a good thesis statement for freedom

267 Freedom Essay Topics & Examples

Need freedom topics for an essay or research paper? Don’t know how to start writing your essay? The concept of freedom is very exciting and worth studying!

📃 Freedom Essay: How to Start Writing

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The field of study includes personal freedom, freedom of the press, speech, expression, and much more. In this article, we’ve collected a list of great writing ideas and topics about freedom, as well as freedom essay examples and writing tips.

Freedom essays are common essay assignments that discuss acute topics of today’s global society. However, many students find it difficult to choose the right topic for their essay on freedom or do not know how to write the paper.

We have developed some useful tips for writing an excellent paper. But first, you need to choose a good essay topic. Below are some examples of freedom essay topics.

Freedom Essay Topics

• American (Indian, Taiwanese, Scottish) independence
• Freedom and homelessness essay
• The true value of freedom in modern society
• How slavery affects personal freedom
• The problem of human rights and freedoms
• American citizens’ rights and freedoms
• The benefits and disadvantages of unlimited freedom
• The changing definition of freedom

Once you have selected the issue you want to discuss (feel free to get inspiration from the ones we have suggested!), you can start working on your essay. Here are 10 useful tips for writing an outstanding paper:

• Remember that freedom essay titles should state the question you want to discuss clearly. Do not choose a vague and non-descriptive title for your paper.
• Work on the outline of your paper before writing it. Think of what sections you should include and what arguments you want to present. Remember that the essay should be well organized to keep the reader interested. For a short essay, you can include an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Do preliminary research. Ask your professor about the sources you can use (for example, course books, peer-reviewed articles, and governmental websites). Avoid using Wikipedia and other similar sources, as they often have unverified information.
• A freedom essay introduction is a significant part of your paper. It outlines the questions you want to discuss in the essay and helps the reader understand your work’s purpose. Remember to state the thesis of your essay at the end of this section.
• A paper on freedom allows you to be personal. It should not focus on the definition of this concept. Make your essay unique by including your perspective on the issue, discussing your experience, and finding examples from your life.
• At the same time, help your reader to understand what freedom is from the perspective of your essay. Include a clear explanation or a definition with examples.
• Check out freedom essay examples online to develop a structure for your paper, analyze the relevance of the topics you want to discuss and find possible freedom essay ideas. Avoid copying the works you will find online.
• Support your claims with evidence. For instance, you can cite the Bill of Rights or the United States Constitution. Make sure that the sources you use are reliable.
• To make your essay outstanding, make sure that you use correct grammar. Grammatical mistakes may make your paper look unprofessional or unreliable. Restructure a sentence if you think that it does not sound right. Check your paper several times before sending it to your professor.
• A short concluding paragraph is a must. Include the summary of all arguments presented in the paper and rephrase the main findings.

Do not forget to find a free sample in our collection and get the best ideas for your essay!

• Freedom of Expression Essay For one to be in a position to gauge the eventuality of a gain or a loss, then there should be absolute freedom of expression on all matters irrespective of the nature of the sentiments […]
• Philosophy and Relationship between Freedom and Responsibility Essay As a human being, it is hard to make a decision because of the uncertainty of the outcome, but it is definitely essential for human being to understand clearly the concept and connection between freedom […]
• Freedom Writers: Promoting Good Moral Values The movie portrays a strong and civilized view of the world; it encourages development and use of positive moral values by people in making the world a better place.
• Freedom of Speech in Social Media Essay Gelber tries to say that the history of the freedom of speech in Australia consists of the periods of the increasing public debates on the issue of human rights and their protection.
• Rio (2011) and the Issue of Freedom As a matter of fact, this is the only scene where Blu, Jewel, Linda, Tulio, and the smugglers are present at the same time without being aware of each other’s presence.
• Human Will & Freedom and Moral Responsibility Their understanding of the definition of human will is based on the debate as to whether the will free or determined.
• Freedom in Henrik Ibsen’s “A Doll’s House” Literature Analysis In Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, the main character, Nora is not an intellectual, and spends no time scouring books or libraries or trying to make sense of her situation.
• “Long Walk to Freedom” by Nelson Mandela In the fast developing world, advances and progress move countries and nations forward but at the same time, some things are left behind and become a burden for the people and evolution to better life […]
• Freedom and equality According to Liliuokalani of Hawaii, the conquest contravened the basic rights and freedoms of the natives and their constitution by undermining the power of their local leaders.
• Freedom and Determinism On the other hand, determinism theory explains that there is an order that leads to occurrences of events in the world and in the universe.
• Social Values: Freedom and Justice It is evident that freedom and justice are mutually exclusive, as “the theory of justice signifies its implications in regards to freedom as a key ingredient to happiness”.
• Fighting for the Right to Choose: Students Should Have the Freedom to Pick the Courses They Want Consequently, students should be allowed to pick the subjects which they are going to study together with the main one. Thus, students should be allowed to choose the subjects they need in accordance with their […]
• The Efforts and Activities of the Paparazzi are Protected by the Freedom of the Press Clause of the Constitution The First Amendment of the American constitution protects the paparazzi individually as American citizens through the protection of their freedom of speech and expression and professionally through the freedom of the press clause.
• Human Freedom in Relation to Society Human freedom has to do with the freedom of one’s will, which is the freedom of man to choose and act by following his path through life freely by exercising his ‘freedom’).
• Chapters 4-6 of ”From Slavery to Freedom” by Franklin & Higginbotham At the same time, the portion of American-born slaves was on the increase and contributed to the multiracial nature of the population.
• Jean-Paul Sartre’s Views on Freedom For example, to Sartre, a prisoner of war is free, existentially, but this freedom does not exist in the physical realm.
• Freedom of Expression in the Classroom The NEA Code of Ethics establishes a link between this Freedom and a teacher’s responsibilities by requiring instructors to encourage “independent activity in the pursuit of learning,” provide “access to diverse points of view,” and […]
• Boredom and Freedom: Different Views and Links Boredom is a condition characterized by low levels of arousal as well as wandering attention and is normally a result of the regular performance of monotonous routines.
• Nelson Mandela “Freedom in Africa” For example, the struggle for freedom in South Africa is one of the best examples of freedom in Africa so far.
• Power and Freedom in America Although it is already a given that freedom just like the concept love is not easy to define and the quest to define it can be exhaustive but at the end of the day what […]
• Political Freedom According to Machiavelli and Locke In this chapter, he explains that “It may be answered that one should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, is much safer to be feared than […]
• Personal Understanding of Freedom Freedom is essential for individual growth and development, and it helps individuals to make informed decisions that are in alignment with their values and beliefs.
• Freedom in Antebellum America: Civil War and Abolishment of Slavery The American Civil War, which led to the abolishment of slavery, was one of the most important events in the history of the United States.
• Power, Property, and Freedom: Bitcoin Discourse In the modern world, all people have the right to freedom and property, but not all have the power to decide who may have this freedom and property.
• Fighting for Freedom of American Identity in Literature Loyalty is one of the themes in the story, as the boy is confused on whether to side with the family or the law.
• The Freedom Concept The thing is that there are societies in which the individual freedom of a person is practically non-existent, for instance, one can mention North Korea.
• Black Sexual Freedom and Manhood in “For Colored Girls” Movie Despite the representation of Black sexual freedoms in men and women and Black manhood as a current social achievement, For Colored Girls shows the realities of inequality and injustice, proving womanism’s importance in America.
• Frank Kermode: Timelessness and Freedom of Expression In his story, Frank Kermode tries to establish a conventional identity of time, by incorporating issues that subject to the needs of humanity, and which must confer to the expectations of the community.
• Emotion and Freedom in 20th-Century Feminist Literature The author notes that the second layer of the story can be found in the antagonism between the “narrator, author, and the unreliable protagonist”.
• The Path to Freedom of Black People During the Antebellum Period In conclusion, the life of free blacks in 19th century America was riddled with hindrances that were meant to keep them at the bottom of society.
• 70’s Fashion as a Freedom of Choice However, with the end of the Vietnam War, the public and the media lost interest in the hippie style in the middle of the decade, and began to lean toward the mod subculture. The 70’s […]
• “Gladiator” by Ridley Scott: Freedom and Affection This desire to be free becomes the main motive of the film, as the plot follows Maximus, now enslaved, who tries to avenge his family and the emperor and regain his liberty.
• The Golden Age of Youth and Freedom However, it is interesting to compare it to the story which took place at the dawn of the cultural and sexual revolution in Chinese society.
• Democracy and Freedom in Pakistan Pakistan lies in a region that has been a subject of worldwide attention and political tensions since 9/11. US influence in politics, foreign and internal policies of Pakistan has always been prominent.
• Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox Jefferson believed that the landless laborers posed a threat to the nation because they were not independent. He believed that if Englishmen ruled over the world, they would be able to extend the effects of […]
• Mandela’s Leadership: Long Walk to Freedom The current paper analyses the effectiveness of leadership with reference to Nelson Mandela, the late former president of South Africa, as depicted in the movie, Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom.
• Philosophy of Freedom in “The Apology“ Socrates’ friends requested him to accept the charges, as they were willing to pay the expected fines, but he refused and insisted that he was ready to die for the sake of justice.
• Freedom and the Role of Civilization The achievements demonstrated by Marx and Freud play a significant role in the field of sociology and philosophy indeed; Marx believed in the power of labor and recognized the individual as an integral part of […]
• Four Freedoms by President Roosevelt Throughout the discussion we shall elaborate the four freedoms in a broader way for better understating; we shall also describe the several measures that were put in place in order to ensure the four freedoms […]
• Personal Freedom in A Doll’s House, A Room of One’s Own, and Diary of a Madman In Chapter Three of Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own, the protagonist attempts to make sense of the nonsensical elements of female history, namely, how it could be that “in Athena’s city, where women […]
• Concept of Individual Freedom Rousseau and Mill were political philosophers with interest in understanding what entailed individual freedom. This paper compares Rousseau’s idea of individual freedom with Mill’s idea.
• Predetermination and Freedom of Choice We assume that every happens because of a specific reason and that the effects of that event can be traced back to the cause.
• Freedom and Social Justice Through Technology These two remarkable minds have made significant contributions to the debates on technology and how it relates to liberty and social justice.
• Balancing Freedom of Speech and Responsibility in Online Commenting The article made me perceive the position of absolute freedom of speech in the Internet media from a dual perspective. This desire for quick attention is the creation of information noise, distracting from the user […]
• The Effect of Emotional Freedom Techniques on Nurses’ Stress The objectives for each of the three criteria are clearly stated, with the author explaining the aims to the reader well throughout the content in the article’s title, abstract, and introduction.
• The Freedom Summer Project and Black Studies The purpose of this essay is to discuss to which degree the story of the Freedom Summer project illustrates the concepts of politics outlined in Karenga’s book Introduction to black studies.
• Democracy: The Influence of Freedom Democracy is the basis of the political systems of the modern civilized world. Accordingly, the democracy of Athens was direct that is, without the choice of representatives, in contrast to how it is generated nowadays.
• Freedom of Speech as a Basic Human Right Restricting or penalizing freedom of expression is thus a negative issue because it confines the population of truth, as well as rationality, questioning, and the ability of people to think independently and express their thoughts.
• Kantian Ethics and Causal Law for Freedom The theory’s main features are autonomy of the will, categorical imperative, rational beings and thinking capacity, and human dignity. The theory emphasizes not on the actions and the doers but the consequences of their effects […]
• Principles in M. L. King’s Quest for African American Freedom The concept of a nonviolent approach to the struggles for African American freedom was a key strategy in King’s quest for the liberation of his communities from racial and social oppressions.
• Technology Revolutionizing Ethical Aspects of Academic Freedom As part of the solution, the trends in technology are proposed as a potential solution that can provide the necessary support to improve the freedom of expression as one of the ethical issues that affect […]
• The Journey Freedom Tour 2022 Performance Analysis Arnel Pineda at age 55 keeps rocking and hitting the high notes and bringing the entire band very successfully all through their live concert tour.
• Freedom of Speech and Propaganda in School Setting One of the practical solutions to the problem is the development and implementation of a comprehensive policy for balanced free speech in the classroom.
• Twitter and Violations of Freedom of Speech and Censorship The sort of organization that examines restrictions and the opportunities and challenges it encounters in doing so is the center of a widely acknowledged way of thinking about whether it is acceptable to restrict speech.
• Freedom of the Press and National Security Similarly, it concerns the freedom of the press of the media, which are protected in the United States of America by the First Amendment.
• The Views on the Freedom from Fear in the Historical Perspective In this text, fear is considered in the classical sense, corresponding to the interpretation of psychology, that is, as a manifestation of acute anxiety for the inviolability of one’s life.
• Freedom of Speech in Social Networks The recent case of blocking the accounts of former US President Donald Trump on Twitter and Facebook is explained by the violation of the rules and conditions of social platforms.
• Analysis of UK’s Freedom of Information Act 2000 To preserve potentially disruptive data that must not be released to the public, the FOIA integrates several provisions that allow the officials to decline the request for information without suffering possible consequences.
• Fight for Freedom, Love Has No Labels, and Ad Council: Key Statement The most important part of the message, to me, is the fact that the freedoms mentioned in the PSA are not available to every American citizen, despite America being the land of freedom.
• Teachers’ Freedom of Speech in Learning Institutions The judiciary system has not clearly defined the limits of the First Amendment in learning institutions, and it’s a public concern, especially from the teachers.
• Is There Press Freedom in Modern China? There is a large body of literature in the field of freedom of the press investigations, media freedom in China, and press freedom and human rights studies.
• Freedom of the Press in the Context of UAE It gives the people the ability to understand the insight of the government and other crucial activities happening within the country.
• Freedom of the Press in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) According to oztunc & Pierre, the UAE is ranked 119 in the global press freedom data, classifying the country as one of the most suppressive regarding the liberty of expression.
• Review of “Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom” From the youth, Mandela started to handle the unfairness of isolation and racial relations in South Africa. In Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom, Chadwick’s masterful screen memoir of Nelson Mandela passes on the anguish as […]
• Expansion of Freedom and Slavery in British America The settlement in the city of New Plymouth was founded by the second, and it laid the foundation for the colonies of New England.
• Religious Freedom Policy Evaluation Ahmed et al.claim that the creation of the ecosystem can facilitate the change as the members of the community share their experiences and learn how to respond to various situations.
• The Concepts of Freedom and the Great Depression Furthermore, blacks were elected to construct the constitution, and black delegates fought for the rights of freedpeople and all Americans. African-Americans gained the freedom to vote, work, and be elected to government offices during Black […]
• Freedom of Choices for Women in Marriage in “The Story of an Hour” The story describes the sentiments and feelings of Louisa Mallard when she learns the news about her husband. The readers can see the sudden reaction of the person to the demise of her significant other.
• Freedom of Speech in Shouting Fire: Stories From the Edge of Free Speech Even though the First Amendment explicitly prohibits any laws regarding the freedom of speech, Congress continues to make exceptions from it.
• Personal Freedom: The Importance in Modern Society To show my family and friends how important they are to me, I try contacting them more often in the way they prefer.
• Economic Freedom and Its Recent Statements Economic freedom is an important indicator and benchmark for the level of income of companies or individual citizens of a country.
• The Freedom Concept in Plato’s “Republic” This situation shows that the concept of democracy and the freedom that correlates with it refers to a flawed narrative that liberty is the same as equality.
• Freedom of Speech as the Most Appreciated Liberty In the present-day world, the progress of society largely depends on the possibility for people to exercise their fundamental rights. From this perspective, freedom of speech is the key to everyone’s well-being, and, in my […]
• The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom In the introductory part of the book, the author discusses his main theses concerning the link between the development of networks and shifts in the economy and society.
• Freedom of Association for Radical Organizations This assertion is the primary and fundamental argument in the debate on this topic – radical groups should not use freedom of association to harm other people potentially.
• Frederick Douglass’s My Bondage and My Freedom Review He criticizes that in spite of the perceived knowledge he was getting as a slave, this very light in the form of knowledge “had penetrated the moral dungeon”.
• The Essence of Freedom of Contract The legal roots of the notion of freedom of contract are manifested in the ideals of liberalism and theoretical capitalism, where the former values individual freedom and the latter values marker efficiency and effectiveness.
• Why Defamation Laws Must Prioritize Freedom of Speech The body of the essay will involve providing information on the nature of defamation laws in the USA and the UK, the implementation of such laws in the two countries, and the reason why the […]
• Pettit’s Conception of Freedom as Anti-Power According to Savery and Haugaard, the main idea that Pettit highlights in this theory is the notion that the contrary to freedom is never interference as many people claim, but it is slavery and the […]
• Democracy and Freedom: Inclusion of Underrepresented Groups For this reason, the principle of anti-power should be considered as the position that will provide a better understanding of the needs of the target population and the desirable foreign policy to be chosen.
• Freedom or Security: Homeland Issues In many ways, the author sheds light on the overreactions or inadequate responses of the US government, which led to such catastrophes as 9/11 or the war in Iraq.
• War on Terror: Propaganda and Freedom of the Press in the US There was the launching of the “Center for Media and Democracy”, CMD, in the year 1993 in order to create what was the only public interest at that period. There was expansive use of propaganda […]
• The Freedom of Expression and the Freedom of Press It is evident that the evolution of standards that the court has adopted to evaluate the freedom of expression leaves a lot to be desired. The court has attempted to define the role of the […]
• Information and Communication Technology & Economic Freedom in Islamic Middle Eastern Countries This is a unique article as it gives importance to the role ecommerce plays in the life of the educationists and students and urges that the administrators are given training to handle their students in […]
• Is the Good Life Found in Freedom? Example of Malala Yousafzai The story of Malala has shown that freedom is crucial for personal happiness and the ability to live a good life.
• Civil Rights Movement: Fights for Freedom The Civil Rights Movement introduced the concept of black and white unification in the face of inequality. Music-related to justice and equality became the soundtrack of the social and cultural revolution taking place during the […]
• Voices of Freedom: Lincoln, M. L. King, Kirkaldy He was named after his grandfather Abraham Lincoln, the one man that was popular for owning wide tracks of land and a great farmer of the time.
• Freedom: Malcolm X’s vs. Anna Quindlen’s Views However, in reality, we only have the freedom to think whatever we like, and only as long as we know that this freedom is restricted to thought only.
• Net Neutrality: Freedom of Internet Access In the principle of Net neutrality, every entity is entitled access and interaction with other internet users at the same cost of access.
• Academic Freedom: A Refuge of Intellectual Individualism Also known as intellectual, scientific or individual freedom, academic freedom is defined as the freedom of professionals and students to question and to propose new thoughts and unpopular suggestions to the government without jeopardizing their […]
• The Literature From Slavery to Freedom Its main theme is slavery but it also exhibits other themes like the fight by Afro-Americans for freedom, the search for the identity of black Americans and the appreciation of the uniqueness of African American […]
• John Stuart Mill on Freedom in Today’s Perspective The basic concept behind this rose because it was frustrating in many cases in the context of the penal system and legislation and it was viewed that anything less than a capital punishment would not […]
• Conformity Versus Freedom at University To the author, this is objectionable on the grounds that such a regimen infringes on the freedom of young adults and that there is much to learn outside the classroom that is invaluable later in […]
• US Citizens and Freedom As an example of freedom and obtaining freedom in the US, the best possible subject would be the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, particularly during 1963-64, as this would serve as the conceptual and […]
• Social Factors in the US History: Respect for Human Rights, Racial Equality, and Religious Freedom The very first years of the existence of the country were marked by the initiatives of people to provide as much freedom in all aspects of social life as possible.
• Protecting Freedom of Expression on the Campus An annotated version of “Protecting Freedom of Expression on the Campus” by Derek Bok in The Boston Globe.*and these stars are where I have a question or opinion on a statement* For several years, universities […]
• Freedom of Speech and the Internet On the one hand, the freedom of expression on the internet allowed the general public to be informed about the true nature of the certain events, regardless of geographical locations and restrictions.
• Freedom Definition Revision: Components of Freedom That which creates, sustains, and maintains life in harmony with the natural cycles of this planet, doing no harm to the ecology or people of the Earth- is right.
• Freedom of Information Act in the US History According to the legislation of the United States, official authorities are obliged to disclose information, which is under control of the US government, if it is requested by the public.
• Freedom, Equality & Solidarity by Lucy Parsons In the lecture and article ‘The Principles of Anarchism’ she outlines her vision of Anarchy as the answer to the labor question and how powerful governments and companies worked for hand in hand to stifle […]
• Art and Freedom. History and Relationship The implication of this term is that genus art is composed of two species, the fine arts, and the useful arts. This, according to Cavell, is the beauty of art.
• Balance of Media Censorship and Press Freedom Government censorship means the prevention of the circulation of information already produced by the official government There are justifications for the suppression of communication such as fear that it will harm individuals in the society […]
• The Idea of American Freedom Such implications were made by the anti-slavery group on each occasion that the issue of slavery was drawn in the Congress, and reverberated wherever the institution of slavery was subjected to attack within the South.
• Human Freedom: Liberalism vs Anarchism It is impoverished because liberals have failed to show the connection between their policies and the values of the community. More fundamentally, however, a policy formulated in such a way that it is disconnected from […]
• Liberal Definition of Freedom Its origins lie in the rejection of the authoritarian structures of the feudalistic order in Europe and the coercive tendencies and effects of that order through the imposition of moral absolutes.
• Newt Gingrich Against Freedom of Speech According to the constitution, the First Amendment is part of the United States Bill of rights that was put in place due to the advocation of the anti-federalists who wanted the powers of the federal […]
• Freedom is One of the Most Valuable Things to Man Political philosophers have many theories in response to this and it is necessary to analyze some of the main arguments and concepts to get a clearer idea of how to be more precise about the […]
• The Enlightment: The Science of Freedom In America, enlightment resulted to the formation of the American Revolution in the form of resistance of Britain imperialism. In the United States of America, enlightment took a more significant form as demonstrated by the […]
• Determinism and Freedom in the movie ‘Donnie Darko’ The term determinism states, the all the processes in the world are determined beforehand, and only chosen may see or determine the future.
• Spinoza’ Thoughts on Human Freedom The human being was once considered of as the Great Amphibian, or the one who can exclusively live in the two worlds, a creature of the physical world and also an inhabitant of the spiritual, […]
• Freedom From Domination: German Scientists’ View He made the greatest ever attempt to unify the country, as Western Europe was divided into lots of feudal courts, and the unification of Germany led to the creation of single national mentality and appearing […]
• The Freedom of Speech: Communication Law in US By focusing on the on goings in Guatemala, the NYT may have, no doubt earned the ire of the Bush administration, but it is also necessary that the American people are made aware of the […]
• Freedom of Speech and Expression in Music Musicians are responsible and accountable for fans and their actions because in the modern world music and lyrics become a tool of propaganda that has a great impact on the circulation of ideas and social […]
• American Vision and Values of Political Freedom The significance of the individual and the sanctity of life were all central to the conceptions of Plato, Aristotle, or Cicero.
• Male Dominance as Impeding Female Sexual Freedom Therefore, there is a need to further influence society to respect and protect female sexuality through the production of educative materials on women’s free will.
• Interrelation and Interdependence of Freedom, Responsibility, and Accountability Too much responsibility and too little freedom make a person unhappy. There must be a balance between freedom and responsibility for human happiness.
• African American History: The Struggle for Freedom The history of the Jacksons Rainbow coalition shows the rise of the support of the African American politicians in the Democratic party.
• Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Definition of Freedom The case of Nicola Sacco can be seen as the starting point of the introduction of Roosevelt’s definition of freedom as liberty for all American citizens.
• Freedom of Speech and International Relations The freedom of speech or the freedom of expression is a civil right legally protected by many constitutions, including that of the United States, in the First Amendment.
• Canada in Freedom House Organization’s Rating The Freedom in the World Reports are most notable because of their contribution to the knowledge about the state of civil and political liberties in different countries, ranking them from 1 to 7.
• Slavery Abolition and Newfound Freedom in the US One of the biggest achievements of Reconstruction was the acquisition of the right to vote by Black People. Still, Black Americans were no longer forced to tolerate inhumane living conditions, the lack of self-autonomy, and […]
• Japanese-American Internment: Illusion of Freedom The purpose of this paper is to analyze the internment of Japanese-Americans in Idaho as well as events that happened prior in order to understand how such a violation of civil rights came to pass […]
• The Existence of Freedom This paper assumes that it is the cognizance of the presence of choices for our actions that validates the existence of free will since, even if some extenuating circumstances and influences can impact what choice […]
• Mill’s Power over Body vs. Foucault’s Freedom John Stuart Mill’s view of sovereignty over the mind and the body focuses on the tendency of human beings to exercise liberalism to fulfill their self-interest.
• Rousseau’s vs. Confucius’ Freedom Concept Similarly, the sovereignty of a distinctive group expresses the wholeness of its free will, but not a part of the group.
• The Importance of Freedom of Speech In a bid to nurture the freedom of speech, the United States provides safety to the ethical considerations of free conversations.
• Freedom in the Workplace of American Society In the workplace, it is vital to implement freedom-oriented policies that would address the needs of each employee for the successful performance of the company which significantly depends on the operation of every participant of […]
• 19th-Century Marxism with Emphasis on Freedom As the paper reveals through various concepts and theories by Marx, it was the responsibility of the socialists and scientists to transform the society through promoting ideologies of class-consciousness and social action as a way […]
• Political Necessity to Safeguard Freedom He determined that the existence of the declared principles on which the fundamental structure of equality is based, as well as the institutions that monitor their observance, is the critical prerequisite for social justice and […]
• Aveo’s Acquisition of Freedom Aged Care Portfolio The mode of acquisition points to the possibility that Freedom used the White Knight defense mechanism when it approached the Aveo group.
• Aveo Group’s Acquisition of Freedom Aged Care Pty Ltd The annual report of AVEO Group indicated that the company acquired Freedom Aged Care based on its net book value. It implies that the Aveo Group is likely to achieve its strategic objectives through the […]
• Freedom Hospital Geriatric Patient Analysis The importance of statistics in clinical research can be explained by a multitude of factors; in clinical management, it is used for monitoring the patients’ conditions, the quality of health care provided, and other indicators.
• Hegel and Marx on Civil Society and Human Freedom First of all, the paper will divide the concepts of freedom and civil society in some of the notions that contribute to their definitions.
• Individual Freedom: Exclusionary Rule The exclusionary rule was first introduced by the US Supreme Court in 1914 in the case of Weeks v.the United States and was meant for the application in the federal courts only, but later it […]
• History of American Conceptions and Practices of Freedom The government institutions and political regimes have been accused of allowing amarginalisation’ to excel in the acquisition and roles assigned to the citizens of the US on the basis of social identities.
• Canada’s Freedom of Speech and Its Ineffectiveness In the developed societies of the modern world, it is one of the major premises that freedom of expression is the pivotal character of liberal democracy.
• Freedom and Liberty in American Historical Documents The 1920s and the 1930s saw particularly ardent debates on these issues since it was the time of the First World War and the development of the American sense of identity at the same time.
• Anglo-American Relations, Freedom and Nationalism Thus, in his reflection on the nature of the interrelations between two powerful empires, which arose at the end of the 19th century, the writer argues that the striving of the British Empire and the […]
• American Student Rights and Freedom of Speech As the speech was rather vulgar for the educational setting, the court decided that the rights of adults in public places cannot be identic to those the students have in school.
• Freedom of Speech in Modern Media At the same time, the bigoted approach to the principles of freedom of speech in the context of the real world, such as killing or silencing journalists, makes the process of promoting the same values […]
• Singapore’s Economic Freedom and People’s Welfare Business freedom is the ability to start, operating and closing a business having in mind the necessary regulations put by the government.
• “Advancing Freedom in Iraq” by Steven Groves The aim of the article is to describe the current situation in Iraq and to persuade the reader in the positive role of the U.S.authorities in the promoting of the democracy in the country.
• Freedom: Definition, Meaning and Threats The existence of freedom in the world has been one of the most controversial topics in the world. As a result, he suggests indirectly that freedom is found in the ability to think rationally.
• Expression on the Internet: Vidding, Copyright and Freedom It can be defined as the practice of creating new videos by combining the elements of already-existing clips. This is one of the reasons why this practice may fall under the category of fair use.
• Doha Debate and Turkey’s Media Freedom He argued that the Turkish model was a work in progress that could be emulated by the Arab countries not only because of the freedom that the government gave to the press, but also the […]
• The Pursuit of Freedom in the 19th Century Britain The ambition to improve one’s life was easily inflated by the upper grade that focused on dominating the system at the expense of the suffering majority.
• The Story of American Freedom The unique nature of the United States traces its history to the formation of political institutions between 1776 and 1789, the American Revolution between 1776 and 1783 and the declaration of independence in 1776. Additionally, […]
• Military Logistics in Operation “Iraqi Freedom” It was also very easy for the planners to identify the right amount of fuel needed for distribution in the farms, unlike other classes of supply which had a lot of challenges. The soldiers lacked […]
• The Freedom of Information Act The Freedom of Information Act is popularly understood to be the representation of “the people’s right to know” the various activities of the government.
• The United States Role in the World Freedom The efforts of NATO to engage Taliban and al-Qaida insurgents in the war resulted in the spreading of the war into the North West parts of Pakistan.
• Fighting Terrorism: “Iraqi Freedom” and “Enduring Freedom” One is bound to be encouraged by the fact that the general and both his immediate and distant families had dedicated their services to the military of the USA and had achieved great heights in […]
• Freedom of Speech: Julian Assange and ‘WikiLeaks’ Case Another significant issue is that the precedent of WikiLeaks questions the power of traditional journalism to articulate the needs of the society and to monitor the governments.
• Do Urban Environments Promote Freedom? Lastly, it is the heterogenic environment that contributes largely to the cultivation of the feeling of freedom in the inhabitants of urban cities.
• Claiming the Freedom to Shape Politics In addition, this paper also shows that ordinary people claim the freedom to shape politics because politics influence human rights, and the violation of human rights in one part of the world affects another.
• US Progress in Freedom, Equality and Power Since Civil War When it comes to the pursuit of freedom and ideals of democracy, progress since the Civil War can be seen in the establishment of a sufficiently capable Federal government, efficient judiciary and presidency systems with […]
• Thomas Jefferson’s Views on Freedom of Religion In fact, the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was about the relation between the state and the church and the ability to provide people of different faiths, Catholics or Jews, with the same opportunities and […]
• Religious Freedom and Labor Law Therefore, it is important for the human resource managers to come up with ways of addressing religious requests in relation to the current labor laws.
• Gilded Age and Progressive Era Freedom Challenges They used that fact in their attempt to argue that the slavery of African Americans was natural as well and that it should not be abolished.
• Philosophical Approach to Freedom and Determinism The rationale is that Dave’s action was not the outcome of who he was and what he believed, the values he held or his desires.
• The Life of a Freedom Fighter in Post WWII Palestine As World War II was coming to an end, the Zionist Movement leaders were hopeful that the British government would amend the White Paper policy, allow the Jews to migrate to Eretz, Israel, and govern […]
• “Human Freedom and the Self” by Roderick Chisholm
• Philosophy in the Freedom of Will by Harry Frankfurt
• Advertising and Freedom of Speech
• How the Law Limits Academic Freedom?
• The Issue of American Freedom in Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”
• The Jewish Freedom Fighter Recollection
• Kuwait’s Opposition and the Freedom of Expression
• Abraham Lincoln: A Legacy of Freedom
• Freedom of Speech and Expression
• Multicultural Education: Freedom or Oppression
• “The Freedom of the Streets: Work, Citizenship, and Sexuality in a Gilded Age City” by Sharon Wood
• Information Freedom in Government
• Dr.Knightly’s Problems in Academic Freedom
• Mill on Liberty and Freedom
• Texas Women University Academic Freedom
• Freedom of speech in the Balkans
• “Freedom Riders”: A Documentary Revealing Personal Stories That Reflect Individual Ideology
• Media Freedom in Japan
• Rivalry and Central Planning by Don Lavoie: Study Analysis
• Review of “Freedom Writers”
• Freedom Degree in Colonial America
• What Is ‘Liberal Representative Democracy’ and Does the Model Provide an Appropriate Combination of Freedom and Equality?
• Is the Contemporary City a Space of Control or Freedom?
• Native Americans Transition From Freedom to Isolation
• “The Weight of the Word” by Chris Berg
• What Does Freedom Entail in the US?
• Leila Khaled: Freedom Fighter or Terrorist?
• Environmentalism and Economic Freedom
• Freedom of Speech in China and Political Reform
• Colonial Women’s Freedom in Society
• The S.E.C. and the Freedom of Information Act
• African Americans: A Journey Towards Freedom
• Freedom of the Press
• Coming of Age in Mississippi: The Black Freedom Movement
• Freedom of Women to Choose Abortion
• Human Freedom as Contextual Deliberation
• Women and Freedom in “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin
• The Required Freedom and Democracy in Afghanistan
• PRISM Program: Freedom v. Order

✍️ Freedom Essay Topics for College

• Human rights and freedoms
• Controversies Over Freedom of Speech and Internet Postings
• Gender and the Black Freedom Movement
• Rousseau and Kant on their respective accounts of freedom and right
• Culture and the Black Freedom Struggle
• Freedom from Poverty as a Human Right and the UN Declaration of Human Rights
• Hegel’s Ideas on Action, Morality, Ethics and Freedom
• Satre human freedom
• The Ideas of Freedom and Slavery in Relation to the American Revolution
• Psychological Freedom
• Free Exercise Clause: Freedom and Equality
• Television Effects & Freedoms
• Government’s control versus Freedom of Speech and Thoughts
• Freedom of Speech: Exploring Proper Limits
• Freedom of the Will
• Women in Early America: Struggle, Survival, and Freedom in a New World
• Benefits of Post 9/11 Security Measures Fails to Outway Harm on Personal Freedom and Privacy
• Civil Liberties: Freedom of the Media
• Human Freedom and Personal Identity
• Freedom of Religion in the U.S
• Freedom of Speech, Religion and Religious Tolerance
• Why Free Speech Is An Important Freedom
• The meaning of the word “freedom” in the context of the 1850s!
• American History: Freedom and Progress
• The Free Exercise Thereof: Freedom of Religion in the First Amendment
• Voices of Freedom
• Twilight: Freedom of Choices by the Main Character
• The meaning of freedom today
• Human Nature and the Freedom of Speech in Different Countries
• What Is the Relationship Between Personal Freedom and Democracy?
• How Does Religion Limit Human Freedom?
• What Is the Relationship Between Economic Freedom and Fluctuations in Welfare?
• How Effectively the Constitution Protects Freedom?
• Why Should Myanmar Have Similar Freedom of Speech Protections to the United States?
• Should Economics Educators Care About Students’ Academic Freedom?
• Why Freedom and Equality Is an Artificial Creation Created?
• How the Attitudes and Freedom of Expression Changed for African Americans Over the Years?
• What Are the Limits of Freedom of Speech?
• How Far Should the Right to Freedom of Speech Extend?
• Is There a Possible Relationship Between Human Rights and Freedom of Expression and Opinion?
• How Technology Expanded Freedom in the Society?
• Why Did Jefferson Argue That Religious Freedom Is Needed?
• How the Civil War Sculpted How Americans Viewed Their Nation and Freedom?
• Should Society Limit the Freedom of Individuals?
• Why Should Parents Give Their Children Freedom?
• Was Operation Iraqi Freedom a Legitimate and Just War?
• Could Increasing Political Freedom Be the Key To Reducing Threats?
• How Does Financial Freedom Help in Life?
• What Are Human Rights and Freedoms in Modern Society?
• How the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedom Affects the Canadian Politics?
• Why Should Schools Allow Religious Freedom?
• Does Internet Censorship Threaten Free Speech?
• How Did the American Civil War Lead To the Defeat of Slavery and Attainment of Freedom by African Americans?
• Why Are Men Willing To Give Up Their Freedom?
• How Did the Economic Development of the Gilded Age Affect American Freedom?
• Should Artists Have Total Freedom of Expression?
• How Does Democracy, Economic Freedom, and Taxation Affect the Residents of the European Union?
• What Restrictions Should There Be, if Any, on the Freedom of the Press?
• How To Achieving Early Retirement With Financial Freedom?
• Liberalism Research Topics
• Civil Disobedience Essay Topics
• Tolerance Essay Ideas
• First Amendment Research Topics
• Social Democracy Essay Titles
• Personal Ethics Titles
• Justice Questions
• American Dream Research Topics
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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• Knowledge Base
• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

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Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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On Thesis Statements

The thesis statement.

This is not an exhaustive list of bad thesis statements, but here're five kinds of problems I've seen most often. Notice that the last two, #4 and #5, are not necessarily incorrect or illegitimate thesis statements, but, rather, inappropriate for the purposes of this course. They may be useful forms for papers on different topics in other courses.

A thesis takes a position on an issue. It is different from a topic sentence in that a thesis statement is not neutral. It announces, in addition to the topic, the argument you want to make or the point you want to prove. This is your own opinion that you intend to back up. This is your reason and motivation for writing.

Bad Thesis 1

Bad Thesis 2 : This paper will consider the advantages and disadvantages of certain restrictions on free speech.

Better Thesis 1 : Stanley Fish's argument that free speech exists more as a political prize than as a legal reality ignores the fact that even as a political prize it still serves the social end of creating a general cultural atmosphere of tolerance that may ultimately promote free speech in our nation just as effectively as any binding law.

Better Thesis 2 : Even though there may be considerable advantages to restricting hate speech, the possibility of chilling open dialogue on crucial racial issues is too great and too high a price to pay.

A thesis should be as specific as possible, and it should be tailored to reflect the scope of the paper. It is not possible, for instance, to write about the history of English literature in a 5 page paper. In addition to choosing simply a smaller topic, strategies to narrow a thesis include specifying a method or perspective or delineating certain limits.

Bad Thesis 2 : The government has the right to limit free speech.

Better Thesis 1 : There should be no restrictions on the 1st amendment if those restrictions are intended merely to protect individuals from unspecified or otherwise unquantifiable or unverifiable "emotional distress."

Better Thesis 2 : The government has the right to limit free speech in cases of overtly racist or sexist language because our failure to address such abuses would effectively suggest that our society condones such ignorant and hateful views.

A thesis must be arguable. And in order for it to be arguable, it must present a view that someone might reasonably contest. Sometimes a thesis ultimately says, "we should be good," or "bad things are bad." Such thesis statements are tautological or so universally accepted that there is no need to prove the point.

Bad Thesis 2 : There are always alternatives to using racist speech.

Better Thesis 1 : If we can accept that emotional injuries can be just as painful as physical ones we should limit speech that may hurt people's feelings in ways similar to the way we limit speech that may lead directly to bodily harm.

Better Thesis 2 : The "fighting words" exception to free speech is not legitimate because it wrongly considers speech as an action.

A good argumentative thesis provides not only a position on an issue, but also suggests the structure of the paper. The thesis should allow the reader to imagine and anticipate the flow of the paper, in which a sequence of points logically prove the essay's main assertion. A list essay provides no such structure, so that different points and paragraphs appear arbitrary with no logical connection to one another.

Bad Thesis 2 : None of the arguments in favor of regulating pornography are persuasive.

Better Thesis 1 : Among the many reasons we need to limit hate speech the most compelling ones all refer to our history of discrimination and prejudice, and it is, ultimately, for the purpose of trying to repair our troubled racial society that we need hate speech legislation.

Better Thesis 2 : None of the arguments in favor of regulating pornography are persuasive because they all base their points on the unverifiable and questionable assumption that the producers of pornography necessarily harbor ill will specifically to women.

In an other course this would not be at all unacceptable, and, in fact, possibly even desirable. But in this kind of course, a thesis statement that makes a factual claim that can be verified only with scientific, sociological, psychological or other kind of experimental evidence is not appropriate. You need to construct a thesis that you are prepared to prove using the tools you have available, without having to consult the world's leading expert on the issue to provide you with a definitive judgment.

Bad Thesis 2 : Hate speech can cause emotional pain and suffering in victims just as intense as physical battery.

Better Thesis 1 : Whether or not the cultural concept of free speech bears any relation to the reality of 1st amendment legislation and jurisprudence, its continuing social function as a promoter of tolerance and intellectual exchange trumps the call for politicization (according to Fish's agenda) of the term.

Better Thesis 2 : The various arguments against the regulation of hate speech depend on the unspoken and unexamined assumption that emotional pain is either trivial.

Thesis Statements

What this handout is about.

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I create a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis” that presents a basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following :

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question. If the prompt isn’t phrased as a question, try to rephrase it. For example, “Discuss the effect of X on Y” can be rephrased as “What is the effect of X on Y?”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is likely to  be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on contemporary communication, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: “Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.” Looking back at your notes, you might start with this working thesis:

Social media impacts public awareness in both positive and negative ways.

You can use the questions above to help you revise this general statement into a stronger thesis.

• Do I answer the question? You can analyze this if you rephrase “discuss the impact” as “what is the impact?” This way, you can see that you’ve answered the question only very generally with the vague “positive and negative ways.”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not likely. Only people who maintain that social media has a solely positive or solely negative impact could disagree.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? No. What are the positive effects? What are the negative effects?
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? No. Why are they positive? How are they positive? What are their causes? Why are they negative? How are they negative? What are their causes?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? No. Why should anyone care about the positive and/or negative impact of social media?

After thinking about your answers to these questions, you decide to focus on the one impact you feel strongly about and have strong evidence for:

Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.

This version is a much stronger thesis! It answers the question, takes a specific position that others can challenge, and it gives a sense of why it matters.

Let’s try another. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

You begin to analyze your thesis:

• Do I answer the question? No. The prompt asks you to analyze some aspect of the novel. Your working thesis is a statement of general appreciation for the entire novel.

Think about aspects of the novel that are important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

• Do I answer the question? Yes!
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not really. This contrast is well-known and accepted.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? It’s getting there–you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation. However, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? Not yet. Compare scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions and anything else that seems interesting.
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?”

After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. 2018. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing , 8th ed. New York: Pearson.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to Write a Strong Thesis Statement: 4 Steps + Examples

What’s Covered:

What is the purpose of a thesis statement, writing a good thesis statement: 4 steps, common pitfalls to avoid, where to get your essay edited for free.

When you set out to write an essay, there has to be some kind of point to it, right? Otherwise, your essay would just be a big jumble of word salad that makes absolutely no sense. An essay needs a central point that ties into everything else. That main point is called a thesis statement, and it’s the core of any essay or research paper.

You may hear about Master degree candidates writing a thesis, and that is an entire paper–not to be confused with the thesis statement, which is typically one sentence that contains your paper’s focus. 

Read on to learn more about thesis statements and how to write them. We’ve also included some solid examples for you to reference.

Typically the last sentence of your introductory paragraph, the thesis statement serves as the roadmap for your essay. When your reader gets to the thesis statement, they should have a clear outline of your main point, as well as the information you’ll be presenting in order to either prove or support your point. 

The thesis statement should not be confused for a topic sentence , which is the first sentence of every paragraph in your essay. If you need help writing topic sentences, numerous resources are available. Topic sentences should go along with your thesis statement, though.

Since the thesis statement is the most important sentence of your entire essay or paper, it’s imperative that you get this part right. Otherwise, your paper will not have a good flow and will seem disjointed. That’s why it’s vital not to rush through developing one. It’s a methodical process with steps that you need to follow in order to create the best thesis statement possible.

Step 1: Decide what kind of paper you’re writing

When you’re assigned an essay, there are several different types you may get. Argumentative essays are designed to get the reader to agree with you on a topic. Informative or expository essays present information to the reader. Analytical essays offer up a point and then expand on it by analyzing relevant information. Thesis statements can look and sound different based on the type of paper you’re writing. For example:

• Argumentative: The United States needs a viable third political party to decrease bipartisanship, increase options, and help reduce corruption in government.
• Informative: The Libertarian party has thrown off elections before by gaining enough support in states to get on the ballot and by taking away crucial votes from candidates.
• Analytical: An analysis of past presidential elections shows that while third party votes may have been the minority, they did affect the outcome of the elections in 2020, 2016, and beyond.

Step 2: Figure out what point you want to make

Once you know what type of paper you’re writing, you then need to figure out the point you want to make with your thesis statement, and subsequently, your paper. In other words, you need to decide to answer a question about something, such as:

• What impact did reality TV have on American society?
• How has the musical Hamilton affected perception of American history?
• Why do I want to major in [chosen major here]?

If you have an argumentative essay, then you will be writing about an opinion. To make it easier, you may want to choose an opinion that you feel passionate about so that you’re writing about something that interests you. For example, if you have an interest in preserving the environment, you may want to choose a topic that relates to that. 

If you’re writing your college essay and they ask why you want to attend that school, you may want to have a main point and back it up with information, something along the lines of:

“Attending Harvard University would benefit me both academically and professionally, as it would give me a strong knowledge base upon which to build my career, develop my network, and hopefully give me an advantage in my chosen field.”

Step 3: Determine what information you’ll use to back up your point

Once you have the point you want to make, you need to figure out how you plan to back it up throughout the rest of your essay. Without this information, it will be hard to either prove or argue the main point of your thesis statement. If you decide to write about the Hamilton example, you may decide to address any falsehoods that the writer put into the musical, such as:

“The musical Hamilton, while accurate in many ways, leaves out key parts of American history, presents a nationalist view of founding fathers, and downplays the racism of the times.”

Once you’ve written your initial working thesis statement, you’ll then need to get information to back that up. For example, the musical completely leaves out Benjamin Franklin, portrays the founding fathers in a nationalist way that is too complimentary, and shows Hamilton as a staunch abolitionist despite the fact that his family likely did own slaves. 

Step 4: Revise and refine your thesis statement before you start writing

Read through your thesis statement several times before you begin to compose your full essay. You need to make sure the statement is ironclad, since it is the foundation of the entire paper. Edit it or have a peer review it for you to make sure everything makes sense and that you feel like you can truly write a paper on the topic. Once you’ve done that, you can then begin writing your paper.

When writing a thesis statement, there are some common pitfalls you should avoid so that your paper can be as solid as possible. Make sure you always edit the thesis statement before you do anything else. You also want to ensure that the thesis statement is clear and concise. Don’t make your reader hunt for your point. Finally, put your thesis statement at the end of the first paragraph and have your introduction flow toward that statement. Your reader will expect to find your statement in its traditional spot.

If you’re having trouble getting started, or need some guidance on your essay, there are tools available that can help you. CollegeVine offers a free peer essay review tool where one of your peers can read through your essay and provide you with valuable feedback. Getting essay feedback from a peer can help you wow your instructor or college admissions officer with an impactful essay that effectively illustrates your point.

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9.1 Developing a Strong, Clear Thesis Statement

Learning objectives.

• Develop a strong, clear thesis statement with the proper elements.
• Revise your thesis statement.

Have you ever known a person who was not very good at telling stories? You probably had trouble following his train of thought as he jumped around from point to point, either being too brief in places that needed further explanation or providing too many details on a meaningless element. Maybe he told the end of the story first, then moved to the beginning and later added details to the middle. His ideas were probably scattered, and the story did not flow very well. When the story was over, you probably had many questions.

Just as a personal anecdote can be a disorganized mess, an essay can fall into the same trap of being out of order and confusing. That is why writers need a thesis statement to provide a specific focus for their essay and to organize what they are about to discuss in the body.

Just like a topic sentence summarizes a single paragraph, the thesis statement summarizes an entire essay. It tells the reader the point you want to make in your essay, while the essay itself supports that point. It is like a signpost that signals the essay’s destination. You should form your thesis before you begin to organize an essay, but you may find that it needs revision as the essay develops.

Elements of a Thesis Statement

For every essay you write, you must focus on a central idea. This idea stems from a topic you have chosen or been assigned or from a question your teacher has asked. It is not enough merely to discuss a general topic or simply answer a question with a yes or no. You have to form a specific opinion, and then articulate that into a controlling idea —the main idea upon which you build your thesis.

Remember that a thesis is not the topic itself, but rather your interpretation of the question or subject. For whatever topic your professor gives you, you must ask yourself, “What do I want to say about it?” Asking and then answering this question is vital to forming a thesis that is precise, forceful and confident.

A thesis is one sentence long and appears toward the end of your introduction. It is specific and focuses on one to three points of a single idea—points that are able to be demonstrated in the body. It forecasts the content of the essay and suggests how you will organize your information. Remember that a thesis statement does not summarize an issue but rather dissects it.

A Strong Thesis Statement

A strong thesis statement contains the following qualities.

Specificity. A thesis statement must concentrate on a specific area of a general topic. As you may recall, the creation of a thesis statement begins when you choose a broad subject and then narrow down its parts until you pinpoint a specific aspect of that topic. For example, health care is a broad topic, but a proper thesis statement would focus on a specific area of that topic, such as options for individuals without health care coverage.

Precision. A strong thesis statement must be precise enough to allow for a coherent argument and to remain focused on the topic. If the specific topic is options for individuals without health care coverage, then your precise thesis statement must make an exact claim about it, such as that limited options exist for those who are uninsured by their employers. You must further pinpoint what you are going to discuss regarding these limited effects, such as whom they affect and what the cause is.

Ability to be argued. A thesis statement must present a relevant and specific argument. A factual statement often is not considered arguable. Be sure your thesis statement contains a point of view that can be supported with evidence.

Ability to be demonstrated. For any claim you make in your thesis, you must be able to provide reasons and examples for your opinion. You can rely on personal observations in order to do this, or you can consult outside sources to demonstrate that what you assert is valid. A worthy argument is backed by examples and details.

Forcefulness. A thesis statement that is forceful shows readers that you are, in fact, making an argument. The tone is assertive and takes a stance that others might oppose.

Confidence. In addition to using force in your thesis statement, you must also use confidence in your claim. Phrases such as I feel or I believe actually weaken the readers’ sense of your confidence because these phrases imply that you are the only person who feels the way you do. In other words, your stance has insufficient backing. Taking an authoritative stance on the matter persuades your readers to have faith in your argument and open their minds to what you have to say.

Even in a personal essay that allows the use of first person, your thesis should not contain phrases such as in my opinion or I believe . These statements reduce your credibility and weaken your argument. Your opinion is more convincing when you use a firm attitude.

On a separate sheet of paper, write a thesis statement for each of the following topics. Remember to make each statement specific, precise, demonstrable, forceful and confident.

• Texting while driving
• The legal drinking age in the United States
• Steroid use among professional athletes

Examples of Appropriate Thesis Statements

Each of the following thesis statements meets several of the following requirements:

• Specificity
• Ability to be argued
• Ability to be demonstrated
• Forcefulness
• The societal and personal struggles of Troy Maxon in the play Fences symbolize the challenge of black males who lived through segregation and integration in the United States.
• Closing all American borders for a period of five years is one solution that will tackle illegal immigration.
• Shakespeare’s use of dramatic irony in Romeo and Juliet spoils the outcome for the audience and weakens the plot.
• J. D. Salinger’s character in Catcher in the Rye , Holden Caulfield, is a confused rebel who voices his disgust with phonies, yet in an effort to protect himself, he acts like a phony on many occasions.
• Compared to an absolute divorce, no-fault divorce is less expensive, promotes fairer settlements, and reflects a more realistic view of the causes for marital breakdown.
• Exposing children from an early age to the dangers of drug abuse is a sure method of preventing future drug addicts.
• In today’s crumbling job market, a high school diploma is not significant enough education to land a stable, lucrative job.

You can find thesis statements in many places, such as in the news; in the opinions of friends, coworkers or teachers; and even in songs you hear on the radio. Become aware of thesis statements in everyday life by paying attention to people’s opinions and their reasons for those opinions. Pay attention to your own everyday thesis statements as well, as these can become material for future essays.

Now that you have read about the contents of a good thesis statement and have seen examples, take a look at the pitfalls to avoid when composing your own thesis:

A thesis is weak when it is simply a declaration of your subject or a description of what you will discuss in your essay.

Weak thesis statement: My paper will explain why imagination is more important than knowledge.

A thesis is weak when it makes an unreasonable or outrageous claim or insults the opposing side.

Weak thesis statement: Religious radicals across America are trying to legislate their Puritanical beliefs by banning required high school books.

A thesis is weak when it contains an obvious fact or something that no one can disagree with or provides a dead end.

Weak thesis statement: Advertising companies use sex to sell their products.

A thesis is weak when the statement is too broad.

Weak thesis statement: The life of Abraham Lincoln was long and challenging.

Read the following thesis statements. On a separate piece of paper, identify each as weak or strong. For those that are weak, list the reasons why. Then revise the weak statements so that they conform to the requirements of a strong thesis.

• The subject of this paper is my experience with ferrets as pets.
• The government must expand its funding for research on renewable energy resources in order to prepare for the impending end of oil.
• Edgar Allan Poe was a poet who lived in Baltimore during the nineteenth century.
• In this essay, I will give you lots of reasons why slot machines should not be legalized in Baltimore.
• Despite his promises during his campaign, President Kennedy took few executive measures to support civil rights legislation.
• Because many children’s toys have potential safety hazards that could lead to injury, it is clear that not all children’s toys are safe.
• My experience with young children has taught me that I want to be a disciplinary parent because I believe that a child without discipline can be a parent’s worst nightmare.

Writing at Work

Often in your career, you will need to ask your boss for something through an e-mail. Just as a thesis statement organizes an essay, it can also organize your e-mail request. While your e-mail will be shorter than an essay, using a thesis statement in your first paragraph quickly lets your boss know what you are asking for, why it is necessary, and what the benefits are. In short body paragraphs, you can provide the essential information needed to expand upon your request.

Thesis Statement Revision

Your thesis will probably change as you write, so you will need to modify it to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your essay. Remember from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” that your thesis statement begins as a working thesis statement , an indefinite statement that you make about your topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning and guiding your writing.

Working thesis statements often become stronger as you gather information and form new opinions and reasons for those opinions. Revision helps you strengthen your thesis so that it matches what you have expressed in the body of the paper.

The best way to revise your thesis statement is to ask questions about it and then examine the answers to those questions. By challenging your own ideas and forming definite reasons for those ideas, you grow closer to a more precise point of view, which you can then incorporate into your thesis statement.

Ways to Revise Your Thesis

You can cut down on irrelevant aspects and revise your thesis by taking the following steps:

1. Pinpoint and replace all nonspecific words, such as people , everything , society , or life , with more precise words in order to reduce any vagueness.

Working thesis: Young people have to work hard to succeed in life.

Revised thesis: Recent college graduates must have discipline and persistence in order to find and maintain a stable job in which they can use and be appreciated for their talents.

The revised thesis makes a more specific statement about success and what it means to work hard. The original includes too broad a range of people and does not define exactly what success entails. By replacing those general words like people and work hard , the writer can better focus his or her research and gain more direction in his or her writing.

2. Clarify ideas that need explanation by asking yourself questions that narrow your thesis.

Working thesis: The welfare system is a joke.

Revised thesis: The welfare system keeps a socioeconomic class from gaining employment by alluring members of that class with unearned income, instead of programs to improve their education and skill sets.

A joke means many things to many people. Readers bring all sorts of backgrounds and perspectives to the reading process and would need clarification for a word so vague. This expression may also be too informal for the selected audience. By asking questions, the writer can devise a more precise and appropriate explanation for joke . The writer should ask himself or herself questions similar to the 5WH questions. (See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information on the 5WH questions.) By incorporating the answers to these questions into a thesis statement, the writer more accurately defines his or her stance, which will better guide the writing of the essay.

3. Replace any linking verbs with action verbs. Linking verbs are forms of the verb to be , a verb that simply states that a situation exists.

Working thesis: Kansas City schoolteachers are not paid enough.

Revised thesis: The Kansas City legislature cannot afford to pay its educators, resulting in job cuts and resignations in a district that sorely needs highly qualified and dedicated teachers.

The linking verb in this working thesis statement is the word are . Linking verbs often make thesis statements weak because they do not express action. Rather, they connect words and phrases to the second half of the sentence. Readers might wonder, “Why are they not paid enough?” But this statement does not compel them to ask many more questions. The writer should ask himself or herself questions in order to replace the linking verb with an action verb, thus forming a stronger thesis statement, one that takes a more definitive stance on the issue:

• Who is not paying the teachers enough?
• What is considered “enough”?
• What is the problem?
• What are the results

4. Omit any general claims that are hard to support.

Working thesis: Today’s teenage girls are too sexualized.

Revised thesis: Teenage girls who are captivated by the sexual images on MTV are conditioned to believe that a woman’s worth depends on her sensuality, a feeling that harms their self-esteem and behavior.

It is true that some young women in today’s society are more sexualized than in the past, but that is not true for all girls. Many girls have strict parents, dress appropriately, and do not engage in sexual activity while in middle school and high school. The writer of this thesis should ask the following questions:

• Which teenage girls?
• What constitutes “too” sexualized?
• Why are they behaving that way?
• Where does this behavior show up?
• What are the repercussions?

In the first section of Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , you determined your purpose for writing and your audience. You then completed a freewriting exercise about an event you recently experienced and chose a general topic to write about. Using that general topic, you then narrowed it down by answering the 5WH questions. After you answered these questions, you chose one of the three methods of prewriting and gathered possible supporting points for your working thesis statement.

Now, on a separate sheet of paper, write down your working thesis statement. Identify any weaknesses in this sentence and revise the statement to reflect the elements of a strong thesis statement. Make sure it is specific, precise, arguable, demonstrable, forceful, and confident.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

In your career you may have to write a project proposal that focuses on a particular problem in your company, such as reinforcing the tardiness policy. The proposal would aim to fix the problem; using a thesis statement would clearly state the boundaries of the problem and tell the goals of the project. After writing the proposal, you may find that the thesis needs revision to reflect exactly what is expressed in the body. Using the techniques from this chapter would apply to revising that thesis.

Key Takeaways

• Proper essays require a thesis statement to provide a specific focus and suggest how the essay will be organized.
• A thesis statement is your interpretation of the subject, not the topic itself.
• A strong thesis is specific, precise, forceful, confident, and is able to be demonstrated.
• A strong thesis challenges readers with a point of view that can be debated and can be supported with evidence.
• A weak thesis is simply a declaration of your topic or contains an obvious fact that cannot be argued.
• Depending on your topic, it may or may not be appropriate to use first person point of view.
• Revise your thesis by ensuring all words are specific, all ideas are exact, and all verbs express action.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

25 Thesis Statement Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

A thesis statement is needed in an essay or dissertation . There are multiple types of thesis statements – but generally we can divide them into expository and argumentative. An expository statement is a statement of fact (common in expository essays and process essays) while an argumentative statement is a statement of opinion (common in argumentative essays and dissertations). Below are examples of each.

Strong Thesis Statement Examples

1. School Uniforms

“Mandatory school uniforms should be implemented in educational institutions as they promote a sense of equality, reduce distractions, and foster a focused and professional learning environment.”

Best For: Argumentative Essay or Debate

Read More: School Uniforms Pros and Cons

2. Nature vs Nurture

“This essay will explore how both genetic inheritance and environmental factors equally contribute to shaping human behavior and personality.”

Best For: Compare and Contrast Essay

Read More: Nature vs Nurture Debate

3. American Dream

“The American Dream, a symbol of opportunity and success, is increasingly elusive in today’s socio-economic landscape, revealing deeper inequalities in society.”

Best For: Persuasive Essay

Read More: What is the American Dream?

4. Social Media

“Social media has revolutionized communication and societal interactions, but it also presents significant challenges related to privacy, mental health, and misinformation.”

Best For: Expository Essay

Read More: The Pros and Cons of Social Media

5. Globalization

“Globalization has created a world more interconnected than ever before, yet it also amplifies economic disparities and cultural homogenization.”

Read More: Globalization Pros and Cons

6. Urbanization

“Urbanization drives economic growth and social development, but it also poses unique challenges in sustainability and quality of life.”

Read More: Learn about Urbanization

7. Immigration

“Immigration enriches receiving countries culturally and economically, outweighing any perceived social or economic burdens.”

Read More: Immigration Pros and Cons

8. Cultural Identity

“In a globalized world, maintaining distinct cultural identities is crucial for preserving cultural diversity and fostering global understanding, despite the challenges of assimilation and homogenization.”

Best For: Argumentative Essay

Read More: Learn about Cultural Identity

9. Technology

“Medical technologies in care institutions in Toronto has increased subjcetive outcomes for patients with chronic pain.”

Best For: Research Paper

10. Capitalism vs Socialism

“The debate between capitalism and socialism centers on balancing economic freedom and inequality, each presenting distinct approaches to resource distribution and social welfare.”

11. Cultural Heritage

“The preservation of cultural heritage is essential, not only for cultural identity but also for educating future generations, outweighing the arguments for modernization and commercialization.”

12. Pseudoscience

“Pseudoscience, characterized by a lack of empirical support, continues to influence public perception and decision-making, often at the expense of scientific credibility.”

Read More: Examples of Pseudoscience

13. Free Will

“The concept of free will is largely an illusion, with human behavior and decisions predominantly determined by biological and environmental factors.”

Read More: Do we have Free Will?

14. Gender Roles

“Traditional gender roles are outdated and harmful, restricting individual freedoms and perpetuating gender inequalities in modern society.”

Read More: What are Traditional Gender Roles?

15. Work-Life Ballance

“The trend to online and distance work in the 2020s led to improved subjective feelings of work-life balance but simultaneously increased self-reported loneliness.”

Read More: Work-Life Balance Examples

16. Universal Healthcare

“Universal healthcare is a fundamental human right and the most effective system for ensuring health equity and societal well-being, outweighing concerns about government involvement and costs.”

Read More: The Pros and Cons of Universal Healthcare

17. Minimum Wage

“The implementation of a fair minimum wage is vital for reducing economic inequality, yet it is often contentious due to its potential impact on businesses and employment rates.”

Read More: The Pros and Cons of Raising the Minimum Wage

18. Homework

“The homework provided throughout this semester has enabled me to achieve greater self-reflection, identify gaps in my knowledge, and reinforce those gaps through spaced repetition.”

Best For: Reflective Essay

Read More: Reasons Homework Should be Banned

19. Charter Schools

“Charter schools offer alternatives to traditional public education, promising innovation and choice but also raising questions about accountability and educational equity.”

Read More: The Pros and Cons of Charter Schools

20. Effects of the Internet

“The Internet has drastically reshaped human communication, access to information, and societal dynamics, generally with a net positive effect on society.”

Read More: The Pros and Cons of the Internet

21. Affirmative Action

“Affirmative action is essential for rectifying historical injustices and achieving true meritocracy in education and employment, contrary to claims of reverse discrimination.”

Best For: Essay

Read More: Affirmative Action Pros and Cons

22. Soft Skills

“Soft skills, such as communication and empathy, are increasingly recognized as essential for success in the modern workforce, and therefore should be a strong focus at school and university level.”

Read More: Soft Skills Examples

23. Moral Panic

“Moral panic, often fueled by media and cultural anxieties, can lead to exaggerated societal responses that sometimes overlook rational analysis and evidence.”

Read More: Moral Panic Examples

24. Freedom of the Press

“Freedom of the press is critical for democracy and informed citizenship, yet it faces challenges from censorship, media bias, and the proliferation of misinformation.”

Read More: Freedom of the Press Examples

25. Mass Media

“Mass media shapes public opinion and cultural norms, but its concentration of ownership and commercial interests raise concerns about bias and the quality of information.”

Best For: Critical Analysis

Read More: Mass Media Examples

Checklist: How to use your Thesis Statement

✅ Position: If your statement is for an argumentative or persuasive essay, or a dissertation, ensure it takes a clear stance on the topic. ✅ Specificity: It addresses a specific aspect of the topic, providing focus for the essay. ✅ Conciseness: Typically, a thesis statement is one to two sentences long. It should be concise, clear, and easily identifiable. ✅ Direction: The thesis statement guides the direction of the essay, providing a roadmap for the argument, narrative, or explanation. ✅ Evidence-based: While the thesis statement itself doesn’t include evidence, it sets up an argument that can be supported with evidence in the body of the essay. ✅ Placement: Generally, the thesis statement is placed at the end of the introduction of an essay.

Try These AI Prompts – Thesis Statement Generator!

One way to brainstorm thesis statements is to get AI to brainstorm some for you! Try this AI prompt:

💡 AI PROMPT FOR EXPOSITORY THESIS STATEMENT I am writing an essay on [TOPIC] and these are the instructions my teacher gave me: [INSTUCTIONS]. I want you to create an expository thesis statement that doesn’t argue a position, but demonstrates depth of knowledge about the topic.

💡 AI PROMPT FOR ARGUMENTATIVE THESIS STATEMENT I am writing an essay on [TOPIC] and these are the instructions my teacher gave me: [INSTRUCTIONS]. I want you to create an argumentative thesis statement that clearly takes a position on this issue.

💡 AI PROMPT FOR COMPARE AND CONTRAST THESIS STATEMENT I am writing a compare and contrast essay that compares [Concept 1] and [Concept2]. Give me 5 potential single-sentence thesis statements that remain objective.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 25 No-Prep Games for the Classroom (Emergency Games!)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Class Group Name Ideas (for School Students)
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• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 119 Bloom’s Taxonomy Examples

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25 Thesis Statement Examples That Will Make Writing a Breeze

Understanding what makes a good thesis statement is one of the major keys to writing a great research paper or argumentative essay. The thesis statement is where you make a claim that will guide you through your entire paper. If you find yourself struggling to make sense of your paper or your topic, then it's likely due to a weak thesis statement.

Let's take a minute to first understand what makes a solid thesis statement, and what key components you need to write one of your own.

A thesis statement always goes at the beginning of the paper. It will typically be in the first couple of paragraphs of the paper so that it can introduce the body paragraphs, which are the supporting evidence for your thesis statement.

Your thesis statement should clearly identify an argument. You need to have a statement that is not only easy to understand, but one that is debatable. What that means is that you can't just put any statement of fact and have it be your thesis. For example, everyone knows that puppies are cute . An ineffective thesis statement would be, "Puppies are adorable and everyone knows it." This isn't really something that's a debatable topic.

Something that would be more debatable would be, "A puppy's cuteness is derived from its floppy ears, small body, and playfulness." These are three things that can be debated on. Some people might think that the cutest thing about puppies is the fact that they follow you around or that they're really soft and fuzzy.

All cuteness aside, you want to make sure that your thesis statement is not only debatable, but that it also actually thoroughly answers the research question that was posed. You always want to make sure that your evidence is supporting a claim that you made (and not the other way around). This is why it's crucial to read and research about a topic first and come to a conclusion later. If you try to get your research to fit your thesis statement, then it may not work out as neatly as you think. As you learn more, you discover more (and the outcome may not be what you originally thought).

Additionally, your thesis statement shouldn't be too big or too grand. It'll be hard to cover everything in a thesis statement like, "The federal government should act now on climate change." The topic is just too large to actually say something new and meaningful. Instead, a more effective thesis statement might be, "Local governments can combat climate change by providing citizens with larger recycling bins and offering local classes about composting and conservation." This is easier to work with because it's a smaller idea, but you can also discuss the overall topic that you might be interested in, which is climate change.

So, now that we know what makes a good, solid thesis statement, you can start to write your own. If you find that you're getting stuck or you are the type of person who needs to look at examples before you start something, then check out our list of thesis statement examples below.

Thesis statement examples

A quick note that these thesis statements have not been fully researched. These are merely examples to show you what a thesis statement might look like and how you can implement your own ideas into one that you think of independently. As such, you should not use these thesis statements for your own research paper purposes. They are meant to be used as examples only.

• Vaccinations Because many children are unable to vaccinate due to illness, we must require that all healthy and able children be vaccinated in order to have herd immunity.
• Educational Resources for Low-Income Students Schools should provide educational resources for low-income students during the summers so that they don't forget what they've learned throughout the school year.
• School Uniforms School uniforms may be an upfront cost for families, but they eradicate the visual differences in income between students and provide a more egalitarian atmosphere at school.
• Populism The rise in populism on the 2016 political stage was in reaction to increasing globalization, the decline of manufacturing jobs, and the Syrian refugee crisis.
• Public Libraries Libraries are essential resources for communities and should be funded more heavily by local municipalities.
• Cyber Bullying With more and more teens using smartphones and social media, cyber bullying is on the rise. Cyber bullying puts a lot of stress on many teens, and can cause depression, anxiety, and even suicidal thoughts. Parents should limit the usage of smart phones, monitor their children's online activity, and report any cyber bullying to school officials in order to combat this problem.
• Medical Marijuana for Veterans Studies have shown that the use of medicinal marijuana has been helpful to veterans who suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Medicinal marijuana prescriptions should be legal in all states and provided to these veterans. Additional medical or therapy services should also be researched and implemented in order to help them re-integrate back into civilian life.
• Work-Life Balance Corporations should provide more work from home opportunities and six-hour workdays so that office workers have a better work-life balance and are more likely to be productive when they are in the office.
• Teaching Youths about Consensual Sex Although sex education that includes a discussion of consensual sex would likely lead to less sexual assault, parents need to teach their children the meaning of consent from a young age with age appropriate lessons.
• Whether or Not to Attend University A degree from a university provides invaluable lessons on life and a future career, but not every high school student should be encouraged to attend a university directly after graduation. Some students may benefit from a trade school or a "gap year" where they can think more intensely about what it is they want to do for a career and how they can accomplish this.
• Studying Abroad Studying abroad is one of the most culturally valuable experiences you can have in college. It is the only way to get completely immersed in another language and learn how other cultures and countries are different from your own.
• Women's Body Image Magazines have done a lot in the last five years to include a more diverse group of models, but there is still a long way to go to promote a healthy woman's body image collectively as a culture.
• Cigarette Tax Heavily taxing and increasing the price of cigarettes is essentially a tax on the poorest Americans, and it doesn't deter them from purchasing. Instead, the state and federal governments should target those economically disenfranchised with early education about the dangers of smoking.
• Veganism A vegan diet, while a healthy and ethical way to consume food, indicates a position of privilege. It also limits you to other cultural food experiences if you travel around the world.
• University Athletes Should be Compensated University athletes should be compensated for their service to the university, as it is difficult for these students to procure and hold a job with busy academic and athletic schedules. Many student athletes on scholarship also come from low-income neighborhoods and it is a struggle to make ends meet when they are participating in athletics.
• Women in the Workforce Sheryl Sandberg makes a lot of interesting points in her best-selling book, Lean In , but she only addressed the very privileged working woman and failed to speak to those in lower-skilled, lower-wage jobs.
• Assisted Suicide Assisted suicide should be legal and doctors should have the ability to make sure their patients have the end-of-life care that they want to receive.
• Celebrity and Political Activism Although Taylor Swift's lyrics are indicative of a feminist perspective, she should be more politically active and vocal to use her position of power for the betterment of society.
• The Civil War The insistence from many Southerners that the South seceded from the Union for states' rights versus the fact that they seceded for the purposes of continuing slavery is a harmful myth that still affects race relations today.
• Blue Collar Workers Coal miners and other blue-collar workers whose jobs are slowly disappearing from the workforce should be re-trained in jobs in the technology sector or in renewable energy. A program to re-train these workers would not only improve local economies where jobs have been displaced, but would also lead to lower unemployment nationally.
• Diversity in the Workforce Having a diverse group of people in an office setting leads to richer ideas, more cooperation, and more empathy between people with different skin colors or backgrounds.
• Re-Imagining the Nuclear Family The nuclear family was traditionally defined as one mother, one father, and 2.5 children. This outdated depiction of family life doesn't quite fit with modern society. The definition of normal family life shouldn't be limited to two-parent households.
• Digital Literacy Skills With more information readily available than ever before, it's crucial that students are prepared to examine the material they're reading and determine whether or not it's a good source or if it has misleading information. Teaching students digital literacy and helping them to understand the difference between opinion or propaganda from legitimate, real information is integral.
• Beauty Pageants Beauty pageants are presented with the angle that they empower women. However, putting women in a swimsuit on a stage while simultaneously judging them on how well they answer an impossible question in a short period of time is cruel and purely for the amusement of men. Therefore, we should stop televising beauty pageants.
• Supporting More Women to Run for a Political Position In order to get more women into political positions, more women must run for office. There must be a grassroots effort to educate women on how to run for office, who among them should run, and support for a future candidate for getting started on a political career.

Still stuck? Need some help with your thesis statement?

If you are still uncertain about how to write a thesis statement or what a good thesis statement is, be sure to consult with your teacher or professor to make sure you're on the right track. It's always a good idea to check in and make sure that your thesis statement is making a solid argument and that it can be supported by your research.

After you're done writing, it's important to have someone take a second look at your paper so that you can ensure there are no mistakes or errors. It's difficult to spot your own mistakes, which is why it's always recommended to have someone help you with the revision process, whether that's a teacher, the writing center at school, or a professional editor such as one from ServiceScape .

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How to write a thesis statement, what is a thesis statement.

Almost all of us—even if we don’t do it consciously—look early in an essay for a one- or two-sentence condensation of the argument or analysis that is to follow. We refer to that condensation as a thesis statement.

Why Should Your Essay Contain a Thesis Statement?

• to test your ideas by distilling them into a sentence or two
• to better organize and develop your argument
• to provide your reader with a “guide” to your argument

In general, your thesis statement will accomplish these goals if you think of the thesis as the answer to the question your paper explores.

How Can You Write a Good Thesis Statement?

Here are some helpful hints to get you started. You can either scroll down or select a link to a specific topic.

How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is Assigned How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is not Assigned How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement from a Weak One

How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is Assigned

Almost all assignments, no matter how complicated, can be reduced to a single question. Your first step, then, is to distill the assignment into a specific question. For example, if your assignment is, “Write a report to the local school board explaining the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class,” turn the request into a question like, “What are the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class?” After you’ve chosen the question your essay will answer, compose one or two complete sentences answering that question.

Q: “What are the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class?” A: “The potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class are . . .”

A: “Using computers in a fourth-grade class promises to improve . . .”

The answer to the question is the thesis statement for the essay.

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How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is not Assigned

Even if your assignment doesn’t ask a specific question, your thesis statement still needs to answer a question about the issue you’d like to explore. In this situation, your job is to figure out what question you’d like to write about.

A good thesis statement will usually include the following four attributes:

• take on a subject upon which reasonable people could disagree
• deal with a subject that can be adequately treated given the nature of the assignment
• express one main idea
• assert your conclusions about a subject

Let’s see how to generate a thesis statement for a social policy paper.

Brainstorm the topic . Let’s say that your class focuses upon the problems posed by changes in the dietary habits of Americans. You find that you are interested in the amount of sugar Americans consume.

You start out with a thesis statement like this:

Sugar consumption.

This fragment isn’t a thesis statement. Instead, it simply indicates a general subject. Furthermore, your reader doesn’t know what you want to say about sugar consumption.

Narrow the topic . Your readings about the topic, however, have led you to the conclusion that elementary school children are consuming far more sugar than is healthy.

You change your thesis to look like this:

Reducing sugar consumption by elementary school children.

This fragment not only announces your subject, but it focuses on one segment of the population: elementary school children. Furthermore, it raises a subject upon which reasonable people could disagree, because while most people might agree that children consume more sugar than they used to, not everyone would agree on what should be done or who should do it. You should note that this fragment is not a thesis statement because your reader doesn’t know your conclusions on the topic.

Take a position on the topic. After reflecting on the topic a little while longer, you decide that what you really want to say about this topic is that something should be done to reduce the amount of sugar these children consume.

You revise your thesis statement to look like this:

More attention should be paid to the food and beverage choices available to elementary school children.

This statement asserts your position, but the terms more attention and food and beverage choices are vague.

Use specific language . You decide to explain what you mean about food and beverage choices , so you write:

Experts estimate that half of elementary school children consume nine times the recommended daily allowance of sugar.

This statement is specific, but it isn’t a thesis. It merely reports a statistic instead of making an assertion.

Make an assertion based on clearly stated support. You finally revise your thesis statement one more time to look like this:

Because half of all American elementary school children consume nine times the recommended daily allowance of sugar, schools should be required to replace the beverages in soda machines with healthy alternatives.

Notice how the thesis answers the question, “What should be done to reduce sugar consumption by children, and who should do it?” When you started thinking about the paper, you may not have had a specific question in mind, but as you became more involved in the topic, your ideas became more specific. Your thesis changed to reflect your new insights.

How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement from a Weak One

1. a strong thesis statement takes some sort of stand..

Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:

There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.

This is a weak thesis statement. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase negative and positive aspects is vague.

Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.

This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand, and because it's specific.

2. A strong thesis statement justifies discussion.

Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you might come up with either of these two thesis statements:

My family is an extended family.

This is a weak thesis because it merely states an observation. Your reader won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.

While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.

This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.

3. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea.

Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis statement expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:

Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and Web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.

This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or Web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:

Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using Web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.

This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like because , since , so , although , unless , and however .

4. A strong thesis statement is specific.

A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you're writing a seven-to-ten page paper on hunger, you might say:

World hunger has many causes and effects.

This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, world hunger can’t be discussed thoroughly in seven to ten pages. Second, many causes and effects is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. A revised thesis might look like this:

Hunger persists in Glandelinia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.

This is a strong thesis statement because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic, and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of hunger.

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What is a thesis | A Complete Guide with Examples

Table of Contents

A thesis is a comprehensive academic paper based on your original research that presents new findings, arguments, and ideas of your study. It’s typically submitted at the end of your master’s degree or as a capstone of your bachelor’s degree.

However, writing a thesis can be laborious, especially for beginners. From the initial challenge of pinpointing a compelling research topic to organizing and presenting findings, the process is filled with potential pitfalls.

Therefore, to help you, this guide talks about what is a thesis. Additionally, it offers revelations and methodologies to transform it from an overwhelming task to a manageable and rewarding academic milestone.

What is a thesis?

A thesis is an in-depth research study that identifies a particular topic of inquiry and presents a clear argument or perspective about that topic using evidence and logic.

Writing a thesis showcases your ability of critical thinking, gathering evidence, and making a compelling argument. Integral to these competencies is thorough research, which not only fortifies your propositions but also confers credibility to your entire study.

Furthermore, there's another phenomenon you might often confuse with the thesis: the ' working thesis .' However, they aren't similar and shouldn't be used interchangeably.

A working thesis, often referred to as a preliminary or tentative thesis, is an initial version of your thesis statement. It serves as a draft or a starting point that guides your research in its early stages.

As you research more and gather more evidence, your initial thesis (aka working thesis) might change. It's like a starting point that can be adjusted as you learn more. It's normal for your main topic to change a few times before you finalize it.

While a thesis identifies and provides an overarching argument, the key to clearly communicating the central point of that argument lies in writing a strong thesis statement.

What is a thesis statement?

A strong thesis statement (aka thesis sentence) is a concise summary of the main argument or claim of the paper. It serves as a critical anchor in any academic work, succinctly encapsulating the primary argument or main idea of the entire paper.

Typically found within the introductory section, a strong thesis statement acts as a roadmap of your thesis, directing readers through your arguments and findings. By delineating the core focus of your investigation, it offers readers an immediate understanding of the context and the gravity of your study.

Furthermore, an effectively crafted thesis statement can set forth the boundaries of your research, helping readers anticipate the specific areas of inquiry you are addressing.

Different types of thesis statements

A good thesis statement is clear, specific, and arguable. Therefore, it is necessary for you to choose the right type of thesis statement for your academic papers.

Thesis statements can be classified based on their purpose and structure. Here are the primary types of thesis statements:

Argumentative (or Persuasive) thesis statement

Purpose : To convince the reader of a particular stance or point of view by presenting evidence and formulating a compelling argument.

Example : Reducing plastic use in daily life is essential for environmental health.

Analytical thesis statement

Purpose : To break down an idea or issue into its components and evaluate it.

Example : By examining the long-term effects, social implications, and economic impact of climate change, it becomes evident that immediate global action is necessary.

Expository (or Descriptive) thesis statement

Purpose : To explain a topic or subject to the reader.

Example : The Great Depression, spanning the 1930s, was a severe worldwide economic downturn triggered by a stock market crash, bank failures, and reduced consumer spending.

Cause and effect thesis statement

Purpose : To demonstrate a cause and its resulting effect.

Example : Overuse of smartphones can lead to impaired sleep patterns, reduced face-to-face social interactions, and increased levels of anxiety.

Compare and contrast thesis statement

Purpose : To highlight similarities and differences between two subjects.

Example : "While both novels '1984' and 'Brave New World' delve into dystopian futures, they differ in their portrayal of individual freedom, societal control, and the role of technology."

When you write a thesis statement , it's important to ensure clarity and precision, so the reader immediately understands the central focus of your work.

What is the difference between a thesis and a thesis statement?

While both terms are frequently used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings.

A thesis refers to the entire research document, encompassing all its chapters and sections. In contrast, a thesis statement is a brief assertion that encapsulates the central argument of the research.

Here’s an in-depth differentiation table of a thesis and a thesis statement.

Now, to craft a compelling thesis, it's crucial to adhere to a specific structure. Let’s break down these essential components that make up a thesis structure

15 components of a thesis structure

Navigating a thesis can be daunting. However, understanding its structure can make the process more manageable.

Here are the key components or different sections of a thesis structure:

Your thesis begins with the title page. It's not just a formality but the gateway to your research.

Here, you'll prominently display the necessary information about you (the author) and your institutional details.

• Title of your thesis
• Your full name
• Your department
• Your institution and degree program
• Your submission date
• Your Supervisor's name (in some cases)
• Your Department or faculty (in some cases)
• Your University's logo (in some cases)
• Your Student ID (in some cases)

In a concise manner, you'll have to summarize the critical aspects of your research in typically no more than 200-300 words.

This includes the problem statement, methodology, key findings, and conclusions. For many, the abstract will determine if they delve deeper into your work, so ensure it's clear and compelling.

Acknowledgments

Research is rarely a solitary endeavor. In the acknowledgments section, you have the chance to express gratitude to those who've supported your journey.

This might include advisors, peers, institutions, or even personal sources of inspiration and support. It's a personal touch, reflecting the humanity behind the academic rigor.

Table of contents

A roadmap for your readers, the table of contents lists the chapters, sections, and subsections of your thesis.

By providing page numbers, you allow readers to navigate your work easily, jumping to sections that pique their interest.

List of figures and tables

Research often involves data, and presenting this data visually can enhance understanding. This section provides an organized listing of all figures and tables in your thesis.

It's a visual index, ensuring that readers can quickly locate and reference your graphical data.

Introduction

Here's where you introduce your research topic, articulate the research question or objective, and outline the significance of your study.

• Present the research topic : Clearly articulate the central theme or subject of your research.
• Background information : Ground your research topic, providing any necessary context or background information your readers might need to understand the significance of your study.
• Define the scope : Clearly delineate the boundaries of your research, indicating what will and won't be covered.
• Literature review : Introduce any relevant existing research on your topic, situating your work within the broader academic conversation and highlighting where your research fits in.
• State the research Question(s) or objective(s) : Clearly articulate the primary questions or objectives your research aims to address.
• Outline the study's structure : Give a brief overview of how the subsequent sections of your work will unfold, guiding your readers through the journey ahead.

The introduction should captivate your readers, making them eager to delve deeper into your research journey.

Literature review section

Your study correlates with existing research. Therefore, in the literature review section, you'll engage in a dialogue with existing knowledge, highlighting relevant studies, theories, and findings.

It's here that you identify gaps in the current knowledge, positioning your research as a bridge to new insights.

To streamline this process, consider leveraging AI tools. For example, the SciSpace literature review tool enables you to efficiently explore and delve into research papers, simplifying your literature review journey.

Methodology

In the research methodology section, you’ll detail the tools, techniques, and processes you employed to gather and analyze data. This section will inform the readers about how you approached your research questions and ensures the reproducibility of your study.

Here's a breakdown of what it should encompass:

• Research Design : Describe the overall structure and approach of your research. Are you conducting a qualitative study with in-depth interviews? Or is it a quantitative study using statistical analysis? Perhaps it's a mixed-methods approach?
• Data Collection : Detail the methods you used to gather data. This could include surveys, experiments, observations, interviews, archival research, etc. Mention where you sourced your data, the duration of data collection, and any tools or instruments used.
• Sampling : If applicable, explain how you selected participants or data sources for your study. Discuss the size of your sample and the rationale behind choosing it.
• Data Analysis : Describe the techniques and tools you used to process and analyze the data. This could range from statistical tests in quantitative research to thematic analysis in qualitative research.
• Validity and Reliability : Address the steps you took to ensure the validity and reliability of your findings to ensure that your results are both accurate and consistent.
• Ethical Considerations : Highlight any ethical issues related to your research and the measures you took to address them, including — informed consent, confidentiality, and data storage and protection measures.

Moreover, different research questions necessitate different types of methodologies. For instance:

• Experimental methodology : Often used in sciences, this involves a controlled experiment to discern causality.
• Qualitative methodology : Employed when exploring patterns or phenomena without numerical data. Methods can include interviews, focus groups, or content analysis.
• Quantitative methodology : Concerned with measurable data and often involves statistical analysis. Surveys and structured observations are common tools here.
• Mixed methods : As the name implies, this combines both qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

The Methodology section isn’t just about detailing the methods but also justifying why they were chosen. The appropriateness of the methods in addressing your research question can significantly impact the credibility of your findings.

Results (or Findings)

This section presents the outcomes of your research. It's crucial to note that the nature of your results may vary; they could be quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of both.

Quantitative results often present statistical data, showcasing measurable outcomes, and they benefit from tables, graphs, and figures to depict these data points.

Qualitative results , on the other hand, might delve into patterns, themes, or narratives derived from non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations.

Regardless of the nature of your results, clarity is essential. This section is purely about presenting the data without offering interpretations — that comes later in the discussion.

In the discussion section, the raw data transforms into valuable insights.

Start by revisiting your research question and contrast it with the findings. How do your results expand, constrict, or challenge current academic conversations?

Dive into the intricacies of the data, guiding the reader through its implications. Detail potential limitations transparently, signaling your awareness of the research's boundaries. This is where your academic voice should be resonant and confident.

Practical implications (Recommendation) section

Based on the insights derived from your research, this section provides actionable suggestions or proposed solutions.

Whether aimed at industry professionals or the general public, recommendations translate your academic findings into potential real-world actions. They help readers understand the practical implications of your work and how it can be applied to effect change or improvement in a given field.

When crafting recommendations, it's essential to ensure they're feasible and rooted in the evidence provided by your research. They shouldn't merely be aspirational but should offer a clear path forward, grounded in your findings.

The conclusion provides closure to your research narrative.

It's not merely a recap but a synthesis of your main findings and their broader implications. Reconnect with the research questions or hypotheses posited at the beginning, offering clear answers based on your findings.

Reflect on the broader contributions of your study, considering its impact on the academic community and potential real-world applications.

Lastly, the conclusion should leave your readers with a clear understanding of the value and impact of your study.

References (or Bibliography)

Every theory you've expounded upon, every data point you've cited, and every methodological precedent you've followed finds its acknowledgment here.

In references, it's crucial to ensure meticulous consistency in formatting, mirroring the specific guidelines of the chosen citation style .

Proper referencing helps to avoid plagiarism , gives credit to original ideas, and allows readers to explore topics of interest. Moreover, it situates your work within the continuum of academic knowledge.

To properly cite the sources used in the study, you can rely on online citation generator tools  to generate accurate citations!

Here’s more on how you can cite your sources.

Often, the depth of research produces a wealth of material that, while crucial, can make the core content of the thesis cumbersome. The appendix is where you mention extra information that supports your research but isn't central to the main text.

Whether it's raw datasets, detailed procedural methodologies, extended case studies, or any other ancillary material, the appendices ensure that these elements are archived for reference without breaking the main narrative's flow.

For thorough researchers and readers keen on meticulous details, the appendices provide a treasure trove of insights.

Glossary (optional)

In academics, specialized terminologies, and jargon are inevitable. However, not every reader is versed in every term.

The glossary, while optional, is a critical tool for accessibility. It's a bridge ensuring that even readers from outside the discipline can access, understand, and appreciate your work.

By defining complex terms and providing context, you're inviting a wider audience to engage with your research, enhancing its reach and impact.

Remember, while these components provide a structured framework, the essence of your thesis lies in the originality of your ideas, the rigor of your research, and the clarity of your presentation.

As you craft each section, keep your readers in mind, ensuring that your passion and dedication shine through every page.

Thesis examples

To further elucidate the concept of a thesis, here are illustrative examples from various fields:

Example 1 (History): Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the ‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807 by Suchait Kahlon.

Example 2 (Climate Dynamics): Influence of external forcings on abrupt millennial-scale climate changes: a statistical modelling study by Takahito Mitsui · Michel Crucifix

Checklist for your thesis evaluation

Evaluating your thesis ensures that your research meets the standards of academia. Here's an elaborate checklist to guide you through this critical process.

Content and structure

• Is the thesis statement clear, concise, and debatable?
• Does the introduction provide sufficient background and context?
• Is the literature review comprehensive, relevant, and well-organized?
• Does the methodology section clearly describe and justify the research methods?
• Are the results/findings presented clearly and logically?
• Does the discussion interpret the results in light of the research question and existing literature?
• Is the conclusion summarizing the research and suggesting future directions or implications?

Clarity and coherence

• Is the writing clear and free of jargon?
• Are ideas and sections logically connected and flowing?
• Is there a clear narrative or argument throughout the thesis?

Research quality

• Is the research question significant and relevant?
• Are the research methods appropriate for the question?
• Is the sample size (if applicable) adequate?
• Are the data analysis techniques appropriate and correctly applied?
• Are potential biases or limitations addressed?

Originality and significance

• Does the thesis contribute new knowledge or insights to the field?
• Is the research grounded in existing literature while offering fresh perspectives?

Formatting and presentation

• Is the thesis formatted according to institutional guidelines?
• Are figures, tables, and charts clear, labeled, and referenced in the text?
• Is the bibliography or reference list complete and consistently formatted?
• Are appendices relevant and appropriately referenced in the main text?

Grammar and language

• Is the thesis free of grammatical and spelling errors?
• Is the language professional, consistent, and appropriate for an academic audience?
• Are quotations and paraphrased material correctly cited?

Feedback and revision

• Have you sought feedback from peers, advisors, or experts in the field?
• Have you addressed the feedback and made the necessary revisions?

Overall assessment

• Does the thesis as a whole feel cohesive and comprehensive?
• Would the thesis be understandable and valuable to someone in your field?

Ensure to use this checklist to leave no ground for doubt or missed information in your thesis.

After writing your thesis, the next step is to discuss and defend your findings verbally in front of a knowledgeable panel. You’ve to be well prepared as your professors may grade your presentation abilities.

Preparing your thesis defense

A thesis defense, also known as "defending the thesis," is the culmination of a scholar's research journey. It's the final frontier, where you’ll present their findings and face scrutiny from a panel of experts.

Typically, the defense involves a public presentation where you’ll have to outline your study, followed by a question-and-answer session with a committee of experts. This committee assesses the validity, originality, and significance of the research.

The defense serves as a rite of passage for scholars. It's an opportunity to showcase expertise, address criticisms, and refine arguments. A successful defense not only validates the research but also establishes your authority as a researcher in your field.

Here’s how you can effectively prepare for your thesis defense .

Now, having touched upon the process of defending a thesis, it's worth noting that scholarly work can take various forms, depending on academic and regional practices.

One such form, often paralleled with the thesis, is the 'dissertation.' But what differentiates the two?

Dissertation vs. Thesis

Often used interchangeably in casual discourse, they refer to distinct research projects undertaken at different levels of higher education.

To the uninitiated, understanding their meaning might be elusive. So, let's demystify these terms and delve into their core differences.

Here's a table differentiating between the two.

Wrapping up

From understanding the foundational concept of a thesis to navigating its various components, differentiating it from a dissertation, and recognizing the importance of proper citation — this guide covers it all.

As scholars and readers, understanding these nuances not only aids in academic pursuits but also fosters a deeper appreciation for the relentless quest for knowledge that drives academia.

It’s important to remember that every thesis is a testament to curiosity, dedication, and the indomitable spirit of discovery.

Good luck with your thesis writing!

Frequently Asked Questions

A thesis typically ranges between 40-80 pages, but its length can vary based on the research topic, institution guidelines, and level of study.

A PhD thesis usually spans 200-300 pages, though this can vary based on the discipline, complexity of the research, and institutional requirements.

To identify a thesis topic, consider current trends in your field, gaps in existing literature, personal interests, and discussions with advisors or mentors. Additionally, reviewing related journals and conference proceedings can provide insights into potential areas of exploration.

The conceptual framework is often situated in the literature review or theoretical framework section of a thesis. It helps set the stage by providing the context, defining key concepts, and explaining the relationships between variables.

A thesis statement should be concise, clear, and specific. It should state the main argument or point of your research. Start by pinpointing the central question or issue your research addresses, then condense that into a single statement, ensuring it reflects the essence of your paper.

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Home — Essay Samples — Social Issues — Gun Control — Gun Control Thesis Statement

Gun Control Thesis Statement

• Categories: Gun Control

About this sample

Words: 1300 |

Published: Mar 19, 2024

Words: 1300 | Pages: 3 | 7 min read

Table of contents

I. introduction, ii. the second amendment and the right to bear arms, iii. gun violence statistics and the need for stricter regulations, iv. gun control policies and their effectiveness, v. mental health and gun violence, vi. gun control advocacy and opposition, vii. conclusion, a. overview of current gun control laws in the united states, b. analysis of the effectiveness of background checks and waiting periods, c. discussion of the impact of assault weapons bans and high-capacity magazine restrictions, a. connection between mental illness and gun violence, b. importance of mental health screenings for gun owners, c. strategies for preventing individuals with mental health issues from obtaining guns, a. overview of gun control advocacy groups, b. analysis of arguments against stricter gun control laws, c. strategies for promoting bipartisan support for gun control legislation, a. recap of key points, b. restate thesis statement, c. call to action for stricter gun control measures to improve public safety.

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Freedom of speech thesis statement

Although freedom of speech is the key to all human rights ,in fact it should not be in terms of provoking criminal activities or harming someone's reputation .

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“The value-free ideal, the autonomy thesis, and cognitive diversity”

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• Published: 03 July 2024
• Volume 204 , article number  24 , ( 2024 )

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• Vincenzo Politi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5753-3196 1  

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Some debates about the role of non-epistemic values in science discuss the so-called Value-Free Ideal together with the autonomy thesis, to the point that they may be assumed to be intertwined. As I will argue in this article, the two are independent from one another, are supported by different arguments, and ought to be disentangled. I will also show that the arguments against value-freedom and supporting a value-laden conception of science, are different from the arguments against autonomy, which support democratized science. Moreover, while some of the arguments against autonomy and for democratized science may actually be consistent with value-freedom, they conflict with some philosophical views about the internal diversity of well-designed epistemic communities. This article distinguishes the Value-Free Ideal and the autonomy thesis, as well as their antitheses, and investigates their relations to some of the socio-epistemological models of the social organization of scientific research. Its aim is to make explicit some incompatibilities between different normative frameworks developed in philosophy of science.

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1 Introduction

The Value-Free Ideal (VFI) is a normative thesis about the epistemic and justificatory phases of science. Critics of VFI support a value-laden conception of science. The autonomy thesis is a normative thesis about the political relation between science and society. Some critics of autonomy support a democratized conception of science. The debate about values in science often seems to assume that VFI and autonomy are necessarily intertwined. As a consequence, it could be assumed that arguments against one of the two theses are also against the other one. In reality, both supporters and critics of VFI may endorse autonomy, while democratized science could be consistent with a value-free image of science. Furthermore, some versions of democratized science may be in conflict with some philosophical views about the internal structure of well-designed epistemic communities.

In this article, I analyze and assess the relations between VFI, the autonomy thesis, the value-laden conception, and democratized science. I then investigate their compatibility with some of the socio-epistemological models of the social organization of scientific research. My aim is to make explicit some conflicts between different normative frameworks developed in philosophy of science.

In the next section, I spell out the central ideas of VFI and the value-laden conception while, in the following section, I spell out the central ideas of the autonomy thesis and democratized science. In the fourth section, I discuss how some philosophers misleadingly conflate VFI and autonomy whereas, as I will show, the relations between the two are more complex. In the fourth section, I focus on the relations between democratized science, on the one hand, and VFI and value-ladenness, on the other. A further problem, discussed in the sixth section, is that some versions of democratized science may conflict with some socio-epistemological normative frameworks, which are in turn compatible with value-freedom and autonomy. I discuss the implications of my analysis for philosophy of science in the concluding section.

Before I continue, I need to specify that, in what follows, I will refer to a number of philosophers who hold similar but nevertheless different views with respect to some normative theses about science. Although I will try to differentiate them as much as possible, the limited space of this article forces me to lump together arguments and views that have been developed independently. This does not necessarily mean to make naive and sweeping generalizations. It means, rather, focusing on what all these proposals have in common. This allows me to analyze the relations between different, and sometimes conflicting, general normative frameworks in philosophy of science.

2 Value-freedom and value-ladenness

The Value-Free Ideal (VFI) states that non-epistemic values (such as moral, social, or political values) must play no role in the so-called internal phases of scientific inquiry, such as during theory appraisal. VFI does not deny that epistemic values – like simplicity, coherence, fruitfulness, and so on (see Kuhn, 1977 ; Laudan, 1984 ; McMullin, 1983 ) – play an important role in the internal phases of research. Nor does it deny the role of non-epistemic values in its external phases – for example, during the agenda setting process or during the dissemination and deployment of results in society. VFI only bars non-epistemic values from the epistemic and justificatory stages of science. Footnote 1

For the supporters of VFI, freedom from non-epistemic values is the mark of epistemic integrity, which is in turn the source of the epistemic authority of science. In this view, trust is bestowed upon science on the basis of its ability to provide objective, undistorted, and ethically neutral factual knowledge. Therefore, proper scientific knowledge must be impartial, free from prejudices and ideologies. It is in virtue of its impartiality that science can be regarded as a remedy, or even as the only remedy, to superstitions, wishful thinking, and obscurantism.

In the wake of the feminist critique of implicit androcentric biases in science, philosophers have begun to speak about the untenability and undesirability of VFI. Arguments about the untenability of VFI maintain that, in practice, the distinctions VFI relies on are too unclear to support its normative conclusions. Rooney ( 1992 ) has challenged the ‘epistemic’ vs. ‘non-epistemic values’ distinction, while Elliott & McKaughan ( 2014 ) have questioned the sharpness of the ‘external’ vs. ‘internal phases’ distinction.

Arguments about the undesirability of VFI attempts to show that not only is freedom from non-epistemic values impractical, but that value-freedom is a bad ideal to begin with. Two of the most prominent of such arguments are that from underdetermination and that from inductive risk . The first is developed from the well-known problem of the underdetermination of theory by data. As Longino ( 1990 ) puts it, there is a ‘logical gap’ between empirical evidence and scientific theories. Traditionally, such a gap has been thought to be bridged by epistemic values only. However, as Longino points out, theory appraisal in the face of the available evidence also requires background assumptions, which contain both epistemic and non-epistemic values. While epistemic values are regarded as the necessary (or ‘constitutive’) features of science, Longino considers scientific rationality, and the role that non-epistemic values play in it, as sensitive to specific contexts and problems. Her ‘contextual empiricism’ is therefore grounded on the idea that science may impact and transform society. This means that it is often impossible to distinguish pure scientific knowledge from its social and political implications. At the same time, for Longino, non-epistemic and contextual factors do not taint scientific objectivity. This is so because, in her view, objectivity is not achieved through detachment but, rather, through intersubjectivity; that is, through the mutual critical engagement of individuals holding different values and having different standpoints.

The premise of the argument from inductive risk (Churchman, 1948 ; Rudner, 1953 ; Douglas, 2009 ) is that, in and by itself, evidence does not speak conclusively either in favor or against a particular conclusion. Scientists, therefore, always face the risk of making erroneous decisions when appraising hypotheses, or when collecting and interpreting data. Such errors may have harmful consequences. Since scientists, like everyone else, have the moral duty of preventing harm, they ought to mitigate the risk of errors by setting the adequate standards of evidence and of their interpretation. These operations require the use of value judgements.

ChoGlueck ( 2018 ) considers the argument from inductive risk as ‘nested’ into the argument from underdetermination. For example, the risk of error in the face of available evidence is a consequence of underdetermination, while making value judgements to mitigate such a risk is a special instance of the use of non-epistemic and contextual values in theory appraisal. Both arguments, furthermore, consider the social and political stakes of scientific knowledge production, as well as scientists’ responsibility towards society. Some philosophers, mainly supporting the inductive risk argument, conceptualize scientific responsibility through the approach of traditional ethics, which attempts to establish what individuals ought to do in order to behave responsibly. Others, such as Longino ( 1990 , 2002 ) and Peters ( 2021 ), regard scientific rationality and responsibility as resting with a pluralistic scientific community, rather than with individuals. Despite their differences, these two approaches can also be regarded as nested, since responsible individuals are necessary for responsible collectives.

As pointed out by Havstad ( 2022 ), arguments against VFI, such as that from inductive risk, support the conclusion for which non-epistemic values have a legitimate place in the internal stages of research. These kinds of arguments led, in the past few decades, to a new value-laden conception of science (from now on, ‘Value-Ladenness’). Rather than being a unified thesis, Value-Ladenness is a collection of different views ranging from the reactions against value-freedom to the formulation of more positive ideals, such as Harding’s ( 1995 ) standpoint theory, Kourany’s ( 2010 ) socially responsible science, and Brown’s ( 2020 ) ideal of moral imagination in science.

Supporters of VFI may respond to Value-Ladenness in two ways. First, by denying that scientists ought to make value judgements to mitigate the risk of error. This argument relies on the idea that scientists’ job is to communicate uncertainties to policy makers, not to make decisions on their own (Levi, 1960 ; Betz, 2013 ; Henschen, 2021 ; Carrier, 2022 ).

Second, by attempting to show how the principles of liberal democracy justify, or even entail, VFI. Du Bois ( 1898 ) argued that value-free scientific knowledge can be used by everybody in a democracy, but not misused to push specific political agendas (see also Bright, 2018 ). Different versions of this argument are also maintained, among the others, by Levi ( 1960 ) and Betz ( 2013 ). The argument of the ‘political legitimacy’ of VFI is rarely tackled by the supporters of Value-Ladenness, one of the most notable exceptions being Lusk ( 2021 ), who directly responds to it. It is important to stress that the view for which democracy justifies or implies VFI is different from the view for which science ought to be democratized.

3 Autonomy and democratization

The Autonomy Thesis (from now on, ‘Autonomy’) states that science must preserve its autonomy from social and political interference. It is a normative thesis regulating the ‘social contract’ between science and society. Footnote 2 Supporters of Autonomy believe that attempts to direct scientific research ‘from the outside’ compromise scientific progress and are therefore unacceptable. Autonomy must be maintained to guarantee what Berlin ( 1969 ) defines as ‘negative’ and ‘positive freedom’ that, in the case of science, amounts to freedom from political ideologies and government control, and freedom to steer research towards the ends and with the methods deemed relevant by the community of experts. Footnote 3

Apart from specifying the kinds of freedom Autonomy guarantees to science, it is also important to discuss their degrees . Science is an institutionalized organization amidst other institutionalized organizations, and embedded in a larger society which provides funding for its very existence. Autonomy does not claim that science could or ought to exist irrespectively or even without society: the ‘social contract’ aims at regulating the relations between science and society, not at eliminating them. Nor does Autonomy endorse the rather implausible view for which science could be completely detached from society. Scientists, like everyone else, are influenced by their social, cultural, political, and sometimes even ideological milieu. However, ‘influence’ is different from ‘control’, in as much as the former does not determine the outcome of a process as the latter does. The descriptive claim that scientists may, and often are, influenced by society does not lend support to the normative conclusion for which science ought to be directly controlled by the government or by the supporters of an ideology.

In the past few decades, the traditional contract between science and society has been challenged. As a result, a new conception has emerged, for which science ought to be aligned to the needs of society, and welcome the mutual engagement between scientists and other societal actors, such as policy makers, private stakeholders and citizens. The premises of the philosophical argument supporting what I will refer to as Democratized Science can be summarized as follows:

DS.1 - Demarcation problem : because science is value laden, we need to find a principled way to distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate values in science; this issue is also known as “the new demarcation problem” (Holman & Wilholt, 2022 ).

DS.2 - Demarcating principle : non-epistemic values are legitimate insofar as they are democratically endorsed (Kitcher, 2001 , 2011 ; Inteman 2015; Schroeder, 2017 ; Lusk, 2020 ).

DS.3 - Social responsibility : scientists have the duty not only to prevent harm, but also to contribute to society (Kourany, 2010 ; Brown, 2020 ). The more socially responsible science is, the more the public will trust it (Kitcher, 2011 ).

DS.4 - Democratized objectivity : objectivity and robust knowledge is achieved through the integration of scientists’ expertise with citizens’ values, standpoints, and ‘local’ expertise.

Three considerations are in order. First of all, arguments for Democratized Science have been developed in different contexts, such as in STS or in the science policy literature, and for different motivations. In this article I focus on the philosophy of science literature, in which there is a strong link between Democratized Science and values, to the point that many proposals – such as Kourany’s, Intemann’s, or Brown’s – provide arguments for both Value-Ladenness and Democratized Science.

Second, as already discussed in the previous section, the argument from inductive risk may be regarded as ‘nested’ into the argument from underdetermination. By contrast, the argument for Democratized Science is not nested into any of those two; rather, it extends some of their aspects. Footnote 4 Democratized Science is not limited to the statement for which values have a role in science, but it also provides a way to distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate values. It supports a wider conception of scientists’ responsibility, going beyond preventionist accounts and including more remedial dimensions. For supporters of Democratized Science, furthermore, the achievement of interpersonal scientific objectivity is not only a scientists’ affair.

Third, although they extend Value-Ladenness, there is one crucial aspect in which the relation between Democratized Science and Value-Ladenness is not clear, namely the issue of when and how (democratically legitimate) values ought to play a role in research. As I will discuss in Sect. 5, the compatibility between Value-Ladenness and Democratized Science depends on how one interprets democratization on this issue.

4 Value-freedom and autonomy

From what it has been said so far, it appears that VFI and Autonomy are about different things, have different aims, and are supported by different arguments. VFI prescribes how scientific reasoning ought to proceed, Autonomy regulates the relations between science and society. Nevertheless, sometimes VFI and Autonomy risk being misleadingly conflated. To be clear: the problem is not that, in some cases, VFI (or Value-Ladenness) can be used in favor of Autonomy (or Democratized Science). The problem is treating VFI and Autonomy as being necessarily linked, or even as the same thesis.

For Hugh Lacey ( 1999 ), for example, VFI is constituted by three main ideas: the Galilean idea of impartiality , grounded on the metaphysical divorce of facts and values; the methodological/epistemological idea of neutrality , for which inferences and justification are guided only by empirical data, and cannot favor any particular value outlook over others; and the idea of autonomy , which, as Lacey himself defines it, is a political thesis science and society. He then proposes his own version of VFI, which includes some modifications to impartiality and neutrality, but which deems autonomy as untenable. In his view, the ‘core phase’ of science includes different steps, such as the adoption of methodological strategies and theory appraisal, and traditional philosophy of science has developed context-free norms for both. However, he accepts the idea that social and political values may guide the external phase of science as well as the adoption of methodological strategies, while defending the value-freedom of theory appraisal. This amounts to the contemporary version of VFI, which admits the use of non-epistemic values in the external phases of inquiry only. In the end, however, it appears like Lacey separates what he did not need to mix together to begin with, that is VFI and Autonomy. Indeed, it is even questionable whether Lacey needs to reject Autonomy, or even to talk about Autonomy at all, in order to present his modified version of VFI.

Douglas ( 2009 :ch.3) argues that there are two ways to defend VFI against the argument from inductive risk. The first is to follow Levi ( 1960 ) and others in claiming that scientists do not have to make choices under uncertainties, but only to communicate uncertainties to the relevant decision makers. The second is by describing the scientific community as insulated from the rest of society, as Kuhn ( 1962 ) suggested. It is easy to see why the insulation of the scientific community can be regarded as a defense of VFI: in some versions of such a view, the scientific community is considered as autonomous and as internally driven by epistemic values only. Yet, such a conjunction is not necessary: a scientific community could be autonomous and as internally driven by both epistemic and non-epistemic values. Douglas does not consider this option and she even refers to a “ classic Kuhn-Levi view ” (Douglas, 2009 :64, my emphasis ), thus conflating a methodological argument about the role of values in science with a political view about the science-society relations. Surprisingly enough, in a more recent work, she openly defends scientists’ autonomy. After analyzing the relation between autonomy and social responsibility, and recovering some early insights of the Society for Freedom in Science , she concludes that “[c]urtailing the freedom of scientists through central planning is not a good way to get at the societal responsibilities of scientists” (Douglas, 2021 :83).

Perhaps, neither Lacey nor Douglas are really talking about Autonomy. Rather, their actual target seems to be scientists’ disinterestedness and detachment from social concerns. That scientists have such a lack of interest towards social problems is of course debatable. Lacey and Douglas, however, are not criticizing actual scientists, but some particular ideals of how scientists ought to conduct research. The problem is that the ideal of scientists’ disinterestedness and detachment is not necessarily related to the political autonomy of science. It is possible to imagine a scientific community permeated by social and political concerns, yet autonomous from political pressure (and this is actually what Douglas seems to point at).

Hicks ( 2011 ) targets the actual autonomy thesis. They argue that the philosophical and ideological background of Autonomy is the libertarian tradition in political and economic thought, for which the state ought to play a minimal and non-intrusive role (for example, it should establish and implement laws to maintain order and to prevent harms), and it should not interfere with individuals’ freedom. They then criticize such a philosophical background with the aim of showing that “The ideal of value-free science is not, in itself, value free” (Hicks, 2011 :1236). It is not clear how Hicks ends up talking about VFI in the context of a critique of the philosophical presuppositions of Autonomy. In their view, Autonomy is a thesis involving the set of value-free standards for producing good science. However, this is a non sequitur: it is possible to accept the idea that the state should not interfere with science, in a laissez-faire fashion, while also accepting the idea that science is engaged in the production of (value-laden) ‘goods’, to be put in the market of ideas (and not only). While examining the hidden ideologies of some normative frameworks is commendable, what one could contest to Hicks is treating Autonomy and VFI as the same thesis, to the point that it may be difficult to understand what their actual target is.

The idea that science should proceed autonomously with respect to social and political planning could be interpreted as suggesting that scientists ought also to be free of social concerns and responsibilities, their only duty amounting to the production of impartial, reliable, and value-free knowledge. Ultimately, however, autonomy does not mean, or imply, freedom from responsibility. Quite the contrary: being uncoerced is regarded as one of the necessary conditions for the attribution of responsibility to an agent (in other words, we would not attribute responsibility to someone who could not have done otherwise because of, for example, external constraints or threats). If science has to be socially responsible, and if responsibility requires autonomy, then autonomy is necessary for a socially responsible science, as Douglas ( 2021 ) seems to suggest. In other words, instead of absolving scientists of their social responsibilities, Autonomy can actually be viewed as the precondition for a socially responsible science.

Not only VFI and Autonomy are two separate theses but, historically, Autonomy has been endorsed by supporters of both VFI and Value-ladenness. For example, even though they held opposite views on the issue of values in science, Michael Polanyi and Robert Merton both defended the autonomy of the scientific enterprise. For Polanyi ( 1958 ), science possesses a ‘tacit’ dimension that includes intuitions, creative acts, but also passions and unspoken commitment to social and moral values. His work is regarded as one of the earliest rejection of the logical-positivist image of the detached and disinterested scientist capable of applying the universal scientific method to get at objective knowledge. Therefore, he may be considered as an early critic of VFI. At the same time, he regarded the projects for the political control of science as ill-conceived for a number of reasons. To begin with, such projects are based on the erroneous idea that the state is the sole representative of citizens’ interests and welfare, which is debatable, if not questionable. As Polanyi explains, moreover, the outcomes of ‘politicized science’ are not assessed by scientific experts, but by the current government, with the risk that only the results confirming the dominant political views will be deemed as ‘scientific’. Rather than scientific knowledge, therefore, the politicization of science would foster an anti-scientific attitude. For Polanyi, science and other institutions should interact yet maintain their autonomy, following a ‘polycentric’ model of society (Polanyi, 1951 , 1962 ; see also Mullins, 2021 ). More generally, following Polanyi’s insights, it is possible to conceive a scientific community that is indeed free from external political control and yet, at the same time, internally driven by non-epistemic values (in virtue of some of the very arguments against VFI).

Merton notoriously held a rather value-free image of science, which, in his view, ought to be driven only by what appear like epistemic values such as, for example, ‘disinterestedness’. Yet, like Polanyi, he also endorsed Autonomy. He believed that impartial and value-free science did not require social and political control but, rather, it represented a model to which democracies should be inspired by and conform to. On discussing the cases of Nazi experiments and fascist totalitarian regimes, Merton argued for the necessity of scientific autonomy and concluded that “The social stability of science can be ensured only if adequate defenses are set up against changes imposed from outside the scientific fraternity itself” (Merton, 1938 :328). Ultimately, in Merton’s view, the autonomy of science guarantees democratic freedom, and must be therefore preserved (see also Hartl, 2021 ).

Of course, both Polanyi and Merton worked at a time when the fear of totalitarian governments was still strong in Europe and the US. Contemporary critics of Autonomy, of course, do not argue in favor of a central social planning of science like that instantiated by authoritarian regimes. As already explained, they propose models for democratizing science. Nevertheless, this section has shown how the arguments for VFI and Autonomy are independent, with the latter being endorsed by both supporters and critics of VFI.

5 Value-ladenness and democratization

As in the case of VFI and Autonomy, the relations between Value-Ladenness and Democratized Science are not straightforward. As defined in Sect. 3, one of the premises of the argument for Democratized Science is the recognition that science is value-laden. This does not mean, however, that Value-Ladenness in and by itself implies Democratized Science. Even though they have to do with values in science, in fact, Value-Ladenness and Democratized Science are supported by different arguments.

As recently pointed out by Schroeder ( 2022a ), arguments about the role of non-epistemic values in science can be either ethical or political. Ethical arguments are developed from an individualistic perspective, in the sense that they focus on the rules that an individual moral agent ought to follow. Political arguments, by contrast, are developed from a collective and institutional perspective. Not only are ethical and political arguments different, but they may also lead to incompatible conclusions. For example, what would be deemed as an unethical behavior for an individual could be deemed as permissible for a collective, such as an institutionalized organization or a nation. Schroeder also stresses that, in the context of the philosophy of science debate on values, the two kinds of arguments rely on different methods: ethical arguments rely on the conceptual analysis of idealized norms, whereas political arguments, which put a major emphasis on the analysis of the social context, often require the integration of empirical studies. It follows that ethical arguments in favor of Value-Ladenness are not necessarily compatible with the political arguments in favor of Democratized Science.

It may even be the case that arguments for Value-Ladenness could be used in support of Autonomy. For Douglas, a closer look at the uncertainties endemic in several internal stages of research and at how they are mitigated via value judgments should lead to a re-examination of the role of science and society. This, in turn, would help us question “the presupposition that science is a distinct and autonomous enterprise developed by a community of scientists largely in isolation from public questions and concerns” (Douglas, 2009 :5). As already mentioned in the previous section, however, Douglas mainly challenges scientists’ (supposed) isolation from public questions and concerns, not the political autonomy of science, which she actually defends in her (2021). In her view, in fact, it is the scientist qua scientist on her own that makes value judgments in order to prevent societal harm. Even though she is moved by a deep concern over the implications of science in society, sometimes Douglas appears to grant a sort of ‘moral authority’ to scientists, while also restating their epistemic authority. She admits that “elucidating the proper roles and proper values for science is part of what makes science authoritative, rather than undermining the authority of science” (Douglas, 2021 :31).

Most of the time, then, Douglas could be read as defending the idea that the source of value judgments lies within individual scientists, who can therefore be regarded as autonomous from political pressures, yet concerned with society. In some of her works, however, she appears closer to the kind of mutual engagement between scientists and citizens promoted by Democratized Science (see, for example, Douglas, 2005 , 2017 ). For example, in her (2005) article, she claims that there are at least three ways in which citizens may give their inputs in technical assessments and analyses, namely: in framing the problems to be addressed and the range of potential solutions to consider; in providing local knowledge; and in providing values to weigh uncertainties and the potential consequences of errors. While the first two ‘points of entry’ for citizens in science may be regarded as involving the external phases of inquiry, the third seems to advocate for citizens to have an active role in the more internal phases. Douglas specifies:

“This last point of input is both crucial and often overlooked. Because values are needed to shape analyses, whose values are important. Traditionally, the values have been both hidden and those of the experts making the judgments. Many experts think that citizens are unable to understand the technical complexities of analyses, much less provide guidance at points of expert judgment. Yet the examples below suggest ways in which citizens can do precisely that, with the result that experts think the analyses are strengthened and the citizenry trusts the study’s results” (Douglas 2005 : 158–159).

For the rest of her paper, Douglas provides examples that seem to support Democratized Science and attempts to develop prescriptive norms for strengthening the role of the public into science. From the last two sections, in short, Douglas emerges as defending Value-ladenness but with oscillating if not ambiguous views about Autonomy and Democratized Science.

A similar ambiguity can be found in the work of other philosophers supporting Value-Ladenness. For example, Longino ( 1990 ) argues about the cognitive benefits deriving from values diversity within the scientific community. Such a plurality of values, however, needs to be ‘managed’. To ensure the harmonization of different individual preferences and values and, therefore, the achievement of objectivity through intersubjectivity, Longino proposes the so-called ‘value management ideal’. In this view, the practice of an ideal scientific community ought to be constrained by four criteria: publicly recognized venues for scientific disputes, uptake of criticisms, shared standards, and tempered equality of intellectual authority. Stated in this way, Longino’s value management ideal represents the scientific community as the locus of the plurality of values, with scientists being the only moral agents involved in their harmonization. To say that scientific disputes have to take place in publicly recognised venues, in fact, does not mean assigning any active role to the public. In the same way, the criticisms that must be uptaken may come from the scientists themselves, as in the case of disagreements internal to the scientific community. In short, value management may be a scientific community’s internal affair.

In other works, however, Longino proposes to ‘open up’ the scientific community to public scrutiny and to criticisms coming from outside the scientific community (see, for example, Longino, 2002 ). As with Douglas, it is possible to interpret some of Longino’s works as supporting Value-Ladenness and as compatible with Autonomy, while other works may be read, to some extent, as an endorsement of Democratized Science. No matter where Longino and Douglas stand when it comes to Autonomy and Democratized Science, it is important to show how some of their arguments for Value-Ladenness do not imply Democratized Science and may even be compatible with Autonomy.

It may also be the case that some versions of Democratized Science actually conflict with Value-Ladenness. Some arguments for Value-Ladenness, like Longino’s contextual empiricism, are a call for the plurality of values and standpoints in science. Instead, by focussing on the consensus as the (ideal) end result of democratic deliberation, some supporters of Democratized Science seem to auspicate, if not an erasure, at least a resolution of value pluralism into a sort of ‘value monism’ achieved through democratic mechanisms. Schroeder ( 2017 ) would even go as far as claiming that scientists ought to adopt democratically held values even when they conflict with their own. Prima facie, this may look like a way of depriving scientists of their rights of opinion and freedom of choice. Schroeder argues, however, that although scientists have the same moral obligations as everybody else, they are not like anyone else. In virtue of the special place they have in society, scientists may even enjoy fewer rights than the rest of citizens. The situation would be analogous to that of a Prime Minister who, as a representative of the state, has to accept a law passed by the democratically elected parliament even if she personally disagrees with its content. If, on the one hand, this view could be interpreted as overburdening scientists, on the other hand, Schroeder maintains that the benefits for the public as a whole surpass the loss of scientists’ political freedom.

While, as discussed above, Value-Ladenness does not imply Democratized Science, Schroeder shows how a political argument in support of Democratized Science actually conflicts with the individualistic ethical arguments in support of Value-Ladenness. At the same time, this line of argument is problematic, as it appears to simply suggest that scientists’ values ought to be substituted with the values upheld by the civil society, which would be more ‘politically legitimate’ than those upheld by the scientific community. That something has been legitimated by a democratic procedure, however, does not mean that it is also the right thing to do.

One of the issues with the various proposals for Democratized Science is that it is not always clear which theory of democracy they rely on. Different conceptions of democracy, fairness, representation, and consensus, in fact, may lead to different versions of Democratized Science. For instance, Kitcher ( 2001 , 2011 ) develops the ideal of Well-Ordered Science (WOS) – which can be considered as a version of Democratized Science– from a different perspective than Schroeder’s. For Kitcher, in fact, simply following the position upheld by the majority corresponds to a ‘vulgar’ version of democratic principles. He therefore characterizes the democratic process that ought to govern the science-society relations in terms of an ‘engaged conversation’ between experts and tutored members of the public. The latter ought to represent the values and interests of every social class and group, including the well-being of future generations. They have to be tutored by the experts, mainly about the available research lines and methods, because their opinions and preferences ought not to be uninformed (otherwise WOS would relapse into a form of vulgar democracy that does not recognise the existence of expertise). At the same time, however, scientists have the duty to take into account the views of the tutored representatives of the public (otherwise WOS would relapse into a form of elitism). Scientists and tutored representatives of the public should act like the ideal deliberators theorized by Rawls ( 1999 ). Their ideal conversation may go on for a long time, or even forever. Its end result is not the victory of a brute majority, but the finding of a common ground capable of satisfying everybody’s values and needs and, above all, to respect and to reserve a fair treatment to the marginalized minorities.

Closer to Kitcher’s view is the so-called ‘aims approach’. In this view, value judgments about the aims of a research must be set through democratic mechanisms that guarantee the representation of the interests of societal stakeholders. Moreover, scientists must be transparent about the values they use in making methodological decisions. Only those values that advance the stakeholders’ interests will be considered legitimate. In short, the aims approach amounts to the idea that value judgements in science are legitimate insofar as “they promote democratically endorsed epistemological and social aims” (Intemann, 2015 :219; see also Intemann & de Melo-Martín, 2010 , Elliott & Resnick, 2014 , Elliott, 2017 ).

Unlike Schroeder’s proposal, Kitcher’s WOS and the aims approach allow scientists to be part of the democratic deliberation process. They also put a major emphasis on the needs of representation for the values and needs of minorities. Nevertheless, they still hold consensus-based decisions as the mark of democratization. Such a view could be contested. For instance, Rolin ( 2021 ) argues that the consensus achieved through deliberative procedures may actually end up reinforcing injustice and inequality. In fact, minorities risk not to be taken into consideration, or to become even more marginalized, if the democratic mechanism in place is designed to award the majority. For these reasons, she challenges the theories of democracy informing Democratised Science and she advocates for the kind of scientific research pursued by ‘social intellectual movements’. Moreover, Hilligardt ( 2023 ) argues that requiring science to use only democratically held values does not consider the importance of ‘partisan’ science, such as that pursued by politicized research foundations or think tanks. This kind of research clearly does not reflect the values and interests of a democratic majority and yet it may contribute in important ways to both the epistemic aims of scientific research and to social progress. Both research conducted by social intellectual movements and partisan science are animated by the dissatisfaction with the democratically established status quo and aim at creating dissensus, rather than consensus, in order to widen the pool of values and alternatives. This kind of argument shows how it is possible to reject Autonomy without endorsing Democratised Science.

Apart from questioning the very political theories it relies on, there are other problems with Democratized Science. For instance, Lusk ( 2021 ) maintains that the connection with Democratized Science and values is often left inarticulate. On the one hand, scientists and the public may agree on the pursuitworthiness of some general aims, but not on the values to be held. On the other hand, a shared set of values, by itself, is not sufficient to guide methodological choices, which are therefore left either to further debate or to scientists who, under this respect, would remain autonomous.

My criticisms of Democratized Science, especially in the version of Kitcher’s WOS and the aims approach, are complementary to Lusk’s. Although both WOS and the aims approach concern values in science, it is not entirely clear whether they are compatible with an image of scientific research as internally value-laden. As already explained, VFI forbids the intrusion of values in the internal and justificatory phases of science, but it does not deny them a role in the external phases. One of the premises of Democratized Science is that science is value-laden. What many supporters of Democratized Science do not specify, however, is at which stages of research such value-ladenness is encountered. Indeed, for WOS and the aims approach, the setting of research aims and priorities ought to be settled democratically, through scientists’ engagement with the public. Fixing aims and priorities, however, is part of the so-called external phases of science. Since WOS and the aims approach do not make evident the role of value judgments in the internal phases of science, they could even be interpreted as compatible with VFI, or as implicitly accepting it.

It is possible to respond to this argument in at least two different ways. First, as briefly mentioned in Sect. 2, some philosophers challenge the sharpness of the ‘external’ vs. ‘internal’ distinction. For example, Elliott and McKaughan ( 2014 ) maintain that value-laden decisions taken in the so-called external phases may filter down into the internal phases and alter theory appraisal. In their views, epistemic and non-epistemic values, as well as internal and external phases, interact in complex ways. This is also why Elliott ( 2017 :ch.2) speaks about Kitcher ( 2001 ) as being interested in research agenda setting and as someone who contributes to debate about the value-ladenness of science.

Second, even though it is true that Kitcher ( 2001 ) is mainly concerned with agenda setting, in his (2011) he distinguishes three steps in scientific research that require the democratic dialogue of ideal deliberators: the allocation of resources to significant research projects, the choice of research methods, and the translation of scientific results into social policies for the benefits of society at large. The second step Kitcher speaks about belongs to the internal phase of science. However, democratizing the internal stages of science poses a whole different set of problems, as I will discuss in the next section.

6 Cognitive diversity, values, and democracy

VFI and Value-Ladenness are not the only normative theses about how science ought to be conducted. In the past few decades, in fact, social epistemologists have developed formal models of epistemically efficient scientific communities.

Years before his recent works on WOS, Philip Kitcher developed one of the first of such models, with the aim of showing how to solve the “mismatch between the demands of individual rationality and those of collective (or community) rationality” (Kitcher 1990 :6). From the community perspective, it is rational to keep many research options alive, even when it is known that one of them is more likely to succeed: in the long run, less likely methods may still produce useful results. From an individual perspective, however, no scientist would voluntarily choose to work on approaches that are not very likely to succeed. In Kitcher’s model of the ‘distribution of cognitive labor’, scientists are not driven only by epistemic reasons. Rather, they are self-interested individuals seeking their own profit, which may come in terms of peer recognition, prestige, and career advancement. Their choice is not determined by the probability of success of a particular research method, but by the probability of their own success. In Kitcher’s model, for some individuals it is actually more rational not to follow the majority of their colleagues in choosing the method with highest probability of success, opting for the one with a lower probability. In a less crowded and less competitive sub-community, in fact, making a relevant contribution could be easier and faster. Self-interest and competition help the scientific community to maintain a healthy internal pluralism, thus serving collective epistemic purposes. In this way, individual and collective rationality are harmonized.

Kitcher’s model has influenced the emergence of more sophisticated socio-epistemological formal models of the scientific community. Some computer-based models of the social organization of science, such as the epistemic network (Zollman, 2007 , 2010 ) or the ‘epistemic landscape’ (Weisberg & Muldoon, 2009 ), can be regarded as expanding on Kitcher’s framework while attempting to overcome some of its limitations and questionable presuppositions (see also Weisberg, 2010 ).

In the intentions of their developers, these models could provide policy advice on how to design optimal scientific communities (Avin, 2018 ; Petrovich & Viola, 2018 ). However, not every philosopher is convinced about the possibility of using formal models as a basis for making policy decisions. Some of them argue that such models do not represent adequately their target (that is, real scientific communities) and should therefore be intended as having other, more speculative functions instead (see, for example, Martini & Fernández Pinto 2017 ; Frey & Šešelja, 2018 ; Thicke, 2020 ; Aydinonat et al., 2021 ; Šešelja 2020 ). Although the question of the use of formal socio-epistemological models in science policy is not settled, it still makes sense to assess whether the epistemological norms they provide are compatible with some of the other normative frameworks discussed so far.

To begin with, these models appear to miss a ‘moral dimension’. As already pointed out by Politi ( 2021 ), in formal socio-epistemological models, the epistemic objective the agents are trying to achieve is assumed to be a piece of ‘significant truth’. While the notion of significant truth is clearly value-laden, the models do not represent how scientists establish and assess significance: the significant epistemic objective is a ‘given’, which has been fixed and accepted before individual agents begin to pursue it. Once the objective is fixed, the agents make their choices for epistemic reasons (i.e., the desire of discovering the truth), or for selfish reasons (i.e., the desire of recognition and success), or a mixture of both. Their moral and social value-judgments, as well as their way of dealing with the risk of error, are not represented.

The missing moral dimension of the formal models of the scientific community is evident in the way in which Weisberg and Muldoon ( 2009 ) describe their own model. After defining the ‘peaks’ of the epistemic landscape as pieces of significant truths that the scientists/agents are attempting to discover, they feel compelled to add:

“An important and foundational debate in philosophy of science concerns the source of scientific significance. A classical perspective holds that some facts have intrinsic scientific significance. A radical alternative holds that all judgments of scientific significance are merely the result of dominant ideologies and other political and social forces that influence scientists and scientific consumers as much as anyone else. Moderate positions acknowledge both the social origin of much of what we take to be important in scientific knowledge, but also that some questions and answers have significance internal to the goals and structures of science. Our model makes no commitment about the source of significance judgments. It only requires that the community of scientists working on the same topic would make the same or nearly the same judgments about significance ” (Weisberg & Muldoon, 2009 :229, my italics ).

Such judgments are made only in the agenda setting phase. Therefore the Weisberg-Muldoon model, as well as other models, are consistent with the view thatnon-epistemic values may play a role during the external phases of scientific research (which these models do not represent), but not in its internal stages (which the models represent). This means that formal socio-epistemological models are consistent with, and maybe even implicitly support, VFI.

Politi ( 2021 ) argues that one way to respond to the charge of value-freedom is to claim that, even though these models do not represent the value-ladenness of the internal stages of scientific research, they could do so potentially. The same Kitcher recognises that seeking personal gains is only one of the many possible drivers of the distribution of cognitive labor. He does not exclude that collective and individual rationality could be bridged by other factors, such as “Perseverance, personal investment, personal and national loyalties, and devotion to political causes” (Kitcher, 1990 :18). Perhaps it is possible to ‘correct’ the models by adding further parameters or functions, although one may wonder whether and how their introduction may alter the distribution of cognitive labor.

To explain this point, Politi uses the following example. Let’s imagine that the aim of a project in the field of agricultural science is to find a way to produce more food in an underdeveloped country suffering from hunger issues. Let’s assume that there are two possible research methods to reach such an objective: M₁ investigates biotechnological venues for the production of genetically modified food, M₂ analyzes the characteristics of the local land in order to develop and implement better agricultural methods. Let’s assume, as Kitcher would, that the likelihood of success of M₁ is higher than that of M₂, and that all the scientists involved in the pursuit of the same objective already know that. In Kitcher’s original model, after calculating the best way to increase their own expected utility, the majority of scientists would choose M₁ (biotechnological innovation), with some of them opting for M₂ (study of the local land and agricultural practices). In this way, the community as a whole can maintain a beneficial and fruitful pluralism. In its current form, Kitcher’s model is consistent with VFI. It is however possible to imagine the scientists of the example being driven by (among other things) moral or social values. For instance, not all of those choosing M₁ may do so for the desire of professional recognition, or for the financial reward coming from the private biotechnological sector. Some or even the majority of them may choose M₁ because they genuinely aim at providing a fast solution to a pressing problem. Similarly, not all of those choosing M₂ do so for personal convenience, many of them could simply follow their moral and political persuasions about the importance and long-term benefits of sustainable agriculture. Representing the scientific community as driven by epistemic, selfish and moral reasons maybe could result in a different distribution of cognitive labor. Yet, even though it is not clear how it would translate in the mathematical language of Kitcher’s original analytical framework, it is possible to conceive a value-laden representation of the internal dynamics of the scientific community.

From what it has been said so far, socio-epistemological models may be read as implicitly supporting VFI or as in need to be integrated with Value-Ladenness. Since, as shown in previous sections, Value-Ladenness may support Autonomy, and Democratized Science may conflict with Value-Ladenness, whether formal models of the scientific community support VFI or Value-Ladenness is independent from their relation with Democratized Science, which must therefore be considered as a separate issue.

As discussed in the last section, many arguments for Democratized Science may be read as targeting the external phases of scientific research, especially the agenda setting (and, for this reason, they are compatible with VFI). Formal socio-epistemological models are about methodological choices at the internal stages of scientific research (and they are also compatible with VFI). However, some versions of Democratized Science, like Kitcher’s ( 2011 ), target the internal phases of scientific research too. It is therefore legitimate to wonder: how much and up to which point should the internal stage of research be democratized? Moreover, could a full democratization of the internal stage of research lead to undesirable consequences?

To answer these questions, let’s go back to Politi’s example. This time, unlike the scenario in which scientists choose their research strategy on the basis of a mixture of epistemic and selfish reasons (as in Kitcher’s original model), and unlike the scenario in which they are also driven by value judgements (as in Politi’s proposed amendment of the model), let’s assume that, once the epistemic objective has been democratically set, a conversation about methodological choices begins among mutually engaged ideal deliberators. It cannot be ruled out that the outcome of such a democratic conversation would be the rejection of M₁, that is, of the method with the highest likelihood of success. It is possible, in fact, that the citizens’ representatives agree that the field of biotechnological innovation is driven by private and financial interests, that its impacts on the land and natural environment are too unpredictable, and that such impacts may even be dangerous for the local population. For this reason, they deliberate that the only acceptable method is M₂, which is also less likely to succeed. Choosing M₂ over M₁, in short, runs against the collective rationality of the scientific community. In a less extreme scenario, the deliberators may decide to keep both approaches alive, but to allocate the majority of scientists to M₂, while keeping only a few them to develop something democratically acceptable with M₁. Even this scenario, however, would lead to a suboptimal, if not inadequate, distribution of cognitive labor.

In short, socio-epistemological models seem not only to be compatible with VFI, but also to be incompatible with Democratized Science. This incompatibility makes it difficult to understand what Kitcher’s position on these issues is. When he talks about the distribution of cognitive labor, he claims that the internal diversity of the scientific community has to be preserved, even at the cost of exploiting scientists’ self-regarding motivations. When he talks about WOS, he claims that a democratic conversation has to be had about many phases of scientific research, including methodological choices. Yet the outcome of such a democratic conversation may hamper the epistemically beneficial diversity maintained by an optimal distribution of cognitive labor. As in previous cases, the point is not to force Kitcher to tell us where he stands. The point is to analyze the clash among philosophical normative frameworks for science.

Perhaps one may get out of this impasse by stressing, as Kitcher would do, that the ideal conversation has to be had between experts, on the one hand, and tutored representatives, on the other. Apart from explaining the virtues and potentialities of different theories and approaches, the tutoring process could also be about the distribution of cognitive labor and the importance of hedging the scientific community’s bets by keeping different research strategies alive. One may fear, however, that in this way the representatives are just tutored to make the same decisions that the experts would make on their own. In this way, one may wonder what the ideal deliberators are supposed to ‘deliberate’ about, apart from leaving the scientific community to distribute its own cognitive labor.

Another possibility is to bite the bullet and just accept that the optimal distribution of cognitive labor could be compromised by democratic deliberation about some internal stages of scientific research. Such an acceptance presupposes that the respect of democratic mechanisms is more valuable than collective scientific rationality. In this way, a political argument about the relation between science and society would trump some epistemological considerations about the necessity of methodological pluralism.

Kitcher’s work is exemplary of some tensions between different normative frameworks in philosophy of science. On the one hand, social epistemologists do not seem to reflect explicitly on whether their models of the scientific community support VFI or Autonomy, or conflict with Democratized Science. On the other hand, Schroeder ( 2022b ) has pointed out the potential tensions between epistemic, ethic, and political dimensions in so-called ‘citizen science’ programs, which are a way of realizing Democratized Science. In his view, these tensions call for some difficult to make trade offs, even though he does not enter in details about what the potential results of such trade offs could be. What I have shown in this section expands on Schroeder’s observations. I have argued, in fact, that democratic deliberation about methodological choices are in conflict with socio-epistemological normative frameworks about cognitive pluralism. Such a conflict cannot be solved with a trade off: either we exclude democratic deliberation and restate scientists’ autonomy in some internal steps of research, or we give up cognitive pluralism. No guidance is offered on what to choose.

7 Concluding remarks: incompatible norms, incompatible philosophies of science?

In this article, I have argued that VFI and Autonomy are two different normative theses, and that Autonomy could be endorsed by both the supporters and the critics of VFI. I have also argued that, on the one hand, some versions of Democratised Science may conflict with Value-Ladenness and be compatible with VFI; while, on the other hand, those versions of Democratised Science that do not conflict with Value-Ladenness are incompatible with the socio-epistemological models about the internal structure of well-designed epistemic communities.

The complex relations between these different normative frameworks are often overlooked in the philosophy of science literature. Some philosophers, for example, conflate value-freedom with Autonomy. Others do not notice that, although both Value-Ladenness and Autonomy are concerned with the issue of values in science, the former does not imply the latter, which, in turn, may conflict with some views about values in the internal phases of science. Social epistemologists seem to end up developing idealized models of the scientific community that are consistent with, or even supporting, VFI and Autonomy. There are also philosophers who maintain ambiguous positions with respect to these issues, in the sense that their works are open to multiple interpretations about how they conceive the relations among different normative views about science.

This situation is symptomatic of the fact that some debates in philosophy of science run in parallel, with little or no critical interaction. The most glaring case is the debate about the formal models of the scientific communities, which mainly focuses on their adequacy and functions, but which shows scarce concern for the image of science these models support more or less implicitly. But it is also the case for the debate about the use of democratic values, which is growing separate from the debate about value-ladenness. In short, philosophers have developed different and sometimes incompatible normative frameworks, without tackling the problem of how to choose between them. Since conceptual clarity is necessary to solve some philosophical problems, the critical map of the different normative theses about science presented in this article may be a first step for guiding philosophers in such an endeavor.

Different philosophers have developed different classifications of the kinds of values that may play a role in science. Some have distinguished between ‘cognitive’ and ‘non-cognitive values’ (Longino, 1996 ), or between ‘constitutive’ and ‘contextual values’ (Longino, 1990 , 2002 ). Kitcher ( 2011 ) distinguishes between ‘broad’, ‘cognitive’, and ‘probative schemes of values’. For the sake of brevity, in this article I speak of VFI as an ideal about the role of ‘epistemic’ and ‘non-epistemic values’, with the previous being those values traditionally accepted as good scientific standards and believed to be conducive to objective knowledge, and the latter being those traditionally associated with moral, social, and political standpoints.

In this article, I mainly focus on the issue of the political control of science. Of course, many would want science to be autonomous not only from political agendas, but also from other external intrusions, such as private financial interests. However, those who argue for the autonomy of science from corporations may also argue in favor of a stronger control of the state on science (this would be the case, for example, of Brown, 2008 ). In order not to overcomplicate my argument too much, in this paper I take Autonomy to be about the autonomy of science from political control.

The terms ‘autonomy’ and ‘freedom’ are often used as synonyms, although some philosophers disentangle their underlying concepts. Dworkin ( 1998 ) argues that the fact that some agents are autonomous does not imply their right to freedom. For example, criminal organizations make decisions autonomously, but that does not mean that they have the right to do so. In this article I will not discuss whether autonomy and freedom are the same concepts or, if different, how and up to which point they are linked. For the present purposes, I will use the expressions ‘Autonomy Thesis’ and ‘Autonomy’ (rather than ‘Freedom Thesis’) mainly to avoid confusion with value- freedom . Finally, it is also worth reminding that many discussions about the concepts of freedom and autonomy have been developed by moral and political philosophers with regard to individuals, and then later applied to discuss the autonomy of institutions. This last point leads us to wonder whether Autonomy is about the autonomy of science as an institution or of scientists as individuals. For the moment, I can only acknowledge this issue without delving into it any further.

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Acknowledgements

I thank the anonymous reviewers of Synthese for their valuable comments on previous versions of the article. I am grateful to Philip Kitcher, who patiently discussed with me some of the issues I tackle in this article during his BIAP lectures in Barcelona. I hope that our ‘engaged conversation’ will continue. This work was funded by the Beatriu de Pinós/Marie Skłodowska–Curie Action Cofund Fellowship Scheme (Grant Number: 2020-BP-00196).

Open Access Funding provided by Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona. Funding for this research has been provided by the Beatriu de Pinós Fellow/ Marie Skłodowska–Curie Action Cofund (grant number: 2020-BP-00196).

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Politi, V. “The value-free ideal, the autonomy thesis, and cognitive diversity”. Synthese 204 , 24 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-024-04673-1

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• Value-free ideal
• Democratisation of science
• Cognitive labor
• Social epistemology
• Political philosophy of science

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