history of hinduism essay

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: November 16, 2023 | Original: October 6, 2017

Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, according to many scholars, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000 years. Today, with more than 1 billion followers , Hinduism is the third-largest religion worldwide, after Christianity and Islam . Roughly 94 percent of the world’s Hindus live in India. Because the religion has no specific founder, it’s difficult to trace its origins and history. Hinduism is unique in that it’s not a single religion but a compilation of many traditions and philosophies: Hindus worship a number of different gods and minor deities, honor a range of symbols, respect several different holy books and celebrate with a wide variety of traditions, holidays and customs. Though the development of the caste system in India was influenced by Hindu concepts , it has been shaped throughout history by political as well as religious movements, and today is much less rigidly enforced. Today there are four major sects of Hinduism: Shaivism, Vaishnava, Shaktism and Smarta, as well as a number of smaller sects with their own religious practices.

Hinduism Beliefs, Symbols

Some basic Hindu concepts include:

• Hinduism embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, it’s sometimes referred to as a “way of life” or a “family of religions,” as opposed to a single, organized religion.
• Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic, which means they worship a single deity, known as “Brahman,” but still recognize other gods and goddesses. Followers believe there are multiple paths to reaching their god.
• Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation) and karma (the universal law of cause and effect).
• One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is “atman,” or the belief in soul. This philosophy holds that living creatures have a soul, and they’re all part of the supreme soul. The goal is to achieve “moksha,” or salvation, which ends the cycle of rebirths to become part of the absolute soul.
• One fundamental principle of the religion is the idea that people’s actions and thoughts directly determine their current life and future lives.
• Hindus strive to achieve dharma, which is a code of living that emphasizes good conduct and morality.
• Hindus revere all living creatures and consider the cow a sacred animal.
• Food is an important part of life for Hindus. Most don’t eat beef or pork, and many are vegetarians.
• Hinduism is closely related to other Indian religions, including Buddhism , Sikhism and Jainism.

There are two primary symbols associated with Hinduism, the om and the swastika. The word swastika means "good fortune" or "being happy" in Sanskrit, and the symbol represents good luck . (A hooked, diagonal variation of the swastika later became associated with Germany’s Nazi Party  when they made it their symbol in 1920.)

The om symbol is composed of three Sanskrit letters and represents three sounds (a, u and m), which when combined are considered a sacred sound. The om symbol is often found at family shrines and in Hindu temples.

Hinduism Holy Books

Hindus value many sacred writings as opposed to one holy book.

The primary sacred texts, known as the Vedas, were composed around 1500 B.C. This collection of verses and hymns was written in Sanskrit and contains revelations received by ancient saints and sages.

The Vedas are made up of:

• The Rig Veda
• The Samaveda
• Atharvaveda

Hindus believe that the Vedas transcend all time and don’t have a beginning or an end.

The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, 18 Puranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata are also considered important texts in Hinduism.

Origins of Hinduism

Most scholars believe Hinduism started somewhere between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C. in the Indus Valley, near modern-day Pakistan. But many Hindus argue that their faith is timeless and has always existed.

Unlike other religions, Hinduism has no one founder but is instead a fusion of various beliefs.

Around 1500 B.C., the Indo-Aryan people migrated to the Indus Valley, and their language and culture blended with that of the indigenous people living in the region. There’s some debate over who influenced whom more during this time.

The period when the Vedas were composed became known as the “Vedic Period” and lasted from about 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. Rituals, such as sacrifices and chanting, were common in the Vedic Period.

The Epic, Puranic and Classic Periods took place between 500 B.C. and A.D. 500. Hindus began to emphasize the worship of deities, especially Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.

The concept of dharma was introduced in new texts, and other faiths, such as Buddhism and Jainism, spread rapidly.

Hinduism vs. Buddhism

Hinduism and Buddhism have many similarities. Buddhism, in fact, arose out of Hinduism, and both believe in reincarnation, karma and that a life of devotion and honor is a path to salvation and enlightenment. 

But some key differences exist between the two religions: Many strains of Buddhism reject the caste system, and do away with many of the rituals, the priesthood, and the gods that are integral to Hindu faith.

Medieval and Modern Hindu History

The Medieval Period of Hinduism lasted from about A.D. 500 to 1500. New texts emerged, and poet-saints recorded their spiritual sentiments during this time.

In the 7th century, Muslim Arabs began invading areas in India. During parts of the Muslim Period, which lasted from about 1200 to 1757, Islamic rulers prevented Hindus from worshipping their deities, and some temples were destroyed.

Mahatma Gandhi

Between 1757 and 1947, the British controlled India. At first, the new rulers allowed Hindus to practice their religion without interference, but the British soon attempted to exploit aspects of Indian culture as leverage points for political control, in some cases exacerbating Hindu caste divisions even as they promoted westernized, Christian approaches.

Many reformers emerged during the British Period. The well-known politician and peace activist, Mahatma Gandhi , led a movement that pushed for India’s independence.

The partition of India occurred in 1947, and Gandhi was assassinated in 1948. British India was split into what are now the independent nations of India and Pakistan , and Hinduism became the major religion of India.

Starting in the 1960s, many Hindus migrated to North America and Britain, spreading their faith and philosophies to the western world.

Hindus worship many gods and goddesses in addition to Brahman, who is believed to be the supreme God force present in all things.

Some of the most prominent deities include:

• Brahma: the god responsible for the creation of the world and all living things
• Vishnu: the god that preserves and protects the universe
• Shiva: the god that destroys the universe in order to recreate it
• Devi: the goddess that fights to restore dharma
• Krishna: the god of compassion, tenderness and love
• Lakshmi: the goddess of wealth and purity
• Saraswati: the goddess of learning

Places of Worship

Hindu worship, which is known as “puja,” typically takes place in the Mandir (temple). Followers of Hinduism can visit the Mandir any time they please.

Hindus can also worship at home, and many have a special shrine dedicated to certain gods and goddesses.

The giving of offerings is an important part of Hindu worship. It’s a common practice to present gifts, such as flowers or oils, to a god or goddess.

Additionally, many Hindus take pilgrimages to temples and other sacred sites in India.

Hinduism Sects

Hinduism has many sects, and the following are often considered the four major denominations.

Shaivism is one of the largest denominations of Hinduism, and its followers worship Shiva, sometimes known as “The Destroyer,” as their supreme deity.

Shaivism spread from southern India into Southeast Asia and is practiced in Vietnam, Cambodia and Indonesia as well as India. Like the other major sects of Hinduism, Shaivism considers the Vedas and the Upanishads to be sacred texts.

Vaishnavism is considered the largest Hindu sect, with an estimated 640 million followers, and is practiced worldwide. It includes sub-sects that are familiar to many non-Hindus, including Ramaism and Krishnaism.

Vaishnavism recognizes many deities, including Vishnu, Lakshmi, Krishna and Rama, and the religious practices of Vaishnavism vary from region to region across the Indian subcontinent.

Shaktism is somewhat unique among the four major traditions of Hinduism in that its followers worship a female deity, the goddess Shakti (also known as Devi).

Shaktism is sometimes practiced as a monotheistic religion, while other followers of this tradition worship a number of goddesses. This female-centered denomination is sometimes considered complementary to Shaivism, which recognizes a male deity as supreme.

The Smarta or Smartism tradition of Hinduism is somewhat more orthodox and restrictive than the other four mainstream denominations. It tends to draw its followers from the Brahman upper caste of Indian society.

Smartism followers worship five deities: Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Ganesh and Surya. Their temple at Sringeri is generally recognized as the center of worship for the denomination.

Some Hindus elevate the Hindu trinity, which consists of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Others believe that all the deities are a manifestation of one.

Hindu Caste System

The caste system is a social hierarchy in India that divides Hindus based on their karma and dharma. Although the word “caste” is of Portuguese origin, it is used to describe aspects of the related Hindu concepts of varna (color or race) and jati (birth). Many scholars believe the system dates back more than 3,000 years.

The four main castes (in order of prominence) include:

• Brahmin: the intellectual and spiritual leaders
• Kshatriyas: the protectors and public servants of society
• Vaisyas: the skillful producers
• Shudras: the unskilled laborers

Many subcategories also exist within each caste. The “Untouchables” are a class of citizens that are outside the caste system and considered to be in the lowest level of the social hierarchy.

For centuries, the caste system determined most aspect of a person’s social, professional and religious status in India.

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When India became an independent nation, its constitution banned discrimination based on caste.

Today, the caste system still exists in India but is loosely followed. Many of the old customs are overlooked, but some traditions, such as only marrying within a specific caste, are still embraced.

Hindus observe numerous sacred days, holidays and festivals.

Some of the most well-known include:

• Diwali : the festival of lights
• Navaratri: a celebration of fertility and harvest
• Holi: a spring festival
• Krishna Janmashtami: a tribute to Krishna’s birthday
• Raksha Bandhan: a celebration of the bond between brother and sister
• Maha Shivaratri: the great festival of Shiva

Hinduism Facts. Sects of Hinduism . Hindu American Foundation. Hinduism Basics . History of Hinduism, BBC . Hinduism Fast Facts, CNN .

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Essay on Hinduism

Introduction to Hinduism

Hinduism, a complex and vibrant tapestry of beliefs and practices, is among the world’s oldest and most diverse religions. Rooted in the ancient civilizations of the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism encompasses a vast array of philosophies, rituals, and cultural expressions.

Thousands of years ago, sages, scriptures, and mythologies evolved their origins through wisdom and insights. Hinduism’s enduring appeal lies in its multifaceted approach to spirituality, embracing concepts like karma, dharma, and moksha. In this essay, we will delve into the essence of Hinduism and reveal its profound mysteries.

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Origins and Historical Development of Hinduism

The origins of Hinduism are deeply intertwined with the cultural, philosophical, and religious evolution of the Indian subcontinent. While pinpointing its exact inception is challenging, scholars often trace the roots of Hinduism to the ancient civilizations of the Indus Valley , around 2500 BCE. However, the foundations of Hinduism as we know it today began to take shape during the Vedic period, which spanned roughly from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE.

• Early Vedic Period: The Early Vedic Period (circa 1500 BCE – 600 BCE) marks the foundational phase of Hinduism, characterized by the composition of the Rigveda, the oldest of the four Vedas, which contain hymns dedicated to various deities. During this period, pastoral and agricultural communities organized society and rituals centered on offerings to deities for prosperity and well-being. The Vedic literature provides insights into the religious, social, and cultural practices of ancient Indian society, including the reverence for nature and the importance of sacrificial rites.
• Upanishadic Thought: The Upanishads, philosophical texts around 800 BCE to 200 BCE, represent a significant shift in Hindu thought from ritualistic practices to philosophical inquiry. They delve deeply into the essence of existence, the self (Atman), and ultimate reality (Brahman), establishing the framework for important philosophical themes in Hinduism. The Upanishads challenge traditional notions of divinity and offer deeper insights into the nature of reality, consciousness, and liberation (moksha).
• Evolution of Hindu Scriptures: Hindu scriptures include the Vedas, Upanishads, Epics (Mahabharata, Ramayana), and Puranas. The Vedas considered the most authoritative scriptures, contain hymns, rituals, and philosophical discussions. The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana are repositories of moral and ethical teachings, while the Puranas elaborate on cosmology, mythology, and religious practices. These scriptures reflect ancient India’s evolving religious and cultural landscape, integrating diverse traditions, beliefs, and narratives.
• Influence of Key Figures: Revered figures such as rishis (sages), gurus (spiritual teachers), and avatars (divine incarnations) shape Hinduism through their teachings and contributions. Rishis played a crucial role in transmitting sacred knowledge and preserving oral traditions through the ages. Gurus impart spiritual guidance and wisdom to their disciples, fostering spiritual growth and enlightenment. Avatars, divine manifestations of the Supreme Being, descend to Earth to restore cosmic balance and guide humanity towards righteousness and liberation.

Core Beliefs and Philosophical Foundations

In the section on “Core Beliefs and Philosophical Foundations” of Hinduism, we delve into the fundamental tenets and philosophical underpinnings that define the essence of the religion:

Concept of Brahman: The Ultimate Reality

• Definition and Nature: Brahman represents the ultimate, formless, and transcendent reality in Hinduism. It is beyond human comprehension, existing beyond the manifested world.
• Immanence and Transcendence: Brahman is both immanent, permeating the entire cosmos, and transcendent, existing beyond the material world. The duality of immanence and transcendence reflects the multifaceted nature of Brahman.
• Unity in Diversity: Despite the diverse manifestations of the divine in Hinduism, all deities are considered expressions of the underlying unity of Brahman.

Understanding Atman: The Inner Self

• Nature of Atman: Atman is each individual’s eternal, unchanging essence. It is distinct from the physical body and mind, representing the true self.
• Cycle of Rebirth (Samsara) and Karma: The soul goes through a cycle of birth, death, and reincarnation (samsara), which is driven by the law of karma. Karma refers to the consequences of one’s deeds, which affect future life conditions.
• Liberation (Moksha): Moksha is the ultimate goal, signifying liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Achieving moksha involves realizing the oneness of Atman and Brahman through spiritual knowledge and self-realization.

Law of Karma and Reincarnation (Samsara)

• Karma Defined: Karma is the law of cause and effect, determining the consequences of one’s actions. Actions can be categorized as good (punya) or bad (paap), influencing the soul’s journey through samsara.
• Samsara and Reincarnation: Samsara is the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Reincarnation involves transmigration the soul into a new body based on accumulated karma.
• Breaking the Cycle: Moksha is the liberation from samsara, breaking the cycle of rebirth. Individuals strive to accumulate positive karma and engage in righteous actions to progress towards moksha.

Paths to Liberation

• Karma Yoga: Emphasizes selfless action and performing duties without attachment to the results. Balancing one’s responsibilities while maintaining a detached attitude leads to spiritual growth.
• Bhakti Yoga: Devotion to a personal deity fosters an emotional connection with the divine. Practitioners cultivate love and devotion through prayer, worship, and surrender, transcending ego.
• Jnana Yoga: Focuses on knowledge and wisdom, seeking to understand the nature of reality. Introspection, study of sacred texts, and contemplation lead to realizing the ultimate truth.
• Raja Yoga: Involves the practice of meditation and disciplined control of the mind and body. Through concentration and meditation, individuals attain self-realization and inner peace.

Importance of Dharma: Duty and Moral Order

• Dharma Defined: Dharma refers to one’s duty and righteous conduct according to one’s societal role. It upholds moral and ethical principles that guide individuals in leading a virtuous life .
• Four Pillars of Dharma: Dharma encompasses duties related to personal conduct (Achara), social ethics (vyavahara), personal well-being (svabhava), and spiritual practices (sadhana).
• Dharma and Social Harmony: Upholding Dharma contributes to societal harmony and the well-being of individuals and the community. It serves as the moral compass for ethical decision-making in the personal and social realms.

Deities and Divine Manifestations

In Hinduism, deities and divine manifestations play a crucial role in the religious and spiritual landscape, reflecting the multifaceted nature of the divine. Here’s a concise exploration of this aspect:

• Brahma : The creator deity responsible for manifesting the universe and all beings.
• Vishnu : The preserver deity who maintains cosmic order and incarnates on Earth to restore balance.
• Shiva : The destroyer deity who facilitates transformation and renewal, representing both destruction and regeneration.
• Devi : The supreme goddess, embodying feminine energy and representing the universe’s creative force.
• Lakshmi : The goddess of wealth, prosperity, and abundance, associated with Vishnu as his consort.
• Parvati : The consort of Shiva, embodying power, devotion, and divine energy.
• Ganesha : The elephant-headed god, worshipped as the remover of obstacles, is associated with intelligence, prosperity, and success.
• Hanuman : The monkey deity known for his unwavering devotion to Lord Rama, embodying strength, loyalty, and courage.
• Saraswati : The goddess of knowledge, music, and the arts, associated with wisdom, creativity, and learning.
• Durga : The warrior goddess who combats evil forces and represents the fierce aspect of feminine power.
• Concept of Avatar: The avatar concept involves divine incarnations, where a deity descends to Earth to fulfill a specific purpose or restore cosmic balance. Vishnu’s avatars, such as Rama and Krishna, exemplify this concept.
• Devotion (Bhakti) and Temples: Bhakti, the path of devotion, involves profound love and devotion to a chosen deity. Temples dedicated to various deities are focal points for worship, rituals, and community gatherings.
• Personal Gods and Ishta Devata: Many Hindus choose a personal deity, Ishta Devata, to whom they feel a special connection. This chosen deity becomes a focus of individual worship and devotion.
• Symbolism and Iconography: Artists often depict deities with specific symbols and iconography that convey their attributes and stories. The symbolism aids devotees in contemplating the divine qualities represented by each deity.
• Pan-Hinduism and Local Variations: Hindus universally worship specific deities but encounter regional variations with unique local deities and practices. This diversity reflects the adaptability and inclusivity within the broader framework of Hinduism.

Rituals, Festivals, and Sacred Practices

In Hinduism, rituals, festivals, and sacred practices are central to fostering spiritual growth, community cohesion, and reverence for the divine. Here’s an exploration:

Worship and Rituals:

• Puja : A ritualistic worship conducted by individuals or communities to honor deities and seek their blessings.
• Elements : Puja involves various rituals, such as offering flowers, incense, lamps, and food to the deity.
• Mantras and Prayers : Devotees chant sacred mantras and recite prayers to invoke divine presence and express devotion.  

Importance of Temples and Pilgrimage Sites

• Temples : Serve as sacred spaces dedicated to specific deities, providing a place for worship, meditation, and community gatherings.
• Pilgrimage : Hindus journey to holy sites such as Varanasi, Rishikesh, and Tirupati to seek spiritual purification and divine blessings.

Celebration of Festivals

• Diwali : Another name for the Festival of Lights, Diwali rejoices in the victory of right over wrong and light over darkness. It include eating celebratory meals, exchanging gifts, and lighting fireworks and lamps.
• Holi : The festival of colors commemorates the arrival of spring and celebrates the victory of devotion over ego. Participants engage in playful activities, music, and throwing colored powders.
• Navaratri : A nine-night festival dedicated to worshiping the divine feminine in her various forms, culminating in the celebration of Durga Puja .
• Ganesh Chaturthi : Honors the elephant-headed deity Ganesha , marking his birthday with elaborate rituals, processions, and the immersion of Ganesha idols in water bodies.

Sacraments of Life

• Birth Rituals : Ceremonies such as Namakaran (naming ceremony) and Annaprashan (first feeding of solid food) mark significant milestones in a child’s life.
• Marriage Rituals : Weddings involve elaborate ceremonies, rituals, and vows conducted according to religious scriptures and cultural traditions.
• Death Rituals : Funerary rites such as cremation or burial, along with prayers and offerings, guide the soul’s journey to the afterlife.  

Spiritual Practices

• Meditation : Practiced in various forms, such as mantra meditation, mindfulness, and breath awareness, to cultivate inner peace and spiritual insight.
• Yoga : Includes physical postures (asanas), breathing techniques (pranayama), and meditation aimed at harmonizing body, mind, and spirit.
• Scripture Study : The study of sacred texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Ramayana provides spiritual guidance and philosophical insights.

Hindu Ethics and Social Structure

In Hinduism, religious teachings, cultural norms, and philosophical principles deeply intertwine with ethics and social structure. Here’s an explanation of each point:

• Concept of Ahimsa: Ahimsa, or non-violence, is a foundational principle in Hindu ethics, emphasizing compassion, kindness, and harmlessness towards all living beings. It extends beyond physical harm to mental and emotional well-being, promoting peace and harmony in thought, word, and action. Ahimsa is embodied in the lives of spiritual leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and forms the basis for vegetarianism and animal welfare practices among Hindus.
• Caste System: The caste system, rooted in ancient Indian society, classifies individuals into hierarchical social groups based on birth, occupation, and social status. Traditionally, the caste system comprised four main varnas: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (laborers). While individuals have made efforts to eradicate caste discrimination and promote social equality, challenges persist, including caste-based discrimination, social exclusion, and disparities in access to education and opportunities.
• Importance of Family, Community, and Guru-Disciple Relationship: Hindu society considers the family (kutumb) as the cornerstone, providing emotional support, moral guidance, and continuity of cultural traditions. The community (sangha) plays a vital role in fostering social cohesion, collective worship, and mutual assistance among its members. In Hinduism, disciples revere the guru-disciple relationship, with spiritual teachers (gurus) guiding them on self-discovery, moral conduct, and spiritual realization.
• Stewardship of Nature: Hinduism reveres nature as sacred and emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living beings with the environment. The concept of vasudhaiva kutumbakam (the world is one family) underscores the need for responsible stewardship and sustainable living practices. Environmental ethics in Hinduism advocate reverence for rivers, mountains, plants, and animals, promoting ecological balance and preserving natural resources.

Influence of Hinduism on Indian Culture and Beyond

The influence of Hinduism on Indian culture and beyond is profound, touching every aspect of life, including spirituality, art, philosophy, literature, and societal norms. Here’s an exploration of its impact:

• Spirituality and Philosophy: Hinduism has shaped the spiritual landscape of India, providing a diverse array of philosophical perspectives and spiritual practices. Concepts such as karma, dharma, moksha, and reincarnation have permeated Indian thought and influenced the understanding of life, death, and the purpose of existence.
• Art and Architecture: With their intricate carvings, majestic spires, and sacred sculptures, Hindu temples serve as architectural marvels and centers of spiritual worship. Iconography and symbolism in Hindu art reflect divine narratives, mythological stories, and spiritual teachings, conveying deeper philosophical truths to devotees and visitors alike.
• Literature and Epics: The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, along with other ancient texts like the Vedas and Upanishads, form the literary backbone of Hinduism. These narratives contain moral lessons, ethical dilemmas, and profound insights into human nature, shaping cultural identity and values across generations.
• Philosophical Traditions: Hindu philosophy encompasses diverse schools of thought, including Advaita Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika, offering unique metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology perspectives. These philosophical traditions have influenced not only Indian thought but also global philosophical discourse, fostering dialogue and exchange across cultural boundaries.
• Social Customs and Traditions: Hindu rituals, festivals, and social customs are deeply ingrained in Indian society, fostering a sense of community, continuity, and spiritual connection. Practices such as puja (worship), samskaras (life-cycle rituals), and sankirtan (devotional singing) serve as avenues for cultural expression and spiritual devotion.
• Cultural Expressions and Performing Arts: Indian classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, and Kuchipudi are infused with Hindu mythology and spirituality themes, serving as mediums for storytelling, expression, and devotion. Hindu themes, symbols, and metaphors have enriched music, poetry, and literature in Sanskrit, Tamil, Hindi, and Bengali languages.
• Diaspora Communities and Global Influence: Hinduism has transcended geographical boundaries, with millions of adherents forming vibrant diaspora communities worldwide. The spread of yoga, meditation, Ayurveda, and vegetarianism reflects the global influence of Hindu spirituality and holistic wellness practices.

Contemporary Challenges and Responses

In the contemporary context, Hinduism faces various challenges that necessitate thoughtful responses from practitioners, scholars, and leaders. Here are some of the key challenges and potential responses:

1. Secularism and Religious Pluralism

• Challenge: In pluralistic societies, maintaining the principles of secularism while preserving Hinduism’s cultural and religious identity can be challenging.
• Response: Emphasize the inclusive and pluralistic nature of Hinduism, promoting dialogue, understanding, and respect for diverse religious beliefs and practices.

2. Hinduism in the Modern World

• Challenge: The rapid pace of globalization , technological advancements, and societal changes present new opportunities and challenges for Hindu communities worldwide.
• Response: Adapt traditional teachings and practices to address contemporary issues such as environmental sustainability, social justice , and ethical dilemmas posed by technological advancements.

3. Addressing Social Issues

• Challenge: Persistent social issues such as caste discrimination, gender inequality , poverty, and social injustice continue to affect Hindu society.
• Response: Advocate for social reforms, education, and awareness programs that promote equality, social justice, and empowerment of marginalized communities within Hinduism.

4. Interfaith Dialogue and Harmony

• Challenge: Interfaith tensions and conflicts between religious communities can arise due to misunderstandings, stereotypes, and historical grievances.
• Response: Engage in interfaith dialogue, collaborative initiatives, and mutual respect to promote understanding, cooperation, and peaceful coexistence among diverse religious groups.

5. Preservation of Cultural Heritage

• Challenge: Rapid urbanization, modernization, and globalization threaten the preservation of Hindu cultural heritage, sacred sites, and traditional practices.
• Response: Undertake efforts to document, preserve, and promote Hindu cultural heritage, including ancient temples, art forms, rituals, and languages , through education, advocacy, and conservation initiatives.

6. Promoting Ethics and Values

• Challenge: Ethical dilemmas, moral relativism, and materialistic values challenge Hinduism’s ethical foundations and moral teachings.
• Response: Emphasize the ethical teachings of Hindu scriptures, including principles of ahimsa (non-violence), dharma (duty), karma (action), and seva (selfless service), to guide individuals in making ethical choices and leading virtuous lives.

7. Role of Hinduism in Promoting Peace

• Challenge: Political conflicts, religious extremism, and communal tensions threaten peace and stability in various regions with Hindu populations.
• Response: Advocate for peacebuilding, reconciliation, and conflict resolution efforts rooted in the principles of compassion, tolerance, and non-violence espoused by Hinduism.

With its ancient roots and profound teachings, Hinduism continues to guide cultural, spiritual, and ethical landscapes. Despite facing contemporary challenges, such as social issues and the need for adaptation to a rapidly changing world, Hinduism offers a resilient framework. Through introspection, dialogue, and an emphasis on timeless values, Hindu communities can contribute to global harmony, peace, and understanding. The enduring wisdom of Hindu philosophy serves as a beacon, inspiring individuals to navigate the complexities of the modern era while upholding the timeless principles of compassion, righteousness, and spiritual enlightenment.

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• Introduction
• The term Hinduism

General nature of Hinduism

• Veda, Brahmans, and issues of religious authority
• Doctrine of atman - brahman
• Karma, samsara, and moksha
• Dharma and the three paths
• Ashrama s: the four stages of life
• Indo-European sources
• Other sources: the process of “Sanskritization”
• Indigenous prehistoric religion
• Religion in the Indus valley civilization
• Survival of archaic religious practices
• The Vedic period (2nd millennium–7th century bce )
• Challenges to Brahmanism (6th–2nd century bce )
• The rise of the major sects: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism
• The development of temples
• The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific
• Questions of influence on the Mediterranean world
• The rise of devotional Hinduism (4th–11th century)
• The challenge of Islam and popular religion
• Temple complexes
• Sectarian movements
• Bhakti movements
• Brahmo Samaj
• Ramakrishna Mission
• Theosophical Society
• Aurobindo Ashram
• Other reform movements
• Mahatma Gandhi
• The religious situation after independence
• Hinduism outside India
• Importance of the Vedas
• The components of the Vedas
• The Rigveda
• The Yajurveda and Samaveda
• The Atharvaveda
• The Brahmanas and Aranyakas
• Cosmogony and cosmology
• Ethical and social doctrines
• The sacred: nature, humanity, and God
• Vedic and Brahmanic rites
• The Upanishads
• The Vedangas
• Dharma-sutras and Dharma-shastras
• Smriti texts
• The Ramayana
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More strikingly than any other major religious community , Hindus accept—and indeed celebrate—the organic, multileveled, and sometimes pluralistic nature of their traditions. This expansiveness is made possible by the widely shared Hindu view that truth or reality cannot be encapsulated in any creedal formulation, a perspective expressed in the Hindu prayer “May good thoughts come to us from all sides.” Thus, Hinduism maintains that truth must be sought in multiple sources, not dogmatically proclaimed.

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Anyone’s view of the truth—even that of a guru regarded as possessing superior authority—is fundamentally conditioned by the specifics of time, age, gender, state of consciousness , social and geographic location, and stage of attainment. These multiple perspectives enhance a broad view of religious truth rather than diminish it; hence, there is a strong tendency for contemporary Hindus to affirm that tolerance is the foremost religious virtue. On the other hand, even cosmopolitan Hindus living in a global environment recognize and value the fact that their religion has developed in the specific context of the Indian subcontinent . Such a tension between universalist and particularist impulses has long animated the Hindu tradition. When Hindus speak of their religious identity as sanatana dharma , they emphasize its continuous, seemingly eternal ( sanatana ) existence and the fact that it describes a web of customs, obligations, traditions, and ideals ( dharma ) that far exceeds the Western tendency to think of religion primarily as a system of beliefs. A common way in which English-speaking Hindus often distance themselves from that frame of mind is to insist that Hinduism is not a religion but a way of life.

The five tensile strands

Across the sweep of Indian religious history, at least five elements have given shape to the Hindu religious tradition: doctrine, practice, society, story, and devotion. These five elements, to adopt a typical Hindu metaphor , are understood as relating to one another as strands in an elaborate braid. Moreover, each strand develops out of a history of conversation, elaboration, and challenge. Hence, in looking for what makes the tradition cohere, it is sometimes better to locate central points of tension than to expect clear agreements on Hindu thought and practice.

The first of the five strands of Hinduism is doctrine, as expressed in a vast textual tradition anchored to the Veda (“Knowledge”), the oldest core of Hindu religious utterance, and organized through the centuries primarily by members of the learned Brahman class. Here several characteristic tensions appear. One concerns the relationship between the divine and the world. Another tension concerns the disparity between the world-preserving ideal of dharma and that of moksha (release from an inherently flawed world). A third tension exists between individual destiny, as shaped by karma (the influence of one’s actions on one’s present and future lives), and the individual’s deep bonds to family, society, and the divinities associated with these concepts.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Hinduism and hindu art.

Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi

Standing Four-Armed Vishnu

Linga with Face of Shiva (Ekamukhalinga)

Standing Parvati

Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja)

Standing Ganesha

Standing Female Deity, probably Durga

Ardhanarishvara (Composite of Shiva and Parvati)

Vaikuntha Vishnu

Krishna on Garuda

Durga as Slayer of the Buffalo Demon Mahishasura

Seated Ganesha

Kneeling Female Figure

Hanuman Conversing

The Goddess Durga Slaying the Demon Buffalo Mahisha

Loving Couple (Mithuna)

Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Shaiva Saint

Vidya Dehejia Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University

February 2007

According to the Hindu view, there are four goals of life on earth, and each human being should aspire to all four. Everyone should aim for dharma , or righteous living; artha , or wealth acquired through the pursuit of a profession; kama , or human and sexual love; and, finally, moksha , or spiritual salvation.

This holistic view is reflected as well as in the artistic production of India. Although a Hindu temple is dedicated to the glory of a deity and is aimed at helping the devotee toward moksha , its walls might justifiably contain sculptures that reflect the other three goals of life. It is in such a context that we may best understand the many sensuous and apparently secular themes that decorate the walls of Indian temples.

Hinduism is a religion that had no single founder, no single spokesman, no single prophet. Its origins are mixed and complex. One strand can be traced back to the sacred Sanskrit literature of the Aryans, the Vedas, which consist of hymns in praise of deities who were often personifications of the natural elements. Another strand drew on the beliefs prevalent among groups of indigenous peoples, especially the faith in the power of the mother goddess and in the efficacy of fertility symbols. Hinduism, in the form comparable to its present-day expression, emerged at about the start of the Christian era, with an emphasis on the supremacy of the god Vishnu, the god Shiva, and the goddess Shakti (literally, “Power”).

The pluralism evident in Hinduism, as well as its acceptance of the existence of several deities, is often puzzling to non-Hindus. Hindus suggest that one may view the Infinite as a diamond of innumerable facets. One or another facet—be it Rama, Krishna, or Ganesha—may beckon an individual believer with irresistible magnetism. By acknowledging the power of an individual facet and worshipping it, the believer does not thereby deny the existence of many aspects of the Infinite and of varied paths toward the ultimate goal.

Deities are frequently portrayed with multiple arms, especially when they are engaged in combative acts of cosmic consequence that involve destroying powerful forces of evil. The multiplicity of arms emphasizes the immense power of the deity and his or her ability to perform several feats at the same time. The Indian artist found this a simple and an effective means of expressing the omnipresence and omnipotence of a deity. Demons are frequently portrayed with multiple heads to indicate their superhuman power. The occasional depiction of a deity with more than one head is generally motivated by the desire to portray varying aspects of the character of that deity. Thus, when the god Shiva is portrayed with a triple head, the central face indicates his essential character and the flanking faces depict his fierce and blissful aspects.

The Hindu Temple Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in India . Thus, if one speaks of Indian architecture without taking note of the lavish sculptured decoration with which monuments are covered, a partial and distorted picture is presented. In the Hindu temple , large niches in the three exterior walls of the sanctum house sculpted images that portray various aspects of the deity enshrined within. The sanctum image expresses the essence of the deity. For instance, the niches of a temple dedicated to a Vishnu may portray his incarnations; those of a temple to Shiva , his various combative feats; and those of a temple to the Great Goddess, her battles with various demons. Regional variations exist, too; in the eastern state of Odisha, for example, the niches of a temple to Shiva customarily contain images of his family—his consort, Parvati, and their sons, Ganesha, the god of overcoming obstacles, and warlike Skanda.

The exterior of the halls and porch are also covered with figural sculpture. A series of niches highlight events from the mythology of the enshrined deity, and frequently a place is set aside for a variety of other gods. In addition, temple walls feature repeated banks of scroll-like foliage, images of women, and loving couples known as mithunas . Signifying growth, abundance, and prosperity, they were considered auspicious motifs.

Dehejia, Vidya. “Hinduism and Hindu Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/hind/hd_hind.htm (February 2007)

Further Reading

Dehejia, Vidya. Indian Art . London: Phaidon, 1997.

Eck, Diana L. Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India. 2d ed . Chamberburg, Pa.: Anima Books, 1985.

Michell, George. The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. Reprint . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.

Mitter, Partha. Indian Art . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Additional Essays by Vidya Dehejia

• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Buddhism and Buddhist Art .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Recognizing the Gods .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ South Asian Art and Culture .” (February 2007)

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Hinduism and Buddhism, an introduction

Detail, Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi , Gupta period, 5th century, terracotta, 53.3 x 40.6. x 10.8 cm ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

Origins of Hinduism

Unlike Christianity or Buddhism , Hinduism did not develop from the teachings of a single founder. Moreover, it has diverse traditions, owing to its long history and continued development over the course of more than 3000 years. The term Hindu originally referred to those living on the other side of the Indus River, and by the 13th century, it simply referred to those living in India. It was only in the 18th century that the term Hindu became specifically related to an Indic religion generally.

Hindus adhere to the principles of the Vedas, which are a body of Sanskritic texts that date as early as 1700 B.C.E. However, unlike the Christian or Islamic traditions, which have the Bible and the Koran, Hinduism does not adhere to a single text . The lack of a singular text, among other things, also makes Hinduism a difficult religion to define.

Hinduism is neither monotheistic nor is it polytheistic . Hinduism’s emphasis on the universal spirit, or Brahman, allows for the existence of a pantheon of divinities while remaining devoted to a particular god. It is for this reason that some scholars have referred to Hinduism as a henotheistic religion (the belief in and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities). Hinduism can also be described as a religion that appreciates orthopraxy—or right praxis. Because doctrinal views vary so widely among Hindus, there is no norm based on orthodoxy or right belief. By contrast, ritualized acts are consistent among differing Hindu groups.

Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja) , c. 11th century, Chola period, copper alloy, 68.3 x 56.5 cm ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

Hindu gods and worship of the gods

Within the Hindu pantheon are a number of gods, goddesses, and deities ; however, one entity is supreme, Brahman. Brahman is the Supreme Being; the One self-existent power; the Reality which is the source of all being and all-knowing. Enlightenment for the Hindu is recognizing that all things are united.

Adornment (alankara) of Ganesha murti in a home shrine, Bangalore, 2004 (photo: Dr. Cristin McKnight Sethi, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Brahman is traditionally said to manifest on earth as the Trimurti : Brahma as the creator god; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva , the destroyer. Brahman manifests himself on earth in other gods so that he will be more knowable. With this said, for Hindus, reaching salvation is understanding that everything is in union. The different names and forms that a god can take are immaterial as they are essentially Brahman.

However, as human beings, we crave the protection of many gods, in particular those gods with a very specific power. Beyond the Trimurti  are numerous Hindu gods and goddesses, such as   Ganesha , the elephant-headed god, and Durga , the female warrior. Each god has a specific power and role. Ganesha, for example, is the lord of beginnings and the remover of obstacles. It is for this reason that images of Ganesha are present in Hindu temples, regardless of who the temple is dedicated. Durga , who is solicited for protection , is also equally sought by women for fertility.

These personal deities are called ishtadeva . Having an ishtadeva does not mean a worshipper forsakes other gods, but it does mean that they have a more personal relationship with their patron deity.

Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi , Gupta period, 5th century, terracotta, 53.3 x 40.6. x 10.8 cm ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

Hindu Worship

For Hindu worshipers, the concept of bhakti is important. Bhakti is the devotion, honor, and love one has for god. The physical actions, which one takes to express one’s bhakti can be done in a number of ways such as through darshan and puja .

Darshan means auspicious sight. By making a pilgrimage to see a god at a temple or shrine, the practitioner is going there specifically to take darshan . It should be noted that for Hindus the image of a god is not just a symbol or a portrait of their god, but is in fact an embodiment of that god. While the god does not always reside in the image, he or she does, from time to time, descend to earth and take the form of the image. Often these times coincide with special holidays or certain times of the day—especially when rituals in honor of the gods are taking place. It is during these times when the god is present, that darshan is most effective. To worship the god, the practitioner must be seen by the god and in turn, the practitioner must see the god.

The importance of sight and its reciprocation in worship is directly reflected in the production of Hindu images. Images of gods have large eyes so that it is easier for them to see the practitioner and for the practitioner to make eye contact with them. Moreover, there exists a strict set of parameters artisans must follow in order to create images of gods so that gods and goddesses will inhabit the body. Gods will not inhabit forms that they do not consider worthy of their stature. This set of rules is based on mathematical proportions and is called iconometry. Therefore, in order for an image to be successful, it needs to have the appropriate iconography (forms and symbols) associated with the god and also have appropriate iconometry.

The Hindu world

For Hindus, time and space are organized and conceived of as cyclical—where one era cycles into the next. In Hindu mythology, there are cycles of cosmic ages from the golden age ( kitri yuga ) to the dark age ( kali yuga ). We are currently in a degenerate dark age. When it ends, in several millennia, the universe will be destroyed and Brahma will create it anew. Just as the universe and time are conceived as being cyclical so is the progress of the individual soul. For Hindus, the soul is bound to the samsaric wheel.

In order to escape this cycle one must realize everything is one, everything is Brahman. In other words, one’s individual soul is the same as the universal soul. When this is accomplished it is called moksa and marks the end of the samsaric cycle of rebirth.

All of this is understood through Hindu Dharma. For the Hindus, Dharma explains why things are and why they should be—there must be order in everything including society. And this is where the idea of the caste system finds credence in Hinduism. One’s ranking in the social caste system is dependent on one’s karma, translated from Sanskrit to mean “act/ion.” For Hindus, karma originally began as a purely ritual act, which was the act of making sacrifices/offerings to the sacred fire/gods. For Hindus, it is the Brahmin , or the priestly class, who has access to the sacred fire, which directly corresponded to their social rank, which was at the top. Brahmins refer to an elite caste, which includes priests, scholars, teachers, etc.

Fasting Buddha Shakyamuni , 3rd–5th century Kushan period, Pakistan/ancient Gandhara, 27.8 cm high ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

Buddhism and the Buddha

The social caste system as described by Hindu Dharma was likely one of the biggest factors in the development of Buddhism. Buddhism developed in reaction to the established religion in India at the time—Hinduism (Brahminism). Buddhism, in contrast to Hinduism, has a single founder and while there is no singular text there are texts that outline the teachings of the Buddha as the great and exemplary teacher.

Buddhism was founded by one individual, Siddhartha Gautama , sometime in the 6th or 5th century B.C.E. Prince Siddhartha Gautama’s biography has very much become a part of the foundation of the Buddhist teachings.

Prince Siddhartha Gautama lived a cloistered life of ease and abundance. At the age of 29, he came across a sick man, an old man, a dead man, and an ascetic . Siddhartha had never seen these unpleasant aspects of life before and was profoundly moved and confused. He could no longer ignore the existence of suffering in the world and live his life of privilege, knowing that old age and death are our inevitable fate. It was at this time that he chose to depart from his sheltered life to become an ascetic and find the truth about the universe.

The middle way

He removed his jewels and rich robes forever, cut his hair and went into the forest, and became an ascetic where he studied with a variety of sages and yogis, but he was unsatisfied with their teachings. He also practiced several types of self-mortification—most importantly starvation, because he wanted to concentrate exclusively on his spiritual advancements. These searches proved fruitless and he finally came to the realization that the Middle Path (avoiding extremes) was the path towards enlightenment. The middle path teaches adherents to avoid extremes. For Siddhartha that meant neither a life of luxury as a prince nor starving himself.

Bodhi tree with shrine , eastern gateway, Sanchi Stupa no. 1, 2nd, 1st century B.C.E (photo: पाटलिपुत्र , CC BY 3.0)

He traveled to a town in northern India called Bodh Gaya , where he sat under a type of tree called a bodhi tree and vowed to remain there until he reached enlightenment. After remaining in that spot in deep meditation for 49 days, he was tested one night by the demon god, Mara (a symbol of ignorance—he is not evil, just deluded). Mara tried to disrupt Siddhartha’s meditation and sent his beautiful daughters to tempt him. Siddhartha remained unmoved, kept his meditation, and thus passed this final trial and gained enlightenment. At the moment of his enlightenment, he came to be known as Buddha, which translates from Sanskrit as “enlightened one.”

The Buddha’s teachings utilized much of the same vocabulary of the Hindus. For example, Dharma for Hindus explains why things are and why they should be. For Buddhists, Dharma came to be defined as the teachings of the Buddha. The caste system became invalid as the Buddha simply denied its relevance towards reaching salvation—as his salvation denied the existence of the self.

For Hindus, salvation comes in realizing that everything is one, everything is in union with Brahman and one’s soul is the same as the universal soul. When the Buddha taught that there was no self, there was no need to attach the self to Brahman. Similarly, in the Hindu context, karma refers to ritual action— darshan and puja —whereas for the Buddhists’ karma has always been an ethical action. For Buddhists, karma (action)—whether good or bad —lay in the intention. Buddha deemphasized Brahmanical rituals by making karma an ethical act and focusing on intention. Moreover, the Brahmin caste who had direct access to the gods through rituals were no longer a privileged class in Buddhism. In Buddhism, anyone who understood the teachings of the Buddha could achieve salvation.

For Buddhists, salvation is gained through the understanding of the ways things really are according to the Buddha’s Dharma. Once an individual has become enlightened they can then reach a state of nirvana. Nirvana is described as the extinguishment of suffering by escaping the continuous cycle of rebirth called samsara. An individual’s ability to reach enlightenment and nirvana is dependent on their understanding of the Dharma. Recall that the goal for both Hindus and Buddhists is to escape the samsaric cycle of rebirth—but each religion’s interpretation of how to do this and what it meant to get off the cycle differed.

Seated Bodhisattva Maitreya (Buddha of the Future) , 7th–8th century, schist, Afghanistan (found near Kabul), 77.8 cm high ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

The Buddha’s teachings

The basic tenants of the Buddhist faith are called the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths are meant to uncover one’s eyes of the dust from the secular world and show the practitioner that:

• Life is suffering: it is suffering because we are not perfect nor is the world in which we live perfect.
• The origin of suffering is attachment or desire: attachment to transient things and ignorance thereof. Objects of attachment also include the idea of a “self” which is a delusion, because there is no abiding self. What we call “self” is just an imagined entity, and we are merely a part of the ceaseless becoming of the universe.
• The cessation of suffering can be attained through the detachment of desire and craving.
• The end of suffering is achieved by seeking the middle path. It is the middle way between the two extremes of excessive self-indulgence and excessive self-mortification, leading to the end of the cycle of rebirth.

The middle path can be achieved by following the Eightfold Path to end suffering and begin the course of reaching nirvana. The Eightfold Path requires the practitioner to seek:

• Right or Perfect View: is the beginning and the end of the path, it simply means to see and to understand things as they really are and to realize the Four Noble Truths.
• Right Intention: can be described as a commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement.
• Right Speech: is abstaining from the use of false, slanderous, and harmful words which hurt others.
• Right Action: means to abstain from harming others, abstain from taking what is not given to you, and avoid sexual misconduct.
• Right livelihood: means that one should earn one’s living in a righteous way and that wealth should be gained legally and peacefully.
• Right Effort: is the prerequisite for the other principles of the path as one needs the will to act or else nothing will be achieved.
• Right Mindfulness: the ability to contemplate actively one’s mind, body, and soul.
• Right Concentration: the ability to focus on the right thoughts and actions through meditation.

Buddhist practice

During the time of the Buddha, there was only one school of Buddhism, which is the one that the Buddha taught; however, over time there came to be different sects of Buddhism. These Buddhist sects were produced by fissures within the monastic order. Such fissures occur in differences in practice not in belief in the doctrine. In other words, regardless of what sect of Buddhism one is talking about, all adhere to the Buddha’s doctrine of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Two major schools of Buddhist thought are Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.

Theravada Buddhism

Theravada translates to “the School of the Elders” since it is believed by some to be closer to the Buddha’s original teachings. According to Theravada Buddhists, each person is responsible for their own enlightenment. There are teachers and models, and the Buddha is exemplary, but, everyone must ultimately reach enlightenment by their own volition. Today, Theravada Buddhism is practiced in much of mainland Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.

Standing Bodhisattva Maitreya (Buddha of the Future) , c. 3rd century, gray schist, 163.2 x 53.3 x 20.3 cm, Gandhara (Pakistan) (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Mahayana Buddhism

Mahayana Buddhism was a school that developed in c. 100 C.E. Mahayana literally means: the “big vehicle.” It is a big vehicle that transports more sentient beings off the samsaric cycle towards enlightenment and nirvana. One of the cornerstones of Mahayana Buddhism is compassion, which is visualized in the appearance of the bodhisattvas . Bodhisattvas are altruistic enlightened beings that vow to delay their own parinirvana (final nirvana) until every sentient being reaches enlightenment. Mahayana Buddhism is most commonly practiced in East Asia and Vietnam.

Differences

Where Theravada and Mahayana differ is that Mahayana regards becoming a bodhisattva as the ultimate goal. Therefore depictions of bodhisattvas are frequent in Mahayana art. Another fundamental difference between the two schools is how they regard the character of the Buddha. Mahayana considers the Buddha to be nearly divine in nature—he is superhuman and as such, he is worshipped in Mahayana Buddhism. Theravada considers the Buddha an exemplar, the great teacher.

Decline of Buddhism in India

By the 13th century, Buddhism had largely disappeared from the country of its birth, though it has been kept alive in various forms across Asia. In fact, it is the single most important shared cultural phenomenon found throughout Asia was the transmission and adoption of Buddhism.

Additional resources

Hinduism and Hindu art on The Metropolitan Museum’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.

Buddhism and Buddhist art on The Metropolitan Museum’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.

Learn more about mudras in Buddhist art.

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The Oxford History of Hinduism: Modern Hinduism

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In this volume, experts on modern Hinduism have been asked to write chapters that present findings and perspectives from their own research to a wide audience of readers with interest in the fascinating processes of transformation arising from the interaction between the cultural and religious life of Hindus and the great forces that we call ‘modernity’. No single volume can come close to capturing the totality of modern Hinduism, and the editor has made choices limiting the focus to three broad topics of particular importance. First, there are chapters about the historical emergence of modern forms of Hinduism, where we meet some of the reformers and movements that defined Hinduism in early modern times and during the colonial period. Secondly, there are chapters about new forms and new locations of Hinduism covering such topics as Hinduism on the Internet and New Age Hinduism; there is also a chapter about Hinduism in the diaspora, which is a topic covered more thoroughly by a separate volume in the book series. Thirdly, there is a section about ethics, politics, and law, with chapters covering important topics such as nationalism, caste, and legal reforms in India and in the Hindu-majority country of Nepal.

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Transcription of indian words, introduction, religious experience and its institutionalization, caitanya's ecstasies and the theology of the name, caitanya's followers and the bhagavad-gītā: a case study in bhakti and the secular, the transformation of śrī rāmakrishna, the rāmakrishna math and mission, a case study of a revitalization movement, mixing in the color of rām of rānujā, a folk pilgrimage to the grave of a rājpūt hero-saint, the medieval bhakti movement in history, an essay on the literature in english, new interpretations in epic mythology, life out of death, a structural analysis of the myth of the ‘churning of the ocean of milk’, the burning of the forest myth, contributors, share link with colleague or librarian, product details, collection information.

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Essay Service Examples Religion Hinduism

The History And Origin Of Hinduism

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Introduction, origins of the word hindu, early history, contribution of aryans and the epic books, hindu deities.

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• The ancient period (3000 BCE-500 CD)
• The medieval period (500 to 1500 CE)
• The modern period (1500 to present)
• Editors of History, (October 6, 2017). Hinduism. History.com. https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism
• Flood, G. (1996). An Introduction To Hinduism. Brighton, UK. Cambridge University Press.
• Doinger, W. (2009). The Hindus: An Alternative History. United States. Viking Press.
• Lal, V, (2005). Introducing Hinduism. Delhi, India. Icon Books.
• Srinivasan, A.V. (2018) There is but One without a second! A Hindu View of God. United States. Periplus lines.
• Narayanan, V. (2004) Understanding Hinduism. Florida, USA. Duncan Baird Publishers.

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