method in research papers

Techniques or tools used for gathering research data include:

SAGE research methods

• SAGE research methods online This link opens in a new window Research methods tool to help researchers gather full-text resources, design research projects, understand a particular method and write up their research. Includes access to collections of video, business cases and eBooks,

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How to Write a Methods Section for a Research Paper

A common piece of advice for authors preparing their first journal article for publication is to start with the methods section: just list everything that was done and go from there. While that might seem like a very practical approach to a first draft, if you do this without a clear outline and a story in mind, you can easily end up with journal manuscript sections that are not logically related to each other. 

Since the methods section constitutes the core of your paper, no matter when you write it, you need to use it to guide the reader carefully through your story from beginning to end without leaving questions unanswered. Missing or confusing details in this section will likely lead to early rejection of your manuscript or unnecessary back-and-forth with the reviewers until eventual publication. Here, you will find some useful tips on how to make your methods section the logical foundation of your research paper.

Not just a list of experiments and methods

While your introduction section provides the reader with the necessary background to understand your rationale and research question (and, depending on journal format and your personal preference, might already summarize the results), the methods section explains what exactly you did and how you did it. The point of this section is not to list all the boring details just for the sake of completeness. The purpose of the methods sections is to enable the reader to replicate exactly what you did, verify or corroborate your results, or maybe find that there are factors you did not consider or that are more relevant than expected. 

To make this section as easy to read as possible, you must clearly connect it to the information you provide in the introduction section before and the results section after, it needs to have a clear structure (chronologically or according to topics), and you need to present your results according to the same structure or topics later in the manuscript. There are also official guidelines and journal instructions to follow and ethical issues to avoid to ensure that your manuscript can quickly reach the publication stage.

Table of Contents:

• General Methods Structure: What is Your Story? 
• What Methods Should You Report (and Leave Out)? 
• Details Frequently Missing from the Methods Section

More Journal Guidelines to Consider 

• Accurate and Appropriate Language in the Methods

General Methods Section Structure: What Is Your Story? 

You might have conducted a number of experiments, maybe also a pilot before the main study to determine some specific factors or a follow-up experiment to clarify unclear details later in the process. Throwing all of these into your methods section, however, might not help the reader understand how everything is connected and how useful and appropriate your methodological approach is to investigate your specific research question. You therefore need to first come up with a clear outline and decide what to report and how to present that to the reader.

The first (and very important) decision to make is whether you present your experiments chronologically (e.g., Experiment 1, Experiment 2, Experiment 3… ), and guide the reader through every step of the process, or if you organize everything according to subtopics (e.g., Behavioral measures, Structural imaging markers, Functional imaging markers… ). In both cases, you need to use clear subheaders for the different subsections of your methods, and, very importantly, follow the same structure or focus on the same topics/measures in the results section so that the reader can easily follow along (see the two examples below).

If you are in doubt which way of organizing your experiments is better for your study, just ask yourself the following questions:

• Does the reader need to know the timeline of your study? 
• Is it relevant that one experiment was conducted first, because the outcome of this experiment determined the stimuli or factors that went into the next?
• Did the results of your first experiment leave important questions open that you addressed in an additional experiment (that was maybe not planned initially)?
• Is the answer to all of these questions “no”? Then organizing your methods section according to topics of interest might be the more logical choice.

If you think your timeline, protocol, or setup might be confusing or difficult for the reader to grasp, consider adding a graphic, flow diagram, decision tree, or table as a visual aid.

What Methods Should You Report (and Leave Out)?

The answer to this question is quite simple–you need to report everything that another researcher needs to know to be able to replicate your study. Just imagine yourself reading your methods section in the future and trying to set up the same experiments again without prior knowledge. You would probably need to ask questions such as:

• Where did you conduct your experiments (e.g., in what kind of room, under what lighting or temperature conditions, if those are relevant)? 
• What devices did you use? Are there specific settings to report?
• What specific software (and version of that software) did you use?
• How did you find and select your participants?
• How did you assign participants into groups?  
• Did you exclude participants from the analysis? Why and how?
• Where did your reagents or antibodies come from? Can you provide a Research Resource Identifier (RRID) ?
• Did you make your stimuli yourself or did you get them from somewhere?
• Are the stimuli you used available for other researchers?
• What kind of questionnaires did you use? Have they been validated?
• How did you analyze your data? What level of significance did you use?
• Were there any technical issues and did you have to adjust protocols?

Note that for every experimental detail you provide, you need to tell the reader (briefly) why you used this type of stimulus/this group of participants/these specific amounts of reagents. If there is earlier published research reporting the same methods, cite those studies. If you did pilot experiments to determine those details, describe the procedures and the outcomes of these experiments. If you made assumptions about the suitability of something based on the literature and common practice at your institution, then explain that to the reader.

In a nutshell, established methods need to be cited, and new methods need to be clearly described and briefly justified. However, if the fact that you use a new approach or a method that is not traditionally used for the data or phenomenon you study is one of the main points of your study (and maybe already reflected in the title of your article), then you need to explain your rationale for doing so in the introduction already and discuss it in more detail in the discussion section .

Note that you also need to explain your statistical analyses at the end of your methods section. You present the results of these analyses later, in the results section of your paper, but you need to show the reader in the methods section already that your approach is either well-established or valid, even if it is new or unusual. 

When it comes to the question of what details you should leave out, the answer is equally simple ‒ everything that you would not need to replicate your study in the future. If the educational background of your participants is listed in your institutional database but is not relevant to your study outcome, then don’t include that. Other things you should not include in the methods section:

• Background information that you already presented in the introduction section.
• In-depth comparisons of different methods ‒ these belong in the discussion section.
• Results, unless you summarize outcomes of pilot experiments that helped you determine factors for your main experiment.

Also, make sure your subheadings are as clear as possible, suit the structure you chose for your methods section, and are in line with the target journal guidelines. If you studied a disease intervention in human participants, then your methods section could look similar to this:

Since the main point of interest here are your patient-centered outcome variables, you would center your results section on these as well and choose your headers accordingly (e.g., Patient characteristics, Baseline evaluation, Outcome variable 1, Outcome variable 2, Drop-out rate ). 

If, instead, you did a series of visual experiments investigating the perception of faces including a pilot experiment to create the stimuli for your actual study, you would need to structure your methods section in a very different way, maybe like this:

Since here the analysis and outcome of the pilot experiment are already described in the methods section (as the basis for the main experimental setup and procedure), you do not have to mention it again in the results section. Instead, you could choose the two main experiments to structure your results section ( Discrimination and classification, Familiarization and adaptation ), or divide the results into all your test measures and/or potential interactions you described in the methods section (e.g., Discrimination performance, Classification performance, Adaptation aftereffects, Correlation analysis ).

Details Commonly Missing from the Methods Section

Manufacturer information.

For laboratory or technical equipment, you need to provide the model, name of the manufacturer, and company’s location. The usual format for these details is the product name (company name, city, state) for US-based manufacturers and the product name (company name, city/town, country) for companies outside the US.

Sample size and power estimation

Power and sample size estimations are measures for how many patients or participants are needed in a study in order to detect statistical significance and draw meaningful conclusions from the results. Outside of the medical field, studies are sometimes still conducted with a “the more the better” approach in mind, but since many journals now ask for those details, it is better to not skip this important step.

Ethical guidelines and approval

In addition to describing what you did, you also need to assure the editor and reviewers that your methods and protocols followed all relevant ethical standards and guidelines. This includes applying for approval at your local or national ethics committee, providing the name or location of that committee as well as the approval reference number you received, and, if you studied human participants, a statement that participants were informed about all relevant experimental details in advance and signed consent forms before the start of the study. For animal studies, you usually need to provide a statement that all procedures included in your research were in line with the Declaration of Helsinki. Make sure you check the target journal guidelines carefully, as these statements sometimes need to be placed at the end of the main article text rather than in the method section.

Structure & word limitations

While many journals simply follow the usual style guidelines (e.g., APA for the social sciences and psychology, AMA for medical research) and let you choose the headers of your method section according to your preferred structure and focus, some have precise guidelines and strict limitations, for example, on manuscript length and the maximum number of subsections or header levels. Make sure you read the instructions of your target journal carefully and restructure your method section if necessary before submission. If the journal does not give you enough space to include all the details that you deem necessary, then you can usually submit additional details as “supplemental” files and refer to those in the main text where necessary.

Standardized checklists

In addition to ethical guidelines and approval, journals also often ask you to submit one of the official standardized checklists for different study types to ensure all essential details are included in your manuscript. For example, there are checklists for randomized clinical trials, CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) , cohort, case-control, cross‐sectional studies, STROBE (STrengthening the Reporting of OBservational studies in Epidemiology ), diagnostic accuracy, STARD (STAndards for the Reporting of Diagnostic accuracy studies) , systematic reviews and meta‐analyses PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta‐Analyses) , and Case reports, CARE (CAse REport) .

Make sure you check if the manuscript uses a single- or double-blind review procedure , and delete all information that might allow a reviewer to guess where the authors are located from the manuscript text if necessary. This means that your method section cannot list the name and location of your institution, the names of researchers who conducted specific tests, or the name of your institutional ethics committee.  

Accurate and Appropriate Language in the Methods Section

Like all sections of your research paper, your method section needs to be written in an academic tone . That means it should be formal, vague expressions and colloquial language need to be avoided, and you need to correctly cite all your sources. If you describe human participants in your method section then you should be especially careful about your choice of words. For example, “participants” sounds more respectful than “subjects,” and patient-first language, that is, “patients with cancer,” is considered more appropriate than “cancer patients” by many journals.

Passive voice is often considered the standard for research papers, but it is completely fine to mix passive and active voice, even in the method section, to make your text as clear and concise as possible. Use the simple past tense to describe what you did, and the present tense when you refer to diagrams or tables. Have a look at this article if you need more general input on which verb tenses to use in a research paper . 

Lastly, make sure you label all the standard tests and questionnaires you use correctly (look up the original publication when in doubt) and spell genes and proteins according to the common databases for the species you studied, such as the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee database for human studies .  

Visit Wordvice AI’s AI Text Editor to receive a free grammar check and English editing services (including manuscript editing , paper editing , and dissertation editing ) before submitting your manuscript to journal editors.

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Advanced Research Methods

Writing the research paper.

• What Is Research?
• Library Research
• Writing a Research Proposal

Before Writing the Paper

Methods, thesis and hypothesis, clarity, precision and academic expression, format your paper, typical problems, a few suggestions, avoid plagiarism.

• Presenting the Research Paper

Find a topic.

• Try to find a subject that really interests you.
• While you explore the topic, narrow or broaden your target and focus on something that gives the most promising results.
• Don't choose a huge subject if you have to write a 3 page long paper, and broaden your topic sufficiently if you have to submit at least 25 pages.
• Consult your class instructor (and your classmates) about the topic.

Explore the topic.

• Find primary and secondary sources in the library.
• Read and critically analyse them.
• Take notes.
• Compile surveys, collect data, gather materials for quantitative analysis (if these are good methods to investigate the topic more deeply).
• Come up with new ideas about the topic. Try to formulate your ideas in a few sentences.
• Review your notes and other materials and enrich the outline.
• Try to estimate how long the individual parts will be.
• Do others understand what you want to say?
• Do they accept it as new knowledge or relevant and important for a paper?
• Do they agree that your thoughts will result in a successful paper?
• Qualitative: gives answers on questions (how, why, when, who, what, etc.) by investigating an issue
• Quantitative:requires data and the analysis of data as well
• the essence, the point of the research paper in one or two sentences.
• a statement that can be proved or disproved.
• Be specific.
• Avoid ambiguity.
• Use predominantly the active voice, not the passive.
• Deal with one issue in one paragraph.
• Be accurate.
• Double-check your data, references, citations and statements.

Academic Expression

• Don't use familiar style or colloquial/slang expressions.
• Write in full sentences.
• Check the meaning of the words if you don't know exactly what they mean.
• Avoid metaphors.
• Almost the rough content of every paragraph.
• The order of the various topics in your paper.
• On the basis of the outline, start writing a part by planning the content, and then write it down.
• Put a visible mark (which you will later delete) where you need to quote a source, and write in the citation when you finish writing that part or a bigger part.
• Does the text make sense?
• Could you explain what you wanted?
• Did you write good sentences?
• Is there something missing?
• Check the spelling.
• Complete the citations, bring them in standard format.

Use the guidelines that your instructor requires (MLA, Chicago, APA, Turabian, etc.).

• Adjust margins, spacing, paragraph indentation, place of page numbers, etc.
• Standardize the bibliography or footnotes according to the guidelines.

• EndNote and EndNote Basic by UCLA Library Last Updated Jul 3, 2024 1577 views this year
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(Based on English Composition 2 from Illinois Valley Community College):

• Weak organization
• Poor support and development of ideas
• Weak use of secondary sources
• Excessive errors
• Stylistic weakness

When collecting materials, selecting research topic, and writing the paper:

• Be systematic and organized (e.g. keep your bibliography neat and organized; write your notes in a neat way, so that you can find them later on.
• Use your critical thinking ability when you read.
• Write down your thoughts (so that you can reconstruct them later).
• Stop when you have a really good idea and think about whether you could enlarge it to a whole research paper. If yes, take much longer notes.
• When you write down a quotation or summarize somebody else's thoughts in your notes or in the paper, cite the source (i.e. write down the author, title, publication place, year, page number).
• If you quote or summarize a thought from the internet, cite the internet source.
• Write an outline that is detailed enough to remind you about the content.
• Read your paper for yourself or, preferably, somebody else. 
• When you finish writing, check the spelling;
• Use the citation form (MLA, Chicago, or other) that your instructor requires and use it everywhere.

Plagiarism : somebody else's words or ideas presented without citation by an author

• Cite your source every time when you quote a part of somebody's work.
• Cite your source  every time when you summarize a thought from somebody's work.
• Cite your source  every time when you use a source (quote or summarize) from the Internet.

Consult the Citing Sources research guide for further details.

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Writing a scientific paper.

• Writing a lab report
• INTRODUCTION

Writing a "good" methods section

"methods checklist" from: how to write a good scientific paper. chris a. mack. spie. 2018..

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The purpose is to provide enough detail that a competent worker could repeat the experiment. Many of your readers will skip this section because they already know from the Introduction the general methods you used. However careful writing of this section is important because for your results to be of scientific merit they must be reproducible. Otherwise your paper does not represent good science.

• Exact technical specifications and quantities and source or method of preparation
• Describe equipment used and provide illustrations where relevant.
• Chronological presentation (but related methods described together)
• Questions about "how" and "how much" are answered for the reader and not left for them to puzzle over
• Discuss statistical methods only if unusual or advanced
• When a large number of components are used prepare tables for the benefit of the reader
• Do not state the action without stating the agent of the action
• Describe how the results were generated with sufficient detail so that an independent researcher (working in the same field) could reproduce the results sufficiently to allow validation of the conclusions.
• Can the reader assess internal validity (conclusions are supported by the results presented)?
• Can the reader assess external validity (conclusions are properly generalized beyond these specific results)?
• Has the chosen method been justified?
• Are data analysis and statistical approaches justified, with assumptions and biases considered?
• Avoid: including results in the Method section; including extraneous details (unnecessary to enable reproducibility or judge validity); treating the method as a chronological history of events; unneeded references to commercial products; references to “proprietary” products or processes unavailable to the reader. 
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Organizing Academic Research Papers: 6. The Methodology

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study’s validity is judged. The method section answers two main questions: 1) How was the data collected or generated? 2) How was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and written in the past tense.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

• Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you choose affects the results and, by extension, how you likely interpreted those results.
• Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and it misappropriates interpretations of findings .
• In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. Your methodology section of your paper should make clear the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure .
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
• The research method must be appropriate to the objectives of the study . For example, be sure you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
• The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring . For any problems that did arise, you must describe the ways in which their impact was minimized or why these problems do not affect the findings in any way that impacts your interpretation of the data.
• Often in social science research, it is useful for other researchers to adapt or replicate your methodology. Therefore, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow others to use or replicate the study . This information is particularly important when a new method had been developed or an innovative use of an existing method has been utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article . Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

• The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences. This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation .
• The interpretative group is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . This research method allows you to recognize your connection to the subject under study. Because the interpretative group focuses more on subjective knowledge, it requires careful interpretation of variables.

II. Content

An effectively written methodology section should:

• Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods should have a clear connection with your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is unsuited to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
• Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom.
• Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors?
• Provide background and rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
• Provide a rationale for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of statisics being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate.
• Address potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE :  Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but to the point. Don’t provide any background information that doesn’t directly help the reader to understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how it was analyzed. Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. NOTE: An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional approach to doing the method; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall research process. Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose. Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section. Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics. Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship . S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

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• v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

Writing a Research Paper

The information search process, some definitions.

• Choosing a Topic and Identifying Keywords
• Finding Library Materials: Using LibGuides
• Using HillSearch (Library Catalog) to Find Books, Ebooks, And Streaming Media
• Search Databases for Scholarly Journal Articles
• Synthesizing Sources
• Citing Your Research/Creating a Bibliography
• Where to Get Help with Research and Writing

Your Librarian

Have you been assigned a research paper or presentation and are uncertain where to begin? Librarians are here to help you at each step of the research process, from initial topic selection to preparing your bibliography. In her work, Rutgers Information Science Professor Carol Kuhthau defines the steps of  the  Information Search Process  and the feelings researchers experience during each part of it -including occasional feelings of frustration and discouragement. Recognizing that frustration can be part of the research process can help you in the long run. Grappling with initial discomfort can ultimately help you develop your thesis statement, craft arguments and find the resources that best meet your research needs..

The chart below describes The Information Search Process, the tasks related to each step of the process, and the related feelings you may experience.

We're happy to meet with you one-on-one to help you with your research and compiling your citations. Click on the "Book an Appointment" link in our profile boxes to set up a meeting. If you don't see a time that meets your needs, email us.

Your professor might require a specific type or number of sources for your assignment. The following definitions might be of help understanding the assignment. These definitions have been adapted from the Online Dictionary of Library and Information Science .

Abstract -  A brief, objective representation of the essential content of a book, article, speech, report, dissertation, patent, standard, or other work, presenting the main points in the same order as the original but having no independent literary value. A well-prepared abstract enables the reader to 1) quickly identify the basic content of the document, 2) determine its relevance to their interests, and 3) decide whether it is worth their time to read the entire document

Annotated Bibliography -  A bibliography in which a brief explanatory or evaluative note is added to each reference/citation and abstract. An annotation can be helpful to the researcher in evaluating whether the source is relevant to a given topic or line of inquiry. For more information, watch our video tutorial on creating an annotated bibliography .

Primary Source (non/science topics)  -  A  document or record containing firsthand information or original data on a topic, used in preparing a new (derivative) work. Primary sources include original manuscripts, periodical articles reporting original research or thought, diaries, memoirs, letters, journals, photographs, drawings, posters, film footage, sheet music, songs, interviews, government documents, public records, eyewitness accounts, newspaper clippings, etc.

Primary Source/Primary Study (science topics) -  Also called empirical research studies, primary research studies in the sciences report on an experiment that was performed by the author(s) of the study.  These articles are formatted similarly to a lab report, and will contain the following sections: Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References.  Primary research studies will often contain data tables, graphs, and statistical analyses.

Scholarly Journal - A journal  publishing original research and commentary on current developments in a specific discipline, subdiscipline, or field of study (example: Journal of Clinical Epidemiology ). Scholarly journals are usually published in quarterly, bimonthly, or monthly issues sold by subscription (click here to see an example). Articles in scholarly journals are usually written by the person (or persons) who conducted the research. Longer than most magazine articles, they almost always include a bibliography or list of works cited at the end. In journals in the sciences and social sciences, an abstract usually precedes the text of the article, summarizing its content. Most scholarly journals are peer-reviewed, meaning article drafts are reviewed by a panel of experts prior to publication and any needed edits are made by the author. Not all periodicals are scholarly. Some are popular magazines - such as Time or People . Other periodicals are produced for a particular discipline - such as Inc. or Education Week - but articles are written by journalists, not disciplinary experts.

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• Last Updated: Jul 15, 2024 10:53 AM
• URL: https://libguides.stonehill.edu/writing_a_research_paper

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MIT researchers introduce generative AI for databases

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A new tool makes it easier for database users to perform complicated statistical analyses of tabular data without the need to know what is going on behind the scenes.

GenSQL, a generative AI system for databases, could help users make predictions, detect anomalies, guess missing values, fix errors, or generate synthetic data with just a few keystrokes.

For instance, if the system were used to analyze medical data from a patient who has always had high blood pressure, it could catch a blood pressure reading that is low for that particular patient but would otherwise be in the normal range.

GenSQL automatically integrates a tabular dataset and a generative probabilistic AI model, which can account for uncertainty and adjust their decision-making based on new data.

Moreover, GenSQL can be used to produce and analyze synthetic data that mimic the real data in a database. This could be especially useful in situations where sensitive data cannot be shared, such as patient health records, or when real data are sparse.

This new tool is built on top of SQL, a programming language for database creation and manipulation that was introduced in the late 1970s and is used by millions of developers worldwide.

“Historically, SQL taught the business world what a computer could do. They didn’t have to write custom programs, they just had to ask questions of a database in high-level language. We think that, when we move from just querying data to asking questions of models and data, we are going to need an analogous language that teaches people the coherent questions you can ask a computer that has a probabilistic model of the data,” says Vikash Mansinghka ’05, MEng ’09, PhD ’09, senior author of a paper introducing GenSQL and a principal research scientist and leader of the Probabilistic Computing Project in the MIT Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences.

When the researchers compared GenSQL to popular, AI-based approaches for data analysis, they found that it was not only faster but also produced more accurate results. Importantly, the probabilistic models used by GenSQL are explainable, so users can read and edit them.

“Looking at the data and trying to find some meaningful patterns by just using some simple statistical rules might miss important interactions. You really want to capture the correlations and the dependencies of the variables, which can be quite complicated, in a model. With GenSQL, we want to enable a large set of users to query their data and their model without having to know all the details,” adds lead author Mathieu Huot, a research scientist in the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences and member of the Probabilistic Computing Project.

They are joined on the paper by Matin Ghavami and Alexander Lew, MIT graduate students; Cameron Freer, a research scientist; Ulrich Schaechtle and Zane Shelby of Digital Garage; Martin Rinard, an MIT professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and member of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL); and Feras Saad ’15, MEng ’16, PhD ’22, an assistant professor at Carnegie Mellon University. The research was recently presented at the ACM Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation.

Combining models and databases

SQL, which stands for structured query language, is a programming language for storing and manipulating information in a database. In SQL, people can ask questions about data using keywords, such as by summing, filtering, or grouping database records.

However, querying a model can provide deeper insights, since models can capture what data imply for an individual. For instance, a female developer who wonders if she is underpaid is likely more interested in what salary data mean for her individually than in trends from database records.

The researchers noticed that SQL didn’t provide an effective way to incorporate probabilistic AI models, but at the same time, approaches that use probabilistic models to make inferences didn’t support complex database queries.

They built GenSQL to fill this gap, enabling someone to query both a dataset and a probabilistic model using a straightforward yet powerful formal programming language.

A GenSQL user uploads their data and probabilistic model, which the system automatically integrates. Then, she can run queries on data that also get input from the probabilistic model running behind the scenes. This not only enables more complex queries but can also provide more accurate answers.

For instance, a query in GenSQL might be something like, “How likely is it that a developer from Seattle knows the programming language Rust?” Just looking at a correlation between columns in a database might miss subtle dependencies. Incorporating a probabilistic model can capture more complex interactions.   

Plus, the probabilistic models GenSQL utilizes are auditable, so people can see which data the model uses for decision-making. In addition, these models provide measures of calibrated uncertainty along with each answer.

For instance, with this calibrated uncertainty, if one queries the model for predicted outcomes of different cancer treatments for a patient from a minority group that is underrepresented in the dataset, GenSQL would tell the user that it is uncertain, and how uncertain it is, rather than overconfidently advocating for the wrong treatment.

Faster and more accurate results

To evaluate GenSQL, the researchers compared their system to popular baseline methods that use neural networks. GenSQL was between 1.7 and 6.8 times faster than these approaches, executing most queries in a few milliseconds while providing more accurate results.

They also applied GenSQL in two case studies: one in which the system identified mislabeled clinical trial data and the other in which it generated accurate synthetic data that captured complex relationships in genomics.

Next, the researchers want to apply GenSQL more broadly to conduct largescale modeling of human populations. With GenSQL, they can generate synthetic data to draw inferences about things like health and salary while controlling what information is used in the analysis.

They also want to make GenSQL easier to use and more powerful by adding new optimizations and automation to the system. In the long run, the researchers want to enable users to make natural language queries in GenSQL. Their goal is to eventually develop a ChatGPT-like AI expert one could talk to about any database, which grounds its answers using GenSQL queries.   

This research is funded, in part, by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), Google, and the Siegel Family Foundation.

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Simplicits: Mesh-Free, Geometry-Agnostic, Elastic Simulation

Simplicits: Mesh-free volumetric simulation of objects represented by explicit triangle meshes, point clouds, implicit functions, Computed Tomography volumes,NeRFs, and Gaussian Splats, all produced using our data-free neural fields-based simulation algorithm. Here we show frames from 60 of the 140+ simulations performed.

The proliferation of 3D representations, from explicit meshes to implicit neural fields and more, motivates the need for simulators agnostic to rep- resentation. We present a data-, mesh-, and grid-free solution for elastic simulation for any object in any geometric representation undergoing large, nonlinear deformations. We note that every standard geometric representa- tion can be reduced to an occupancy function queried at any point in space, and we define a simulator atop this common interface. For each object, we fit a small implicit neural network encoding spatially varying weights that act as a reduced deformation basis. These weights are trained to learn physically significant motions in the object via random perturbations. Our loss ensures we find a weight-space basis that best minimizes deformation energy by stochastically evaluating elastic energies through Monte Carlo sampling of the deformation volume. At runtime, we simulate in the reduced basis and sample the deformations back to the original domain. Our experiments demonstrate the versatility, accuracy, and speed of this approach on data including signed distance functions, point clouds, neural primitives, tomog- raphy scans, radiance fields, Gaussian splats, surface meshes, and volume meshes, as well as showing a variety of material energies, contact models, and time integration schemes.

Pipeline overview. First, the skinning weights \(\mathbf{W}_\theta\) are learned by minimizing the potential and orthogonality losses over randomized deformations (\(N\) is the number of samples, and \(n\) is the number of skinning handles). Then, given physical material properties and scene conditions, keyframes of transformation-per-handle \(\mathbf{Z}\) are generated, and finally combined into an animated object.

Gaussian Splat Ficus

Gaussian splat bulldozer, point-sampled nerf frog, ct scanned heterogenous skull/brain, thin mesh ribbon, signed distance function mandelbulb.

Acknowledgment

This work is funded in part by NSF (1846368, 2313076), NSERC Discovery, Ontario Early Researchers Award Program, the Canada Research Chairs Program, gifts by Adobe and Autodesk. We appreciate invaluable feedback from Otman Benchekroun, as well as Abhishek Madan. We thank John Hancock for IT support. Finally, we thank anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions.

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 15.7.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

The Use of Telepsychiatry Services in Emergency Settings: Scoping Review

Authors of this article:

• Ligat Shalev 1 , PhD   ; 
• Renana Eitan 2 * , MD   ; 
• Adam J Rose 1 * , MSc, MD  

1 School of Public Health, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel

2 Psychiatric Division, Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel

*these authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Ligat Shalev, PhD

School of Public Health, Hebrew University

Ein Kerem Campus

Jerusalem, 91120

Phone: 972 0507554025

Email: [email protected]

Background: Telepsychiatry (TP), a live video meeting, has been implemented in many contexts and settings. It has a distinct advantage in the psychiatric emergency department (ED) setting, as it expedites expert assessments for psychiatric patients. However, limited knowledge exits for TP’s effectiveness in the ED setting, as well as the process of implementing TP in this setting.

Objective: This scoping review aimed to review the existing evidence for the administrative and clinical outcomes for TP in the ED setting and to identify the barriers and facilitators to implementing TP in this setting.

Methods: The scoping review was conducted according to the guidelines for the PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews). Three electronic databases were examined: PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. The databases were searched from January 2013 to April 2023 for papers and their bibliography. A total of 2816 potentially relevant papers were retrieved from the initial search. Studies were screened and selected independently by 2 authors.

Results: A total of 11 articles were included. Ten papers reported on administrative and clinical outcomes of TP use in the ED setting and 1 on the barriers and facilitators of its implementation. TP is used in urban and rural areas and for settings with and with no on-site psychiatric services. Evidence shows that TP reduced waiting time for psychiatric evaluation, but in some studies, it was associated with prolonged total length of stay in the ED compared with in-person evaluation. Findings indicate lower admission rates in patients assessed with TP in the ED. Limited data were reported for TP costs, its use for involuntary commitment evaluations, and its use for particular subgroups of patients (eg, those with a particular diagnosis). A single paper examined TP implementation process in the ED, which explored the barriers and facilitators for implementation among patients and staff in a rural setting.

Conclusions: Based on the extant studies, TP seems to be generally feasible and acceptable to key stakeholders. However, this review detected a gap in the literature regarding TP’s effectiveness and implementation process in the ED setting. Specific attention should be paid to the examination of this service for specific groups of patients, as well as its use to enable assessments for possible involuntary commitment.

Introduction

Telepsychiatry use over the years.

The history of telepsychiatry (TP) began with doubts about its use [ 1 , 2 ]. While there are still questions about TP, it has gained increasing acceptance in recent years, as reflected through changes in relevant regulations [ 3 ]. TP is used for psychiatric assessment, treatment, and follow-up [ 4 ]. So far, the most prevalent technologies used for TP are by telephone [ 5 ], email [ 6 ], or recorded or live videos and hybrid models [ 7 ]. TP is used in the private [ 8 ] and public sectors, including for primary care [ 9 ] and secondary care [ 10 ]. TP has also been delivered in clinical settings [ 10 ] and in patients’ home environments [ 11 ]. TP has been used to treat different mental health conditions, and in different situations, including suicide attempts, self-harm, schizophrenia, and dual diagnosis of mental health conditions with substance abuse [ 12 ]. TP has been adapted to different treatment approaches, including for individuals [ 13 ] and group sessions [ 14 ]. TP has been used in both urban [ 15 ] and rural areas [ 11 ].

Current Evidence for Effectiveness of TP and Regarding Its Implementation

Various studies have examined the effectiveness of TP, often compared with face-to-face treatment approaches. In terms of accuracy of diagnosis and treatment decisions, TP has been shown to be as accurate as meeting with patients in person [ 16 , 17 ]. Using TP has been shown to reduce emergency department (ED) length of stay (LOS) by allowing more rapid access to psychiatric expertise [ 17 ]. For similar reasons, TP has been shown to reduce admission rates [ 18 ]. TP has been used to provide on-site psychiatric services to hospitals that previously did not have any [ 19 ]. Both patients [ 20 ] and providers [ 17 ] showed high satisfaction rates.

TP has also been examined using cost-effectiveness analyses [ 21 ], and at least some studies have found that it is cost saving compared with usual care [ 22 , 23 ]. Other studies have examined the process of implementing TP in different settings [ 9 , 24 - 26 ]. For example, some studies have detailed the experience of implementing remote mental health consultations during the COVID-19 [ 27 ], or reasons why some ED directors are avoiding the use of remote services, including TP [ 28 ].

Specific Challenges When Using TP for Psychiatric Emergencies

TP has advantages for general use, but it may have a particularly important role in addressing psychiatric emergencies. Most people find the ED an uncomfortable place to be [ 29 ]. However, for patients experiencing psychiatric emergencies, the ED may be even worse. The ED may exacerbate patients’ agitation, which may put health care providers or other bystanders at risk for violence [ 29 ]. In addition to this immediate effect, the ED can also have a long-term effect on psychiatric patients. Faessler and colleagues [ 30 ] found that psychological distress could last up to 30 days after ED discharge for patients with psychiatric disorders. Considering these data, TP may be a highly useful solution for ED settings, if it can help minimize patients’ time in the ED [ 31 ].

In the last few years, several reviews summarized the current evidence of TP services in the ED setting. One study reviewed the current data on acute situations but included not just psychiatric services but other practices and also included home-based services in addition to the ED setting [ 11 ]. A second review examined the barriers and facilitators of implementing TP, but most of the studies that were included did not focus on the use of TP for emergency settings [ 26 ]. A third study reviewed TP interventions in emergency and crisis situations, but this review included studies published more than a decade ago, when video-link technology was much less developed [ 32 ]. Thus, no updated published review of TP use for adult emergencies is available.

TP may bridge critical gaps in mental health care access and quality, addressing key issues, such as prolonged waiting times or workforce shortages, that hinder timely and effective patient care. Thus, TP has considerable potential to help improve service delivery and outcomes in mental health. To our knowledge, reviews assessing the use of TP in emergency settings in the past 10 years have not been conducted. Given the limited evidence, the objectives of this review were to search the literature on psychiatric live video meeting in emergency settings, to assess the overall findings regarding clinical and implementation outcomes, and to enumerate the barriers and facilitators for successful implementation.

We conducted this scoping review following the methodological guidance proposed by Arksey and O’Malley [ 33 ], Levac et al [ 34 ], and The Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewers’ Manual [ 35 ]. The 5 stages used in this scoping review were based on guidelines from Arksey and O’Malley: (1) identifying the research question; (2) identifying the relevant studies; (3) study selection; (4) charting the data; and (5) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results [ 33 ]. Our study focused on the current administrative and clinical evidence regarding the use of TP services in the ED setting, as well as the factors affecting their implementation in the ED setting. The reporting of this scoping review was guided by the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist [ 36 ] ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ).

Search Strategy

We searched 3 electronic databases, including PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science, using the following terms and combinations: (1) psychiatry, mental health, mental disorder, mental health care, and mental disease; (2) telepsychiatry, telemedicine, virtual medicine, tele health, eHealth, telecare, tele emergency, and digital mental health; and (3) video, video conference, videoconferencing, conference meeting, streaming, zoom, remote consultation, long distance consultation, distance counseling, eCounseling, and web-based counseling ( Multimedia Appendix 2 ).

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies were included based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and if they met the population, concept, and context categorization recommended by The Joanna Briggs Institute [ 35 ] ( Table 1 ). We included studies focused on individuals 18 years of age and older who had a psychiatric session. Due to the different nature of the following patient groups, they were excluded from the search: children, couple or group sessions, and patients who have been arrested or convicted. While it was allowable for the clinician to address substance abuse as part of the service, we did not include studies solely addressing substance abuse issues. We also focused solely on 2-way video assessment and excluded other modes of communication such as telephone or asynchronous text messages.

We did make an exception to our rule about patient ages to include 3 especially important and broad-based studies. These studies were conducted nationwide [ 37 , 38 ] and statewide [ 15 ] and involved patients of all ages. We also focused on studies conducted within the past 10 years, due to significant advances in video-link technology around that time. We focused on the dates of data collection rather than publication, since a variable period may elapse between data collection and publication. Two studies started data collection on October 2012 for and finished collecting data years later; we decided to include these studies [ 39 , 40 ].

a ED: emergency department.

b Not applicable.

Screening and Selection of Studies

The initial search of the 3 databases yielded 2,686 results. The hand search of the selected papers’ bibliography identified 130 additional records. After duplicates were removed, 1967 (69.8%) records were reviewed. The titles and abstracts of 69.8% (1967/2816) of the articles were screened, and 89.2% (1754/1967) of the articles were excluded as being not relevant. LS performed the initial screening to identify articles that were clearly not relevant, keeping articles that were questionably relevant or probably relevant. Then LS and AR performed independent full-text review of the 213 retained articles. A total of 94.8% (202/213) articles were excluded based on the reasons shown in Figure 1 . A total of 11 publications were ultimately included in the scoping review. In case of disagreement, LS and AR discussed the article until agreement was reached. The reasons for exclusion, as well as the entire selection procedure, are shown in the PRISMA flow diagram ( Figure 1 ).

Charting the Data

The articles included in this scoping review were reviewed and results were recorded using a Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corp) data charting table. The table included general information about the study characteristics (authors, publication year, title, data collection period, country, study purpose, study design, setting, and sample), a description of the TP service and usual care if applicable, outcome measures (administrative and clinical or process outcomes), and main study results.

Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

Included studies were examined thoroughly to understand similarities and differences. We had the following main categories of study outcomes: (1) administrative outcomes (eg, ED LOS, or mental illness spending); (2) clinical outcomes (eg, admission disposition or patient and providers satisfaction); and (3) process outcomes of TP implementation.

A total of 11 articles were included for data extraction in this scoping review, as can be seen in the PRISMA flowchart ( Figure 1 ).

Characteristics of the Studies

Although the search strategy was from January 2013 to April 2023, the studies that were identified and included collected data between October 2012 and 2023, and were published between 2015 and 2023. Of the 11 articles, 9 were published in the United States [ 15 , 19 , 37 - 43 ],1 in Australia [ 44 ], and 1 in Israel [ 45 ]. Of the 11 studies, 10 [ 15 , 19 , 37 - 43 , 45 ] were quantitative studies that examined administrative or clinical measurements of TP use, and 1 was a qualitative study that examined process outcomes [ 44 ]. Of the 10 quantitative studies, 3 were non–randomized controlled studies [ 40 , 41 , 45 ], 3 cross-sectional studies [ 15 , 19 , 38 ], 3 cohort studies [ 37 , 39 , 43 ], and 1 randomized controlled study [ 42 ] ( Table 2 ).

In the next section, we will summarize the results of our review, organized by our 2 main research questions, namely (1) to review the existing evidence for both administrative and clinical outcomes of TP in the ED setting and (2) to identify the known barriers and facilitators to implementing TP in this setting.

First research question: what is the existing evidence for both administrative and clinical outcomes of TP in the ED setting?

b TP: telepsychiatry.

c LOS: length of stay.

d RCT: randomized controlled trial.

Scope and Location of Studies

The 10 studies that examined administrative and clinical outcomes in EDs varied in terms of the research population, study scope, and location. Three of the studies were conducted nationwide in the United States [ 19 , 37 , 38 ], 3 statewide (2 in North Carolina and 1 in New York) [ 15 , 39 , 40 ], and 4 regional in 1 or several local EDs [ 41 - 43 , 45 ]. Of the 10 studies, 3 provided TP services only in rural or remote areas [ 39 , 40 , 43 ], 3 in urban areas [ 41 , 42 , 45 ], and 4 in a mix of urban and rural areas [ 15 , 19 , 37 , 38 ]. Of the 4 studies with rural and urban EDs, 2 reported that most of the TP use occurred in urban areas [ 15 , 19 ] and 2 in rural areas [ 37 , 38 ]. It is worth noting that none of the included studies focused primarily on a comparison between the use of TP in rural and urban areas.

On-site Psychiatric Services and TP Services

Some papers reported whether the medical centers using TP in fact had on-site psychiatric services some of the time, as opposed to having none at all. Three studies reported that less than 20% of their study sites lacked on-site psychiatric service [ 15 , 37 , 38 ], while 1 study reported that 65% of their study sites lacked on-site psychiatric service [ 19 ], and only 1 study reported that all EDs included in their sample lacked on-site psychiatric services [ 41 ]. In addition, TP was reported to be the only form of emergency psychiatric services for more than half of the EDs that participated in 2 nationwide studies in the United States in 2017 and 2019 [ 37 , 38 ].

Effect of TP on Waiting Times in EDs

Two studies examined the effect of TP on waiting time from ED arrival until psychiatric assessment [ 41 , 43 ], while 4 examined the impact on ED LOS from arrival to discharge or admission [ 19 , 37 , 38 , 43 ]. Both studies that examined waiting time for psychiatric evaluation found it significantly lower for TP evaluation compared with in-person [ 41 , 43 ]. Of the 4 studies that examined total ED LOS, 2 showed a significant prolonged ED LOS for TP compared with in-person visits [ 19 , 43 ]; the other 2 studies showed similar prevalence in ED LOS for the same EDs in 2017 and in 2019 [ 37 , 38 ].

Effect of TP on Discharge, Admission, and Transfer to Another Facility

Six studies examined the impact of TP on discharge, admission, and transfer to another facility. Three studies found that TP was associated with significantly lower admission rates compared with in-person visits [ 19 , 40 , 43 ];1 study showed no significant differences in admission rates between TP and in-person evaluation (55% vs 63%; P =.06) [ 42 ]; and 1 study found that EDs that used TP had significantly more admissions than EDs without this service (14% vs 12%; P< .001) [ 15 ]. One study examined whether TP had an impact on the rate of transfers to another facility. The findings were nuanced; total rates of transfer were lower, but among patients with a LOS of 1-2 days the rate of transfer was higher than with in-person care [ 40 ]. Another study that examined patients’ transfer to another facility did not find significant differences between TP patients (31%) compared with in-person (24%) [ 43 ].

Several studies reported on the costs involved with TP. Saeed and colleagues [ 39 ] had examined the cost impact of 19,383 TP visits to 30 EDs in North Carolina. Seventy percent of the visits were encounters for involuntary commitments, and of these, 34% were converted to voluntary hospitalizations sometime before the end of the hospital stay, through a TP encounter. The aggregate cost savings for these conversions of involuntary to voluntary hospitalizations were more than US $20 million [ 39 ].

A national study in 22 US EDs found a significant increase in admissions for TP visits compared with in-person visits, which resulted with a significant increase in spending in a 90-day follow-up analysis [ 19 ]. Another study examined 3 diagnosis groups and found that the significantly most expensive TP visits were for substance abuse cases (US $4556), followed by suicide and self-harm cases (US $3559), and anxiety, mood, and other health disorders case (US $3355) [ 43 ].

Data on Involuntary Commitment Cases

We found limited evidence regarding evaluations for involuntary commitment via TP. As mentioned earlier, Saeed et al [ 39 ] examined cost impact of using TP to enable staff to convert involuntary commitments into voluntary hospitalizations. In another study focused on examining the accuracy of TP compared with in-person evaluations, Bistre et al [ 45 ] evaluated the reliability of TP assessments compared with in-person assessments for involuntary admissions. An interrater agreement on recommended disposition and on indication for involuntary admission between raters was high [ 45 ]. Psychiatrists’ perceived certainty rates were high for both TP and in-person evaluations. Participants reported a high level of satisfaction with both TP and in-person evaluations, which were not significantly different [ 45 ]. In a separate study, patients reported that they were highly satisfied with TP use in the ED, although it was not used to evaluate for involuntary commitment [ 41 ].

Special Behavioral Diagnostic Groups

Some studies have at least implied that TP may not be suitable for some groups of patients that require special attention. A study conducted in the United States found that TP was associated with a reduced wait time until psychiatric assessment, but a longer total ED LOS, compared with usual care. Interestingly, 36% (102/287) of the participants in the TP group were diagnosed as suicide and self-harm, compared with 22% (34/153) in the control group. This study also reported that the time from the end of TP assessment to disposition or discharge was significantly longer for patients with suicide and self-harm than for patients who were diagnosed with anxiety, mood, and other mental health disorders [ 43 ]. Those findings are implying that the poor TP performance may be related to the enlarged diagnosis group that requires more observation in the ED and not a result of TP use. In a national study that included patients with different diagnosis, TP was associated with longer ED LOS, more admissions, and greater costs. Yet, a nonsignificant higher rate of suicide and self-harm cases was found in the TP group (4925/35,861, 14%) compared with the in-person group (3734/34,982, 11%), suggesting, again, that the results may be affected by differences in patient characteristics between the TP group and the control group [ 19 ].

Having examined the existing evidence for TP’s impact on administrative and clinical outcomes in EDs, we will now move to the second research question. In the following section, we will describe the current evidence about the barriers and facilitators to implementing TP in these settings, understanding that successful implementation hinges on navigating these elements.

Second research question: what are the known barriers and facilitators to implementing TP in ED setting?

Our second research question revolves around the implementation process for TP in the ED setting. We found only 1 such study, which was conducted in a rural region of Australia, where the TP service was the main psychiatric service available [ 44 ]. The study was organized around the 6 concepts of the theory of access [ 46 ]. The following are the key findings, organized by these 6 concepts: (1) Accessibility : the staff were able to access mental health specialists for immediate assistance without transferring patients to another facility; (2) Availability : the service was valued as an available resource and eased the demands placed upon staff during emergency mental health presentations; (3) Acceptability : the service was acceptable to the providers and was a constant and easy resource; (4) Affordability : there were no direct costs borne by the providers or the hospitals to use TP to involve a psychiatrist, and it was free for the patients; (5) Adequacy : the 24-hour structure of the program was adequate to the clinical needs, particularly after-hours and on weekends; (6) Awareness : other than 1 provider, everyone else was aware of the service and had some experience using it [ 44 ]. In addition, the service provided a sense of security to the providers. They reported that before the service started, they had felt alone, unsupported, and lacking confidence when dealing with emergency mental health presentations [ 44 ]. All these improved due to the arrival of TP.

Principal Findings

We performed a scoping review to examine the literature regarding the use of TP for adult emergencies. We summarized the evidence regarding (1) administrative and clinical outcomes for patients; and (2) process outcomes of implementing the TP service. Although TP is a known method for psychiatric evaluation, treatment, and follow-up, we found only 11 studies over the past decade to evaluate its application to the ED setting. Ten of these studies evaluated administrative and clinical outcomes, and only 1 study evaluated the implementation process.

Our review included articles that evaluated TP use in various settings and contexts. TP was acceptable and feasible nationally in the United States [ 15 , 19 , 37 , 38 ] and in a study of 7 Australian provinces [ 44 ]. We also found that TP was used in urban areas [ 41 , 42 , 45 ] and rural areas [ 40 , 47 ]. In some cases, TP was used in EDs as the only psychiatric service available [ 41 ]. The 1 study we found about the implementation process reported that TP was accepted and mostly appreciated by the ED staff, especially due to the lack of psychiatric expertise in their setting [ 44 ]. TP was also used for different sorts of patients, including those with anxiety and mood disorders and those with suicide or self-harm [ 43 , 45 ]. The identified lack of evidence regarding the use of TP in EDs significantly impacts our analysis, underscoring a crucial area where further research is needed to draw comprehensive conclusions. This gap highlights the limitations in our current understanding and emphasizes the necessity for targeted studies to elucidate the efficacy and implementation of TP in ED settings. Despite the limited number of studies we found, this diversity of settings and uses somewhat strengthens the argument that TP is broadly applicable across different ED settings and different patient groups.

Waiting Times

On the issue of ED waiting times, the existing evidence is mixed. Two studies showed that the ED waiting time from patients’ arrival until psychiatric evaluation was significantly lower for TP visits than for in-person visits [ 41 , 43 ]. However, 2 studies found that the total ED LOS was significantly longer for TP visits than for in-person visits [ 19 , 43 ]. Unfortunately, none of the included studies examined waiting times from the psychiatric evaluation until admission or discharge for TP compared with in-person visits, so this remains an unexamined issue. However, because TP is shortening waiting times for initial psychiatric assessment, this may contribute to putting the patient on a better path from the beginning [ 29 ]. This is supported by the main finding of this review that TP reduced admission rates [ 19 , 40 , 42 , 43 ]. In other words, perhaps the fast psychiatric evaluation by TP resulted in expert psychiatric input to the case sooner, which may partly explain the lower admission rate. Further studies will help clarify these points.

Patients’ Characteristics

Another factor that remains relatively unexamined is whether TP is equally applicable to different sorts of patients. Most enrolled studies did not examine TP use through different patient characteristics, such as diagnosis groups or the need for direct observation. Patients who require direct observation usually have more severe presentations and thus a longer LOS [ 48 ]. Two studies did focus on the use of TP for patients seen for self-harm and suicide; these studies showed higher ED LOS [ 19 , 43 ]. Therefore, there is a need for further studies of patients with these more severe presentations to ensure that TP is applicable to them as well.

Lack of Findings Regarding Patients Evaluated for Involuntary Commitment

Patients requiring evaluation for involuntary commitment are a distinct group. As presented in the Results section, in 1 study, staff used TP to help evaluate which patients had improved enough to have their involuntary commitments converted into voluntary hospitalizations [ 39 ]. However, this does not speak to the initial decision to pursue an involuntary commitment. Given our group’s experience, it may be easy to understand why relatively few studies have evaluated the use of TP for patients evaluated for involuntary commitment. Our ongoing study of this issue required special permission from the Israeli Ministry of Health after consultation with the Ministry of Justice and the Union of Psychiatrists [ 49 ]. Thus, it is easy to see why there have been relatively few studies regarding the use of TP for this special use case and certainly more are needed.

Patient Transfer

Another issue that was examined was the impact on interhospital transfers. One study found that the use of TP increased the number of transfers [ 43 ]. On the other hand, another study showed that among patients with an extended LOS, significantly less TP patients (29%) were transferred to a psychiatric hospital compared with in-person patients [ 40 ]. These divergent results may point to a complex and nuanced effect of TP on doctor-patient relationship. Technology in medicine holds the promise to contribute a more personalized style of care [ 50 ]. However, remote communication between psychiatrists and patients may affect doctor-patient engagement and lack personal touch compared with in-person encounters [ 51 ]. There is a possibility that it is easier for the psychiatrist using TP in emergency cases to decide on transfer rather than admission to the present facility. If there is an association between TP use in the ED and more patient transfers, this could lead to inconvenience for family members, as well as the cost of transport [ 52 ]. The impact of TP on the rate of interfacility transfers also requires further study.

Rural and Urban Areas

TP is perceived often as a critical solution for the lack of mental health services in rural and remote areas [ 31 , 53 ]. However, findings from this review indicate that TP is used in urban areas as well [ 41 , 42 ]. Several studies showed that TP was even more common at urban settings [ 15 , 19 ], even when they have existing on-site psychiatric services [ 15 ]. The demand to use TP even in urban areas may be driven by the fact that the attending physician is at home for more hours than not, and must drive to the hospital. However, rural areas may face special issues with TP use, including inadequate technology literacy [ 2 ], bad internet connectivity [ 54 ], or a general lack of resources [ 2 , 55 ]. Despite these challenges, there is a strong incentive to use TP in rural areas, so it may be worth the effort of addressing the challenges.

Strengths and Limitations

This scoping review had several strengths and limitations. A broad range of the main databases were searched, which allowed a comprehensive search. This review provides robust evidence of the included studies, provides a deeper understanding of the current evidence, and provides the needed data to broaden our understanding of TP in emergency settings.

This review also has some limitations. We examined only those studies published in English. All studies that we found were conducted in developed countries, which provides a limited perspective. In addition, the data we found about the use of TP for evaluations regarding possible involuntary commitment were particularly limited. This will be a key area for future research. We also did not find any studies that specifically compared TP use in urban versus rural settings, or that compared its use for specific groups of patients (eg, by diagnosis). Furthermore, we found only 1 interventional study; the others were observational. However, all our included studies had sample sizes larger than 30 participants and a detailed description of the study methodology. In part, we chose to do a scoping review as opposed to a systematic review, because the available literature was so limited.

Conclusions

TP has a strong evidence base for general use and is known to be acceptable, reliable, and effective. However, only a very few studies in the past decade (11 studies) evaluated its use in the ED. While these studies generally supported the idea that TP was feasible and highly acceptable, it is clear that further studies are needed. Further studies are needed for examining TP evaluations for involuntary commitments in the ED setting. In addition, there is a need for studies on the extent and trends of TP usage over time, including in the context of COVID-19. We also need more comprehensive assessments comparing the effectiveness of TP evaluations with in-person assessments and implementation science research to better understand the barriers, facilitators, and opportunities for adopting this practice in EDs. Special attention should be given to rural areas, which usually have limited access to mental health services and yet may face special challenges in implementing them.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Tomer Ben-Shushan from the Berman Medical Library, Hebrew University, for conducting the database search for the paper.

Authors' Contributions

LS initiated the study and drafted the manuscript. LS and AJR led the scoping review, design, and analysis. All authors (LS, RE, and AJR) discussed the results, reviewed, and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) checklist.

Web-based search strategy conducted on April 24, 2023.

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Abbreviations

Edited by T de Azevedo Cardoso; submitted 13.08.23; peer-reviewed by P Yellowlees, E Eboreime; comments to author 22.02.24; revised version received 25.02.24; accepted 29.04.24; published 15.07.24.

©Ligat Shalev, Renana Eitan, Adam J Rose. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 15.07.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (ISSN 1438-8871), is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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• Types of Research Designs Compared | Guide & Examples

Types of Research Designs Compared | Guide & Examples

Published on June 20, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

When you start planning a research project, developing research questions and creating a  research design , you will have to make various decisions about the type of research you want to do.

There are many ways to categorize different types of research. The words you use to describe your research depend on your discipline and field. In general, though, the form your research design takes will be shaped by:

• The type of knowledge you aim to produce
• The type of data you will collect and analyze
• The sampling methods , timescale and location of the research

This article takes a look at some common distinctions made between different types of research and outlines the key differences between them.

Table of contents

Types of research aims, types of research data, types of sampling, timescale, and location, other interesting articles.

The first thing to consider is what kind of knowledge your research aims to contribute.

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• Academic style
• Vague sentences
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The next thing to consider is what type of data you will collect. Each kind of data is associated with a range of specific research methods and procedures.

Finally, you have to consider three closely related questions: how will you select the subjects or participants of the research? When and how often will you collect data from your subjects? And where will the research take place?

Keep in mind that the methods that you choose bring with them different risk factors and types of research bias . Biases aren’t completely avoidable, but can heavily impact the validity and reliability of your findings if left unchecked.

Choosing between all these different research types is part of the process of creating your research design , which determines exactly how your research will be conducted. But the type of research is only the first step: next, you have to make more concrete decisions about your research methods and the details of the study.

Read more about creating a research design

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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McCombes, S. (2023, June 22). Types of Research Designs Compared | Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved July 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/types-of-research/

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