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The Evidences of The Theory of Plate Tectonics

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Essay: Plate tectonics

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Plate tectonics as a theory suggests states that the Lithosphere is split up into a series of rigid plates. At current, seven major plates have been identified, as well as a number of smaller plates. The boundaries were found to coincide with features upon the Earth’s surface, these include, orogenic belts, mid-ocean ridges, transform faults and trenches. The boundary of each of these plates can be defined and characterized by the way that the plates move. These are known as, convergent, divergent and conservative plate boundaries. Figure one shows the main plates as well as a few of the smaller plates that lay on the Earth’s surface. Furthermore, it shows the direction of plate movement as well as the distribution of earthquakes of nine years. Evidence from earthquakes, volcanoes and the features mentioned above help to identify where the boundaries of each plate is. Convergent plate boundaries are commonly known as destructive margins. This is where two plates move towards each other. The difference in the combination of lithospheres involved can result in a different type of convergence of boundary. These two types of convergent plate boundaries include, subduction and collision. Firstly, at a subduction zone the oceanic plate bends down into the asthenosphere (Marshak, 2008). Thus, when the combination of lithosphere is ocean-ocean or ocean-continent at a destructive margin, a subduction zone is created. Due to the density of the continental lithosphere, the oceanic lithosphere is always subducted at a subduction zone. At this type of convergent margin, volcanoes and earthquakes occur. The earthquakes at this margin tends to have shallow, intermediate and deep origins. These margins are the only places where earthquakes have deep origins. The subducting plate follows a stick and slip pattern, causing mass friction between two plates leading to particularly large earthquakes. A key example of an earthquake at a destructive margin is the case of the boxing day earthquake, 2004 which eventually resulted in a tsunami situated in the Indian Ocean. The two plates responsible at the boundary were the Indian plate and the Burmese plate. The earthquake was associated with major thrust events at the subduction zone (Holden, 2012). With a magnitude of 9.3 (‘Rapid Earthquake Viewer’, n.d) it helps to show that earthquakes at these types of boundaries are particularly large. Alongside earthquakes, destructive margins can be associated with volcanoes. These tend to be explosive due to volatiles e.g. water causing the silicates in magma to break up leading to partial melting of the asthenosphere and overlaying lithosphere. This therefore results in andesitic and rhyolitic magma which is explosive. The most famous region of these sorts of volcanoes is the ‘Ring of Fire’ forming the outline of the Pacific plate, as shown in both Figure one and two. However, Figure two shows all types of activity including volcanic and earthquakes. A key example of an explosive volcanic eruption as part of the ring of fire includes Mount St Helens, Washington, USA. This had typical of the ring of fire, andesitic eruption, showing that the upwelling of magma had melted due to the subduction of the oceanic lithosphere. Dissimilarly to the ocean-continental margins, ocean-ocean margins resulting in volcanic island arcs occurring. These originally form from basaltic volcanoes before turning into island arcs (Holden, 2012). An example of this is the Caribbean Islands on the Caribbean plate which can be identified on figure one. Some of these volcanic islands are still active and are composed of a series of composite volcanoes, whilst some islands were formally active (Jackson, 2013).

Eventually all oceanic crust will become subducted, therefore resulting in two continental crusts colliding together to create a collision zone. The continental margin sediments which are buoyant do not sink and subduct but instead become compressed, crumpled, deformed and begin to uplift, resulting in the creation fold mountains (Holden,2012). Eventually this creates an orogenic belt. This is called tectonic deformation. (Smithson et al., 2008). Key examples which can help identify the whereabouts of this type of destructive margin is almost all of the Alpine-Himalayan system. This is the collision of the Indian-Australasian plate and the Eurasian plate, some of which can be identified in figure 1. This example of an orogenic belt is formally known as the Tethyan Orogen (Smithson et al., 2008).

A boundary which occurs in the opposite way to the convergent margin is called a divergent plate boundary. This is also known as a constructive plate margin. This is due to new oceanic lithosphere always being constructed. At this tectonic boundary the plates move apart. Basaltic volcanoes and shallow earthquakes characterise the convergent margins alongside formations such as mid ocean ridges and continental rift valleys occur can be used to identify the boundaries of the margin. Ridges and rift valleys can rise 2km above the adjacent abyssal plains. The two most famous mid-ocean ridges are the East Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Holden, 2012). The East Pacific Rise lines the boundary between the Nazca plate and the Pacific plate. This boundary can be identified on figure one by looking at the marked line showing earthquakes in the area. As well as earthquakes, the reduced pressure at these ridges causes the melting point to lower significantly within the asthenosphere causing basaltic magma to rise (Smithson et al., 2008) causing the creation of many volcanoes situated on the sea floor. Using the example of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, we can see the way that eventually the volcanic activity can result in volcanic islands, for example Iceland. As well as mid ocean ridges there are rift valleys. This is when there is the divergence as well as considerable thinning of the continental crust (Holden,2012). A present day example is the African rift valley. Continental rift valleys are responsible for the previous break-up of land masses (Holden, 2012).

The third main type of tectonic plate boundary is the conservative plate boundary. This is commonly also known as a transform plate margin. Here, plate is neither created nor destroyed (Smithson et al., 2008). The plates involved slide past each other sideways (Marshak, 2008) causing earthquakes however very little volcanism. These earthquakes tend to be frequent, major and destructive (Holden, 2008). Transform boundaries can also be identified as transform faults created internally along plates (Smithson et al., 2008). The faults help to explain why there is offsetting at ocean ridges. These faults cause frequently shallow, severe earthquakes. The most famous example of a transform fault is the San Andreas Fault, which stretches from the East Pacific Rise to the Juan Fuca Rift.

Over time, many theories have been used to explain the cause of plate movement. One of the earliest ideas was the process of convection currents. This is where hot magma rises from the close to the core, cools and then sinks. Once repeated this causes a cell. These cells transfer heat and thus energy. This heat and energy is what was though to have moved the plates above the rising limb of each cell in a particular direction. Although this was once thought to have caused the crustal plates to move, later examination of the theory suggests that the specific directions of the flow do not always coincide with the directions (Marshak, 2008). Although disregarded as the main cause the process is still central the understanding of origin of plate tectonics (Stadler et al., 2010). It is now believed to just assist the movement of plates instead of directly driving the movement of the plates. Instead, new ideas and theories such as Ridge-push force have been suggested. Ridge-push force develops due to the higher elevation of mid-ocean ridges compared to the adjoining abyssal plain. As a response to the ridge-push force, sea-floor spreading follows, allowing new asthenosphere to fill the space between the plates. (Marshak, 2008) This in combination with the convection currents accelerate the rate of movement. This was later thought to not have been the cause for plate movement, forcing an additional idea to be proposed. This is the dragging of old, cold, dense lithosphere at subduction zones to cause movement. Therefore, movement is thought to be primarily driven by the negative buoyancy of cold subducting plates (Rey, Coltice & Flament, 2014). This theory assumes that that the Earth’s tectonics work in a similar way to a conveyer belt in the sense that whilst plate is being pulled due to gravity into the asthenosphere at a subduction zone, somewhere else there is lithosphere being created at the same rate. Therefore, trying to create an equilibrium. It is thought that this accounts for about half of the total driving force on the plates (Conrad, 2002).

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Plate Tectonics and Natural Disasters

Natural disasters like earthquakes and tsunamis are linked to plate tectonics, the grinding movement of pieces of Earth’s crust.

Earth Science, Geology, Meteorology, Geography, Physical Geography

Damage from the Great Sendai Earthquake

The movement of plate tectonics is not always a slow process. At times it can be fast and violent, causing natural disasters, like the Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011, also called Great Sendai Earthquake or Great Tohoku Earthquake.

Photograph by Hitoshi Yamada/SIPA

Earth’s surface may look solid—after all, we walk on it and construct buildings on it—but in fact it is a constantly moving puzzle of interlocking pieces. These pieces, known as tectonic plates, are giant sections of Earth’s crust whose edges interact with one another by either colliding or moving apart. The plates of the lithosphere float on top of the malleable asthenosphere in Earth’s interior. The movement of these plates is called plate tectonics, and scientists have studied this field since the 1950s. While the movement of tectonic plates is usually slow—typically just a few centimeters per year—plate tectonics are linked to several kinds of natural disasters , namely earthquakes , volcanoes, and tsunamis . On the afternoon of March 11, 2011, a large earthquake struck off the northeastern coast of Japan. This event, which would prove to be deadly, was caused by a specific type of plate movement: subduction . Subduction occurs when one tectonic plate—the one that is older and denser—sinks or is pulled under another tectonic plate. This process does not proceed smoothly, however—tectonic plates can shift and grind against each other, snagging on each other due to friction. Once plates overcome this friction and move past each other, the energy released leads to earthquakes . Near Japan, the Pacific Plate is subducting under the North American Plate. Although it may seem impossible, parts of Japan actually sit above a portion of the North American Plate. In the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake —so named for the part of northeastern Japan that was struck hardest by the quake—a submerged section of the North American plate jolted upward in the Japan Trench. This undersea valley is located roughly 130 kilometers (81 miles) from the main island of Japan. The magnitude 9.0 earthquake produced by the upward movement of this plate—one of the most powerful quakes in recorded history—hoisted a wall of seawater. That huge upwelling of water created a series of waves—a tsunami — that moved outward in all directions from the earthquake ’s epicenter, both toward and away from Japan. The waves moved at speeds of up to 800 kilometers (500 miles) per hour, roughly the speed of a jet airliner. When those waves rolled up on the eastern shore of Japan, the tallest measured more than 10 meters (33 feet) high. The waves that rushed toward the east eventually struck Hawai'i and then the western coast of the United States, though with much less force. The tsunami that hit Japan was far higher than the seawalls that had been built to protect the Japanese coastline from such inundations. The water rushed inland in a great flood, carrying with it ships, sweeping away cars, and destroying buildings. About 20,000 people were killed. Images captured on the day of the earthquake , as well as the days that followed, revealed a shattered landscape full of debris. The environmental impact of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami has been enormous; researchers studying soil samples have detected pollution from industrial chemicals and pesticides that leaked from the wreckage. That is not surprising given the amount of destruction caused by the disaster: oil refineries in flames, sewer and gas lines broken, and chemical plants damaged. The tsunami also crippled the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant near Sendai, Japan. Ocean waves caused flooding that cut off the plant’s electrical power, making it impossible to cool the plant’s nuclear reactors. As a consequence, three of the plant’s four reactors overheated, causing the uranium fuel rods to liquefy. The melted rods burned through the steel walls meant to contain them, releasing uranium and other radioactive materials into the air and sea. The airborne radioactive particles blanketed houses, crops, and schools. Over 100,000 people were forced to evacuate from their homes. The Japanese government expected to spend the equivalent of more than 200 billion U.S. dollars (and perhaps as much as 600 billion dollars) cleaning up radioactive contamination and dismantling the power station, a task that could take 30 years or more. A lot has been accomplished already, however: 1,500 fuel rods from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant have been removed and radioactive topsoil and vegetation from the surrounding area have been placed in bags for long-term storage. This earthquake also had far-reaching effects: tsunamis rolled up on distant shorelines in places as far away as Chile, and the intense ground shaking might have even changed the rotation rate of Earth, shortening the length of the day by about 1.8 microseconds. Earthquakes and tsunamis are powerful natural disasters capable of wreaking extreme havoc. For that reason, scientists are interested in being able to predict when and where these events will occur. By installing sensors capable of measuring ground movements, researchers can monitor earthquakes , even tiny ones, worldwide. This data allows scientists to assemble global maps of earthquakes to look for patterns in their locations. Researchers have also placed buoys in the ocean to detect tsunami waves traveling toward land. Detecting a tsunami before it floods a shoreline and issuing an alert can save many lives.

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Geography Notes

Essay on the plate tectonics theory | earth | geography.

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After reading this essay you will learn about the plate tectonics theory.

Plate Tectonic theory is based on an earth model characterized by a small number of lithospheric plates, 70 to 250 km (40 to 150 mi) thick, that float on a viscous under-layer called the asthenosphere. These plates, which cover the entire surface of the earth and contain both the continents and seafloor, move relative to each other at rates of up to ten cm/year (several inches/year).

The region where two plates come in contact is called a plate boundary, and the way in which one plate moves relative to another determines the type of boundary- spreading, where the two plates move away from each other; subduction, where the two plates move toward each other and one slides beneath the other; and transform, where the two plates slide horizontally past each other. Subduction zones are characterized by deep ocean trenches, and the volcanic islands or volcanic mountain chains associated with the many subduction zones around the Pacific rim are sometimes called the Ring of Fire.

According to the plate tectonic model, the surface of the Earth consists of a series of relatively thin, but rigid, plates which are in constant motion. The surface layer of each plate is composed of oceanic crust, continental crust or a combination of both. The lower part consists of the rigid upper layer of the Earth’s mantle.

The rigid plates pass gradually downwards into the plastic (soft) layer of the mantle, the asthenosphere. The plates may be up to 70 km thick if composed of oceanic crust or 150 km incorporating continental crust. Plates move at different velocities, The African plate moves about 25 mm per year, whereas the Australian plate moves about 60 mm per year.

Most of the Earth’s tectonic, seismic and volcanic activity occurs at the boundaries of neighbouring plates.

There are three types of plate boundaries:

Divergent, convergent and transform boundaries.

1. Divergent plate margins:

At this type of boundary new oceanic crust is formed in the gap between two diverging plates. Plate area is increased as the plates move apart. Plate movement takes place laterally away from the plate boundary, which is normally marked by a rise or a ridge. The ridge or rise may be offset by a transform fault. Presently, most divergent margins occur along the central zone of the world’s major ocean basins. The process by which the plates move apart is referred to as sea floor spreading.

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise provide good examples of this type of plate margin.

The rate at which each plate moves apart from a divergent margin varies from less than 50 mm per year to over 90 mm per year and can be determined from the pattern of magnetic anomalies either side of a spreading ridge.

Either side of a spreading centre, weak magnetic anomalies 5-50 km wide and hundreds of kilometres long can be identified. Molten rock cools between diverging plates the magnetic minerals present align themselves with the orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field at that time. The polarity of the Earth has changed at regular intervals throughout geological time.

Magnetic north has alternated between the Arctic (normal polarity) and the Antarctic (reversed polarity). As a result of this, sections of crust formed during a period of normal polarity have a paleomagnetic remnance which is oriented towards today’s magnetic north, while a section of crust formed during a period of reversed polarity does not. These long linear strips of magnetic anomalies form a symmetrical pattern either side of a spreading centre.

A record of the changes in the Earth’s magnetic polarity has been established and dated for the Cenozoic and is the basis for magnetostratigraphy. This record, in conjunction with the magnetic stripes found either side of a spreading ridge, allows the rate and pattern of sea floor spreading to be examined. Magnetostratigraphy uses records of changes in polarity of the geomagnetic field preserved in sedimentary sequences to correlate between wells and to date the sediment. Individual normal and reverse polarity intervals (“Chrons”) typically range from ∼10 thousand to 10 million years in duration.

For example:

Since geomagnetic polarity reversals are globally synchronous, their records represent “absolute” time planes in sedimentary sequences which can provide a robust stratigraphic correlation framework. This is especially useful in biostratigraphically-barren sequences. Furthermore, sets of reversals often carry distinctive “fingerprints”, which can be matched with appropriate parts of the standard.

2. Convergent plate boundaries:

At a convergent boundary two plates are in relative motion towards each other. One of the two plates slides down below the other at an angle of around 45 degrees and is incorporated into the Earth’s mantle along a subduction zone. The path of this descending plate can be found from analysis of deep earthquakes and the initial point of descent is marked on the surface by a deep ocean trench. Plate area is reduced along the subduction zone. When two plates of oceanic crust collide a volcanic island arc may form. As one of the plates is subducted beneath the other it begins to melt at a depth of between 90 and 150 km and the resulting magma rises to the surface above the subduction zone to form a chain or arc of volcanoes. The edge of the plate which is not descending is therefore marked by a chain of volcanic islands.

3. Conservative or transform margins:

Transform plate boundaries, where plates slide horizontally against each other, neither create nor destroy lithosphere. However, at these boundaries, or transform faults, powerful earthquakes can occur. The San Andreas fault system is the most famous example of this type of boundary. Here two plates move laterally past each other and oceanic crust is neither created nor destroyed.

What causes plates to move?

This question has yet to be fully resolved.

Four main hypotheses have been put forward to explain this:

1. Convection currents:

This hypothesis suggests that flow in the mantle is induced by convection currents which drag and move the lithospheric plates above the asthenosphere. Convection currents rise and spread below divergent plate boundaries and converges and descend along convergent.

Three sources of heat produce the convection currents:

a. Cooling of the Earth’s core

b. Radioactivity within the mantle and crust

c. Cooling of the mantle.

The convection hypothesis has been proposed in several different forms throughout the last 60 years. Convective models of plate evolution clearly show how important convective heat transport is to the modern Earth, over length scales as small as 100 km and times of 60 million years. Earth is a spendthrift, living on its inherited capital of primaeval heat, not on its radiogenic modern income.

2. Magma injection:

This hypothesis invokes the injection of magma at a spreading centre pushing plates apart and thereby causing plate movement.

3. Gravity:

Oceanic lithosphere thickens as it moves away from a spreading centre and cools, a configuration which might tend to induce plates to slide under the force of gravity, from a divergent margin towards a convergent margin.

4. Descending plates:

This hypothesis suggests that a cold dense plate descending into the mantle at a subduction zone may pull the rest of the plate with it and thus cause plate motion.

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Plate Tectonics Essay

Plate tectonics.

Plate tectonics is a principal process that largely forms the face of the Earth. It divides over ninety percent of the Earth surface into fifteen primary pieces of lithosphere known as tectonic plates. Plate tectonics is a recognized modern geological theory addressing the motion of the lithosphere. According to this theory, tectonic plates are giant pieces of lithosphere, which altogether provide the planet with a mosaic structure. Slow motions of tectonic plates subsequently result in the movement of both the ocean floor and continents. Plates encounter with each other, extruding the solid earth to form ridges and mountain ranges or denting it to create deep basins in the ocean. Their activity is mainly interrupted by short catastrophic events like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Primary geological activity is concentrated along the plate boundaries. The fact that the plates are moving has been scientifically proved with the help of satellites, which can accurately measure changes in distance between two points on different plates and determine the speed of their movement. Nevertheless, the mechanism of the movement of tectonic plates is currently under study. The existing theory explains movement of plates by pressure originated in the mantle. Unfortunately, the theory of plate tectonics does not provide an accurate explanation of how the movement of plates is related to processes taking place in the depths of the planet. Joint efforts of geologists, geophysicists, physicists, chemists, mathematicians, and geographers working in the National Park Service have resulted into an efficient technical and scientific description of the structure and movement of lithospheric plates.

Location of Tectonic Plates

Being a significant geologic construct, plate tectonics provides accurate data referring to location of lithosphere plates. The analyzed phenomenon is theoretically based on the fact that the exterior layer of Earth, also known as the lithosphere, is divided into solid pieces called tectonic plates. The forenamed fifteen tectonic plates are named in accordance with their location: the African plate, the North American plate, the Arabian plate, the Cocos plate, and the Nazca plate, along with the Caribbean plate, the Eurasian plate, the South American plate, the Philippine sea plate, the Juan de Fuca plate, the Australian plate, the Antarctic plate, the Indian plate, and the Pacific plate (Saunders, 2011). The mentioned plates occupy around ninety percent of the Earth’s rigid surface.

Figure. 1. Tectonic plates of the Earth (Lillie, 2005).

Tectonic plates like the Eurasian plate and the North American plate mainly consist of continents, while tectonic plates such as the Antarctic plate and the Pacific plate are primarily located under the world ocean. The first group of plates shapes the continental crust of Earth, while the second group participates in the formation of the ocean crust of the planet. The planet’s continents are continuously moving due to motions of the listed tectonic plates. Each of the aforementioned plate moves with an individual speed up to ten centimeters per year and in a specific direction in relation to other plates. Consequently, the plates may crush, pull apart, and sideswipe each other. Location of the place of contact of two tectonic plates is knows as a plate boundary (Oskin, 2013). Names of boundaries depend on moving patterns of the plates as opposed to each other. Correspondingly, it is vital to note that initial location of the plate changes annually, creating new geological boundaries around the planet.

Physiographic Characteristics of Tectonic Plates

It is important to mention the fact that only eight out of the general amount of tectonic plate are defined as the most stable areas of the Earth’s surface. The following plates are considered to be stable due to the performed moderate velocity: the Antarctic plate, the Australian plate, the African plate, the Eurasian plate, the Indian plate, the Pacific plate, the South American plate, and the North American plate (Saunders, 2011).

Australia and its surrounding part of the ocean, reaching Hindustan, represent the Australian plate. The currently observed movement of the given lithospheric plate is directed from the east at a speed of approximately 67 millimeters per year (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.11);

The Antarctic plate occupies the lower part of the planet with Antarctica and adjacent portions of the oceanic crust. This plate is relatively stable as it is surrounded by mid-ocean ridges and other lithospheric plates are moving away from it (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.5);

The African continent along with the section of oceanic crust, which occupies a part of the bottom of the Indian and Atlantic oceans, constitutes the African plate. The northern part of the plate has experienced a vast breakage, separating Arabian Peninsula from the African continent. Neighboring tectonic plates tend to move away from the African plate while the plate itself produces motions leading to its sinking into the Earth’s mantle with the velocity of approximately twenty-seven millimeters per year. In other words, the plate is experiencing the phenomenon known as geologic subduction (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.15);.

The Eurasian plate is shaped by the main part of the Eurasian continent except Hindustan, the Arabian Peninsula, and the northeastern “corner” of the continent. It is the largest lithospheric plate in the world in terms of the content of continental crust (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.11);

The Indian plate allocates Hindustan. It is peculiar for collision with the Eurasian plate, which gave birth to the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. The tectonic plate continues its movement in the northeastern direction at the velocity of fifty millimeters per year, while the Eurasian plate tends to avoid further collisions at the approximate speed of twenty millimeters per year. Additionally, the plate possesses three subduction areas, which precondition its sinking into the mantle. The sinking occurs at the rates of fifty-five, sixty-seven, and eighty-seven millimeters per year correspondingly (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.7);

The Pacific plate is formed by the site of the oceanic crust, shaping the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. In the area of California, the plate moves northward at a rate of fifty-five millimeters per year. The size of the Pacific plate is steadily declining due to several subduction areas. Under the Eurasian plate, it is sinking into the mantle at a rate of seventy-five millimeters per year. Under the Indian plate, it sinks at a rate of eighty-two millimeters per year. Under the North American plate, it approaches the mantle at a rate of thirty-five millimeters per year, and at a rate of twelve millimeters per year under the medium-sized Philippine lithospheric plate (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.16); The North American plate is shaped by the North American continent, the north-western part of the Atlantic Ocean, about half of the Arctic Ocean, and the northeast “corner” of Eurasia (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.13);

The South-American plate constitutes South America and a part of the ocean crust of the Atlantic Ocean. The plate has two subduction zones of nineteen and five millimeters per year (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p. 2).

Tectonic plates posses several physiographic characteristics, which primarily deal with location of continents and oceans, shaping mountain chains and ocean trenches and leading to the rising activity of earthquakes or volcanoes. The continental crust is ordinarily older and thicker than the oceanic crust of tectonic plates. The first one ranges from thirty-five up to seventy kilometers, while the latter is usually from seven to ten kilometers (Saunders, 2011). Thickness of the crust directly affects its mobility and its physical integrity as the majority of physical formations occur on the planet’s tectonic plates. In terms of psyhiography, there are three main groups of tectonic plates’ boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries. The tectonic plates that approach each other create the so-called convergent boundaries (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010). Geological theory identifies the plates, which are moving away from each other, as plates creating divergent boundaries and the ones that are sliding by each other have transform boundaries. In addition, modern plate tectonics defines plate rift zones, i.e. territories where boundaries are not clearly defined and that may transform relatively quickly.

Figure 2. Types of plate boundaries (Israel, 2012)

Divergent boundaries are places, which generate a new crust from energy obtained from the plates pulling away from each other. Divergent boundaries are the major precondition of the existence of certain volcanoes, valleys, and trenches all over the globe, for instance, numerous volcanoes in Iceland and deep rift valleys located in eastern Africa (Frisch, Meschede, & Blakey, 2010, p.195). Convergent boundaries, in turn, are defined as places where the crust is destroyed due to the collision of two tectonic plates diving one under another. It is owing to convergent boundaries that the geological society has the opportunity to study ocean trenches and such chains of mountains as the Andes in South America and the Himalayas in India. In addition, convergent boundaries are to take full responsibility for the existence of volcanoes on the planet. According to the theory of plate tectonics, transform boundaries neither bring forth nor break the crust as they slide by each other using a horizontal pattern. These boundaries create the planet’s seismic active locations such as the California region known as the Ring of Fire (Oskin, 2013).

Figure 3. Planet’s earthquake activity map (Lillie, 2005).

Stratigraphy of Tectonic Plates

The National Park geology holds a significant place in terms of the stratigraphy of tectonic plates. Stratigraphic columns for different tectonic locations vary due to the origin of their formation. This is the reason why it is more appropriate to analyze the stratigraphy of tectonic plates using concrete national parks and monuments. The paper analyzes the example of the Bryce Canyon National Park located in Utah and presents the stratigraphic column of its tectonic history (Stratigraphy of Bryce Canyon national park and vicinity, n.d.). The stratigraphic column provides data referring to tectonic history of the North-American plate. As seen on Figure 5, the ground base of the canyon in the majority of its parts is represented by Wahweap formations of the mid to late Cretaceous (100-75 MYA). The latter belongs to the period when the territory of North America was covered by an inland sea dividing the continent into two halves (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). The shore of the forenamed inland sea formed shale and sandstone deposits along its shore. Reptiles, mollusks, and other ammonite fossil assemblages formed the John Henry and Drip Tank constituents of the stratigraphic column (Stratigraphy of Bryce Canyon national park and vicinity, n.d.). Fossil accumulations of the upper part of wahweap formations included mammals, crabs, dinosaurs, and freshwater fish.

Figure 4. The prominent pink cliffs present at the Bryce Canyon (Israel, 2012).

Correspondingly, the latter suggests that rocks of the canyon were formed in the shoreline area of the inland sea. Kalparowits Formation, located above the Wahweap Formation, in Figure 5 is seen to be consisting of alluvial floodplain deposits and shoreline fossil assemblages such as sharks and rays. Bryce Canyon is widely known for its pink, orange, and buff colored rocks. The mentioned colors have their origin in the Claron Formation of the Tertiary period (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). These rocks were deposited after the recession of the inland sea in the alluvial plains, deltas, and river channels.

Figure 5. The stratigraphic column of Bryce Canyon (2014).

Figure 5 exposes formation of pink hollow formation and pink limestone member at the sea level of the inland sea as it contains rocks formed in deltas. The white limestone member, along with the sandstone member was formed in broad lakes after the recession of the inland sea.

The conglomerates of sandstones and mudstones were formed after numerous floods affected the climate change in the Eocene. The next level above the Claron Formation is the Mount Dutton Formation and the Osiris Tuff as results of relatively violent volcanic activity during the period from 40 MYA until 23 MYA. Top layers of the Bryce Canyon are to be analyzed as the result of quiet volcanic eruption forming boat mesa conglomerate, younger basal, and quaternary deposits after 20 MYA (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). Thus, the stratigraphy can be addressed as a vital component of the changing nature of the tectonic activity and the natural observation of tectonic processes producing them.

Petrology of Bryce Canyon

The primary petrology patterns of the Bryce Canyon are associated with the Hoodoos, the pinnacle rocks rich in calcium carbonate. As calcium was historically washed away by water erosion from the rocks, it left horizontal traces (grooves and protrusions), which greatly contributed to the beauty of the national park. The chemical decay is the key to the variety of colors presented within the Bryce Canyon. The mentioned decay resulted from the oxidization of iron presented in the compound of the canyon rocks. Oxidization of iron produced primarily red colored mineral called hematite (Fe2O) constituting the Pink Cliffs. Along with hematite, the area is reach in limonite (FeO(OH), a yellow tint produced by the iron’s reaction with water. In addition, manganese constituents (MnO) evolved into the lavender shades of wall staining (Chronic & Chronic, 2004). Dolomite rocks along with pure limestone form the white color seen on the canyon walls.

According to Figure 6, the petrology of Bryce Canyon national park reveals five primary groups of mineral cliffs: pink, gray, white, vermilion, and chocolate cliffs, which are principal accumulations of the platform sediments (Foos, 2011). The chocolate cliffs are tapeats sandstones created during early Cambrian Period by the ocean waters. The grey cliffs come from the Muav limestone, which was deposited during the late Cambrian Period due to the Sauk Sea transgression.

Figure 6. Cross-section of Bryce Canyon (Foos, 2011).

The petrology of the Bryce Canyon has its roots in the late Cretaceous period and the first half of the Cenozoic era. The Claron Formation formed the hoodoos and the monolith parts were presented by the white cliffs. The hoodoos, in turn, are built from sedimentary rocks and cretaceous rocks, making the Bryce Canyon National Part one of the most interesting places on the planet in terms of mineral formations.

Structure of Bryce Canyon

Bryce Canyon consists from picturesque fourteen amphitheaters, which are located along the edge of the Paunsaugunt Plateau. The sedimentary conglomerate of this national park was formed by erosion of water and exposure to strong winds. Consequently, it evolved in the formation of rock fins and hoodoos. As mentioned before, the Bryce Canyon contains numerous joints and fractures. The joints of the Bryce Canyon are vertical and are ordinarily set in parallel groups. Large-scale crustal movements along with the erosion pressure and removal of overlying sediments have historically generated these parallel groups known as hoodoos (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). Besides the rock structures, which are widely present in Bryce Canyon, there are several specific structures assisting in the identification of the tectonic history of the region. These specific structures are known as faults and are located around the national park due to crust deformation. The canyon’s structure attains both normal and reverse faults, which makes its landscape very attractive in terms of geology. The hoodoos themselves resulted from the uplifting of rocks, which significantly expanded, forming an exfoliation dome (Anderson, Chidsey, & Sprinkel, 2010). As the rock is uplifted and expands, perpendicular fracture planes are created. These fractures are generated by the exfoliation that is eroded to consequently shape peninsular rocks and walls. The latter is eroded to form the canyon’s arches and, with time, it is reduced to hoodoos.

Geologic History of Bryce Canyon

The surface of the Bryce Canyon National Park consists mainly of rocks belonging to the Tertiary, Cretaceous, and Jurassic periods. The Bryce Canyon has been scientifically proved to exist over sixty million years during the Eocene epoch of the Tertiary Period. Sixty million years ago, the territory of the Bryce Canyon was covered with waters of inland seas and lakes. The long-term exposure to water erosion led to two thousand feet deposit of large amount of silt, lime, and sand. As s result of severe storms and changes in weather, it has evolved into a unique geological area (Foos, 2011). The region was shaped by numerous mudslides, volcano eruptions, and water erosions, which moved sediment and stimulated deposition of different minerals in the canyon’s layers. The major result of the changes that occurred in the area was related to the accumulation of sand, gravel, and sedimentary within the basin of the inland sea. With time, the forenamed accumulations hardened and transformed into the compounds of the Claron rock formations of the canyon hoodoo sculptures. The first premises of the canyon formation were preconditioned by extensive interior seaway located in the Western interior basin of North America. The Bryce Canyon geological history comprises two major historical periods: the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic periods. Clearly, the Mesozoic rocks are tapped by Cenozoic rocks because of intense regional erosion.

The Mesozoic Period. The Mesozoic rocks, specifically Jurassic age rocks at Bryce Canyon, begin the record of the surface geologic history in the area with limestone, dolomites, sandstones, and shale. As the Jurassic period lasted for more than hundred million years, it provided invasion of shallow seawater to the northeast-southwest border of Utah. The latter margin was pertained to relate to the Andean-type formations, which similarly provoked volcanic activity in the seduction areas. The described process is traced nowadays in the mountain system of the Andes (Foos, 2011).
The Cenozoic Period. It is addressed as a more modern period of the canyon development that happened roughly forty million years ago. The forenamed segment was distinguished by the arrangement of the upper levels of hoodoos consisting of the Claron Formation or the Bryce Limestone. The Claron Formation appeared in the result of local basins filled with sediments, creating hoodoos, amphitheatres, and other outstanding geological shapes observed at Bryce Canyon today.

Plate tectonics is a complex theoretical notion in geology due to its ability to clarify and elucidate the geological history of the surface of Earth. Bryce Canyon in Utah is an outstanding example of the insight brought by plate tectonics. According to the theory of plate tectonics, minerals and multiple vertical structures found in the canyon uncover the geological history in terms of what happened in the geologic past of the area. It has been proved that cliffs presented at Bryce Canyon were initially formed at the sea level. This answers the question of the origin of the presently observed mountain plateau formed by sedimentary accumulations. Severe volcanic eruptions experienced in the canyon’s region consequently led to the formation of various faults and specifically volcanic rocks. Evidently, throughout the history, Bryce Canyon has survived much weather- and climate-related stress. Modern convergent plate boundaries present many of the same volcanic rocks and faults. Elevation of the site indicates that tectonic forces uplifted the entire era. The uplift observed at Bryce Canyon is obviously the result of a regional tectonic activity. After it occurred, the area began to erode, creating a valley filled with water from rivers, frost, gravity slides, and winds. The theory of plate tectonics is to be perceived as the driving force of comprehending processes occurring on the planet millions of years ago and processes that are to be expected in the coming centuries.

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Plate Tectonics - Free Essay Examples and Topic Ideas

Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains how the Earth’s outermost layer, the lithosphere, is divided into several large, rigid plates that move relative to each other. These plates move because of the convection of the Earth’s mantle, causing geological events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain-building. Plate tectonics also explains the formation of oceanic and continental crust, the distribution of land masses and sea floor features, and the geological history of the Earth.

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The weakness of Wegner’s theory
The Origin of the Solar System
Plate Tectonics
The Evidences of The Theory of Plate Tectonics
The Theory of Plate Tectonics and The Three Types of Plate Boundaries
A World Without Friction
Tohoku Earthquake: a Horrible Disaster in Japan
Oceanography – An Overview
The Ring of Fire
Fractional Distillation
Japan Tsunami
Dynamic Earth
Earth Is Precious
Explain How Folding Impacts on Landscape Development
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Convection Currents and Earthquakes
Plate Tectonics Theory
How the earth was made?
Chapter 4 Plate tectonics
A Discussion on Various Theories of Plate Tectonics
Natural Science
Plate Tectonics and it’s Role
Forces that Shape the Earth
Alaska’s Earthquakes:Where Beauty Meets Disaster
Volcanoes and their Landforms
South America Geography
Certain Chemicals
Earthquake Simulation Program
Frequent Earthquakes in Japan
End plate connection Steel beam to steel column

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Plate Tectonics Theory and Its Development Essay

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The theory of plate tectonics was introduced by the Canadian geophysicist John Tuzo Wilson (Garrison and Ellis 74). According to Wilson’s theory, the Earth’s outer layer is composed of nearly “dozen separate major lithospheric plates” that float on the asthenosphere (Garrison and Ellis 74). When the deformable asthenosphere is heated from below, it expands, becomes less dense, and rises (Garrison and Ellis 74).

When the asthenosphere reaches the lithosphere, it turns aside, “lifting and cracking the crust” to create the plate edges (Garrison and Ellis 74). The newly shaped pair of plates slides down to the swelling ridges that deviate from the spreading center. In the location of divergence, the new seabed is formed (Garrison and Ellis 74). Larger plates contain continental crust as well as oceanic ones. The major plates jostle about “like huge slabs of ice on a warming lake” (Garrison and Ellis 74).

In human terms, the movement of plates is rather slow, reaching up to 5 centimeters per year. The interaction between plates occurs in diverging, converging, and sideways-moving boundaries (Garrison and Ellis 74). Frequently, one plate may force another wrinkle into mountains or move it below the surface. There are two forces that may cause plate movement:

plates are shaped and slide off the elevated ridges of the spreading centers;
plates are tugged downward into the mantle by their edges that are dense and cool.

The evidence of many centuries of research indicates that the slow movement of plate tectonics recreates the Earth’s surface, shapes or destroys ocean basins, and splits or expands continents (Garrison and Ellis 74). The ancient granitic continents, the density of which is low, ride high in the lithospheric plates, barging on the asthenosphere that moves below them at a slow pace. This process has advanced since the Earth’s crust’s initial cooling and solidifying (Garrison and Ellis 76). Tectonic plates are defined as the cool external layers of convection currents in the upper mantle (Garrison and Ellis 74).

The system of plates is powered by heat. Because some parts of the mantle are heated more than others, convection currents are created when warm mantle material ascends, and cool material descends (Garrison and Ellis 75). The movement of plates is generated by gravity.

The concept of plate tectonics was developed from the ideas of continental drift (Garrison and Ellis 74). The theory of continental drift was introduced by the German researcher Alfred Wegener at the beginning of the 20th century (Tate). Wegener noticed that the fossil remains of some extinct plants or animals could be discovered on several continents that were not adjacent to each other (Tate). The observations allowed Wagner to make a conclusion that in the distant past, the configuration of continents was not the same as at the time of his research. Wegener’s discovery received the title “continental drift” (Tate).

The theory of continental drift fits in the discussion of plate tectonics because both of these phenomena result in considerable changes in the Earth’s surface. Critics rejected the possibility of continental drift due to the geological view of Earth’s mantle (Garrison and Ellis 62). However, scientists continued to develop Wegener’s theory. In particular, Japanese scientists Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff argue that volcanoes and earthquakes near Japan may be related to continental drift (Garrison and Ellis 73).

Works Cited

Garrison, Tom, and Robert Ellis. Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science . 9th ed., CENGAGE Learning, 2016.

Tate, Karl. “ Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift (Infographic). ” LiveScience . 2016. Web.

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Hydrosphere, Biosphere, and Lithosphere
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Coastal Erosion in Texas: Effects and Solutions
California, US: San Andreas Fault and Coso Volcanic Field
Economic Geology of California
Erosional Processes in Coastal California
Port Philip Bay and Sea Levels in Australia's Geological History
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Essay on Nepotism in 850 Words in English for Students

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Jul 2, 2024

Essay on Nepotism: What is nepotism? Why is it bad? What is the relationship between nepotism and favouritism? According to the Oxford Dictionary, Nepotism is the practice of using your power or influence to favour your family, friends, or relatives in an occupation or field. In 2023, The Archies was released by Zoya Akhtar, starring Agastya Nanda, Suhana Khan, and Khushi Kapoor. You might be wondering what’s the problem with these names. There was none until a debate sparked on social media about all of these being star kids. Critics called it a ‘Nepo Kid Fest’, a sign of rotten Bollywood. Supporters, on the other hand, say it is a storm in a teacup, and marketing experts say it will only help the film industry. Today, we bring to light the reality of nepotism, why it is bad and unethical, and what its consequences are.

Table of Contents

1.1 How did Nepotism Emerge?
1.2 Why is Nepotism Bad?
1.3 Consequences of Nepotism
1.4 Conclusion
2 Nepotism Examples

Essay on Nepotism in 850 Words

Nepotism is the practice of using one’s power or influence for the benefit of their family or friends. A successful movie star, politician, or businessman is more likely to support his or her child by using their influence in the industry. The most popular example of nepotism is seen in the film industry, where actors launch their children for new movie roles, giving them an edge over others.

The charge and practice of nepotism have been around for a while now. Critics say it’s favouritism towards your loved ones. Today, the hate for nepotism has become an industry itself. One of the top hashtags on social media is #boycottnepotism and the New York magazine called the year 2022 the ‘Year of Nepo Baby’, and even had a cover published featuring Nepo kids from Hollywood.

How did Nepotism Emerge?

Nepotism finds its roots in the Catholic church. In Latin, ‘Nepos’ means ‘nephews’ . Popes would appoint their nephews to cardinal positions. They did not have their own children so nephews were the best option. It was considered the best option to continue the ‘Papal Dynasty’.

History books tell us the story of Aristotle and Plato, the Ancient Greek Philosophers. Some historians claim that Aristotle may have been a victim of nepotism. His teacher, Plato, had a leadership position in the academy, and Aristotle thought he was a prodigy and that he was the right candidate. But Plato gave it to his nephew instead.

Charles Darwin, the man who told us how we evolved, was himself a product of nepotism. A man named Erasmus Darwin wrote a theory on evolution. Even Charlie Chaplin, the man who made the whole world laugh, was too nepotistical. His parents, Hannah & Charles Chaplin Sr., were famous British comic performers. Nepotism is as old as time and is widely practiced, starting with Kings and Queens.

John F. Kennedy, the 35th American President, appointed his brother Robert F. Kennedy as the US Attorney General. His brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver, became the First Director of the US Peace Corps. By 1967, nepotism had become so prevalent that American lawmakers had to come up with a law banning federal officials from hiring close relatives. It was called the Bobby-Kennedy Law.

What’s shocking is that nepotism thrives in democracies like India as well. In India, democracy came with dynasty politics. The Gandhi-Nehru family is the prime example of nepotism in politics. They have a monopoly over one of the main political parties in India. India has more than 34 prominent political dynasties across parties, religious lines, and states.

Why is Nepotism Bad?

Nepotism is rampant in courtrooms, boardrooms, and the hallowed halls of the legislature and judiciary. Data released by an American agency stated that by age 30, about 22% of American sons will be working for the same employer as their fathers and they will be doing so at the same time as their fathers.

Nepotism Undermines Meritocracy : Nepotism often places unqualified individuals in positions of power, sidelining talented, skilled, and deserving candidates.
Affects Organisational Growth: Favouritism can suppress innovation and creativity as positions are filled based on relationships rather than fresh ideas and perspectives.
Creates Unfair Work Environment: It creates an unfair work environment, leading to resentment and low morale among employees not part of the favored circle.
Damages Reputation and Erodes Trust: Organisations favouring nepotism may suffer from a damaged reputation, affecting their ability to attract top talent and customers.
Nepotism‘s Gender Problem: It has a gender imbalance, where men tend to benefit more from it.
Long-Term Consequences: It jeopardizes the long-term sustainability of organisations by undermining the foundations of merit and competency.

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Consequences of Nepotism

Those practicing nepotism are more likely to enjoy positive consequences, but that’s not the case with those who are victims of it. Nepotism can have negative consequences for employee morale, organizational performance, and public perception.

Nepotism Reduces Employee Morale and Motivation: Employees who see others advance based on personal connections rather than merit can become demoralized.
Affects Productivity and Efficiency: Nepotism can lead to less competent individuals being placed in important roles, resulting in inefficiencies and mistakes.
Erodes Trust and Loyalty: Trust among employees and between staff and management can erode, leading to a toxic work environment.
Nepotism Destroys Organisational Leadership: The damaging practice of nepotism frequently results in unqualified individuals being placed in leadership or expert roles.

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Nepotism is not a new practice and it will exist in the future as well. Everyone wants to favour their loved ones over others, whom they consider strangers The question is not about who is qualified or not, because when it comes it nepotism, everybody wants better positions or roles just because they have connections. These connections are not good for society, as those who deserve them feel cheated.

So what do we do? Raising awareness and highlighting its negative consequences can be a good option. Then there are stringent laws, which can at least reduce the practice of favouritism. Every individual deserves an opportunity based on his or her skills and qualifications, not on connections.

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Nepotism Examples

Here are some common examples of nepotism. Beware of these examples, you might have practiced any of them.

Education: Children of wealthy and influential parents are admitted to elite schools or educational institutions, also known as ‘Legacy Admissions’.
Workplace: Donald Trump appointed his daughter Ivanka Trump and son-in-law Jared Kushner to senior advisory roles in the White House during his presidency, despite their lack of traditional political experience.
Entertainment Industry: Bollywood actors Alia Bhatt, Janvi Kapoor, Tiger Shroff, Varun Dhawan, Ranbir Kapoor, Sonakshi Sinha, Salman Khan, Sara Ali Khan, Ananya Pandey, Shraddha Kapoor, etc. are all examples of nepotism in the entertainment industry.
Political Arena: The Kennedy family in the United States, the Bhutto family in Pakistan, and the Gandhi-Nehru family in India are all examples of nepotism in politics.

Ans: Start by describing what nepotism is and add factual information or questions to hook the reader. Take for example, ‘Nepotism, which is the practice of using one’s power or influence for the benefit of their family or friends. A successful movie star, politician, or businessman is more likely to support his or her child by using their influence in the industry. The most popular example of nepotism is seen in the film industry, where actors launch their children for new movie roles, giving them an edge over others.

Ans: Nepotism is rampant in courtrooms, boardrooms, and the hallowed halls of the legislature and judiciary. Nepotism undermines meritocracy, affects organisational growth, creates an unfair work environment, damages the reputation and erodes trust, causes nepotism‘s gender problem, and has other long-term consequences.

Ans: Star kids in Bollywood and Hollywood, like Alia Bhatt, Ranbir Kapoor, Gwyneth Paltrow, Kaia Gerber, etc. are all examples of nepotism in the entertainment industry. Donald Trump appointed his daughter Ivanka Trump and son-in-law Jared Kushner to senior advisory roles in the White House during his presidency, despite their lack of traditional political experience. The Kennedy family in the United States, the Bhutto family in Pakistan, and the Gandhi-Nehru family in India are all examples of nepotism in politics.

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Shiva Tyagi

With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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Aristotle’s Lasting Influence: Philosophy Science and Ethics

This essay about Aristotle highlights his profound influence on Western philosophy science and ethics. Born in 384 BCE in Stagira Greece Aristotle’s works laid foundational principles in logic metaphysics biology and political theory. His emphasis on empirical observation and virtue ethics has shaped intellectual discourse and scientific inquiry making his ideas a vital part of our intellectual heritage.

How it works

Aristotle high figure in Western philosophy done holding what yields to transformation to the numerous fields by the way philosophy science and ethics. Born in 384 To our era in Stagira Greece his intellectual achievements formed development of human idea considerably. Works of Aristotle prolong respected and studied distinguishing his patient operating on history of idea.

In philosophy additions of Aristotle are deep and far-reaching. How a follower Plato and later guardian of Oleksandr of Macedonia Aristotle was deeply inlaid to the intellectual and political situation of old Greece.

One of his known philosophical innovations was establishment of formal logic. His collection of the texts known as “Organon” proposes principles of the deductive reasoning forming founding for many what from the Western logical idea. Development of Aristotle of logic of syllogism that includes the receipt of suggestions from these pre-conditions becomes the critical aspect of logical theory to this day.

Going of Aristotle near metaphysics marked substantial departure from idealism of Plato that put to founding that abstractly forms or ideas were the most real reality. Aristotle from other side denied that reality better all understands through an empiric supervision and experience. His concept of “substance” offers that from physical objects it is made how business so and form with a form what determines their substantial descriptions. This prospect put foundation for future scientific research doing an accent on importance of supervision and classification.

Influence of Aristotle stretches deeply in the kingdom of science. Unlike many from his contemporaries who often consisted in the speculative reasoning Aristotle protected empiric supervision. His work in biology documented on texts for example “History of Animals” and “Part of Animals” proposes the detailed studies of different varieties on his shop-window. Though some of his supervision on a feral anatomy and maintenance out-of-date modern standards they presented an opening step in the direction of systematic scientific study. His classification of living organisms pawned divided signs served as a prototype taxonomic work of later naturalists like Carl Linnaeus.

In natural sciences Aristotle offered theories that while it is eventually transferable the later opening former foundational during their time. His ideas on motion and causality by the way concept “immobile drive force” how main reason of motion in an universe influenced medieval and the Renaissance scientists. Though his geocentrism a space model later replaced a heliocentric model offered Copernicus method of Aristotle of search of natural explanations for the phenomena was a precursor to the modern scientific methods.

Aristotle’s ethical writings particularly in “Nicomachean Ethics” remain central to moral philosophy. He introduced the concept of virtue ethics which focuses on developing good character traits or virtues as the basis for ethical behavior. According to Aristotle virtues such as courage temperance and justice lie in a mean between extremes of excess and deficiency. This “Golden Mean” emphasizes balance and moderation as key to ethical living. Aristotle argued that the ultimate goal of human life is eudaimonia often translated as “happiness” or “flourishing.” Eudaimonia is achieved through cultivating virtues and fulfilling one’s potential aligning personal well-being with moral integrity.

In addition to ethics Aristotle’s political philosophy as outlined in “Politics” explores the nature of human communities and the role of the state in promoting the good life. He analyzed various forms of government and advocated for a constitutional system that balances the interests of different social classes. Aristotle’s belief in the importance of civic engagement and the role of education in shaping virtuous citizens continues to resonate in contemporary discussions on democracy and public policy.

In conclusion Aristotle’s lasting influence is evident in the breadth and depth of his contributions to philosophy science and ethics. His emphasis on empirical observation and logical reasoning laid the foundation for scientific inquiry while his ethical and political theories continue to inform modern thought. Aristotle’s work exemplifies a comprehensive approach to understanding the world integrating empirical investigation with philosophical reflection. As such his ideas remain a vital part of the intellectual heritage that shapes contemporary scholarship and discourse.

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DOI: 10.1080/15376494.2024.2364907
Corpus ID: 270884161

Research on failure characteristics and mechanism of ZK61m magnesium alloy plate under the impact of ogival projectile

Xuan Wang , Hao Li , +1 author Yunfei Deng
Published in Mechanics of Advanced… 30 June 2024
Engineering, Materials Science

26 References

Research on impact resistance of zk61m magnesium alloy thin plate under different working conditions, effect of lode angle in predicting the behaviour of stiffened 921a steel target plates in ballistic impact by truncated ogive projectiles, zk61m magnesium alloy plate thickness effect on the impact characteristics of blunt projectiles experimental and numerical simulation studies, research on the impact resistance of aluminum alloy circular corrugated sandwich plates against different nose shape projectiles, recent research and advances in extrusion forming of magnesium alloys: a review, selective laser melting of magnesium alloys: necessity, formability, performance, optimization and applications, experimental-numerical study on ballistic impact behavior of 316l austenitic stainless steel plates against blunt and ogival projectiles, a ductile fracture model incorporating stress state effect, low velocity perforation of thick magnesium alloy am60 plates impacted by rigid conical-nose impactor, experimental and numerical investigation on the ballistic resistance of 2024-t351 aluminum alloy plates with various thicknesses struck by blunt projectiles, related papers.

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This illustration shows a stone bust of Plato encircled at the neck by yellow “caution” tape.

Book Bans Are on the Rise. But Fear of Fiction Is Nothing New.

Nearly 2,400 years ago, Plato worried that stories could corrupt susceptible minds. Moral panics over fiction have been common ever since.

For Plato, storytelling was a license for bad behavior. Credit... Ricardo Tomás; Photos, via Getty Images

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By Lyta Gold

Lyta Gold is an essayist and fiction writer, and the author of “Dangerous Fictions: The Fear of Fantasy and the Invention of Reality,” which will be published in October and from which this essay is adapted.

July 1, 2024

The fear of fiction waxes and wanes, spiking every couple of decades like some kind of hysterical cicada. The current wave of book bans may be the worst since the 1980s, but we’ve seen this sort of thing before, and we’ll see it again.

The ’80s bans were driven by religious conservatives, dovetailing with the “ satanic panic ” over books and games involving magic, such as Dungeons & Dragons. Before that, in the 1950s, anxiety centered on trashy paperback novels and comics, which were said to cause “moral damage” and a “loss of ideals” in young people that would invariably lead to a life of crime. In the 1920s and early 1930s, the culprits were sexy Hollywood movies and modernist novels such as “Ulysses,” which — lest people engage in too much sex and modernism — resulted in the Hays Code and more book bans.

Earlier still, at the turn of the 20th century, people blamed America’s problems on dirty books and images that could be ordered through the mail. In the centuries before that, there were bouts of concern over penny dreadfuls, women’s novels, chivalric romances and comedic plays, going back through the ages to the fourth century B.C., when Plato declared in “The Republic” that all stories and other artistic “imitations” of reality — including poetry, music and painting — were unacceptable in an ideal society unless they could be proved to impart rational, wholesome values.

While the context changes, fear of fiction seems always to boil down to fear of one’s society and the people who live in it. Other people’s minds are frightening because they are inaccessible to us; one way we can know them is through their representations in fiction. We know that fiction affects us profoundly and mysteriously, and that other people are affected just as strongly and unpredictably as we are. Which means it’s at least theoretically possible that art could seduce our fellow citizens into wicked beliefs.

Moral panics over fiction are common in democracies, because the inner lives and motives of others matter a great deal in a democracy, arguably more so than in other political systems where people have less direct control over their social experience — and less freedom of expression. In a democracy, your fellow citizens can organize for social progress or encourage the passage of draconian laws that terrorize minorities. Fear of other people, and how they might work together to shift reality, is the reason the contest over written language so often extends to the realm of make-believe — of fiction. Fiction is the story of other people; this is what makes it dangerous.

Most histories of dangerous fiction begin with Plato, though anxiety about the pernicious effect of stories can be found in fragments of work by earlier Greek philosophers, who criticized the epic poetry of their day for portraying the gods as murderous, adulterous jerks. In “The Republic,” Plato expands on these early concerns: When people encounter stories about gods and heroes behaving badly, what stops them from imitating what they hear? When the poets sing about Achilles mourning Patroclus, won’t the audience think it’s OK to cry over dead loved ones, like a woman? When Achilles looks Agamemnon in the face and calls him a “winebibber, with the eyes of a dog and the heart of a deer” — I mean, what if you said that to your dad? A cop? The president?

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Semantic Scholar extracted view of "Research on failure characteristics and mechanism of ZK61m magnesium alloy plate under the impact of ogival projectile" by Xuan Wang et al. ... Semantic Scholar's Logo. Search 219,488,199 papers from all fields of science. Search. Sign In Create Free Account. DOI: 10.1080/15376494.2024.2364907;
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