mites

by University of Cambridge

Recent findings that plants employ a drought-survival mechanism to also defend against nutrient-sucking pests could inform future crop breeding programs aimed at achieving better broadscale pest control.

Using an advanced fluorescent biosensor (ABACUS2) that can detect tiny changes in plant hormone concentrations at the cellular scale, scientists saw that abscisic acid (ABA), usually linked with drought response, started closing the plant's entry gates within 5 hours of being infested with spider mites .

Microscopic leaf pores (stomata) are important for gas exchange but are also the major sites for water loss . When there is a water shortage , plants act to conserve water by producing the drought stress hormone ABA to close their stomata.

Coincidentally, the closure of stomata also obstructs the preferred entry points for nutrient-sucking pests like spider mites. The two-spotted spider mite is one of the most economically damaging pests—it's not fussy and attacks a broad range of more than 1000 plants, including 150 crops.

Barely visible to the naked eye, these tiny pests pierce and then suck dry plant cells. They can build up to enormous numbers very quickly and can be one of the most destructive pests in the garden and horticulture industry, spoiling house plants and reducing yields of vegetables, fruit and salad crops.

There has been debate about ABA's role in pest resistance. Initially, it was noticed that stomata close when plants are attacked by nutrient-sucking pests, leading to various hypotheses, including that this closure could be a plant response to losing water due to the pests' feeding or even that the pests act to close stomata to prevent plants from sending distress volatiles to pest predators.

In a collaboration between the Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Genomics (CBGP) in Spain and Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University (SLCU), researchers studying how thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana) responds to the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) have determined the plant leaps into action almost immediately, employing the same hormone as for drought to also block spider mites from penetrating plant tissues and, as a result, significantly reducing pest damage.

The findings published in Plant Physiology found the peak closure of stomata is achieved within a time frame of 24 to 30 hours.

"Open stomata are natural apertures where pests like aphids and mites insert their specialized feeding structures, called stylets, to pierce and then suck out the nutrient rich contents from individual sub-epidermal cells," said Irene Rosa-Díaz, who carried out the spider mite experiments at SLCU and CBGP during her Ph.D. with Professor Isabel Diaz at the Centro de Biotecnología y Genómica de Plantas, Universidad Polytécnica de Madrid, and National Institute of Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (UPM-INIA) .

"We were able to show mite infestation induced a rapid stomatal closure response, with the plant hormone ABA rising in the leaf tissues—highest in stomatal and vascular cells, but also all other leaf cells measured. We showed through multiple different experiments that stomatal closure hinders mites.

"Plants that were pre-treated with ABA to induce stomatal closure and then infested with mites showed decreased mite damage, while ABA-deficient mutant plants where stomata cannot close well and plants that have a more stomata are more susceptible to mites."

Alexander Jones' research group at SLCU develops in vivo biosensors that are revealing hormone dynamics in plants at unprecedented resolution, including ABACUS2 that quantified cellular ABA in these mite experiments.

Dr. Jones said the study highlights the important interactions between biotic and abiotic stresses in plants, "Early warning cues from mite feeding induces a cascade of immune signaling molecules, including jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA), among other chemical responses. Together, these results show that ABA accumulation and stomatal closure are also key defense mechanisms employed to reduce mite damage.

"The next step is to investigate what the initial mite-produced signal is that the plant is detecting that then results in ABA accumulation. The biochemical mechanisms being used by the plant as signals of pest attack could be anything, including mite feeding vibrations, mite salivary proteins, chemicals produced by the mites or mite activity, direct cell damage (wounds) or other molecules associated with the mites.

"Identifying the initial triggers could potentially be used to develop new crop treatments to arm the plants ahead of predicted pest infestations. Importantly, efforts to select for plants with altered stomatal traits, which already must balance a photosynthesis vs. water conservation trade-off, could also consider resistance to damaging pests."

Provided by University of Cambridge

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Splitting hairs: Research team applies science of biomechanics to understand our bad hair days

4 hours ago

Textured tiles help endangered eels overcome human-made river obstacles, study shows

Fine-tuning leaf angle with CRISPR improves sugarcane yield

5 hours ago

Webb opens new window on supernova science

New insights on the role of nucleon exchange in nuclear fusion

6 hours ago

Small, cool and sulfurous exoplanet may help write recipe for planetary formation

Lone star state: Tracking a low-mass star as it speeds across the Milky Way

New study reveals brain's fractal-like structure near phase transition, a finding that may be universal across species

Novel quantum sensor breaks limits of optical measurement using entanglement

Wire-cut forensic examinations currently too unreliable for court, new study says

Relevant physicsforums posts, how do fetuses breathe in the womb, insulin resistance and external insulin.

8 hours ago

COVID Virus Lives Longer with Higher CO2 In the Air

Jun 7, 2024

Universal wing- and fin-beat frequency scaling

Jun 5, 2024

A DNA Animation

May 29, 2024

Probability, genetic disorder related

May 28, 2024

More from Biology and Medical

Related Stories

Study: Caterpillar traces repel spider mites and may help agriculture

May 1, 2023

Aroma compound found to reduce the effects of drought, improve productivity of tomato plants

Mar 7, 2024

Researchers discover how a bio-pesticide works against spider mites

Jan 6, 2021

Discovery of amino acid unveils how light makes stomata open in plants

Mar 26, 2024

Decoding how plants survive drought

Oct 10, 2022

New research could help honeybees fight off their worst enemy

Mar 27, 2024

Recommended for you

Study finds juvenile dolphins who play together are more successful as adults

Elephants have names for each other like people do, new study shows

10 hours ago

Deriving mammalian DNA methylation predictors for maximum life span, gestation time and age at sexual maturity

11 hours ago

Excessive vegetation in Arabia triggered massive butterfly migrations in 2019 across Europe and Africa: Study

12 hours ago

Rare 7-foot fish washed ashore on Oregon's coast garners worldwide attention

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Mindfulness meditation: A research-proven way to reduce stress

Mindfulness meditation can improve both mental and physical health.

• Mindfulness
• Mental Health

People have been meditating for thousands of years, often as part of a spiritual practice. But in more recent years, mindfulness has become a popular way to help people manage their stress and improve their overall well-being — and a wealth of research shows it’s effective. Psychologists have found that mindfulness meditation changes our brain and biology in positive ways, improving mental and physical health.

What is mindfulness meditation?

Meditation can be defined in many ways. But a simple way to think of it is training your attention  to achieve a mental state of calm concentration and positive emotions.

Mindfulness is one of the most popular meditation techniques. It has two main parts: attention and acceptance.

The attention piece is about tuning into your experiences to focus on what's happening in the present moment. It typically involves directing your awareness to your breath, your thoughts, the physical sensations in your body and the feelings you are experiencing. The acceptance piece involves observing those feelings and sensations without judgment. Instead of responding or reacting to those thoughts or feelings, you aim to note them and let them go.

Mindfulness classes and mindfulness-based therapies provide the tools to put those concepts into practice. Such programs might include breathing exercises, yoga and guided lessons to help you become aware of your body sensations, thoughts and feelings.

Much of the research on mindfulness has focused on two types of interventions:

• Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a therapeutic intervention that involves weekly group classes and daily mindfulness exercises to practice at home, over an 8-week period. MBSR teaches people how to increase mindfulness through yoga and meditation.
• Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) is a therapeutic intervention that combines elements of MBSR and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to treat people with depression.

Researchers reviewed more than 200 studies of mindfulness among healthy people and found mindfulness-based therapy was especially effective for  reducing stress, anxiety and depression . Mindfulness can also help treat people with specific problems including depression, pain, smoking and addiction . Some of the most promising research has looked at people with depression. Several studies have found, for example, that MBCT can significantly reduce relapse in people who have had previous episodes of major depression . What's more, mindfulness-based interventions can  improve physical health , too. For example, mindfulness may  reduce pain, fatigue and stress in people with chronic pain . Other studies have found preliminary evidence that mindfulness might  boost the immune system and help people recover more quickly from cold or flu.

How mindfulness works

How could simply tuning into your thoughts and feelings lead to so many positive outcomes throughout the body? Researchers believe the benefits of mindfulness are related to its ability to dial down the body's response to stress.

Chronic stress can impair the body's immune system and make many other health problems worse. By lowering the stress response, mindfulness may have downstream effects throughout the body.

Psychological scientists have found that mindfulness influences  two different stress pathways in the brain , changing brain structures and activity in regions associated with  attention and emotion regulation . Scientists are also beginning to understand which elements of mindfulness are responsible for its beneficial effects. In a review of meditation studies, psychology researchers found strong evidence that people who received MBCT were less  likely to react with negative thoughts or unhelpful emotional reactions in times of stress . They also found moderate evidence that people who participated in MBCT or MBSR were better able to focus on the present and less likely to worry and to think about a negative thought or experience over and over.

[ Related:  6 mental health tips psychologists use]

How to get started

Ready to give it a try? Learning mindfulness is easier than ever. Mindfulness classes and interventions are widely available in settings including yoga centers, athletic clubs, hospitals and clinics, though the classes can vary in their approach. Find a therapist trained in MBSR or MBCT — interventions that have the most evidence of benefits.

A number of mindfulness-based interventions are now available online or through smartphone apps as well, although more long-term research is needed to explore how they affect the body and the brain. Still, early studies have found that  online mindfulness-based interventions can have a positive effect on mental health .

It can take a little while for mindfulness meditation to feel natural and to become a part of your regular routine. But with practice, you may discover a powerful tool for relieving stress and improving well-being.

Thanks to psychologists J. David Creswell, PhD, and Bassam Khoury, PhD, who assisted with this article.

The Meeting of Meditative Disciplines and Western Psychology: A Mutually Enriching Dialogue Walsh, et. al., American Psychologist 2006

Mindfulness-Based Therapy: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Khoury, B., et. al. Clinical Psychology Review, 2013

Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Goldberg, S.B., et. al. Clinical Psychology Review, 2018

Mindfulness Interventions Creswell, J.D., Annual Review of Psychology, 2017

Mindfulness Training and Physical Health: Mechanisms and Outcomes Creswell, J.D., et. al.,  Psychosomatic Medicine, 2019

Mindfulness and Cognitive–Behavioral Interventions for Chronic Pain: Differential Effects on Daily Pain Reactivity and Stress Reactivity Davis, M.C., et. al., Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2015

Mindfulness Meditation and The Immune System: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials Black, D.S., et. al. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2016

Meditation or Exercise for Preventing Acute Respiratory Infection: A Randomized Controlled Trial Barrett, B., et. al., Annals of Family Medicine, 2012

The Neuroscience of Mindfulness Meditation Tan, Y.-Y., et. al., Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2015

How Do Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Improve Mental Health and Wellbeing? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Mediation Studies Gu, J., et. al. Clinical Psychology Review, 2015

Effectiveness of Online Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Improving Mental Health: A Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials Spijkerman, M.P.J., et. al., Clinical Psychology Review, 2016

Recommended Reading

Six Things Psychologists are Talking About

The APA Monitor on Psychology ® sister e-newsletter offers fresh articles on psychology trends, new research, and more.

Welcome! Thank you for subscribing.

Speaking of Psychology

Subscribe to APA’s audio podcast series highlighting some of the most important and relevant psychological research being conducted today.

Subscribe to Speaking of Psychology and download via:

You may also like