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111 X-Ray Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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X-rays are a powerful tool used in the medical field to diagnose and treat various conditions. They provide detailed images of the inside of the body, helping doctors to pinpoint issues and develop treatment plans. With such a wide range of uses, there are countless essay topics that can be explored when it comes to x-rays. Here are 111 x-ray essay topic ideas and examples to get you started.

The history of x-rays and their discovery by Wilhelm Roentgen.
The different types of x-ray imaging techniques, such as CT scans and MRIs.
The role of x-rays in diagnosing bone fractures and injuries.
How x-rays are used in dentistry to detect cavities and oral health issues.
The risks and benefits of regular x-ray screenings for cancer detection.
The use of x-rays in veterinary medicine for diagnosing animal health issues.
X-ray technology advancements and how they have improved medical imaging.
The ethical considerations of using x-rays on pregnant women and children.
The impact of x-ray technology on the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
X-ray imaging in sports medicine and its role in diagnosing sports injuries.
The potential dangers of excessive x-ray exposure and how it can be minimized.
How x-rays are used in forensics to identify human remains and solve crimes.
The use of x-rays in industrial settings to inspect and test materials.
X-rays in archeology and how they are used to study ancient artifacts.
The role of x-rays in diagnosing and treating lung diseases such as pneumonia.
The development of portable x-ray machines and their impact on healthcare in remote areas.
X-ray imaging in the aerospace industry for inspecting aircraft components.
The use of x-rays in food safety inspections to detect contaminants.
The future of x-ray technology and potential advancements in medical imaging.
X-rays in space exploration and how they are used to study celestial objects.
The use of x-rays in art restoration to analyze and preserve paintings.
X-ray imaging in paleontology and how it is used to study dinosaur fossils.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating arthritis and joint diseases.
X-ray technology in the automotive industry for inspecting vehicle components.
The use of x-rays in detecting and treating kidney stones and urinary tract issues.
X-ray imaging in ophthalmology for diagnosing eye diseases and injuries.
The impact of x-rays on environmental research and pollution detection.
X-rays in geology and how they are used to study the composition of rocks.
The use of x-rays in detecting and treating gastrointestinal issues such as ulcers.
X-ray technology in the military for detecting hidden explosives and weapons.
The role of x-rays in diagnosing and treating brain tumors and neurological disorders.
X-ray imaging in the field of psychology for studying brain activity and mental health.
The use of x-rays in detecting and treating skin conditions such as melanoma.
X-rays in the field of genetics and how they are used to study DNA structures.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of anthropology and human evolution.
X-ray imaging in the field of architecture for inspecting building structures.
The use of x-rays in studying climate change and its effects on the environment.
X-rays in the field of astronomy for studying stars and galaxies.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating thyroid disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of robotics for inspecting mechanical components.
The use of x-rays in studying plant biology and photosynthesis.
X-ray imaging in the field of marine biology for studying underwater ecosystems.
The impact of x-rays on the field of nanotechnology and materials science.
X-rays in the field of zoology for studying animal anatomy and behavior.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating liver diseases.
X-ray technology in the field of computer science for developing imaging algorithms.
The use of x-rays in studying climate patterns and weather systems.
X-ray imaging in the field of architecture for designing earthquake-resistant structures.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of robotics and automation.
X-rays in the field of entomology for studying insect anatomy and evolution.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating blood disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of cybersecurity for detecting security threats.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of pollution on human health.
X-ray imaging in the field of nutrition for studying food composition.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of artificial intelligence and machine learning.
X-rays in the field of ecology for studying ecosystems and biodiversity.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating hormonal disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of education for teaching medical imaging techniques.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of climate change on wildlife.
X-ray imaging in the field of architecture for designing sustainable buildings.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of renewable energy and green technology.
X-rays in the field of sociology for studying social structures and behavior.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating autoimmune diseases.
X-ray technology in the field of transportation for inspecting vehicle safety.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of globalization on human health.
X-ray imaging in the field of urban planning for designing healthy cities.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of mental health and wellness.
X-rays in the field of political science for studying government structures and policies.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating metabolic disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of sports science for studying athletic performance.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of social media on mental health.
X-ray imaging in the field of economics for studying market trends and consumer behavior.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of education and learning.
X-rays in the field of philosophy for studying human consciousness and identity.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating genetic disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of fashion for designing sustainable clothing.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of technology on human relationships.
X-ray imaging in the field of literature for analyzing narrative structures.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of music and sound engineering.
X-rays in the field of history for studying past civilizations and cultures.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating psychological disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of engineering for designing innovative solutions.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of social inequality on health outcomes.
X-ray imaging in the field of anthropology for studying human evolution.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of communication and media studies.
X-rays in the field of law for studying legal structures and justice systems.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating developmental disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of architecture for designing inclusive spaces.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of globalization on cultural identity.
X-ray imaging in the field of psychology for studying cognitive processes.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of environmental science and conservation.
X-rays in the field of sociology for studying social movements and activism.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating social anxiety disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of education for designing inclusive curricula.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of climate change on mental health.
X-ray imaging in the field of political science for studying power dynamics.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of gender studies and identity.
X-rays in the field of economics for studying economic inequalities.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating trauma-related disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of sociology for studying social structures and hierarchies.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of gentrification on mental health.
X-ray imaging in the field of architecture for designing inclusive spaces.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of urban planning and development.
X-rays in the field of anthropology for studying cultural identities and traditions.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating substance abuse disorders.
X-ray technology in the field of education for designing inclusive classrooms.
The use of x-rays in studying the effects of globalization on cultural heritage.
X-ray imaging in the field of sociology for studying social inequalities.
The impact of x-ray technology on the field of environmental justice and sustainability.
X-rays in the field of psychology for studying mental health disparities.
The role of x-rays in detecting and treating post-traumatic stress disorders.

In conclusion, x-rays have a wide range of applications in various fields beyond just medicine. By exploring different essay topics related to x-ray technology, you can gain a deeper understanding of how this powerful tool impacts our world in countless ways. Whether you are interested in science, technology, art, or social issues, there is a fascinating x-ray topic waiting for you to explore.

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by Chris Woodford . Last updated: October 31, 2022.

Photo: Once X rays had to be treated like old-fashioned photographs. Now, they're as easy to study and store as digital photographs on computer screens. Photo by Kasey Zickmund courtesy of U.S. Air Force.

What are X rays?

Artwork: The electromagnetic spectrum, with the X-ray band highlighted in yellow over toward the right. You can see that X rays have shorter wavelengths, higher frequencies, and higher energy than most other types of electromagnetic radiation, and don't penetrate Earth's atmosphere. Their wavelengths are around the same scale as atomic sizes. Artwork courtesy of NASA (please follow this link for a bigger and clearer version of this image).

Artwork: Lead is a heavy element that you'll find toward the bottom of the periodic table: its atoms contain lots of protons and neutrons, so they're very dense and heavy. Lead is very good at stopping X rays.

What are X rays used for?

Photo: Taking a dental X ray with modern, digital technology. This equipment uses low-power (and therefore safer) X rays and instead of the dentist having to develop an old-fashioned photo, the results show up almost instantly on their computer screen. Photo by Matthew Lotz courtesy of US Air Force .

Photo: A typical CT scanner. The patient lies on the bed, which slides through the hole in the donut-shaped scanner behind. The scanner unit contains one or more rotating X-ray sources and detectors. Photo by Francisco V. Govea II courtesy of US Air Force and Wikimedia Commons .

Photo: Using digital X ray equipment (left) to check the contents of a suspicious package (on the floor, right). Photo by Jonathan Pomeroy courtesy of US Air Force .

Photo: Nondestructive X ray testing is one way to inspect planes without taking them apart. Here, a plane has just been tested in a lead-lined hangar at Randolph US Air Force Base, Texas. The warning signs you can see on the door indicate the potential dangers from the X rays. Photo by Steve Thurow courtesy of US Air Force.

Photo: Studying semiconductor materials with X-ray spectroscopy. Photo by Jim Yost courtesy of US DOE/NREL .

Photo: X-ray image of the Sun produced by the Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT). Photo courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA-GSFC) .

How are X rays produced?

How were x rays discovered.

Photo: Wilhelm Röntgen's X-ray photograph of his wife's hand. Note the rings! Photo believed to be in the public domain, courtesy of the National Library of Medicine's Images from the History of Medicine (NLM) collection and the National Institutes of Health .

19th century

20th century.

Illustration: A typical Coolidge tube. Artwork courtesy of the Wellcome Collection published under a Creative Commons (CC BY 4.0) licence .

Photo: The Chandra X-ray telescope just before it was released from the Space Shuttle Columbia on on July 23, 1999. Photo courtesy of NASA/JSC

21st century

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Essay on X Rays

Students are often asked to write an essay on X Rays in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on X Rays

Introduction.

X-rays are a type of radiation called electromagnetic waves. They are used in medicine to create images of the inside of the body.

Use in Medicine

In medicine, X-rays are used to see broken bones, cavities in teeth, and other health issues. They help doctors diagnose and treat patients.

While X-rays are helpful, too much exposure can be harmful. That’s why protective measures, like lead aprons, are used during X-ray procedures.

250 Words Essay on X Rays

Introduction to x-rays.

X-rays, a form of electromagnetic radiation, have revolutionized the field of medicine since their discovery by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895. They possess the unique ability to penetrate through human tissue, making them invaluable for non-invasive diagnostic imaging.

Physics Behind X-Rays

X-rays are produced when high-energy electrons collide with a metal target. The sudden deceleration of electrons results in the emission of X-rays, a phenomenon known as Bremsstrahlung. Moreover, when these high-energy electrons displace inner-shell electrons of the target metal atoms, characteristic X-rays are emitted.

Medical Applications

In medicine, X-rays are primarily used for imaging internal body structures. The differential absorption of X-rays by different tissues allows the visualization of bones and organs. In addition, X-rays are used in radiation therapy for cancer treatment, where they destroy malignant cells while sparing surrounding healthy tissue.

Risks and Safety

Despite their benefits, X-rays carry potential risks. They can cause ionization and damage to living cells, leading to mutations and cancer. Therefore, it’s crucial to limit exposure and use protective shielding.

Future of X-Rays

500 words essay on x rays.

X-rays, a significant discovery in the field of medical science, have revolutionized the way we diagnose and treat various diseases. Discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895, X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to light rays but with higher energy levels.

The Physics of X-Rays

X-rays are generated in an X-ray tube where high-energy electrons collide with a metal target, typically tungsten. When these electrons strike the target, their kinetic energy is converted into X-ray photons through two processes: characteristic and Bremsstrahlung radiation. The majority of X-rays are produced via Bremsstrahlung radiation, where electrons are deflected by the nucleus of the tungsten atom, leading to a change in direction and speed, and thus a release of energy in the form of X-rays.

Medical Applications of X-Rays

X-rays in cancer treatment.

Beyond diagnostics, X-rays play a crucial role in cancer treatment through radiation therapy. High-energy X-rays are used to destroy cancer cells, slowing or stopping their growth. The therapy aims to maximize the dose to cancerous tissues while minimizing exposure to healthy tissues, a balance achieved through sophisticated treatment planning and delivery techniques.

Risks and Safety Measures

Conclusion: the future of x-rays.

In conclusion, X-rays have profoundly impacted medical science, offering invaluable diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities. As we continue to refine and innovate these technologies, the benefits of X-rays will undoubtedly expand, promising better patient care and outcomes.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

German scientist discovers X-rays

On November 8, 1895, physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845-1923) becomes the first person to observe X-rays, a significant scientific advancement that would ultimately benefit a variety of fields, most of all medicine, by making the invisible visible.

Röntgen's discovery occurred accidentally in his Wurzburg, Germany, lab, where he was testing whether cathode rays could pass through glass when he noticed a glow coming from a nearby chemically coated screen. He dubbed the rays that caused this glow X-rays because of their unknown nature.

X-rays are electromagnetic energy waves that act similarly to light rays, but at wavelengths approximately 1,000 times shorter than those of light. Röntgen holed up in his lab and conducted a series of experiments to better understand his discovery. He learned that X-rays penetrate human flesh but not higher-density substances such as bone or lead and that they can be photographed.

Röntgen's discovery was labeled a medical miracle and X-rays soon became an important diagnostic tool in medicine, allowing doctors to see inside the human body for the first time without surgery. In 1897, X-rays were first used on a military battlefield, during the Balkan War, to find bullets and broken bones inside patients.

Scientists were quick to realize the benefits of X-rays, but slower to comprehend the harmful effects of radiation. Initially, it was believed X-rays passed through flesh as harmlessly as light. However, within several years, researchers began to report cases of burns and skin damage after exposure to X-rays, and in 1904, Thomas Edison’s assistant, Clarence Dally, who had worked extensively with X-rays, died of skin cancer. Dally’s death caused some scientists to begin taking the risks of radiation more seriously, but they still weren’t fully understood.

During the 1930s, 40s and 50s, in fact, many American shoe stores featured shoe-fitting fluoroscopes that used X-rays to enable customers to see the bones in their feet; it wasn’t until the 1950s that this practice was determined to be risky business.

Wilhelm Röntgen received numerous accolades for his work, including the first Nobel Prize in physics in 1901, yet he remained modest and never tried to patent his discovery. Today, X-ray technology is widely used in medicine, material analysis and devices such as airport security scanners.

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X-ray summary

X-ray , Electromagnetic radiation of extremely short wavelength (100 nanometres to 0.001 nanometre) produced by the deceleration of charged particles or the transitions of electrons in atoms. X-rays travel at the speed of light and exhibit phenomena associated with wave s, but experiments indicate that they can also behave like particles ( see wave-particle duality). On the electromagnetic spectrum, they lie between gamma ray s and ultraviolet radiation . They were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who named them X-rays for their unknown nature. They are used in medicine to diagnose bone fractures, dental cavities, and cancer; to locate foreign objects in the body; and to stop the spread of malignant tumours. In industry, they are used to analyze and detect flaws in structures.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

X-ray style in arnhem land rock art.

Jennifer Wagelie Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York

October 2002

The “X-ray” tradition in Aboriginal art is thought to have developed around 2000 B.C. and continues to the present day. As its name implies, the X-ray style depicts animals or human figures in which the internal organs and bone structures are clearly visible. X-ray art includes sacred images of ancestral supernatural beings as well as secular works depicting fish and animals that were important food sources. In many instances, the paintings show fish and game species from the local area. Through the creation of X-ray art, Aboriginal painters express their ongoing relationships with the natural and supernatural worlds.

To create an X-ray image, the artist begins by painting a silhouette of the figure, often in white, and then adding the internal details in red or yellow. For red, yellow, and white paints, the artist uses natural ocher pigments mined from mineral deposits, while black is drived from charcoal. Early X-ray images depict the backbone, ribs, and internal organs of humans and animals. Later examples also include features such as muscle masses, body fat, optic nerves, and breast milk in women. Some works created after European contact even show rifles with bullets visible inside them.

X-ray paintings occur primarily in the shallow caves and rock shelters in the western part of Arnhem Land in northern Australia. One of the best known galleries of X-ray painting is at Ubirr , which served as a camping place during the annual wet season. Similar X-ray paintings are found throughout the region, including the site of Injaluk near the community of Gunbalanya (also called Oenpelli), whose contemporary Aboriginal artists continue to create works in the X-ray tradition.

Wagelie, Jennifer. “X-ray Style in Arnhem Land Rock Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/xray/hd_xray.htm (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Jennifer Wagelie

Wagelie, Jennifer. “ Easter Island .” (October 2002)
Wagelie, Jennifer. “ Early Maori Wood Carvings .” (October 2002)
Wagelie, Jennifer. “ Lapita Pottery (ca. 1500–500 B.C.) .” (October 2002)
Wagelie, Jennifer. “ Nan Madol .” (October 2002)
Wagelie, Jennifer. “ Prehistoric Stone Sculpture from New Guinea .” (October 2001)

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X-ray production.

Dawood Tafti ; Christopher V. Maani .

Affiliations

Last Update: July 31, 2023 .

Definition/Introduction

X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers. In the setting of diagnostic radiology, X-rays have long enjoyed use in the imaging of body tissues and aid in the diagnosis of disease. Simply understood, the generation of X-rays occurs when electrons are accelerated under a potential difference and turned into electromagnetic radiation. [1] An X-ray tube, with its respective components placed in a vacuum, and a generator, make up the basic components of X-ray production. Essential components of an X-ray tube include a cathode, and an anode separated a short distance from each other, a vacuum enclosure, and high voltage cables forming the X-ray generator attached to the cathode and anode components. [2] In the generation of X-ray production, a cathode filament machined in a cathode cup is activated, causing intense heating of the cathode filament. [3] The heating of the filament leads to the release of electrons in a process called thermionic emission. [4] The released electrons form in an electron cloud at the filament surface, and repulsion forces prevent the ejection of electrons from this negatively charged cloud. [2] Upon application of a high voltage by an X-ray generator to the cathode as well as the anode, there is an acceleration of electrons ejected to an electrically positive anode. [3] The filament and the focusing cup determine this path of acceleration. The number of electrons is measured in the form of milliampere (mA) units, where 1 milliampere is equal to 6.24 x 10^15 electrons/s. Electron kinetic energy (measured in keV) is related to the applied voltage. The tube voltage, tube current, and exposure duration (measured in seconds) are adjustable by the user.

Once the high kinetic energy electrons finally reach the anode target, this initiates the process of X-ray production. Tungsten is often the usual anode target, although other material targets are also employed. Electrons come extremely close to the nucleus of the target, causing a deceleration and change in direction, converting the kinetic energy to electromagnetic radiation in a process known as “breaking radiation” or bremsstrahlung. [5] The output is a spectrum of X-ray energies. Incident electrons can also result in ionization, whereby the approaching electron can remove a second electron belonging to an atom of the anode target, losing its energy through ionization or excitation. This process leads to an emission of a photon as the electron orbit vacancy gets filled by an orbital shell electron from a further out shell. Considering orbital energies and their differences are unique in atoms, this leads to a “characteristic X-ray” with energies that can serve as a fingerprint unique to each anode target. Bremsstrahlung X-rays, however, constitute the majority of X-rays produced in this process.

Before understanding the final production of an X-ray image, it is essential to understand the interaction of X-rays with individuals exposed to X-rays. There are three important types of interactions that occur between X-rays and the tissues of our body. The “classical” or “coherent” interaction occurs when an X-ray strikes an orbital electron and subsequently bounces off and changes direction. [6] These X-rays are low energy and do not cause ionization and only add a small dose amount to a patient. In “Compton” scattering, X-rays of higher energy strike an outer shell electron and are strong enough to remove it from the shell, causing ionization of an atom. [7] This phenomenon contributes to dose and also contributes to scatter. Photoelectric interactions occur when an incoming X-ray strikes an inner shell electron, removing it from the shell and causing a downward cascade of outer shell electrons filling inner orbit vacancies, further releasing secondary X-rays. This type of interaction contributes to image contrast. Finally, the differential absorption of X-rays within the tissues of the body subsequently contributes to the production of the final image. Attenuation of X-rays ultimately depends on the effective atomic number in tissue, X-ray beam energy, and tissue density. [8]

Image detectors come in the form of digital and analog film detectors. [9] One limitation of analog systems is the limited range of exposure intensities that it can accurately detect; this lends itself to multiple images taken for an adequate and interpretable study, and therefore subsequently leads to increased radiation exposure to a patient. Digital systems allow a user to fix contrast and brightness and provide greater post image processing options. [9]

Issues of Concern

Effective dose refers to the amount of radiation received by the whole body, and measurement is in millisievert (mSv). Generally speaking, various procedures entail different effective radiation doses based on site and use of contrast. For example, a radiograph of the spine has an approximate effective dose of around 1 mSv. [10] A radiograph of the extremity ranges within the upper limits of normal between 0.17 to 2.7 microSv. [10] To better place these doses in context, we can compare these exposures with natural radiation we obtain from our surroundings, which usually approximates to 3 mSv per year. [11] A spine X-ray, therefore, is comparable to the natural background radiation exposure for six months. An extremity radiograph compares to natural background radiation exposure of 3 hours. Bone densitometry and mammography studies have an approximate effective dose of around 0.001 mSv and 0.4 mSv, respectively, comparable to 3 hours and six weeks of background radiation, respectively. [12] Radiography, therefore, in the setting of cumulative exposure is not without risks in patients who require frequent imaging studies. An X-ray technician plays an instrumental role in the acquisition of interpretable and high-quality X-ray images. A working and constant relationship between a radiologist and an X-ray technician is essential in troubleshooting and acquiring images in the appropriate diagnosis of a patient. X-ray technicians are also critical in preventing artifacts, taking brief medical histories, ensuring appropriate laterality, appropriate positioning, and adjusting and maintaining various equipment involved in X-ray acquisition.

Clinical Significance

Although adequate coverage of the full range of uses of conventional radiographs cannot is beyond the scope of this article, the use of radiography frequently plays a critical role in assessing the various osseous structures of the body. Evaluation of the lungs is also possible, and the use of contrast can also help to examine soft tissue organs of the body, including the gastrointestinal tract and the uterus, such as in the setting of hysterosalpingography. Radiography is useful in performing various procedures including catheter angiography, stereotactic breast biopsies as well as an intra-articular steroid injection. Radiography helps in the evaluation of multiple pathologies, including fractures, types of pneumonia, malignancies, as well as congenital anatomic abnormalities.

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X-ray Generator Contributed by D Tafti, MD

Disclosure: Dawood Tafti declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Christopher Maani declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

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Introduction

How x-rays work, uses of x-rays.

X-ray is one of the inventions that demonstrate the achievements made by man with regards to technological advancement. The devices that use this technology have lens that can see beyond what human eyes can see. For instance, somebody who has had an internal injury would not notice that he/she has any internal bleeding unless x-ray is employed in the diagnosis procedures. This technology is used in very many fields, and this paper will shed light on how it works and how it has advanced.

According to Burnett and Munro (2005), the x-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895, but then the discovery came by default because this he was just carrying out experiments as usual. This particular experiment revolved around his wife’s hand, but he had done the experiment previously using his hand hence this one was just for confirmation purposes. He took a shot of his wife’s hand and the image that was captured was quite amazing because he was able to see the bones and the wedding ring. What puzzled him the most was the fact that he could not see the flesh, but that was the start of x-ray technology.

X-ray uses electromagnetic radiation, which is derived from the ejection of electrons that are placed in a tunnel inside the device. There are blocks of energy that are formed during the ejections and they are called photons, and they are the ones that form the rays. The electrons are ejected towards a metallic object and their impact upon hitting the object is what creates the radiations. The x-rays have short wavelengths and that is why they have more energy. When an object is observed through x-ray, the detectors interpret the image by identifying the photons of light emitted by the device.

The radiations emitted by the x-ray machines that are used in hospitals and other places are artificial because naturally there are many sources of electromagnetic radiations. Among the natural sources of electromagnetic radiations include the sun, stars, and comets. However, the earth is protected from these radiations by the ozone layer, in addition to its thickness. The radiations that land on earth are not harmful, but long term exposure can be disastrous because the radiations are perceived to cause skin cancer in humans.

Brenner (2010) argues that if humans’ eyes were to be like x-rays, we would not recognize any color or clothes because in such a view one can only see the flesh and the bones. This means that human vision is much better than x-ray’s because we can notice things by their distinct colors. X-rays can not be seen without an x-ray sensitive film that has to be placed below or inside the object that is observed. For instance, when the doctor is diagnosing a broken limb using the x-ray, the film has to be placed on one side of the limb for the image to be captured.

This is because x-rays are electromagnetic radiations that travel just like light, but these are strong because they can penetrate deep into the skin. The focus of the x-ray machine is then directed towards the area that the doctor is interested in and during this time the radiations are ejected from the machine. Consequently, the radiations go through the skin and this is when the image is captured. In the image, one cannot see the radiations and neither can they be felt during diagnosis.

The x-ray is however limited by the bones because the rays cannot penetrate through the bones and thus, they are taken in by the bone. This means that the x-ray can only capture the image of only one side, and if the images are required from different angles, say front and the rear, they have to be taken at different intervals. Likewise, when one is about to be observed, he/she is requested to remove any metallic objects such as jewelry because they distort the image by absorbing the radiations and thus, the image does not capture the intended object. The good thing about x-rays is that they can capture the shadow in the image, but the shadow does not distort the image in any way.

X-rays are applied in many areas, but the most common field is medicine. Before the invention of x-ray machines, doctors were having trouble in diagnosing disorders that are inside the body, such as dislocated joints and bones. They had to carry out surgeries so that they could see for themselves. The procedure took more time and was even painful to the patient. Sometimes, the surgeries did not help in finding the source of the problem, but all that is history because today an x-ray only takes a few minutes to be completed. Currently, the surgeons are in praise of x-rays because it is an informative tool to them; they know where the operation should target, which makes the task a little bit easier (Brenner, 2010).

Additionally, the discovery of x-ray has contributed positively to advancement in medicine. This is because it has helped to reduce cases of patient mortality, unlike before. After all, the doctors can identify what the patient is suffering from faster and thus, take an affirmative action before it is too late. For instance, an illness like tuberculosis is diagnosed within two minutes by taking a picture of the patient’s chest. Today the technology has been advanced further and expectant mothers can tell the sex of the baby in their womb by going through a scan procedure. However, some practitioners do not disclose the gender of the baby to the couple or the woman because there have been many cases where the woman aborted the baby if she found out that it is not of her preferred gender.

Similarly, x-rays are used in most exit and entry terminals as a security measure to help detect drugs that are in transit. In most airports passengers and their luggage are screened using x-rays before boarding the plane. This is because even if one swallowed something, it will still be captured by the x-ray machine. However, most passengers are against its use in screening because they feel uncomfortable. After all, the screening personnel can see their naked body and thus, they feel like it is similar to stripping. X-rays are also applied in astronomy by mounting the detectors on the satellites so that they can capture the emissions of radiations in the skies.

Donnelly (2005) explains that the x-rays that are used today are more advanced because they are modified to release small amount of radiation hence they are no longer hazardous as they used to be. In early days, x-rays would not be used on expectant mothers because the magnitude of radiation was very high such that it could lead to the death of the unborn baby.

In the days that followed the discovery of x-rays there were many cases of people who had inflamed skin due to being exposed to the radiations. However, x-rays were recommended for curing certain diseases after it was reported that some people who were suffering from skin cancer were healed by being exposed to the radiations. These happenings induced medical experts and scientists to do more research on x-rays, and today when we look back to where we have come from it’s certain that their efforts are fruitful and will continue to be so because further research is still in progress.

Currently, the x-ray machines are operated by professionals called radiographers. There are two categories of radiographers: radiologists and radiotherapists. A radiologist is a professional medical expert who analyzes the images captured by x-rays and treats the ailment according to the implications provided by the pictures. A radiotherapist on the other hand employs x-rays in treating ailments such as cancer. The therapist does this by exposing the cells that are in the patient’s blood to radiation, which in return kills them.

Furthermore, the demand for people with skills in radiography has increased because healthcare providers have realized that they can perform better by being informed, and this requires the use of x-rays. Radiography is one of the branches in the faculty of medicine and it has become so popular such that doctors who specialize in it have to obtain certification from its board. In countries like Britain, radiographers are monitored by the Royal College of Radiologist just to make sure they stick by the ethics of this profession (Donnelly, 2005).

X-ray machines are highly demanded in hospitals, but then they are very costly such that most healthcare facilities cannot afford them. This problem is more common in developing countries, especially in Africa. There are very few hospitals that have x-ray machines and in such a case, patients have to cover long distances just to get the pictures taken. Furthermore, the ones that are available charge very high prices hence most patients cannot afford the test. Developed countries like the US are benefiting from this technology because they have both the purchasing power and the manpower that is required to operate the equipments. Besides, the use of x-rays in treating ailments is not widely spread in poor countries because it is very expensive hence it is only the rich people who can afford to pay for such treatments.

Brenner, D. J. (2010). Should we be Concerned about the Rapid Increase in CT Usage? Rev Environ Health, 25 (1), 63-68.

Burnett, S. & Munro, A. J. (2005). X-rays . Netdoctor. Web.

Donnelly, CF. (2005). Reducing Radiation Dose Associated with Pediatric CT by Decreasing Unnecessary Examination. American Journal Roentgenology, 32 , 242-244.

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The practical Applications of X-rays

Alexandra L.

Checked : T. M. H. , Eddy L.

Latest Update 20 Jan, 2024

Table of content

Imaging using X-rays

1: bone, joint and spinal radiology, a) simple x-rays:, b) arthrography:, 2: pulmonary radiology, 4: digestive radiology, a) transit of the small intestine, b) pharyngo-esophageal transit (tpo), c) opaque enema, 5: urinary radiology, b) cystography, c) retrograde urethrography, a) hysterosalpingography, b) galactography, c) sialography, d) saccoradiculography and myelography.

Radiography is probably one of the most common medical techniques (you just have to think about its use in dental care to be convinced.) If it is not a new technique, it turns out to be still of great topical and very useful. Indeed, even if many other very sophisticated medical imaging techniques have appeared in recent decades (ultrasound, scanner, MRI, PET scan, scintigraphy, X-rays, etc.), radiography is far from obsolete because it has been able to evolve. Examples include the trend to replace the photographic film used to reveal radiographic images with digital sensors, which opens the door to image processing and sharing via the Internet. Today, we will discuss the practical applications of X-rays. Let’s get into it!

All parts of the body can be x-rayed at different angles to examine the bones and joints of the different limb segments, the spine (cervical, dorsal or lumbar spine), the skull and sinuses of the face, the teeth (dental pan), the number of incidences depending on the part of the body to be examined.

Any joint can benefit from an intra-articular injection of an opaque X-ray contrast product. The joints most often affected are the shoulder, the knee, but also the elbow, wrist, hip, or ankle.

It remains the primary exploration of any pulmonary or pleural pathology. It is also often used in cardiology assessments to assess heart shape and pulmonary vascularization.

This x-ray of "Abdomen without Preparation" always precedes explorations of digestive or urinary clouding, but can be used alone or in combination with other examinations, in particular, ultrasound for the initial assessment of acute abdominal pain (intestinal obstructions, nephrotic colic, etc.).

This examination consists of opacifying the small intestine (small intestine) after the oral ingestion of an opaque product with X-rays. It allows you to examine the internal walls of the small intestine up to the colon (large intestine). A fast is essential to allow the product to adhere to the digestive walls. Its performance is sensitized by the use of an enteroclysis technique, which consists in positioning a probe in the duodenum (initial part of the small intestine after the stomach), the air insufflation coming to complete the clouding. The small intestine remains an intestinal portion difficult to explore, and a technique using) may be offered.

Again, this is an x-ray technique after oral ingestion of an X-ray opaque product (baryte), which makes it possible to study the part used during swallowing (pharynx) which precedes the esophagus. Fasting is essential to allow the product to adhere to the pharyngeal walls. It remains widely used for the study of ENT pathologies.

This examination consists of opacifying the large intestine (colon) rectally in order to assess the condition of its internal walls. This enema can be performed in simple contrast using an opaque X-ray material called barium ("Barium Enema"), or a water-soluble product (water-soluble enema) when a perforation of the colon is suspected or when the 'we are in a situation at risk of perforation. A technique called "double contrast" uses both barytes and air blowing, which improves its performance. Preparation is necessary to empty the large intestine of feces (residue-free diet, water enema, and laxative).

This "Intravenous Urography" is a simple examination intended to visualize the kidneys and the cavities where the urine is evacuated to the bladder, by using a contrast agent opaque to X-rays injected intravenously which eliminates by the kidneys. This exam remains used because it can be quickly and easily scheduled. It is nevertheless more and more often replaced by a CT scan of the urinary tract (uroscanner).

This examination consists of filling the bladder with an opaque X-ray contrast medium, either with a small sterile disposable probe lubricated with a local anesthetic (“retrograde” cystography) or much more rarely after direct puncture above the pubis ("suprapubic" cystography). It remains widely used in the context of repeated urinary tract infections to look for reflux of urine from the bladder to the kidneys (vesicoureteral reflux), which can ultimately compromise good kidney function.

This examination is only carried out in men, consists of this time of opacifying the urethra (conduit which evacuates urine at the exit of the bladder), the opaque contrast agent to X-rays being introduced by a small probe at the end of the rod. It remains used in the balance of urethral strictures.

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This examination consists of filling the uterus with an opaque X-ray contrast product. It is almost no longer used for the study of the uterine cavity, but remains very useful and is still often practiced in the context of infertility for assessing the permeability of the fallopian tubes in case of pregnancy.

This examination consists of filling a canal that opens up through a fine orifice in the nipple of a breast with an opaque X-ray contrast medium. It is only used in the event of unichannel nipple discharge.

This examination consists of filling the salivary glands (submaxillary or parotid) with an opaque X-ray contrast product. It remains prescribe in addition to ultrasound for the exploration of salivary pathologies (lithiasis, chronic infections, or other).

This examination consists of filling the dural sac contained in the spine with an opaque contrast agent with X-rays. This dural sac contains the spinal cord and the origin of the nerve roots. This clouding is done by lumbar puncture (saccoradiculography), more rarely by a cervical puncture for the study of the cervical or dorsal cord. Saccoradiculography, formerly widely used for sciatica and narrow lumbar canals, have seen its indications diminish with the development of Computed tomography (CT) and MRI. However, it is still prescribed in some situations because it is the only examination that can be practiced in a standing or sitting position, which sometimes unmasks compressions of nerve roots that are overlooked by other examinations such as CT or MRI, which can only be performed on a patient lying.

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Ray Kurzweil on how AI will transform the physical world

The changes will be particularly profound in energy, manufacturing and medicine, says the futurist

B Y THE TIME children born today are in kindergarten, artificial intelligence ( AI ) will probably have surpassed humans at all cognitive tasks, from science to creativity. When I first predicted in 1999 that we would have such artificial general intelligence ( AGI ) by 2029, most experts thought I’d switched to writing fiction. But since the spectacular breakthroughs of the past few years, many experts think we will have AGI even sooner—so I’ve technically gone from being an optimist to a pessimist, without changing my prediction at all.

After working in the field for 61 years—longer than anyone else alive—I am gratified to see AI at the heart of global conversation. Yet most commentary misses how large language models like Chat GPT and Gemini fit into an even larger story. AI is about to make the leap from revolutionising just the digital world to transforming the physical world as well. This will bring countless benefits, but three areas have especially profound implications: energy, manufacturing and medicine.

Sources of energy are among civilisation’s most fundamental resources. For two centuries the world has needed dirty, non-renewable fossil fuels. Yet harvesting just 0.01% of the sunlight the Earth receives would cover all human energy consumption. Since 1975, solar cells have become 99.7% cheaper per watt of capacity, allowing worldwide capacity to increase by around 2m times. So why doesn’t solar energy dominate yet?

The problem is two-fold. First, photovoltaic materials remain too expensive and inefficient to replace coal and gas completely. Second, because solar generation varies on both diurnal (day/night) and annual (summer/winter) scales, huge amounts of energy need to be stored until needed—and today’s battery technology isn’t quite cost-effective enough. The laws of physics suggest that massive improvements are possible, but the range of chemical possibilities to explore is so enormous that scientists have made achingly slow progress.

By contrast, AI can rapidly sift through billions of chemistries in simulation, and is already driving innovations in both photovoltaics and batteries. This is poised to accelerate dramatically. In all of history until November 2023, humans had discovered about 20,000 stable inorganic compounds for use across all technologies. Then, Google’s GN o ME AI discovered far more, increasing that figure overnight to 421,000. Yet this barely scratches the surface of materials-science applications. Once vastly smarter AGI finds fully optimal materials, photovoltaic megaprojects will become viable and solar energy can be so abundant as to be almost free.

Energy abundance enables another revolution: in manufacturing. The costs of almost all goods—from food and clothing to electronics and cars—come largely from a few common factors such as energy, labour (including cognitive labour like R & D and design) and raw materials. AI is on course to vastly lower all these costs.

After cheap, abundant solar energy, the next component is human labour, which is often backbreaking and dangerous. AI is making big strides in robotics that can greatly reduce labour costs. Robotics will also reduce raw-material extraction costs, and AI is finding ways to replace expensive rare-earth elements with common ones like zirconium, silicon and carbon-based graphene. Together, this means that most kinds of goods will become amazingly cheap and abundant.

These advanced manufacturing capabilities will allow the price-performance of computing to maintain the exponential trajectory of the past century—a 75-quadrillion-fold improvement since 1939. This is due to a feedback loop: today’s cutting-edge AI chips are used to optimise designs for next-generation chips. In terms of calculations per second per constant dollar, the best hardware available last November could do 48bn. Nvidia’s new B 200 GPU s exceed 500bn.

As we build the titanic computing power needed to simulate biology, we’ll unlock the third physical revolution from AI : medicine. Despite 200 years of dramatic progress, our understanding of the human body is still built on messy approximations that are usually mostly right for most patients, but probably aren’t totally right for you . Tens of thousands of Americans a year die from reactions to drugs that studies said should help them.

Yet AI is starting to turn medicine into an exact science. Instead of painstaking trial-and-error in an experimental lab, molecular biosimulation—precise computer modelling that aids the study of the human body and how drugs work—can quickly assess billions of options to find the most promising medicines. Last summer the first drug designed end-to-end by AI entered phase-2 trials for treating idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, a lung disease. Dozens of other AI -designed drugs are now entering trials.

Both the drug-discovery and trial pipelines will be supercharged as simulations incorporate the immensely richer data that AI makes possible. In all of history until 2022, science had determined the shapes of around 190,000 proteins. That year DeepMind’s AlphaFold 2 discovered over 200m, which have been released free of charge to researchers to help develop new treatments.

Much more laboratory research is needed to populate larger simulations accurately, but the roadmap is clear. Next, AI will simulate protein complexes, then organelles, cells, tissues, organs and—eventually—the whole body.

This will ultimately replace today’s clinical trials, which are expensive, risky, slow and statistically underpowered. Even in a phase-3 trial, there’s probably not one single subject who matches you on every relevant factor of genetics, lifestyle, comorbidities, drug interactions and disease variation.

Digital trials will let us tailor medicines to each individual patient. The potential is breathtaking: to cure not just diseases like cancer and Alzheimer’s, but the harmful effects of ageing itself.

Today, scientific progress gives the average American or Briton an extra six to seven weeks of life expectancy each year. When AGI gives us full mastery over cellular biology, these gains will sharply accelerate. Once annual increases in life expectancy reach 12 months, we’ll achieve “longevity escape velocity”. For people diligent about healthy habits and using new therapies, I believe this will happen between 2029 and 2035—at which point ageing will not increase their annual chance of dying. And thanks to exponential price-performance improvement in computing, AI -driven therapies that are expensive at first will quickly become widely available.

This is AI ’s most transformative promise: longer, healthier lives unbounded by the scarcity and frailty that have limited humanity since its beginnings. ■

Ray Kurzweil is a computer scientist, inventor and the author of books including “The Age of Intelligent Machines” (1990), “The Age of Spiritual Machines” (1999) and “The Singularity is Near” (2005). His new book, “The Singularity is Nearer: When We Merge with AI”, will be published on June 25th.

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Journal of Synchrotron Radiation Journal of
Synchrotron Radiation

1. Introduction

2. ptb laboratory at bessy ii and dedicated beamlines for the characterization of spos, 3. reflectance measurements at the fcm beamline, 4. conclusions and outlook.

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research papers $\def\hfill{\hskip 5em}\def\hfil{\hskip 3em}\def\eqno#1{\hfil {#1}}$

JOURNAL OF
SYNCHROTRON
RADIATION

Characterization of silicon pore optics for the NewAthena X-ray observatory in the PTB laboratory at BESSY II

a Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Abbestrasse 2-12, 10587 Berlin, Germany, b cosine Research BV, Warmonderweg 14, 2171 AH Sassenheim, The Netherlands, and c ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2200 AG Noordwijk, The Netherlands * Correspondence e-mail: [email protected]

This article forms part of a virtual special issue containing papers presented at the PhotonMEADOW2023 workshop.

The New Advanced Telescope for High ENergy Astrophysics (NewAthena) will be the largest space-based X-ray observatory ever built. It will have an effective area above 1.1 m 2 at 1 keV, which corresponds to a polished mirror surface of about 300 m 2 due to the grazing incidence. As such a mirror area is not achievable with an acceptable mass even with nested shells, silicon pore optics (SPO) technology will be utilized. In the PTB laboratory at BESSY II, two dedicated beamlines are in use for their characterization with monochromatic radiation at 1 keV and a low divergence well below 2 arcsec: the X-ray Pencil Beam Facility (XPBF 1) and the X-ray Parallel Beam Facility (XPBF 2.0), where beam sizes up to 8 mm × 8 mm are available while maintaining low beam divergence. This beamline is used for characterizing mirror stacks and controlling the focusing properties of mirror modules (MMs) – consisting of four mirror stacks – during their assembly at the beamline. A movable CCD based camera system 12 m from the MM registers the direct and the reflected beams. The positioning of the detector is verified by a laser tracker. The energy-dependent reflectance in double reflection through the pores of an MM with an Ir coating was measured at the PTB four-crystal monochromator beamline in the photon energy range 1.75 keV to 10 keV, revealing the effects of the Ir M edges. The measured reflectance properties are in agreement with the design values to achieve the envisaged effective area.

Keywords: silicon pore optics ; optics characterization ; X-ray reflectance ; X-ray optics characterization .

Section of the X-ray lens for Athena, composed of MMs grouped in 15 rows depending on the radius.

In this paper, the dedicated beamlines XPBF 1 and XPBF 2.0 for the characterization and assembly of MMs in the PTB laboratory at BESSY II are described as well as the energy-dependent reflectance measurements of an Ir-coated MM in the spectral range from 1.75 keV to 10 keV. X-ray fluorescence measurements on the top surface are also presented. An outlook is given for the mass-production of MMs at additional beamlines and future measurements.

Parameters of the dedicated beamlines XPBF 1 and XPBF 2.0

	XPBF 1	XPBF 2.0
Photon energy (keV)	1.0	1.0
Monochromatization/collimation	2W/B C flat multilayer mirrors and pinholes	W/Si multilayer coating on a toroidal mirror
Multilayer -spacing (nm)	1.1	4.4
Multilayer Bragg angle (°)	15, vertical deflection	8.5, horizontal deflection
Beam size (with divergence <2 arcsec)	Typically 0.1 mm diameter	Up to 8 mm × 8 mm
Sample chamber diameter (mm)	600	700
Sample chamber height (mm)	780	1060
Sample chamber door diameter (mm)	400 (one door)	600 (two doors)
Horizontal sample translation (mm)	100	120
Vertical sample translation	150	150
Electronic autocollimators	2	2
Sample-to-detector distance (m)	5	12
Detector vertical translation (mm)	370	2100
Detector horizontal translation (mm)	60	165
Detector translation in the beam direction (mm)	0	1000
CCD pixel number	1300 × 1340	2048 × 2048
CCD pixel size (µm)	20	13.5
Laser tracker for detector	No	Yes

MM assembly at XPBF 2.0 using three small hexapods to align the mirror stacks: OS (outer secondary), IP (inner primary) and IS (inner secondary) with respect to OP (outer primary). For the alignment with X-rays, the setup is placed on the main hexapod in the vacuum sample chamber.

( ) Drawing of the vacuum sample chamber at XPBF 2.0 with the main hexapod and two electronic autocollimators and CCD-based detector system on the vertical translation stage at a distance of 12 m from the chamber in the position for the ( ) direct beam and ( ) the reflected beam.

Layout of the FCM beamline in the PTB laboratory at BESSY II with the attached UHV reflectometer.

( ) Fully assembled MM in the reflectometer. In the beam direction, the pores of the MM can be seen as well as the goniometer head for alignment on the left and the semiconductor photodiodes for the reflectance measurements in the back. ( ) From a top view, the coating stripes on the top surface and the SDD for the XRF detection are visible.

( ) XRF spectra obtained at an incident energy of 3.6 keV from an Ir-coated stripe and from an uncoated stripe above the ribs. ( ) Normalized fluorescence intensities from a scan across the central region of the top surface.

Scan over the total width of the MM in double reflection at 4 keV for a grazing incidence angle of 0.814°. The reflectance is about 35% on the Ir-coated stripes, and it vanishes when the beam is blocked by the ribs. The curvature of the stack, with a radius of about 0.7 m, caused the beam to be blocked by the reflecting plate around the 95 mm and 120 mm positions before it is reflected by the plate below.

Energy-dependent reflectance (double reflection) at different positions (pores) of the MM. In the linear plot ( ), the Ir edges are clearly visible. As the incidence angle for plates 25 and 17 are slightly steeper (0.822° and 0.829° instead of 0.814° for plate 33), the reflectance decreases faster towards higher energies. From the position of the maximum and minimum in the logarithmic plot ( ), an Ir layer thickness of about 10 nm can be confirmed. The calculated reflectance using the nominal values and optical constants from the literature (Henke , 1993 ) is shown as a dashed line.

Raster scan of the reflectance (double reflection) at a fixed grazing incidence angle of 0.814° over the central area of 17 plates. The reflectance remains constant at ( ) 4 keV, but it varies at ( ) 6 keV due to the slightly steeper angle of the lower plates having more influence at higher photon energies. The measurement positions on plates 33, 25 and 17 for the energy scans in Fig. 8 are indicated.

Images from the large-area detector taken for strong variations of the grazing incidence angle from about 0.4° to 1.4° on an (slightly different) MM. After double reflection, the beam remains fixed at a detector angle of about 3.4°. At steeper incidence angles above 1.18°, which are far away from the angle in the NewAthena optics, the beam can traverse the pores after a single reflection, and its position depends on the incidence angle.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all the people and institutions who have contributed to the development of silicon pore optics for X-ray astrophysics over the past two decades. Their contributions have been essential to the creation of the lens for the largest X-ray observatory ever to be flown.

Funding information

The following funding is acknowledged: European Space Agency (contract No. 4200019338/05/NL/HB).

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) Licence , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original authors and source are cited.

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