doi of research paper

WHAT IS THE DIGITAL OBJECT IDENTIFIER (DOI)?

A DOI name is a digital identifier of an object, any object — physical, digital, or abstract. DOIs solve a common problem: keeping track of things. Things can be matter, material, content, or activities.

Designed to be used by humans as well as machines, DOIs identify objects persistently. They allow things to be uniquely identified and accessed reliably. You know what you have, where it is, and others can track it too.

Read more about the identifier, its benefits, and how it’s used

WHO IS THE DOI FOUNDATION COMMUNITY?

We are an international community of communities bound by a common interest in persistent infrastructure. So far, we have welcomed agencies that manage communities spanning entertainment, standards, the built environment, natural history collections, scholarly communications, and research data.

Read more about our Registration Agencies and what they offer

ANNOUNCING OUR NEWEST REGISTRATION AGENCY

Human & Digital (HAND) was recently appointed as the 12th Registration Agency of the DOI Foundation, assigning DOI names to legal entity humans, licensed virtual humans, and fictional characters involved in the performing arts and sports. The talent industry is becoming more connected, complex, and digitized. Managing this complexity in a programmatic way is only possible with verifiable, persistent identity of talent, both human and digital. And this is exactly what HAND provides.

How many are being resolved?

The total DOI resolutions to date is calculated using actual number of DOI resolutions recorded up until yesterday and the average resolution rate recorded over the past 24 hours (currently this is )

Try resolving a DOI name

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How to find a DOI?

Location of DOIs

How to include a doi in your citation, frequently asked questions about finding dois, related articles.

A digital object identifier , or DOI, refers to a handle that recognizes a unique object in the digital world. This label is assigned by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to different types of scholarly material, such as papers, journal articles, books, data sets, reports, government publications, and even videos.

A DOI should always be easily available in any source. Usually, you will find it on the first page, either in the header or somewhere close to the title.

Alternatively, you can also find it in the "About this article" or "Cite this article" sections.

If the DOI isn’t available, you can look it up on CrossRef.org by using the “Search Metadata” option. You just have to type in the source's title or author, and it will direct you to its DOI.

The correct format for adding a DOI to your citations will depend on the citation style you use. Here is a list of citation examples with DOIs in major formatting styles:

Hofman, C. A., & Rick, T. C. (2018). Ancient Biological Invasions and Island Ecosystems: Tracking Translocations of Wild Plants and Animals. Journal of Archeological Research , 26 (1), 65–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-017-9105-3

Hofman, Courtney A., and Torben C. Rick. “Ancient Biological Invasions and Island Ecosystems: Tracking Translocations of Wild Plants and Animals.”  Journal of Archaeological Research , vol. 26, no. 1, 2018, pp. 65–115, doi:10.1007/s10814-017-9105-3.

Hofman, Courtney A., and Torben C. Rick. 2018. “Ancient Biological Invasions and Island Ecosystems: Tracking Translocations of Wild Plants and Animals.”  Journal of Archaeological Research  26 (1): 65–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-017-9105-3.

The preferred format of a DOI in a citation is using https://doi.org/ followed by the alphanumeric string. It also depends on the style; as you can see that MLA prefers using doi:xxx. Make sure to double-check the citation style you use before adding the DOI.

Tip: Instead of manually adding citations with DOIs to your documents, which is error-prone and strenuous, consider using a reference manager like Paperpile to format and organize your citations. Paperpile allows you to save and organize your citations for later use and cite them in thousands of citation styles directly in Google Docs, Microsoft Word, or LaTeX, including the DOI:

The preferred format of a DOI in a citation is using https://doi.org/ followed by the alphanumeric string. Of course, it depends on the style, as MLA prefers using doi:xxx. Make sure to double check the citation style you use before adding the DOI.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is responsible for assigning DOIs to different types of scholarly material, such as papers, journal articles, books, data sets, reports, government publications, and even videos.

URLs and DOIs are not the same. A DOI is a unique alphanumeric identifier that labels digital material and pinpoints its location on the internet, whereas a URL is a digital locator.

DOIs were invented for a reason. These alphanumeric identifiers allow readers to locate specific material in the digital world. They also add credibility to your sources.

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How to find an article's DOI to include in a citation

A DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is a unique identifier that identifies digital objects. The object may change physical locations, but the DOI assigned to that object will never change. Journal publishers often assign DOIs to electronic copies of individual articles in their journals. Because the DOI insures findability for the e-journal article, many citation styles (APA, MLA, Chicago Manual of Style, Turabian, etc.) require the use of a DOI in a citation for e-journal content. Below are some methods that can be used to obtain DOIs:

• Go to http://www.crossref.org/ and follow the instructions provided there to search for a DOI using the article title and author's last name. If this method doesn't yield a DOI, don't assume that a DOI doesn't exist. Follow up with the next two options.  
• If a journal publisher uses DOIs, they will usually print the DOI somewhere on the first page of the article. Open the full-text source and look for the DOI on the article's first page, usually in the header or footer.  
• Some online resources, such as EBSCO databases, will supply DOIs in their citation formatter. View the full citation to see if a DOI is included.

DOI Pro Tip:

• Some articles won't have a DOI. The International DOI Foundation was created in 1998 but not all publishers immediately started assigning DOIs. The publisher Elsevier, for example, appears to have started using DOIs on all of their journal articles around 2003. So unless a publisher has retrospectively assigned DOIs to articles, articles published prior to 1998 are less likely to have DOIs. So, if you have tried all the suggestions above, but you still cannot find the DOI, it may be that your article does not have one.

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What is a DOI (digital object identifier)?

A DOI is a character string that can be assigned to an online article, book, or other source. If the location of the source changes, the DOI remains stable, which allows readers to locate the source. When you use the APA citation style, you should always include the DOI if one has been assigned to the source you are citing.

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DOI Help: Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs)

Introduction.

For APA 7, you need to provide the digital object identifier (DOI) number for articles and ebooks when available. If an item does not have a DOI, the citation will look like the citation for a print resource. You no longer need to locate a journal homepage as part of your citation. 

The goal of this guide is to help you find the DOI for your reference citations. Specifically, this guide will cover:

• what DOIs are
• how to find DOIs

This guide will not cover how to correctly cite articles using APA style. For help with citation questions, please contact the Writing Center or refer to the Writing Center's resources on their website:

• Writing Center: Reference List: Electronic Source References
• Writing Center: Reference List: Common Reference List Examples

What is a Digital Object Identifier (DOI)?

What is a doi.

Digital Object Identifiers, commonly shortened to DOIs, were invented to give each electronic, or digital, item a unique, persistent identifier. Any digital object can be assigned a DOI number, for example:

• academic journal articles 
• research reports 
• governmental reports
• conference proceedings
• media 

Who assigns DOIs?

The DOI creation process is governed and managed by the International DOI Foundation . DOI Registration agencies under the International DOI Foundation provide services and registration of DOI numbers. They are typically focused on specific geographic areas or types of content. For example, EIDR provides DOI numbers for movie and television content.

Crossref is one of the registration agencies for the International DOI Foundation. It assigns DOIs to scholarly research publications. These publications include journal articles, books, and conference proceedings.

What do DOIs look like?

All DOIs start with the number 10 followed by a period. This is an example:

10.1111/dome.12082

In APA 7, you format the DOIs as a URL, with "https://doi.org/" before the number. For example:

https://doi.org/ 10.1111/dome.12082

Things to know

There are a couple of important things to know about DOIs.

• Not every article or resources has a DOI .
• Both peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed articles can have DOIs.
• Quick Answer: What is peer review?

Look at the article

The first place to look for a DOI is the article itself. Many publishers will include the DOI somewhere on the first page of the article. Here are a few examples:

Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 71, No. 3, 2015, pp. 441-452 doi: 10.1111/josi.12122

DOI: 10.111/dome.12082 Digest of Middle East Student - Volume 25, Number 1 - Pages 36-51 © 2016 Policy Studies Organization. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  

Look at information about the article

Library databases include information about an article. If an article has a DOI, you may find it listed in the information about the article.

Different databases call these article information sections different things. They may be called Detailed Record, Abstract, Abstract/Details, or you may need to click on the article title to see more information about the article. 

If you don't see the DOI on the article itself, look around the page in the database to see if the DOI is listed.

Search Crossref

You can look for a DOI using the Crossref website. Crossref is one of the organizations that assigns DOIs, with a focus on research articles. If Crossref doesn't have a DOI for an article, you can safely assume that the article doesn't have one. 

Follow these steps to search Crossref for an article's DOI: 

• Go to the Crossref.org website .

• Press the Enter key to run your search.

Note: The actual DOI begins with 10. For APA 7, include "https://doi.org/" in front of the number. To learn more about what form of the DOI to use in a reference citation, please see these Quick Answers from the Writing Center:

• Quick Answer: Should I include a hyperlink in a DOI?
• Quick Answer: Can I use the DOI format provided by library databases?

Searches in Crossref always bring back results, even if the article you are looking for isn't there. If you don't see your article in the first page of results, here are a few things to try.

• For example:  "Storytelling for social change" AND Winskell
• Use the  Year  limiter in the left column to limit results to only the year in which your item was published.

If you still don't find the article you are looking for in Crossref, you can safely assume that it does not have a DOI.

More information

• DOI, Other URL, or No Retrieval Information? clickable flowchart
• Quick Answer: How do I cite an article with a DOI?
• Quick Answer: How do I cite an article without a DOI?
• Quick Answer: How do I find an article by DOI using Google Scholar?
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ISBN, ISSN, DOI: what they are and how to find them

Isbn-issn-doi-what-they-are-and-how-to-find-them.

June 17, 2022

Discover some of the unique content identifiers that are used for published content at Wiley including ISBN, ISSN, and DOI. For articles or chapters, DOI is our preferred identifier when available.

• ISBN stands for International Standard Book Number and is used for books.
• ISBNs may be 10 or 13 digits.
• On a physical book, you may find the ISBN next to the barcode. You will also find it on the copyright page. In an ebook, the ISBN is available in the copyright information. ISBNs can also be found in our  book product catalog on Wiley.com .
• Print and digital formats carry different ISBNs. ISBNs are a standard defined by the International Standards Organization and are issued through national agencies. 
• ISSN stands for International Standard Serial Number and is used for journals, magazines, and other serial publications.
• It is made up of two sets of four digits with a dash between them (0000-0000).
• You can find the ISSN in the copyright information of a print journal, or on the journal homepage of a digital journal. Print and digital formats carry different ISSNs.
• Globally, ISSNs are managed by the intergovernmental organization the ISSN International Centre.  
• DOI stands for Digital Object Identifier . It is a unique identifier for digital content, used across the industry and managed by the not-for-profit organization CrossRef .
• Both book and journal content use DOI. Unlike ISBN and ISSN, which identify content at the book or journal level, a DOI may identify an individual chapter or article.
• A DOI may be formatted as a URL string, or it may be a standalone cataloging number. On Wiley Online Library, a DOI may be found at the top of an article or chapter record, beneath the byline.

If you have a question about a specific piece of Wiley content, you may be asked to provide a unique content identifier to help our team locate the content in our records. We hope this guide enables you to do so quickly and efficiently. 

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Digital Object Identifiers Digital Object Identifiers

A Digital Object Identifier (DOI) is a number used to identify an electronic journal article or other online intellectual property. Because DOIs remain stable even if an article’s host publication changes platforms, names, or publishers, they provide permanent and reliable links for citation, sharing, and discovery. When properly implemented in citations and references, DOIs can provide readers and researchers instant access to the sources they’re looking for.

DOIs are designated and administered by the  CrossRef  organization, which is operated by the independent, nonprofit Publishers International Linking Association (PILA). Since their first implementation in 1999, DOIs have quickly become the backbone of CrossRef’s mandate to provide a “digital switchboard” that links all scholarly information in electronic form. Implementing DOIs for your journals and other online publications is an effective and respected way to increase access and exposure.

Citing with DOIs

In order for the digital switchboard to work, DOIs in URL format need to be included in citations and references. In fact, CrossRef requires journals that use DOIs for their own articles to include DOIs in their footnotes and bibliographies. This requirement applies only to content published after the publisher or journal has joined CrossRef. Below are common examples.

Chicago Manual of Style:

Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J. Watts. “Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social Network.”  American Journal of Sociology  115 (2009): 405–50. Accessed February 28, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1086/599247.

Wooldridge, M.B., & Shapka, J. (2012). Playing with technology: Mother-toddler interaction scores lower during play with electronic toys.  Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33 (5), 211-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2012.05.005

Note that the full URL, not simply the digits of the DOI, should be included in the reference. Most style guides now recommend inclusion of DOIs in citations wherever they’re available, and authors should be instructed to follow this recommendation. If your journal is a member of CrossRef, then by extension, authors are members as well. Ultimately, however, it is the editors’ responsibility to ensure that DOIs are included in references and citations to any article that has a DOI. Fortunately, CrossRef provides strong tools to help authors and editors to meet these requirements.

Adding DOIs to Journals in Digital Commons

If a Digital Commons journal would like to include DOIs with its content, please ask your consultant about the latest options.

CrossRef offers a wealth of information and technical resources on DOIs. We particularly recommend the following:

• See the CrossRef DOI Display Guidelines ( https://www.crossref.org/display-guidelines/ ) for more details, examples, and instructions on displaying your own content’s DOIs and citing DOIs in your footnotes and references
• The Simple Text Query Form retrieves DOIs for single bibliographic entries or a complete reference list:  https://doi.crossref.org/simpleTextQuery

Resource for transforming Digital Commons XML to Crossref XML:

• Mortimore, Jeffrey M., “XSL File for Transformation of bepress Digital Commons Issue-Level Journal XML to Crossref 4.4.2 XML” (2020).  Faculty Datasets . 7.  https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/data/7 )

Frequently asked questions

How do i find the doi of an article.

The DOI is usually clearly visible when you open a journal article on an academic database. It is often listed near the publication date, and includes “doi.org” or “DOI:”. If the database has a “cite this article” button, this should also produce a citation with the DOI included.

If you can’t find the DOI, you can search on Crossref using information like the author, the article title, and the journal name.

Frequently asked questions: Citing sources

A scientific citation style is a system of source citation that is used in scientific disciplines. Some commonly used scientific citation styles are:

• Chicago author-date , CSE , and Harvard , used across various sciences
• ACS , used in chemistry
• AMA , NLM , and Vancouver , used in medicine and related disciplines
• AAA , APA , and ASA , commonly used in the social sciences

There are many different citation styles used across different academic disciplines, but they fall into three basic approaches to citation:

• Parenthetical citations : Including identifying details of the source in parentheses —usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if available ( author-date ). The publication date is occasionally omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: Including a number in brackets or superscript, corresponding to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: Including a full citation in a footnote or endnote , which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

A source annotation in an annotated bibliography fulfills a similar purpose to an abstract : they’re both intended to summarize the approach and key points of a source.

However, an annotation may also evaluate the source , discussing the validity and effectiveness of its arguments. Even if your annotation is purely descriptive , you may have a different perspective on the source from the author and highlight different key points.

You should never just copy text from the abstract for your annotation, as doing so constitutes plagiarism .

Most academics agree that you shouldn’t cite Wikipedia as a source in your academic writing , and universities often have rules against doing so.

This is partly because of concerns about its reliability, and partly because it’s a tertiary source. Tertiary sources are things like encyclopedias and databases that collect information from other sources rather than presenting their own evidence or analysis. Usually, only primary and secondary sources are cited in academic papers.

A Wikipedia citation usually includes the title of the article, “Wikipedia” and/or “Wikimedia Foundation,” the date the article was last updated, and the URL.

In APA Style , you’ll give the URL of the current revision of the article so that you’re sure the reader accesses the same version as you.

There’s some disagreement about whether Wikipedia can be considered a reliable source . Because it can be edited by anyone, many people argue that it’s easy for misleading information to be added to an article without the reader knowing.

Others argue that because Wikipedia articles cite their sources , and because they are worked on by so many editors, misinformation is generally removed quickly.

However, most universities state that you shouldn’t cite Wikipedia in your writing.

Hanging indents are used in reference lists in various citation styles to allow the reader to easily distinguish between entries.

You should apply a hanging indent to your reference entries in APA , MLA , and Chicago style.

A hanging indent is used to indent all lines of a paragraph except the first.

When you create a hanging indent, the first line of the paragraph starts at the border. Each subsequent line is indented 0.5 inches (1.27 cm).

APA and MLA style both use parenthetical in-text citations to cite sources and include a full list of references at the end, but they differ in other ways:

• APA in-text citations include the author name, date, and page number (Taylor, 2018, p. 23), while MLA in-text citations include only the author name and page number (Taylor 23).
• The APA reference list is titled “References,” while MLA’s version is called “ Works Cited .”
• The reference entries differ in terms of formatting and order of information.
• APA requires a title page , while MLA requires a header instead.

A parenthetical citation in Chicago author-date style includes the author’s last name, the publication date, and, if applicable, the relevant page number or page range in parentheses . Include a comma after the year, but not after the author’s name.

For example: (Swan 2003, 6)

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

APA Style distinguishes between parenthetical and narrative citations.

In parenthetical citations , you include all relevant source information in parentheses at the end of the sentence or clause: “Parts of the human body reflect the principles of tensegrity (Levin, 2002).”

In narrative citations , you include the author’s name in the text itself, followed by the publication date in parentheses: “Levin (2002) argues that parts of the human body reflect the principles of tensegrity.”

In a parenthetical citation in MLA style , include the author’s last name and the relevant page number or range in parentheses .

For example: (Eliot 21)

A parenthetical citation gives credit in parentheses to a source that you’re quoting or paraphrasing . It provides relevant information such as the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number(s) cited.

How you use parenthetical citations will depend on your chosen citation style . It will also depend on the type of source you are citing and the number of authors.

APA does not permit the use of ibid. This is because APA in-text citations are parenthetical and there’s no need to shorten them further.

Ibid. may be used in Chicago footnotes or endnotes .

Write “Ibid.” alone when you are citing the same page number and source as the previous citation.

When you are citing the same source, but a different page number, use ibid. followed by a comma and the relevant page number(s). For example:

• Ibid., 40–42.

Only use ibid . if you are directing the reader to a previous full citation of a source .

Ibid. only refers to the previous citation. Therefore, you should only use ibid. directly after a citation that you want to repeat.

Ibid. is an abbreviation of the Latin “ibidem,” meaning “in the same place.” Ibid. is used in citations to direct the reader to the previous source.

Signal phrases can be used in various ways and can be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.

To use signal phrases effectively, include:

• The name of the scholar(s) or study you’re referencing
• An attributive tag such as “according to” or “argues that”
• The quote or idea you want to include

Different citation styles require you to use specific verb tenses when using signal phrases.

• APA Style requires you to use the past or present perfect tense when using signal phrases.
• MLA and Chicago requires you to use the present tense when using signal phrases.

Signal phrases allow you to give credit for an idea or quote to its author or originator. This helps you to:

• Establish the credentials of your sources
• Display your depth of reading and understanding of the field
• Position your own work in relation to other scholars
• Avoid plagiarism

A signal phrase is a group of words that ascribes a quote or idea to an outside source.

Signal phrases distinguish the cited idea or argument from your own writing and introduce important information including the source of the material that you are quoting , paraphrasing , or summarizing . For example:

“ Cognitive psychologist Steven Pinker (1994) insists that humans possess an innate faculty for comprehending grammar.”

If you’re quoting from a text that paraphrases or summarizes other sources and cites them in parentheses , APA and Chicago both recommend retaining the citations as part of the quote. However, MLA recommends omitting citations within a quote:

• APA: Smith states that “the literature on this topic (Jones, 2015; Sill, 2019; Paulson, 2020) shows no clear consensus” (Smith, 2019, p. 4).
• MLA: Smith states that “the literature on this topic shows no clear consensus” (Smith, 2019, p. 4).

Footnote or endnote numbers that appear within quoted text should be omitted in all styles.

If you want to cite an indirect source (one you’ve only seen quoted in another source), either locate the original source or use the phrase “as cited in” in your citation.

In scientific subjects, the information itself is more important than how it was expressed, so quoting should generally be kept to a minimum. In the arts and humanities, however, well-chosen quotes are often essential to a good paper.

In social sciences, it varies. If your research is mainly quantitative , you won’t include many quotes, but if it’s more qualitative , you may need to quote from the data you collected .

As a general guideline, quotes should take up no more than 5–10% of your paper. If in doubt, check with your instructor or supervisor how much quoting is appropriate in your field.

To present information from other sources in academic writing , it’s best to paraphrase in most cases. This shows that you’ve understood the ideas you’re discussing and incorporates them into your text smoothly.

It’s appropriate to quote when:

• Changing the phrasing would distort the meaning of the original text
• You want to discuss the author’s language choices (e.g., in literary analysis )
• You’re presenting a precise definition
• You’re looking in depth at a specific claim

To paraphrase effectively, don’t just take the original sentence and swap out some of the words for synonyms. Instead, try:

• Reformulating the sentence (e.g., change active to passive , or start from a different point)
• Combining information from multiple sentences into one
• Leaving out information from the original that isn’t relevant to your point
• Using synonyms where they don’t distort the meaning

The main point is to ensure you don’t just copy the structure of the original text, but instead reformulate the idea in your own words.

“ Et al. ” is an abbreviation of the Latin term “et alia,” which means “and others.” It’s used in source citations to save space when there are too many authors to name them all.

Guidelines for using “et al.” differ depending on the citation style you’re following:

To insert endnotes in Microsoft Word, follow the steps below:

• Click on the spot in the text where you want the endnote to show up.
• In the “References” tab at the top, select “Insert Endnote.”
• Type whatever text you want into the endnote.

If you need to change the type of notes used in a Word document from footnotes to endnotes , or the other way around, follow these steps:

• Open the “References” tab, and click the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the “Footnotes” section.
• In the pop-up window, click on “Convert…”
• Choose the option you need, and click “OK.”

To insert a footnote automatically in a Word document:

• Click on the point in the text where the footnote should appear
• Select the “References” tab at the top and then click on “Insert Footnote”
• Type the text you want into the footnote that appears at the bottom of the page

Footnotes are notes indicated in your text with numbers and placed at the bottom of the page. They’re used to provide:

• Citations (e.g., in Chicago notes and bibliography )
• Additional information that would disrupt the flow of the main text

Be sparing in your use of footnotes (other than citation footnotes), and consider whether the information you’re adding is relevant for the reader.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page they refer to. This is convenient for the reader but may cause your text to look cluttered if there are a lot of footnotes.

Endnotes appear all together at the end of the whole text. This may be less convenient for the reader but reduces clutter.

Both footnotes and endnotes are used in the same way: to cite sources or add extra information. You should usually choose one or the other to use in your text, not both.

An in-text citation is an acknowledgement you include in your text whenever you quote or paraphrase a source. It usually gives the author’s last name, the year of publication, and the page number of the relevant text. In-text citations allow the reader to look up the full source information in your reference list and see your sources for themselves.

If you are reusing content or data you used in a previous assignment, make sure to cite yourself. You can cite yourself just as you would cite any other source: simply follow the directions for that source type in the citation style you are using.

Keep in mind that reusing your previous work can be considered self-plagiarism , so make sure you ask your professor or consult your university’s handbook before doing so.

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Peer review is a process of evaluating submissions to an academic journal. Utilizing rigorous criteria, a panel of reviewers in the same subject area decide whether to accept each submission for publication. For this reason, academic journals are often considered among the most credible sources you can use in a research project– provided that the journal itself is trustworthy and well-regarded.

Academic dishonesty can be intentional or unintentional, ranging from something as simple as claiming to have read something you didn’t to copying your neighbor’s answers on an exam.

You can commit academic dishonesty with the best of intentions, such as helping a friend cheat on a paper. Severe academic dishonesty can include buying a pre-written essay or the answers to a multiple-choice test, or falsifying a medical emergency to avoid taking a final exam.

Academic dishonesty refers to deceitful or misleading behavior in an academic setting. Academic dishonesty can occur intentionally or unintentionally, and varies in severity.

It can encompass paying for a pre-written essay, cheating on an exam, or committing plagiarism . It can also include helping others cheat, copying a friend’s homework answers, or even pretending to be sick to miss an exam.

Academic dishonesty doesn’t just occur in a classroom setting, but also in research and other academic-adjacent fields.

To apply a hanging indent to your reference list or Works Cited list in Word or Google Docs, follow the steps below.

Microsoft Word:

• Highlight the whole list and right click to open the Paragraph options.
• Under Indentation > Special , choose Hanging from the dropdown menu.
• Set the indent to 0.5 inches or 1.27cm.

Google Docs:

• Highlight the whole list and click on Format >  Align and indent >  Indentation options .
• Under  Special indent , choose Hanging from the dropdown menu.

When the hanging indent is applied, for each reference, every line except the first is indented. This helps the reader see where one entry ends and the next begins.

For a published interview (whether in video , audio, or print form ), you should always include a citation , just as you would for any other source.

For an interview you conducted yourself , formally or informally, you often don’t need a citation and can just refer to it in the text or in a footnote , since the reader won’t be able to look them up anyway. MLA , however, still recommends including citations for your own interviews.

The main elements included in a newspaper interview citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the names of the interviewer and interviewee, the interview title, the publication date, the name of the newspaper, and a URL (for online sources).

The information is presented differently in different citation styles. One key difference is that APA advises listing the interviewer in the author position, while MLA and Chicago advise listing the interviewee first.

The elements included in a newspaper article citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author name, the article title, the publication date, the newspaper name, and the URL if the article was accessed online .

In APA and MLA, the page numbers of the article appear in place of the URL if the article was accessed in print. No page numbers are used in Chicago newspaper citations.

Untitled sources (e.g. some images ) are usually cited using a short descriptive text in place of the title. In APA Style , this description appears in brackets: [Chair of stained oak]. In MLA and Chicago styles, no brackets are used: Chair of stained oak.

For social media posts, which are usually untitled, quote the initial words of the post in place of the title: the first 160 characters in Chicago , or the first 20 words in APA . E.g. Biden, J. [@JoeBiden]. “The American Rescue Plan means a $7,000 check for a single mom of four. It means more support to safely.”

MLA recommends quoting the full post for something short like a tweet, and just describing the post if it’s longer.

The main elements included in image citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the image’s creator, the image title, the year (or more precise date) of publication, and details of the container in which the image was found (e.g. a museum, book , website ).

In APA and Chicago style, it’s standard to also include a description of the image’s format (e.g. “Photograph” or “Oil on canvas”). This sort of information may be included in MLA too, but is not mandatory.

The main elements included in a lecture citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the speaker, the lecture title, the date it took place, the course or event it was part of, and the institution it took place at.

For transcripts or recordings of lectures/speeches, other details like the URL, the name of the book or website , and the length of the recording may be included instead of information about the event and institution.

The main elements included in a YouTube video citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the author/uploader, the title of the video, the publication date, and the URL.

The format in which this information appears is different for each style.

All styles also recommend using timestamps as a locator in the in-text citation or Chicago footnote .

Each annotation in an annotated bibliography is usually between 50 and 200 words long. Longer annotations may be divided into paragraphs .

The content of the annotation varies according to your assignment. An annotation can be descriptive, meaning it just describes the source objectively; evaluative, meaning it assesses its usefulness; or reflective, meaning it explains how the source will be used in your own research .

Any credible sources on your topic can be included in an annotated bibliography . The exact sources you cover will vary depending on the assignment, but you should usually focus on collecting journal articles and scholarly books . When in doubt, utilize the CRAAP test !

An annotated bibliography is an assignment where you collect sources on a specific topic and write an annotation for each source. An annotation is a short text that describes and sometimes evaluates the source.

The elements included in journal article citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name(s) of the author(s), the title of the article, the year of publication, the name of the journal, the volume and issue numbers, the page range of the article, and, when accessed online, the DOI or URL.

In MLA and Chicago style, you also include the specific month or season of publication alongside the year, when this information is available.

In APA , MLA , and Chicago style citations for sources that don’t list a specific author (e.g. many websites ), you can usually list the organization responsible for the source as the author.

If the organization is the same as the website or publisher, you shouldn’t repeat it twice in your reference:

• In APA and Chicago, omit the website or publisher name later in the reference.
• In MLA, omit the author element at the start of the reference, and cite the source title instead.

If there’s no appropriate organization to list as author, you will usually have to begin the citation and reference entry with the title of the source instead.

The main elements included in website citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the date of publication, the page title, the website name, and the URL. The information is presented differently in each style.

When you want to cite a specific passage in a source without page numbers (e.g. an e-book or website ), all the main citation styles recommend using an alternate locator in your in-text citation . You might use a heading or chapter number, e.g. (Smith, 2016, ch. 1)

In APA Style , you can count the paragraph numbers in a text to identify a location by paragraph number. MLA and Chicago recommend that you only use paragraph numbers if they’re explicitly marked in the text.

For audiovisual sources (e.g. videos ), all styles recommend using a timestamp to show a specific point in the video when relevant.

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”) is used to shorten citations of sources with multiple authors.

“Et al.” is used in APA in-text citations of sources with 3+ authors, e.g. (Smith et al., 2019). It is not used in APA reference entries .

Use “et al.” for 3+ authors in MLA in-text citations and Works Cited entries.

Use “et al.” for 4+ authors in a Chicago in-text citation , and for 10+ authors in a Chicago bibliography entry.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

The main elements included in all book citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the title, the year of publication, and the name of the publisher. A page number is also included in in-text citations to highlight the specific passage cited.

In Chicago style and in the 6th edition of APA Style , the location of the publisher is also included, e.g. London: Penguin.

A block quote is a long quote formatted as a separate “block” of text. Instead of using quotation marks , you place the quote on a new line, and indent the entire quote to mark it apart from your own words.

The rules for when to apply block quote formatting depend on the citation style:

• APA block quotes are 40 words or longer.
• MLA block quotes are more than 4 lines of prose or 3 lines of poetry.
• Chicago block quotes are longer than 100 words.

In academic writing , there are three main situations where quoting is the best choice:

• To analyze the author’s language (e.g., in a literary analysis essay )
• To give evidence from primary sources
• To accurately present a precise definition or argument

Don’t overuse quotes; your own voice should be dominant. If you just want to provide information from a source, it’s usually better to paraphrase or summarize .

Every time you quote a source , you must include a correctly formatted in-text citation . This looks slightly different depending on the citation style .

For example, a direct quote in APA is cited like this: “This is a quote” (Streefkerk, 2020, p. 5).

Every in-text citation should also correspond to a full reference at the end of your paper.

A quote is an exact copy of someone else’s words, usually enclosed in quotation marks and credited to the original author or speaker.

A DOI is a unique identifier for a digital document. DOIs are important in academic citation because they are more permanent than URLs, ensuring that your reader can reliably locate the source.

Journal articles and ebooks can often be found on multiple different websites and databases. The URL of the page where an article is hosted can be changed or removed over time, but a DOI is linked to the specific document and never changes.

When a book’s chapters are written by different authors, you should cite the specific chapter you are referring to.

When all the chapters are written by the same author (or group of authors), you should usually cite the entire book, but some styles include exceptions to this.

• In APA Style , single-author books should always be cited as a whole, even if you only quote or paraphrase from one chapter.
• In MLA Style , if a single-author book is a collection of stand-alone works (e.g. short stories ), you should cite the individual work.
• In Chicago Style , you may choose to cite a single chapter of a single-author book if you feel it is more appropriate than citing the whole book.

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

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What is a DOI and how do I use them in citations?

A DOI, or Digital Object Identifier, is a string of numbers, letters and symbols used to uniquely identify an article or document, and to provide it with a permanent web address (URL).

A DOI will help your reader easily locate a document from your citation. Think of it like a Social Security number for the article you're citing — it will always refer to that article, and only that one. While a web address (URL) might change, the DOI will never change.

Where can I find a DOI?

• In most scholarly journal articles, the DOI will be printed with the article itself, usually on the first page somewhere: below the title or in the header or footer.
• If the DOI isn't included in the article, look it up on the website  CrossRef.org  (use the "Search Metadata" option) to check for an assigned DOI.

How can I use a DOI to find the article it refers to?

• If your DOI starts with http:// or https:// , simply paste it into your web browser. This will usually lead you to a journal publisher's page for the article.
• You can turn any DOI starting with 10 into a URL by adding http://doi.org/ before the DOI. For example, 10.3352/jeehp.2013.10.3 becomes  https://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2013.10.3
• If you're off campus when you do this, you'll need to use this URL prefix in front of the DOI to gain access to UIC's full text journal subscriptions: https://proxy.cc.uic.edu/login?url=https://doi.org/ . For example:  https://proxy.cc.uic.edu/login?url=http://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2013.10.3

Psst! It's not a bad i dea to check the DOIs in your references list this way to make sure they lead to the correct articles!

How do I cite a journal article with a DOI in...

Apa format.

• Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number, page range. https://doi.org/10.0000/0000
• Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number, page range.
• If your article includes both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI.
• See these and other examples in the Purdue OWL: APA Formatting and Style Guide .

AMA/JAMA format?

• 1. Author AA, Author BB. Title of article. Name of Jrnl. Year;vol(issue):inclusive pages. doi:10.0000000/000000000000

MLA format?

• Author LastName, FirstName, and FirstName LastName. "Article Title." Journal Name , vol. #, no. #, date, pp. ##-##. Name of Database , doi: 10.0000/000000000.
• It's a good idea to check with your instructor whether they want you to include the date you accessed the article, although this is not required by MLA.
• by: Allan Berry
• created: May 27, 2021
• updated: Aug 19, 2021
• views: 485024
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What is a digital object identifier, or DOI?

Go to 7th edition guidelines

A digital object identifier (DOI) is a unique alphanumeric string assigned by a registration agency (the International DOI Foundation) to identify content and provide a persistent link to its location on the internet. The publisher assigns a DOI when your article is published and made available electronically.

All DOI numbers begin with a 10 and contain a prefix and a suffix separated by a slash. The prefix is a unique number of four or more digits assigned to organizations; the suffix is assigned by the publisher and was designed to be flexible with publisher identification standards.

We recommend that when DOIs are available, you include them for both print and electronic sources. The DOI is typically located on the first page of the electronic journal article, near the copyright notice. The DOI can also be found on the database landing page for the article.

For more on DOIs, see the DOI category of the APA Style Blog .

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How can I get the DOI of a paper from its title?

Is there a way to get the DOI (Document Object Identifier) of a research paper when its title is available?

I am preparing a reference database I could not get the URL of all the references. So, I tried to search online but could not get to anything. I will appreciate if anyone uses such tool/website or has any idea.

EDIT I am sorry but my problem is little bigger. I need to automatically (not manually) get them from the websites. Of course, I do not want to do it for more than 50 papers if that is legal/allowed.

• reference-managers

• solutions can be found on stackoverflow and scicomp.SE . And its fit on this site has been addressed on meta.academia.se –  David LeBauer Commented Aug 2, 2012 at 15:51
• 3 By the way, unfortunately you should expect that no technique will be completely reliable, which is why we need DOIs in the first place. –  Anonymous Mathematician Commented Oct 28, 2012 at 14:27

8 Answers 8

Reposted from StackOverflow :

Here are three options CSV upload to crossref.org CrossRef allows you to upload the linked csv directly, and then performs a text query here: http://www.crossref.org/stqUpload/ However, only 18 of the 250 queries (~7%) returned a doi. XML Query Based on the answer on SO by Brian Diggs , here an attempt that does 95% of the work - toward writing the xml-based query, it still has a few bugs that require some deletion using sed . But the biggest problem that my "session timed out" when the query was submitted. the xml syntax includes an option to use fuzzy matching. the doiquery.xml contains the template text in @Brians answer; the citations.csv is linked above. (using R, a sample csv can be found on I have posted the first few lines of the table on google docs , or the csv version (not all records have a doi)) library(XML) doiquery.xml <- xmlTreeParse('doiquery.xml') query <- doiquery.xml$doc$children$query_batch[["body"]] citations <- read.csv("citations.csv") new.query <- function(citation, query = query){ xmlValue(query[["author"]]) <- as.character(citation$author) xmlValue(query[["year"]]) <- as.character(citation$year) xmlValue(query[["article_title"]][["text"]]) <- citation$title xmlValue(query[["journal_title"]]) <- citation$journal return(query) } for (i in 1:nrow(citations)){ q <- addChildren(q, add.query(citations[i,])) } axml <- addChildren(doiquery.xml$doc$children$query_batch, q ) saveXML(axml, file = 'foo.xml') CSV to XML Converter Creativyst software provides a web based CSV to XML converter. Steps: Enter columnames in ElementID's field, "document" in DocID field "query" in RowID field Copy / paste csv in "Input CSV file". Click Convert Also, see this related question: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/9880808/shell-script-to-parse-csv-to-an-xml-query

• 1 This crossref page allows to directly input text query instead of uploading filey. To check for only a few papers, this is convenient. –  Cyriac Antony Commented Sep 20, 2021 at 6:54

So you can do this easily using e.g. Web of Science, and probably other bibliographic databases available through your library.

If that isn't an option, a little google search lead me to the DOI website FAQ , and question 3 is yours. There are 8 registration agencies for DOI, and no single way to search across DOI using document metadata. I tested the free crossref service and it was unable to find one of my articles because that journal doesn't use the crossref agency. One of the other agencies has that information, but you might have to search all of them to find it.

Finally, I tried Google Scholar, which will work if the article in question has reference information available online. That depends on the publisher.

• I also had the same problem with crossref that I tried before posting this question –  Stat-R Commented Jun 26, 2012 at 16:37
• I think Papers or Mendeley mentioned by @aeismail are the way to go - they claim to collect metadata automatically. –  atiretoo Commented Jun 26, 2012 at 16:40

The R package fulltext allows you to search DOI's given a title:

[1] "10.1371/journal.pone.0081457" "10.1371/journal.pone.0030492" "10.1371/journal.pone.0049220"

Resources like Web of Knowledge should have information on the DOI's for any titles that have them available (which should be "all of them" for anything that's been published in the last few years).

Tools like Papers or Mendeley should also be able to "harvest" DOI's for published papers.

• In response to your edit: both Papers and Mendeley should be able to retrieve the metadata for you using the title, unless the paper has just been released (as it might take a while to be archived by various search engines). –  aeismail Commented Jun 26, 2012 at 20:56
• 1 I tried but with no success. I will be grateful if you or someone can tell me a website where we can also fetch/download the link to the documents/references. I will do my search again and not use the existing reference file –  Stat-R Commented Jun 26, 2012 at 21:37

Easier, code-free:

At this time, on the CrossRef homepage , there is a text-input field "Metadata search". It says:

Search CrossRef's database of 71 million records for authors, titles, DOIs, ORCIDs, ISSNs, FundRefs, license URIs, etc. You can even paste entire references into the search box and discover their DOIs.

I have tried it out only for one DOI of which I happen to know that a record exists in the crossref database.

You can also use the CrossRef search site and paste the title of the paper there.

Update in 2022: Easiest for me was using the website, where you can just copy and paste your references: https://search.crossref.org/references

I also looked at a few python libraries to interact with the crossref REST API, e.g.,

https://pypi.org/project/habanero/

https://gitlab.com/crossref/crossref_commons_py

The libraries were easy to use in general, but it was not straight forward how to get the DOI based on a title and there were not really any good examples for this task.

As J. Schneider mentions , you can use "works" field query from crossref api. ( take a look at Richard Feynman example ). It returns a JSON file. You can extract DOI from it.

• As it’s currently written, your answer is unclear. Please edit to add additional details that will help others understand how this addresses the question asked. You can find more information on how to write good answers in the help center . –  Community Bot Commented Jul 5, 2022 at 13:57

As the author of pysotsog I am recommending that library. It searches wikidata at this time and will use other bibliographic databases such as crossref, dblp, library catalogs and so on in the future it's intended to use general search engines as well. The concept is to be a specific search engine for scientific content see sotsog search strategy .

Here is a command line example for the title "We Need a Magna Carta for the Internet" by Tim Berners-Lee with the DOI doi=10.1111/NPQU.11475.

In simple cases like the one above you can directly search wikidata and use the wikibase-cli command line tools for it by searching for the DOI property.

First step - find the paper wikidata entry with a full text search

Query the DOI

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What Are DOIs for Research Papers and How Can I Find Them?

What Are DOIs for Research Papers and How Can I Find Them? A DOI is a Digital Object Identifier. DOIs are now assigned to the grand majority of academic and scientific journal papers that are published in electronic (or digital) versions. The DOI assigned to each electronic article consists of a unique string of characters that identifies that document and only that document online. Whereas URLs for electronic papers can and do change if a journal or other hosting site decides to move its documents or simply alter file names and URLs, DOIs are permanent, so once assigned to papers, they will never change. This means that DOIs are more stable and reliable identifiers than URLs are, and that they can, at least theoretically, make it easier to find scholarly articles and identify them with certainty. DOIs are now required as an aspect of full bibliographical references in many documentation styles, and their inclusion can be helpful for readers who wish to consult a particular source or simply read further on a topic. However, the DOI for a paper may not always be obvious to the researchers who cite the paper, so it is important to know how to find the DOI for a published article when constructing a list of references. The following advice applies generally to academic and scientific articles with assigned DOIs, but your own discipline or your institutional library may have commonly used databases or indexing services that will prove helpful as well. PhD Thesis Editing Services The best place to begin looking for an academic or scientific paper’s DOI is in the paper itself. If the electronic version of an article has been assigned a DOI, it will usually appear on the first page of the document (generally a PDF). There may be a header at the top of the page that provides bibliographical information or a footer at the bottom of the page for this purpose. Either way, the DOI should appear there, generally at the end or sometimes the beginning of the bibliographical information. If a DOI does not appear in the article, other bibliographical information such as the journal title, date of publication, and volume, issue and page numbers should be there, and these can be used to locate the article on the journal’s website, where the assigned DOI is likely to be listed along with other metadata for the paper. If neither the paper itself nor the website of the journal that published it provides a DOI, a free search can be made on Crossref.org, which stores data on millions of research papers that have been assigned DOIs. To find the DOI of a single article, go to the homepage, which features a box with two options: Search Site and Search Metadata. 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Title: scaling synthetic data creation with 1,000,000,000 personas.

Abstract: We propose a novel persona-driven data synthesis methodology that leverages various perspectives within a large language model (LLM) to create diverse synthetic data. To fully exploit this methodology at scale, we introduce Persona Hub -- a collection of 1 billion diverse personas automatically curated from web data. These 1 billion personas (~13% of the world's total population), acting as distributed carriers of world knowledge, can tap into almost every perspective encapsulated within the LLM, thereby facilitating the creation of diverse synthetic data at scale for various scenarios. By showcasing Persona Hub's use cases in synthesizing high-quality mathematical and logical reasoning problems, instructions (i.e., user prompts), knowledge-rich texts, game NPCs and tools (functions) at scale, we demonstrate persona-driven data synthesis is versatile, scalable, flexible, and easy to use, potentially driving a paradigm shift in synthetic data creation and applications in practice, which may have a profound impact on LLM research and development.

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• Published: 24 June 2024

Bound star clusters observed in a lensed galaxy 460 Myr after the Big Bang

• Angela Adamo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8192-8091 1 ,
• Larry D. Bradley 2   na1 ,
• Eros Vanzella   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5228-9326 3   na1 ,
• Adélaïde Claeyssens 1 ,
• Brian Welch 4 , 5 ,
• Jose M. Diego   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9065-3926 6 ,
• Guillaume Mahler 7 , 8 , 9 ,
• Masamune Oguri   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3484-399X 10 , 11 ,
• Keren Sharon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7559-0864 12 ,
• Abdurro’uf 2 , 13 ,
• Tiger Yu-Yang Hsiao 2 , 13 ,
• Xinfeng Xu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9217-7051 14 , 15 ,
• Matteo Messa   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1427-2456 3 ,
• Augusto E. Lassen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3575-8316 1 , 16 ,
• Erik Zackrisson 17 , 18 ,
• Gabriel Brammer   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2680-005X 19 , 20 ,
• Dan Coe   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7410-7669 2 , 13 , 21 ,
• Vasily Kokorev   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5588-9156 22 ,
• Massimo Ricotti 4 ,
• Adi Zitrin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0350-4488 23 ,
• Seiji Fujimoto   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7201-5066 24 ,
• Akio K. Inoue   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7779-8677 25 , 26 ,
• Tom Resseguier   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0007-0522-7326 13 ,
• Jane R. Rigby   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7627-6551 5 ,
• Yolanda Jiménez-Teja 27 , 28 ,
• Rogier A. Windhorst 29 ,
• Takuya Hashimoto 30 , 31 &
• Yoichi Tamura   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4807-8117 32  

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• Early universe
• Galaxies and clusters

The Cosmic Gems arc is among the brightest and highly magnified galaxies observed at redshift z ∼ 10.2 1 . However, it is an intrinsically UV faint galaxy, in the range of those now thought to drive the reionization of the universe 2–4 . Hitherto the smallest features resolved in a galaxy at a comparable redshift are between a few hundreds and a few tens of parsecs 5,6 . Here we report JWST observations of the Cosmic Gems. The light of the galaxy is resolved into five star clusters located in a region smaller than 70 parsec. They exhibit minimal dust attenuation and low metallicity, ages younger than 50 Myr and intrinsic masses of ∼ 10 6 M ⊙ . Their lensing-corrected sizes are approximately 1 pc, resulting in stellar surface densities near 10 5 M ⊙ /pc 2 , three orders of magnitude higher than typical young star clusters in the local universe 7 . Despite the uncertainties inherent to the lensing model, they are consistent with being gravitationally bound stellar systems, i.e., proto-globular clusters (proto-GCs). We conclude that star cluster formation and feedback likely contributed to 3 shape the properties of galaxies during the epoch of reionization.

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A highly magnified star at redshift 6.2

Spectroscopic confirmation of a mature galaxy cluster at a redshift of 2

Normal, dust-obscured galaxies in the epoch of reionization

Author information.

These authors contributed equally: Larry D. Bradley, Eros Vanzella

Authors and Affiliations

Astronomy Department, Stockholm University & Oskar Klein Centre, Roslagstullsbacken 21, Stockholm, Sweden

Angela Adamo, Adélaïde Claeyssens & Augusto E. Lassen

Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), 3700 San Martin Drive, Baltimore, MD, USA

Larry D. Bradley,  Abdurro’uf, Tiger Yu-Yang Hsiao & Dan Coe

Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, INAF, via Gobetti 93/3, Bologna, Italy

Eros Vanzella & Matteo Messa

Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland, 4296 Stadium Drive, College Park, USA

Brian Welch & Massimo Ricotti

Astrophysics Science Division, Code 660, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 8800 Greenbelt Rd., Greenbelt, MD, USA

Brian Welch & Jane R. Rigby

Instituto de Física de Cantabria, (CSIC-UC), Avda. Los Castros s/n., Santander, Spain

Jose M. Diego

STAR Institute,Quartier Agora - Allée du six Août, 19c, Liège, Belgium

Guillaume Mahler

Centre for Extragalactic Astronomy, Durham University, South Road, Durham, UK

Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, UK

Center for Frontier Science, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan

Masamune Oguri

Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan

Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, 1085 S. University Ave, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Keren Sharon

Center for Astrophysical Sciences, Department of Physics and Astronomy, The Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles St., Baltimore, MD, USA

Abdurro’uf, Tiger Yu-Yang Hsiao, Dan Coe & Tom Resseguier

Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, USA

Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics (CIERA), Northwestern University, 1800 Sherman Avenue, Evanston, IL, USA

Instituto de Física, Departamento de Astronomia, Universe Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, Porto Alegre, Brazil

Augusto E. Lassen

Observational Astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Box 516, Uppsala, Sweden

Erik Zackrisson

Swedish Collegium for Advanced Study, Linneanum, Thunbergsvägen 2, Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden

Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Copenhagen, Denmark

Gabriel Brammer

Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 128, Copenhagen, Denmark

Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) for the European Space Agency (ESA), STScI, Baltimore, MD, USA

Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Landleven 12, Groningen, Netherlands

Vasily Kokorev

Department of Physics, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Be’er-Sheva, Israel

Department of Astronomy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

Seiji Fujimoto

Department of Physics, School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan

Akio K. Inoue

Waseda Research Institute for Science and Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan

Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, (CSIC), Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n., Granada, Spain

Yolanda Jiménez-Teja

Observatório Nacional, (MCTI), Rua Gal. José Cristino 77, São Cristóvão, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA

Rogier A. Windhorst

Division of Physics, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

Takuya Hashimoto

Tomonaga Center for the History of the Universe (TCHoU), University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furo, Chikusa, Nagoya, Japan

Yoichi Tamura

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Correspondence to Angela Adamo .

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Adamo, A., Bradley, L.D., Vanzella, E. et al. Bound star clusters observed in a lensed galaxy 460 Myr after the Big Bang. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07703-7

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Received : 06 January 2024

Accepted : 11 June 2024

Published : 24 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07703-7

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